1. Revision
References:
Chalker, S. (1998) A Student’s English Grammar Workbook. Essex: Longman. – Chapter 2, pp. 7 – 10.
Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk (1990) A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Essex: Longman. – Chapter 2, pp. 11 – 23.
2. The simple sentence
- the simple sentence x complex sentence x compound sentence:
In a SIMPLE sentence all sentence elements are expressed by PHRASES. A simple sentence is a single independent clause:
She is smart. I put it on the table.
In a COMPLEX sentence at least one sentence element must be expressed by a CLAUSE. A complex sentence contains one MATRIX clause (the main clause) and at least one SUBORDINATE clause. We talk about subordination:
Yesterday I came home rather late. – simple sentence
Yesterday I came home when it was rather late. – complex sentence
In a COMPOUND sentence there are two or more coordinate clauses. We talk about coordination:
I like him, but he doesn’t like me. We can go to the cinema, or we can stay at home. She’s beautiful and really intelligent too.
- see slide No. 1 for more detail (Lesson 1)
- clause types (simple sentence; answers to handout No. 2):
We distinguish seven clause types (SV, SVC, SVA, SVO, SVOO, SVOA, SVOC).
The types differ according to whether one or more clause elements are obligatorily present in addition to the S (subject) and V (verb). The V element in a simple sentence is always a finite verb phrase.
{C}o Which clause element determines what other elements (apart from S) will be present in a sentence? … a VERB
{C}o What do you know about optional adverbials in connection with clause types?
Any number of optional adverbials can be added without changing the clause type:
e.g. The sun is shining. Luckily, the sun is already shining. = SV
He is at home. He is probably at home now. = SVA
You can put the book on the table. Later, you can perhaps put the dish on the table. = SVOA
{C}o Clause types are closely connected with verb classes; there are 3 main verb classes. Which are they?
intransitive verbs – followed by no obligatory element, and occur in type SV (shine, work, …)
transitive verbs – all verbs requiring an object. They can be further classified:
monotransitive – SVO (bore, see, …)
ditransitive – SVOO (give, send, show,…)
complex-transitive – SVOC (find) and SVOA (put)
copular verbs – followed by a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT or an ADVERBIAL; thus occur in types: SVC (seem) and SVA (be)
(Which verbs can normally build the passive? …transitive verbs – there are exceptions, though – so called middle verbs that seem transitive but normally occur only in the active: They have three daughters. This jumper doesn’t fit you. Three times three equals nine. I lack further information.)
{C}o Explain the following term: multiple class membership of verbs. Give some examples:
For instance, the verb to get can belong to different verb classes, and hence can enter into more than one clause type:
She’s getting upset. – SVC
You’ll get a long letter. – SVO
She got him a pricey gift. - SVOO
Sometimes different interpretations are possible (ambiguities can arise):
I found her an entertaining partner. SVOC or SVOO
He is preparing his family dinner. SVO or SVOO
{C}o What is understood by the complementation of the verb?
Complementation of the verb comprises any clause/sentence element (O, C and A) that is needed in order to form a grammatically acceptable sentence:
* I put it. * The dinner tastes. – these are incomplete structures, they are unacceptable
However, in some cases, an element can be considered grammatically optional:
I’m eating. SV I’m eating lunch. SVO
I’m teaching. SV I’m teaching English. SVO I’m teaching you English. SVOO
- these verbs have a multiple class membership
{C}o What is a broader notion: complement or complementation?
Most verbs require a particular complementation, which can be of three kinds: O, C, A. Complement (C) is one kind of complementation, thus complementation is a broader notion than complement. Complement is one of the sentence/clause elements.
{C}o What is the relationship between phrases = forms and clause elements = functions?
- syntactic characterization of clause elements
(see Chalker 1998: 7, 8 for more detail and for revision, and also the corresponding chapter in Greenbaum and Quirk 1990 – chapter 2)
{C}- when we talk of PHRASES we are talking of FORMAL CATEGORIES – the way phrases are formed
{C}- when we talk of CLAUSE ELEMENTS we are thinking of the way different kinds of formal phrases FUNCTION, how the same kind of phrase can express different elements
VERB – always realized by a VP; normally present in all clauses; determines what other elements must occur; in a simple sentence always a finite verb phrase
SUBJECT – typically a NP (or a subjective form of pronouns); determines the number and person of the verb, where relevant
OBJECT – typically a NP (or objective form of pronouns); normally follows the S and V, if two objects, then usu the indirect one precedes the direct one; can become the S of the corresponding passive clause
COMPLEMENT – typically a NP or an AdjP; subject complement relates to the S x object complement relates to the O; does not have a corresponding passive subject
ADVERBIAL – can be realized by AdvP, PP, NP or CLAUSE:
e.g. I’m coming tomorrow / in the afternoon / this evening / when I finish my homework. ; can occur in more than one position in the clause; frequently optional except in SVA and SVOA
References:
Chalker, S. (1998) A Student’s English Grammar Workbook. Essex: Longman. – Chapters 2 and 10, pp. 7 – 10; 74 – 76.
Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk (1990) A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Essex: Longman. – Chapters 2 and 10, pp. 11 – 23; 204 – 208.