National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Cover Sheet Page 1 of 1
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Evidence-Based Practice Brief: Self-Management
This evidence-based practice brief on self-management includes the following
components:
1. Overview, which gives a quick summary of salient features of the
practice, including what it is, who it can be used with, what skills it has
been used with, settings for instruction, and additional literature
documenting its use in practice
2. Steps for Implementation, detailing how to implement the practice in a
practitioner-friendly, step-by-step process
3. Implementation Checklist, to be used to monitor fidelity of the use of the
practice
4. Evidence Base Summary, which details the NPDC-ASD criteria for
inclusion as an evidence-based practice and the specific studies that
meet the criteria for this practice
5. Self-management data collection sheets
National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Overview Page 1 of 4
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Overview of Self-Management
Neitzel, J. & Busick, M. (2009). Overview of self-management. Chapel Hill, NC: National
Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Frank Porter Graham
Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina.
Self-management interventions help learners with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) learn to
independently regulate their own behaviors and act appropriately in a variety of home, school,
and community-based situations. With these interventions, learners with ASD are taught to
discriminate between appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, accurately monitor and record
their own behaviors, and reward themselves for behaving appropriately. As learners with ASD
become more fluent with the self-management system, some of the implementation
responsibilities shift from teachers, families, and other practitioners to the learners themselves.
Evidence
Self-management meets criteria for being an evidence-based practice within the early childhood
elementary, middle, and high school age groups. This practice can be used to promote the
development of play, social, adaptive, behavior, and language/communication skills.
With what ages is self-management effective?
Self-management interventions can be used across the age range starting in early childhood
through high school to help learners with ASD acquire key skills needed to interact with others,
initiate and maintain conversations, develop self-help skills, and reduce interfering behaviors
(e.g., stereotypic, disruptive behaviors).
What skills or intervention goals can be addressed by self-management?
Self-management interventions can be used to reduce inappropriate and interfering behaviors
(disruptive behaviors, not completing school work and chores independently and efficiently, etc.)
and to increase social, adaptive, and language/communication skills. Specific skills that were
the focus of interventions in the evidence-based studies include giving compliments to others,
responding to others, sharing, increasing on-task behavior, initiating interactions, reducing the
occurrence of interfering behaviors, promoting daily living skills, increasing play skills, and
conversing with others.
In what settings can self-management be effectively used?
Self-management interventions have been used effectively in clinical and school-based settings
across preschool and high school age groups.
National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Overview Page 2 of 4
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Evidence Base
The studies cited in this section provide the basis upon which this practice was determined to
meet the NPDC on ASD’s criteria as an evidence-based practice. This list is not exhaustive;
other quality studies may exist that were not included.
Preschool
Apple, A. L., Billingsley, F., & Schwartz, I. S. (2005). Effects of video modeling alone and with
self-management on compliment-giving behaviors of children with high-functioning ASD.
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 33-46.
Newman, B., Tuntigian, L., Ryan, C. S., & Reinecke, D. R. (1997). Self-management of a DRO
procedure by three students with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 12, 149-156.
Reinecke, D. R., Newman, B., & Meinberg, D. L. (1999). Self-management of sharing in three
pre-schoolers with autism. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and
Developmental Disabilities, 34, 312-317.
Elementary School Age
Coyle, C., & Cole, P. (2004). A videotaped self-modeling and self-monitoring treatment program
to decrease off-task behaviour in children with autism. Journal of Intellectual and
Developmental Disability, 29, 3-16.
Kern, L., Marder, T. J., Boyajian, A. E., Elliot, C.M., & McElhattan, D. (1997). Augmenting the
independence of self-management procedures by teaching self-initiation across settings
and activities. School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 23-32.
Koegel, R. L., & Koegel, L. K. (1990). Extended reductions in stereotypic behavior of students
with autism through a self-management treatment package. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 23, 119-127.
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, W. D. (1992). Improving social skills and
disruptive behavior in children with autism through self-management. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 25, 341-353.
Newman, B., Reinecke, D. R., & Meinberg, D. L. (2000). Self-management of varied responding
in three students with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 15, 145-151.
Pierce, K. L., & Schreibman, L. (1994). Teaching daily living skills to children with autism in
unsupervised settings through pictorial self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 27, 471-481.
National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Overview Page 3 of 4
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Stahmer, A. C., & Schreibman, L. (1992). Teaching children with autism appropriate play in
unsupervised environments using a self-management treatment package. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 447-459.
Middle School
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, W. D. (1992). Improving social skills and
disruptive behavior in children with autism through self-management. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 25, 341-353.
Koegel, R. L., & Frea, W. D. (1993). Treatment of social behavior in autism through the
modification of pivotal social skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 369-377.
Koegel, R. L., & Koegel, L. K. (1990). Extended reductions in stereotypic behavior of students
with autism through a self-management treatment package. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 23, 119-127.
Mancina, C., Tankersley, M., Kamps, D., Kravits, T., & Parrett, J. (2000). Reduction of
inappropriate vocalizations for a child with autism using a self-management treatment
program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 599-606.
Stahmer, A. C., & Schreibman, L. (1992). Teaching children with autism appropriate play in
unsupervised environments using a self-management treatment package. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 447-459.
High School
Kern, L., Marder, T. J., Boyajian, A. E., Elliot, C. M., & McElhattan, D. (1997). Augmenting the
independence of self-management procedures by teaching self-initiation across settings
and activities. School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 23-32.
Koegel, R. L., & Frea, W. D. (1993). Treatment of social behavior in autism through the
modification of pivotal social skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 369-377.
Newman, B., Buffington, D. M., & Hemmes, N. S. (1996). Self-reinforcement used to increase
the appropriate conversation of autistic teenagers. Education and Training in Mental
Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 31, 304-309.
Newman, B., Buffington, D. M., O’Grady, M. A., McDonald, M. E., Poulson, C. L., & Hemmes, N.
S. (1995). Self-management of schedule following in three teenagers with autism.
Behavioral Disorders, 20, 190-196.
Selected Additional References
Mithaug, D. K., & Mithaug, D. E. (2003). Effects of teacher-directed versus student-directed
instruction on self-management of young children with disabilities. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 36, 133-136.
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Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Overview Page 4 of 4
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Newman, B., Tuntigian, L., Ryan, C. S. & Reinecke, D. R. (1997). Self-management of a DRO
procedure by three students with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 12, 149-156.
Shearer, D. D., Kohler, F. W., Buchan, K. A., & McCullough, K. M. (1996). Promoting
independent interactions between preschoolers with autism and their nondisabled peers:
an analysis of self-monitoring. Early Education and Development, 7, 205-220.
Todd, R., & Reid, G. (2006). Increasing physical activity in individuals with autism. Focus on
Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 21, 167-176.
National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Evidence Base Module Page 1 of 3
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Evidence Base for Self-Management
The National Professional Development Center on ASD has adopted the following definition of
evidence-based practices.
To be considered an evidence-based practice for individuals with ASD, efficacy must be
established through peer-reviewed research in scientific journals using:
randomized or quasi-experimental design studies. Two high quality experimental or
quasi-experimental group design studies,
single-subject design studies. Three different investigators or research groups must
have conducted five high quality single subject design studies, or
combination of evidence. One high quality randomized or quasi-experimental group
design study and three high quality single subject design studies conducted by at
least three different investigators or research groups (across the group and single
subject design studies).
High quality randomized or quasi-experimental design studies do not have critical design flaws
that create confounds to the studies, and design features allow readers/consumers to rule out
competing hypotheses for study findings. High quality in single subject design studies is
reflected by a) the absence of critical design flaws that create confounds and b) the
demonstration of experimental control at least three times in each study.
This definition and criteria are based on the following sources:
Horner, R., Carr, E., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single
subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional
Children, 71, 165-180.
Nathan, P., & Gorman, J. M. (2002). A guide to treatments that work. NY: Oxford
University Press.
Odom, S. L., Brantlinger, E., Gersten, R., Horner, R. D., Thompson, B., & Harris, K. (2004).
Quality indicators for research in special education and guidelines for evidence-based
practices: Executive summary. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children Division
for Research.
Rogers, S. J., & Vismara, L. A. (2008). Evidence based comprehensive treatments for early
autism. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(1), 8-38.
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Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Evidence Base Module Page 2 of 3
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Using these criteria, the empirical studies referenced below provide documentation for
supporting self-management as an evidence-based practice.
Preschool
Apple, A. L., Billingsley, F., & Schwartz, I. S. (2005). Effects of video modeling alone and with
self-management on compliment-giving behaviors of children with high-functioning ASD.
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 33-46.
Newman, B., Reinecke, D. R., & Meinberg, D. L. (2000). Self-management of varied responding
in three students with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 15, 145-151.
Reinecke, D. R., Newman, B., & Meinberg, D. L. (1999). Self-management of sharing in three
pre-schoolers with autism. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and
Developmental Disabilities, 34, 312-317.
Elementary School
Coyle, C., & Cole, P. (2004). A videotaped self-modeling and self-monitoring treatment program
to decrease off-task behaviour in children with autism. Journal of Intellectual and
Developmental Disability, 29, 3-16.
Kern, L., Marder, T. J., Boyajian, A. E., Elliot, C.M., & McElhattan, D. (1997). Augmenting the
independence of self-management procedures by teaching self-initiation across settings
and activities. School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 23-32.
Koegel, R. L., & Koegel, L. K. (1990). Extended reductions in stereotypic behavior of students
with autism through a self-management treatment package. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 23, 119-127.
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, W. D. (1992). Improving social skills and
disruptive behavior in children with autism through self-management. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 25, 341-353.
Newman, B., Reinecke, D. R., & Meinberg, D. L. (2000). Self-management of varied responding
in three students with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 15, 145-151.
Pierce, K. L., & Schreibman, L. (1994). Teaching daily living skills to children with autism in
unsupervised settings through pictorial self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 27, 471-481.
Stahmer, A. C., & Schreibman, L. (1992). Teaching children with autism appropriate play in
unsupervised environments using a self-management treatment package. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 447-459.
Middle School
National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Evidence Base Module Page 3 of 3
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, W. D. (1992). Improving social skills and
disruptive behavior in children with autism through self-management. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 25, 341-353.
Koegel, R. L., & Frea, W. D. (1993). Treatment of social behavior in autism through the
modification of pivotal social skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 369-377.
Koegel, R. L., & Koegel, L. K. (1990). Extended reductions in stereotypic behavior of students
with autism through a self-management treatment package. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 23, 119-127.
Mancina, C., Tankersley, M., Kamps, D., Kravits, T., & Parrett, J. (2000). Reduction of
inappropriate vocalizations for a child with autism using a self-management treatment
program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 599-606.
Stahmer, A. C., & Schreibman, L. (1992). Teaching children with autism appropriate play in
unsupervised environments using a self-management treatment package. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 447-459.
High School
Kern, L., Marder, T. J., Boyajian, A. E., Elliot, C. M., & McElhattan, D. (1997). Augmenting the
independence of self-management procedures by teaching self-initiation across settings
and activities. School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 23-32.
Koegel, R. L., & Frea, W. D. (1993). Treatment of social behavior in autism through the
modification of pivotal social skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 369-377.
Newman, B., Buffington, D. M., & Hemmes, N. S. (1996). Self-reinforcement used to increase
the appropriate conversation of autistic teenagers. Education and Training in Mental
Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 31, 304-309.
Newman, B., Buffington, D. M., O’Grady, M. A., McDonald, M. E., Poulson, C. L., & Hemmes, N.
S. (1995). Self-management of schedule following in three teenagers with autism.
Behavioral Disorders, 20, 190-196.
National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Module: Self-Management
Self-Management: Steps for Implementation Page 1 of 13
National Professional Development Center on ASD
10/2010
Self-Management: Steps for Implementation
Busick, M., & Neitzel, J. (2009). Self-management: Steps for implementation. Chapel Hill, NC:
National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Frank Porter
Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina.
Self-management systems can be used to increase desired behaviors and/or decrease
interfering behaviors of individuals with ASDs by teaching them how to: (a) monitor their own
behavior, (b) record their performance, and (c) obtain reinforcement when their performance
meets a pre-established behavior criterion. The steps of implementing a self-management
system include: (1) preparing the specific system to be implemented, (2) teaching the learner to
use the system, (3) implementing the system with adult support, and (4) promoting learner
independence with the system.
Step 1. Preparing the Self-Management System
Before implementing a self-management system, a collaborative team engages in several
activities to ensure the system will be implemented effectively and efficiently. Members of this
team might include teachers, parents, specialists, and any other individual who provides
services or spends a significant amount of time with the learner in the setting where the
intervention will be implemented.
1. To prepare the self-management system, Teachers/practitioners and other collaborative
team members engage in the following activities:
a. identifying the target behavior to increase or decrease and
b. developing a clear description of the target behavior that adults agree upon and is
presented in a format that learners are able to comprehend.
The target behavior must be clearly defined so that Teachers/practitioners can easily observe
and measure the difference between the occurrence and non-occurrence of the behavior. A
clearly defined target behavior also helps learners make these discriminations. An observable
and measurable description of the behavior should include what the behavior looks like (e.g.,
the body parts, movements, materials involved) and the setting(s) or context(s) in which it
occurs/is expected to occur. If more than one adult will be observing the learner, the description
must be clear enough so that all team members who work with the learner with ASD in the
intervention setting agree on when the behavior occurs and when it does not. The description
developed for the learner may be identical to the description the team uses, or it may be
simplified to make it more comprehensible to the learner. For example, for a younger or less
verbal learner, a pictorial depiction of the behavior description may be developed. For a learner
who can read, the description of the target behavior can be written in language the learner
understands. Such pictorial or written versions of the behavior can then be used as reminders to
learners as they use the self-management system (e.g., taped to the learners’ desk, made small
enough to carry in their pocket and refer to as needed).
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Before implementing a self-management system with interfering behaviors (i.e., behaviors that
the team desires to decrease), the team should first conduct a functional behavioral
assessment (FBA). The FBA process provides insightful information toward developing the
self-management system including (a) the function(s) of the interfering behavior, (b) potential
replacement behaviors, and (c) potential reinforcers related to the function of the behavior being
targeted in the self-management system. Please refer to Functional Behavior Assessment:
Steps for Implementation (National Professional Development Center on ASD, 2008) for
more information about FBA.
2. Teachers/practitioners identify reinforcers that reward the learner by:
a. asking family members,
b. asking or formally assessing the learner, and
c. using knowledge about the learner.
It is best to identify a variety of reinforcers for the learner to use as opposed to a single
reinforcer so that learners do not become dependent upon a particular type of reinforcement.
Reinforcers can be identified in a number of ways. First, caregivers (e.g., child care providers,
parents) who are familiar with the learner can identify toys, edibles, activities, and/or materials
that the learner prefers. Learners also may identify reinforcers that they are likely to be
motivated to earn. Learner input can be obtained informally (e.g., by asking the learners what
they would like to earn) or more formally through preference assessments). Please refer to
Positive Reinforcement: Steps for Implementation (National Professional Development
Center on ASD, 2008) for more information about reinforcement.
When possible, it is best to use natural reinforcers, that is, reinforcers that are logically related
to the target behavior. For example, if the target behavior is to remain seated during circle time
(a non-preferred activity), a logical reinforcer would be a break from circle time. If the target
behavior is to raise one’s hand to get the teacher’s attention, the natural reinforcer is actually
obtaining the teacher’s attention. Sometimes, natural reinforcers alone are not strong enough
and must be supplemented with artificial reinforcers, especially during the initial teaching
stages. However, natural reinforcers are best at maintaining behavior in the long run because
they will remain in place when those artificial reinforcers are faded out.
3. Teachers/practitioners develop a data collection system by identifying:
a. the type of data collection system (interval or frequency) and
b. the initial criterion for the target behavior. The initial criterion for the target behavior
should be based on a learner’s performance before the intervention begins and
should be set low enough to increase the likelihood that the learner will successfully
use the target skill.
There are two types of self-management systems. One is focused on the duration (interval
system) and the other with the frequency (frequency system) of the behavior. Both of these
systems are explained further in the sections that follow.
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Autism Spectrum Disorders
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Interval systems. A criterion using an interval system (i.e., the learner must/must not
demonstrate the behavior for X number of Y-second intervals) is appropriate in cases where
one desires to increase the duration that a desired behavior occurs (e.g., remaining in seat,
staying on task, conversing with peers) or an interfering behavior does not occur (e.g., flapping
hands, chewing shirt, hitting peers). If an interval system is used, the initial length of the interval
should be set so that there is a high likelihood that the learner will be successful.
The best way to determine the initial length of the interval is to observe the learner before the
intervention begins and determine the average length of time the learner can be successful
without support from others. The initial interval length should be equal to or slightly less than
that average. For example, if the goal is to increase the length of time a learner sits in his seat
without getting up, and it is determined that, on average, the learner stays in his seat for one
minute before getting up, then beginning the self-management system with a one-minute
interval or slightly less (e.g., 45 seconds) makes sense. After the interval length is determined,
the initial session length during which the self-management system will be used should be
determined and divided into intervals of the pre-determined length. The initial number of
intervals during which the learner must be successful also should be set.
Continuing with the sitting example, if the self-management system will initially be used for a sixminute
session, and these six minutes are divided into six one-minute intervals, the initial
criterion could be set such that the learner must stay sitting in his seat for three of the six (50%)
one-minute intervals.
Frequency systems. When the frequency of a behavior needs to be increased or
decreased (e.g., raising hand in class, taking bites of food, asking peers questions), a
frequency criterion should be considered. Examples of frequency criteria for behaviors that
need to be increased and decreased are provided below.
EXAMPLE #1: Frequency Criterion for Increased Behavior
The learner must demonstrate the behavior X number of times to earn the reinforcer.
EXAMPLE #2: Frequency Criterion for Decreased Behavior
The learner must demonstrate the behavior no more than X number of times in a given time
period to earn the reinforcer.
If the goal is to increase a desired behavior, the initial criterion (i.e., the number of times the
learner must demonstrate the behavior) should initially be set low enough so that the learner
rapidly earns the reinforcer. For example, if the goal is to increase hand-raising in class and the
learner rarely raises her hand, the initial criterion may be set at one hand-raise to earn the
reinforcer.
If the goal is to decrease an interfering behavior, the initial criterion (i.e., the number of times
that the learner can demonstrate the behavior in the given time period) should initially be set
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Autism Spectrum Disorders
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high enough so that the learner is likely to be successful. For example, if a learner with ASD hits
his peers about five times on average during free play, the initial criterion may be set at five or
less hits during free play to earn the reinforcer. Similar to the interval system, information
obtained from observing the learner’s performance before the intervention begins should guide
the selection of the initial criterion.
4. Teachers/practitioners select self-monitoring recording and cueing (if interval system is
used) devices that are appropriate based on learner characteristics and the setting in
which the self-management system will be used.
For learners to monitor their behaviors, a self-recording device must be selected. Paper and
pencil systems are the most common choices. If an interval system is used with paper and
pencil, the intervals should be clearly delineated on the paper and it should be easy for learners
to record their behaviors for each interval (e.g., checking yes or no; circling a smiley face or a
frown face). With a frequency criterion, it is helpful to make it clear on the paper how many
times learners must demonstrate target behaviors to earn the reinforcer (or alternatively, the
maximum number of times they are allowed to demonstrate an interfering behavior). For
example, if a learner must raise her hand five times to earn the reinforcer, a piece of paper with
five boxes drawn with a picture depicting the behavior in each box may be used. Once she
checked off all five boxes signifying that she had raised her hand five times, she would earn the
reinforcer. If a learner must not snatch toys from his peers five times or less during free play
time to earn the reinforcer, a piece of paper with five boxes drawn with a picture depicting him
snatching the toy may be used (perhaps also with a “no” symbol to indicate to the learner that
this behavior is undesirable). In this case, as long as he had at least one box left that was
unchecked, he would earn the reinforcer. Sample self-recording data sheets are provided in the
Resources section of the module.
Paper and pencil systems are certainly not the only option. Teachers should be creative in
identifying the self-recording device so that it best fits the situation and the learner. Other
examples of self-recording devices for learners include:
using clicker devices,
using token boards,
moving paper clips from one pocket to another each time they demonstrate the
behavior, and
moving rubber bands from one wrist to another each time they demonstrate the
behavior.
If an interval system is used, an additional device should be selected that cues the learner when
each interval ends. The cueing device should prompt learners that they need to self-record their
behavior. Examples of cueing devices include:
alarm clocks,
kitchen timers,
stopwatches,
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teacher tapping the learner’s desk,
wristwatches with beeping alarms, and
wristwatches with vibrating alarms.
Another factor to consider when selecting recording and cueing devices is how intrusive and/or
covert they are. This may be an especially important factor as peers get older and become more
aware of things that make the learner “stand out.” For example, moving paper clips from one
pocket to another may be a more covert way for a learner to self-record than a paper and pencil
system that remains on the learner’s desk and is obvious to peers. Likewise, a wristwatch with a
vibrating alarm to cue the end of the interval may draw less attention from peers than a
wristwatch that has a beeping alarm.
Step 2. Teaching Learners to Use the Self-Management System
Learners should be able to demonstrate three elements of the self-management system before
implementing it in the actual setting where it will be used. First, learners should demonstrate the
target behaviors (or not demonstrate if the behaviors are targeted for reduction) and
discriminate whether the target behaviors have and or have not occurred. Second, learners
should be able to accurately record when they have and have not demonstrated the target
behaviors. Third, learners need to manage the reinforcers.
1. Teachers/practitioners instruct learners to demonstrate the correct behavior by:
a. providing learners with a description of the target behavior in a comprehensible form
(e.g., a simply written description, a pictorial depiction),
b. prompting learners to demonstrate correct behavior upon request (as needed),
c. reinforcing all correct demonstrations of behavior (prompted and unprompted), and
d. fading prompts until learners consistently and independently demonstrate correct
behavior upon request.
When trying to increase a behavior, “correct” is defined as the target behavior itself. On the
other hand, when trying to decrease behaviors, “correct” is defined as appropriate, alternative
behaviors and/or not demonstrating the target behavior.
When learners understand target behaviors, they are able to demonstrate them on request. To
evaluate learners’ understanding of target behaviors, Teachers/practitioners should ask them to
demonstrate target behaviors. For example, a student who throws toys instead of playing with
them appropriately should be able to demonstrate both keeping the toy in his/her hands (the
correct behavior) and throwing them (the incorrect behavior). Being able to demonstrate
examples of correct and incorrect behaviors indicates that learners can discriminate between
the two. Being able to make this discrimination is important when learners use the selfmanagement
system to self-monitor and self-record their behaviors.
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If learners are unable to demonstrate the target behaviors upon request, teachers and other
practitioners provide the necessary prompts to help them complete the task. Reinforcement
(e.g., verbal praise, edibles) should be provided for all prompted and unprompted
demonstrations of correct behavior. Learners should practice the target behavior until they can
reliably demonstrate correct behavior independently without any additional prompting.
Once learners independently demonstrate correct behavior upon request, they are taught to
discriminate between the occurrences of correct behavior versus incorrect behavior. For desired
behaviors, the correct behavior is demonstration of the target behavior itself whereas incorrect
behavior is demonstration of any behavior other than the target behavior (i.e., any behavior that
does not meet the clear, observable, and measurable description of the target behavior that was
developed). For example, if the target behavior is greeting friends by name when they come join
in play (a desired behavior), saying “Hello, (friend’s name”) would be an example of correct
behavior. Saying the wrong name or saying nothing at all when a friend joins in play would be
examples of incorrect behavior. For interfering behaviors, the correct behavior is the absence of
the interfering behavior (as defined by the description that was developed). The incorrect
behavior, on the other hand, is any behavior that fully or partially meets the description of the
interfering behavior that was developed by the team. For instance, if the target behavior is
hitting and/or kicking other students while walking in line (an interfering behavior), an example of
the correct behavior would be walking quietly in line with hands and feet to one’s self. An
example of incorrect behavior would be doing any parts (i.e., talking, hitting, or kicking) of the
target behavior.
2. Teachers/practitioners instruct learners how to discriminate between correct versus
incorrect behavior by :
a. modeling examples and non-examples of the behavior;
b. prompting the learner as needed to identify whether each modeled behavior is an
example or a non-example;
c. reinforcing all correct identifications of examples and non-examples (prompted and
unprompted); and
d. fading prompts until learners can consistently and independently identify examples
and near-, but still non-examples.
The teacher begins discrimination teaching by modeling examples of correct and incorrect
behavior and having the learner identify whether each modeled behavior is correct or incorrect.
The learner is prompted as necessary to accurately identify whether a modeled behavior is
correct or incorrect and then reinforced for all accurate identifications (prompted and
unprompted). Initially, the differences between the examples of correct and incorrect behavior
should be very obvious. As learners become more successful at identifying behaviors, the
examples of correct and incorrect behavior should become more similar so that learners must
make crisper discriminations. For example, if the goal is to increase hand-raising, the teacher
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might model a full hand raise as an example of correct behavior versus hands by one’s side as
an example of incorrect behavior.
Once the learner can independently discriminate between these two, the teacher might model a
full hand raise as the correct behavior versus a half hand raise as incorrect. As another
example, if the goal is to decrease hitting peers, the teacher might model keeping hands to
one’s self when next to a peer as an example of correct behavior versus hitting a peer on the
shoulder as an example of incorrect behavior. Once the learner can independently make this
discrimination, the teacher might model tapping the peer on the shoulder as an example of
correct behavior versus hitting a peer on the shoulder as an example of incorrect behavior.
When learners consistently demonstrate the target behaviors and make discriminations
between examples of correct and incorrect behavior, the next step is to teach them to use the
recording system that was selected in Step 1.
3. Teachers/practitioners teach learners how to use self-recording systems by:
a. modeling examples of correct and incorrect behavior and prompting learners as
needed to record accurately at the appropriate time;
b. reinforcing all accurate recordings at the appropriate time (prompted and
unprompted); and
c. fading prompts until learners independently and accurately record behaviors 80% of
the time.**
** This criterion was selected because it give teachers/practitioners a clear criterion for evaluating learner
progress with the self-management system. Furthermore, this criterion is commonly used in the literature
to determine acquisition of skills.
Learners need to be taught how to record at the appropriate time and to do so accurately. An
effective strategy to teach appropriate and accurate recording is for teachers to model examples
of correct and incorrect behavior for the learner (similar to the models used in Step 2a) and then
assist the learner (via prompting) to record whether the modeled behavior they observed was an
example of correct or incorrect behavior.
If an interval system is used, the appropriate time to record is when the cueing device signals
the end of an interval. With an interval system, accurate recording means learners can correctly
indicate whether they demonstrated correct behavior for the entire length of a given interval. For
instruction, the teacher might model an example of either correct or incorrect behavior during
the interval. When the cueing device signals the end of the interval, the teacher prompts the
learner as necessary to record whether the modeled behavior should be counted as an example
of the behavior or not. If necessary, teachers prompt learners to record their behavior at the
appropriate time with accuracy.
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If a frequency system is used, the appropriate time to record is whenever the target behavior is
demonstrated. With a frequency system, accurate recording means learners correctly indicate
whenever they have demonstrated their target behaviors. For instruction, the teacher models an
example of either correct or incorrect behavior. After the model is demonstrated, the teacher
prompts the learner to record that a correct behavior occurred (or refrain from recording if an
example of incorrect behavior was modeled).
Reinforcement should be provided for all instances (prompted and unprompted) of recording at
the appropriate time as well as when responses are recorded accurately. Prompts should be
faded until the learner can independently (i.e., without adult prompting) record behaviors at the
appropriate time with at least 80% accuracy. Please refer to Positive Reinforcement: Steps
for Implementation (National Professional Development Center on ASD, 2008) for more
information about reinforcement. Please refer to Prompting: Steps for Implementation
(National Professional Development Center on ASD, 2008) for more information about
prompting.
Once learners are fluent at the skills taught in Step 2 (i.e., demonstrating and discriminating the
target behaviors, using the recording system), it is time to implement the self-management
system in the targeted setting.
Step 3. Implementing the Self-Management System
1. Teachers/practitioners:
a. provide learners with materials needed to use the self-management system at the
appropriate time or
b. teach learners to independently gather the necessary materials.
When the appropriate setting/context presents itself, the teacher/practitioner can either set up
the self-management system for the learner to use or teach the learner to gather all the
necessary materials and independently initiate the use of the self-management system. While
the former choice involves less teaching, the latter results in more independence for the learner.
To teach the learner to independently gather the necessary materials, the teacher/practitioner
uses prompting/prompt fading and reinforcement strategies similar to other steps in this module.
Physical guidance will likely be needed initially help learners to get their materials and set them
up. As learners become more successful, prompts can be faded to less intrusive forms such as
gestural and verbal prompts. As with other steps, the teacher/practitioner reinforces (e.g., with
verbal praise that is behavior-specific) the learner for all correct instances, both prompted and
unprompted.
2. Teachers/practitioners provide learners with cues (e.g., verbal instruction, visual aid) that
signal them to begin using self-management systems.
3. Teachers/practitioners teach learners how to self-record their behavior in the target
setting by:
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a. prompting them (as needed) to self-record accurately at the appropriate time,
b. reinforcing all accurate self-recordings at the appropriate time (prompted and
unprompted), and
c. fading prompts until learners self-record (without prompts) with accuracy 80% of the
time.**
** This criterion was selected because it give teachers/practitioners a clear criterion for evaluating learner
progress with the self-management system. Furthermore, this criterion is commonly used in the literature
to determine acquisition of skills.
Step 3 is very similar to Step 2b, except that learners are now self-recording their behaviors,
and doing so in the targeted setting. Teachers provide prompts to ensure that learners
accurately self-record. Reinforcement also is provided for all instances of self-recording at the
appropriate time and with accuracy. Prompts are faded until the learner is able to independently
record behaviors at the appropriate time with at least 80% accuracy.
Consider an example in which the goal is to decrease hitting during transitions. In this example,
the initial criterion is five or less hits during a transition. That is, the learner must not hit more
than five times during the transition to earn the reinforcer. In this example, the recording device
used is a system in which the learner wears rubber bands on his left wrist. Each time he hits
someone during a transition, he is supposed to record this behavior by moving a rubber band
from his left wrist to his right wrist. Hence, as long as there are no more than five rubber bands
on his right wrist at the end of the transition, he earns the reinforcer. But suppose that during a
particular transition, he hits someone else five times, yet only moves a rubber band to his right
wrist four times. In this case, he would be recording his behavior with 80% accuracy, which is
still acceptable. If he hit someone else five times, yet only moved a rubber band to his right wrist
three times, he would be recording his behavior with 60% accuracy, which would be
unacceptable. The teacher should provide the learner with prompts to accurately self-record his
hitting (that is, prompt him to move a rubber band from his left wrist to his right wrist each time
he hits someone during a transition) until he can consistently do so independently with at least
80% accuracy.
4. Teachers/practitioners teach learners to gain access to reinforcement when the criterion
is reached by:
a. prompting learners (as needed) to acquire reinforcement when the criterion is
reached and
b. fading prompts until learners consistently and independently acquire reinforcement
when the criterion is reached.
In addition to teaching learners to self-record independently, they also may need instruction to
reinforce themselves or request reinforcement when they reach the set criterion for the targeted
behavior. For example, a self-management system may be used to teach the learner to stay
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seated. The session in which the system will be used is five minutes long divided into five oneminute
intervals, and the learner must accurately record that he stayed sitting for three of the
five (60%) intervals to receive the reinforcer. The learner may independently record his behavior
at the appropriate time (i.e., each time the cueing device signals the end of a one-minute
interval), and he may be accurate in doing so. However, even if he meets the reinforcer criterion
(i.e., 3 out of 5 intervals in which he stayed sitting), he may not know to request the reinforcer or
reinforce himself for meeting the criterion. Therefore, if a learner meets the criterion for
reinforcement, but does not independently request/self-deliver reinforcement, then the adult
should prompt the learner to do so. Prompts should be faded until learners independently
acquire the reinforcer (through requesting or self-reinforcing) whenever they meet the criterion.
Step 4. Promoting Independence with the Self-Management System
Once learners are accurately self-recording and independently requesting/self-delivering
reinforcement when they meet their criterion, steps should be taken to promote further
independence using the system.
1. Teachers/practitioners conduct ongoing, intermittent checks to determine whether
learners continue to accurately self-record and acquire reinforcement when the criterion
is met.
Initially, these checks should be very frequent. Once learners are fluently using the selfmanagement
system and accurately recording, Teachers/practitioners need to occasionally
check learners’ self-recording and acquisition of reinforcement to make sure they continue to do
so accurately. This monitoring should be done during about 20% of all sessions. If the selfmanagement
session is used once a day, five days a week, this would mean conducting a
check once a week. To conduct a check, Teachers/practitioners should observe learners while
they are using their self-management systems and record data exactly as the learner does. If a
frequency system is used, Teachers/practitioners should record each time learners demonstrate
the target behavior. If an interval system is used, Teachers/practitioners record at the end of
each interval whether target behaviors were correctly demonstrated. After the session is over,
Teachers/practitioners compare their data to learners’ self-recording data. If the learners’ data is
less than 80% accurate for three consecutive sessions, then Teachers/practitioners go back and
re-teach learners how to accurately self-record.
2. Teachers/practitioners gradually increase the criterion by ensuring that learners are
successful at the current criterion before increasing it further.
When learners are consistently earning reinforcement at the initial criterion, the criterion should
be gradually increased. By making the reinforcement opportunities more intermittent, learners
are encouraged to sustain and maintain their use of target behaviors. For example, if a learner
was initially required to raise his hand five times to ask for help during independent work before
earning a reinforcer, the adult could increase the criterion to six hand-raises, then seven, and so
on. Teachers/practitioners should ensure that learners are consistently earning reinforcers at
the new criterion before moving on to the next.
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3. Teachers/practitioners gradually increase the session length while simultaneously
increasing the criterion.
Increasing the session length while simultaneously increasing the criterion ensures that learners
are successful at the current session length and criterion before further increasing them.
Whether an interval criterion or frequency criterion is used, Teachers/practitioners will reach a
point where it is impossible or unfeasible to increase the session length and/or criterion further.
For example, if an interval system is used, and the session consists of five minutes broken
down into one-minute intervals, the number of successful intervals required to receive
reinforcement cannot be increased beyond five.
If a frequency criterion is used, continuing to increase the criterion without increasing the
session length would eventually lead to unnatural and/or inappropriately high rates of the target
behavior. Imagine continuing to increase the number of hand raises required to receive the
reinforcement in a five-minute session. Increasing the criterion to 10 hand raises would require
a hand raise every 30 seconds on average. At some point, the learner would be demonstrating
the target behavior more frequently than desired.
To further promote independence, the length of the session during which the self-management
system is used should be gradually increased while simultaneously increasing the criterion for
reinforcement. As with increasing the criterion, the learner should be consistently earning the
reinforcer with the new session length and criterion before further increasing the criterion and/or
the session length.
4. Teachers/practitioners gradually increase the interval length as the session length
increases.
Gradually increasing the interval length ensures that learners are successful at the current
interval length before increasing it further. This procedure can only be used to further promote
independence with interval-based self-management systems. Within an interval system, the
criterion should first be increased. When the session length is increased, the length of the
interval can be increased as well. This is a very important step to promoting independence
because it requires learners to accurately monitor and manage their behaviors for longer and
longer periods of time before they self-record their performance.
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Sample Recording Sheets
Figure 1. Sample interval recording sheet
Instructions: This recording sheet is designed to be used with five time intervals. At the end of
each interval, the learner circles whether he or she stayed and played with friends. After the last
interval, the learner determines if he or she met the criterion to receive a reinforcer, which in this
case is three of the five (60%) intervals.
Did I stay and play with my friends?
1
YES NO
2
YES NO
3
YES NO
4
YES NO
5
YES NO
Did I get 3 Smileys?
YES NO
GET A REWARD!!! Try Again
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Figure 2. Sample recording sheet for a frequency criterion
Instructions: Each time the student raises her hand to ask a question, she circles the picture of
the girl raising her hand. She starts at 4 and counts down to 4 (for a total of 4 hand raises).
When she gets to 1, she earns a reinforcer.
1!
BLASTOFF!!!
YOU GET A REWARD!
4!
3!
2!
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Self-Management Implementation Checklist
Busick, M., & Neitzel, J. (2009). Self-management implementation checklist. Chapel Hill, NC:
National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Frank Porter
Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina.
Instructions: The Implementation Checklist includes each phase in the self-management process.
Please complete all of the requested information including the site and state, individual being
observed/interviewed, and the learner’s initials. To assure that a practice is being implemented as
intended, an observation is always preferable. This may not always be possible. Thus, items may be
scored based on observations with the implementer, discussions and/or record review as appropriate.
Within the table, record a 2 (implemented), 1 (partially implemented), 0 (did not implement), or NA (not
applicable) next to each step observed to indicate to what extent the step was implemented/addressed
during your observation. Use the last page of the checklist to record the target skill, your comments,
whether others were present, and plans for next steps for each observation.
Site: ________________________________________ State: _________________________________
Individual(s) Observed: ________________________ Learner’s Initials: ________________________
Skills below can be implemented by a practitioner, parent, or other team member
Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Date
Observer’s Initials
Planning (Step 1)
Step 1. Preparing the Self- Management
System Score**
1. To prepare the self-management system,
engage in the following activities by:
a. identifying the target behavior to
increase or decrease and
b. developing a clear description of the
target behavior that adults agree upon
and is presented in a format that
learners are able to comprehend.
2. Identify reinforcers that reward the learner
by:
a. asking family members,
b. asking or formally assessing the learner,
and
**Scoring Key: 2 = implemented; 1 = partially implemented; 0 = did not implement; NA = not applicable
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Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Date
Observer’s Initials
Step 1. Preparing the Self- Management
System (cont.)
Score**
c. using knowledge about the learner.
3. Develop a data collection system by
identifying:
a. the type of data collection system
(interval or frequency) and
b. the initial criterion for the target
behavior.
4. Select self-monitoring recording and cueing
(if interval system is used) devices that are
appropriate based on learner characteristics
and the setting in which the selfmanagement
system will be used.
Intervention and Progress Monitoring (Steps 2 – 4))
Step 2. Teaching Learners to Use the
Self-Management System
1. Instruct learners to demonstrate the correct
behavior by:
a. providing learners with a description of
the target behavior in a
comprehensible form,
b. prompting learners as needed to
demonstrate correct behavior upon
request,
**Scoring Key: 2 = implemented; 1 = partially implemented; 0 = did not implement; NA = not applicable
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Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Date
Observer’s Initials
Step 2. Teaching Learners to Use the
Self-Management System
(cont.)
Score**
c. reinforcing all correct demonstrations
of behavior (prompted and
unprompted), and
d. fading prompts until learners
consistently and independently
demonstrate correct behavior upon
request.
2. Instruct the learner to discriminate
between examples of correct and
incorrect behavior by:
a. modeling examples and nonexamples
of the behavior;
b. prompting the learner as needed to
identify whether each modeled
behavior is correct or incorrect;
c. reinforcing all accurate identifications
of correct and incorrect behavior
(prompted and unprompted); and
d. fading prompts until learner can
consistently and independently
identify examples of correct and
incorrect behaviors that are
increasingly similar to correct
behavior.
**Scoring Key: 2 = implemented; 1 = partially implemented; 0 = did not implement; NA = not applicable
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Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Date
Observer’s Initials
Step 2. Teaching Learners to Use the
Self-Management System
(cont.)
Score**
3. Teach learners how to use self-recording
systems by:
a. modeling examples of correct and
incorrect behavior and prompting
learners as needed to record
accurately at the appropriate time;
b. reinforcing all accurate recordings at
the appropriate time (prompted and
unprompted); and
c. fading prompts until learners
independently and accurately record
behaviors 80% of the time.
Step 3. Implementing the SelfManagement
System
Score**
1. Either:
a. provide learners with materials
needed to use the self-management
system at the appropriate time or
b. teach learners to independently gather
the necessary materials.
**Scoring Key: 2 = implemented; 1 = partially implemented; 0 = did not implement; NA = not applicable
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Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Date
Step 3. Implementing the SelfManagement
System (cont.)
Score**
2. Provide learners with cues (e.g., verbal
instruction, visual aid) that signal them to
begin using self-management systems.
3. Teach learners how to self-record their
behavior in the target setting by:
a. prompting them (as needed) to selfrecord
accurately at the appropriate
time,
b. reinforcing all accurate self-recordings
at the appropriate time (prompted and
unprompted), and
c. fading prompts until learners selfrecord
(without prompts) with
accuracy 80% of the time.
4. Teach the learner to gain access to
reinforcement when the criterion is
reached by:
a. prompting learners (as needed) to
acquire reinforcement when the
criterion is reached and
**Scoring Key: 2 = implemented; 1 = partially implemented; 0 = did not implement; NA = not applicable
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Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Date
Observer’s Initials
Step 3. Implementing the SelfManagement
System (cont.)
Score**
b. fading prompts until learners
consistently and independently
acquire reinforcement when the
criterion is reached.
Step 4. Promoting Independence with
the Self-Management System
1. Conduct ongoing, intermittent checks to
determine whether learners continue to
accurately self-record and acquire
reinforcement when the criterion is met.
2. Gradually increase the criterion by
ensuring that learners are successful at
the current criterion before increasing it
further.
3. Gradually increase the session length
while simultaneously increasing the
criterion.
4. Gradually increase the interval length as
the session length increases.
**Scoring Key: 2 = implemented; 1 = partially implemented; 0 = did not implement; NA = not applicable
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Date Observer
Initials
Target Skill/Behavior, Comments, and Plans for Next Steps
Date Observer
Initials
Target Skill/Behavior, Comments, and Plans for Next Steps
Date Observer
Initials
Target Skill/Behavior, Comments, and Plans for Next Steps
Date Observer
Initials
Target Skill/Behavior, Comments, and Plans for Next Steps
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Date Observer
Initials
Target Skill/Behavior, Comments, and Plans for Next Steps
Date Observer
Initials
Target Skill/Behavior, Comments, and Plans for Next Steps
Date Observer
Initials
Target Skill/Behavior, Comments, and Plans for Next Steps
Date Observer
Initials
Target Skill/Behavior, Comments, and Plans for Next Steps
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Frequency Recording Sheet for Self-Management (Adult/Practitioner)
Learner: _____________________________________________________________________
Person collecting data: _________________________________________________________
Target behavior/skill: ___________________________________________________________
Date Place an ‘X’ or ‘’ each time the learner engages
in the target behavior during the observation
Activity/setting
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Frequency Recording Sheet for Self-Management (Learner)
Learner: _____________________________________________________________________
Date: ____________________________ Class/setting: ________________________
Target skill/behavior: ___________________________________________________________
4!
3!
2!
Blast Off!
You Get a
Reward!!!
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Interval Recording Sheet for Self-Management (Adult/Practitioner)
Learner: ___________________________________________________________________
Target skill: __________________________________________________________________
Person collecting data: _________________________________________________________
Directions: Place an ‘X’ in the appropriate time interval if the learner is engaging in the target
skill at any time. Following the observation, record the total number of intervals that the learner
was engaging in the behavior.
Date Time Classroom/setting
Total #
of
intervals
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Interval Recording Sheet for Self-Management (Learner)
Learner: ___________________________________Class/setting: _______________________
Date: _____________ Target skill/behavior: ________________________________________
Instructions: This recording sheet is designed to be used with five time intervals. At the end of
each interval, the learner circles whether he or she stayed and played with friends. After the last
interval, the learner determines if he or she met the criterion to receive a reinforcer.
1
YES NO
2
YES NO
3
YES NO
4
YES NO
5
YES NO
How many smiles did I get?________ Do I get a reward? __________
YES NO
GET A REWARD!!! Try Again