Lesson 1 1. Revision - see Handout No. 1 (Lesson 1) References: Chalker, S. (1998) A Student’s English Grammar Workbook. Essex: Longman. – Chapter 2, pp. 7 – 10. Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk (1990) A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Essex: Longman. – Chapter 2, pp. 11 – 23. 2. The simple sentence - the simple sentence x complex sentence x compound sentence: In a SIMPLE sentence all sentence elements are expressed by PHRASES. A simple sentence is a single independent clause: She is smart. I put it on the table. In a COMPLEX sentence at least one sentence element must be expressed by a CLAUSE. A complex sentence contains one MATRIX clause (the main clause) and at least one SUBORDINATE clause. We talk about subordination: Yesterday I came home rather late. – simple sentence Yesterday I came home when it was rather late. – complex sentence In a COMPOUND sentence there are two or more coordinate clauses. We talk about coordination: I like him, but he doesn’t like me. We can go to the cinema, or we can stay at home. She’s beautiful and really intelligent too. - see slide No. 1 for more detail (Lesson 1) - clause types (simple sentence; answers to handout No. 2): * How many clause types do we have in English? We distinguish seven clause types (SV, SVC, SVA, SVO, SVOO, SVOA, SVOC). * According to which criteria do they differ? The types differ according to whether one or more clause elements are obligatorily present in addition to the S (subject) and V (verb). The V element in a simple sentence is always a finite verb phrase. o Which clause element determines what other elements (apart from S) will be present in a sentence? … a VERB o What do you know about optional adverbials in connection with clause types? Any number of optional adverbials can be added without changing the clause type: e.g. The sun is shining. Luckily, the sun is already shining. = SV He is at home. He is probably at home now. = SVA You can put the book on the table. Later, you can perhaps put the dish on the table. = SVOA o Clause types are closely connected with verb classes; there are 3 main verb classes. Which are they? intransitive verbs – followed by no obligatory element, and occur in type SV (shine, work, …) transitive verbs – all verbs requiring an object. They can be further classified: monotransitive – SVO (bore, see, …) ditransitive – SVOO (give, send, show,…) complex-transitive – SVOC (find) and SVOA (put) copular verbs – followed by a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT or an ADVERBIAL; thus occur in types: SVC (seem) and SVA (be) (Which verbs can normally build the passive?…transitive verbs – there are exceptions, though – so called middle verbs that seem transitive but normally occur only in the active: They have three daughters. This jumper doesn’t fit you. Three times three equals nine. I lack further information.) o Explain the following term: multiple class membership of verbs. Give some examples: For instance, the verb to get can belong to different verb classes, and hence can enter into more than one clause type: She’s getting upset. – SVC You’ll get a long letter. – SVO She got him a pricey gift. - SVOO Sometimes different interpretations are possible (ambiguities can arise): I found her an entertaining partner. SVOC or SVOO He is preparing his family dinner. SVO or SVOO o What is understood by the complementation of the verb? Complementation of the verb comprises any clause/sentence element (O, C and A) that is needed in order to form a grammatically acceptable sentence: * I put it. * The dinner tastes. – these are incomplete structures, they are unacceptable However, in some cases, an element can be considered grammatically optional: I’m eating. SV I’m eating lunch. SVO I’m teaching. SV I’m teaching English. SVO I’m teaching you English. SVOO - these verbs have a multiple class membership o What is a broader notion: complement or complementation? Most verbs require a particular complementation, which can be of three kinds: O, C, A. Complement (C) is one kind of complementation, thus complementation is a broader notion than complement. Complement is one of the sentence/clause elements. o What is the relationship between phrases = forms and clause elements = functions? - syntactic characterization of clause elements (see Chalker 1998: 7, 8 for more detail and for revision, and also the corresponding chapter in Greenbaum and Quirk 1990 – chapter 2) - when we talk of PHRASES we are talking of FORMAL CATEGORIES – the way phrases are formed - when we talk of CLAUSE ELEMENTS we are thinking of the way different kinds of formal phrases FUNCTION, how the same kind of phrase can express different elements VERB – always realized by a VP; normally present in all clauses; determines what other elements must occur; in a simple sentence always a finite verb phrase SUBJECT – typically a NP (or a subjective form of pronouns); determines the number and person of the verb, where relevant OBJECT – typically a NP (or objective form of pronouns); normally follows the S and V, if two objects, then usu the indirect one precedes the direct one; can become the S of the corresponding passive clause COMPLEMENT – typically a NP or an AdjP; subject complement relates to the S x object complement relates to the O; does not have a corresponding passive subject ADVERBIAL – can be realized by AdvP, PP, NP or CLAUSE: e.g. I’m coming tomorrow / in the afternoon / this evening / when I finish my homework. ; can occur in more than one position in the clause; frequently optional except in SVA and SVOA References: Chalker, S. (1998) A Student’s English Grammar Workbook. Essex: Longman. – Chapters 2 and 10, pp. 7-10; 74-76. Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk (1990) A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Essex: Longman. Chapters 2 and 10, pp. 11-23; 204-208.