Week Two


- syntactic characterization of clause
elements

(see Chalker, chapter 2,  p 8)

-          when we talk of PHRASES we are talking of FORMAL CATEGORIES – the way phrases are formed

-          when we talk of CLAUSE ELEMENTS we are thinking of the way different kinds of formal
phrases FUNCTION, how the same kind of phrase can express different elements

VERB (V) – always realized by a VP; normally present in all clauses; determines what other elements
must occur; in a simple sentence always a finite verb phrase

SUBJECT (S) – typically a NP (head word: either a noun or a subjective form of pronouns);
determines the number and person of the verb, where relevant

OBJECT (O) – typically a NP (head word: either a noun or an objective form of pronouns); normally
follows the S and V, if two objects, then usually the indirect one precedes the direct one; can
become the S of the corresponding passive clause

COMPLEMENT (C) – typically a NP or an AdjP; subject complement relates to the S x object complement
relates to the O; does not have a corresponding passive subject

ADVERBIAL (A) – can be realized by an AdvP, PP, NP or a CLAUSE:

e.g. I’m coming later / in the afternoon / this evening / when I’ve finished my homework.
;              adverbial can occur in more than one position in the clause; frequently optional
except in SVA and SVOA.


  * Which verbs can normally build the passive?

transitive verbs (there are exceptions, though – so called MIDDLE VERBS that seem transitive but
normally occur only in the active: They have three daughters.  This jumper doesn’t fit you. Three
times three equals nine.

(see Chalker, chapter 16, exercise 161 for more detail as regards middle verbs)








- semantic roles of clause
elements

We talk about so called PARTICIPANTS, i.e. entities realized by NOUN PHRASES

Some examples of the most common semantic roles:

SUBJECT has got a typical semantic role of the agentive participant, i.e. the animate participant
that causes the happening denoted by the verb:

John is cleaning the windows.

DIRECT OBJECT has got a role of the affected participant – animate or inanimate, not causing the
happening but directly involved in the action expressed by the verb:

 We’ve sold our house.

INDIRECT OBJECT has got a role of the recipient participant – animate being, passively involved by
the happening or state:

I bought him a book.

SUBJECT or OBJECT COMPLEMENT has got a role of the attribute – two subtypes: identification and
characterization:

IDENTIFICATION: She is a teacher.   They named their son James.

CHARACTERIZATION: She is a good teacher.   I find him very intelligent.

attributes may be current or resulting:

CURRENT ATTRIBUTE: She’s my sister.  She seems unhappy. I consider him my best friend. (with verbs
used statively)

RESULTING ATTRIBUTE: She became a teacher.  He turned traitor.  She drives me mad.

(with verbs used dynamically)














Introduction to Modal
Verbs
  * How many ‘CENTRAL MODAL AUXILIARIES’ are there in the English language?

9 (can – could, may – might, shall – should, will – would, must)

We distinguish 2 main kinds of meanings for modal auxiliaries:

1)                 INTRINSIC modality (DEONTIC) involves some intrinsic human control over events
and includes permission, obligation, and volition, (ability)

2)                 EXTRINSIC modality (EPISTEMIC) involves human judgment of what is or is not
likely to happen and includes possibility, necessity, and prediction

Each of the modals has both intrinsic and extrinsic uses.

Most of the modals can be paired into present and past forms (see above). From the point of view of
meaning, the past forms are often merely more tentative or more polite variants of    the present
forms, e.g.:

Could I see your passport? is more polite than Can I see…?

Would you lend me your book? is more polite than Will you lend…?


MARGINAL MODAL AUXILIARIES: used to, ought to, dare, need

MODAL IDIOMS: (a combination of auxiliary and infinitive or adverb): had better, would rather, have
got to, be to

SEMI-AUXILIARIES: (a set of verb idioms introduced by have and be): be able to, be about to, be
bound to, be due to, be going to, be likely to, be supposed to, have to