Upozornění na úvod
https://asiansocialpsych.org/professor+hoon-seok+choi
▷ „Psychologie je věda o studentech psychologie“
▷ „Psychologie je věda o WEIRD populacích“
▷ „Kulturní psychologie je věda o WEIRD a východní Asii“
▷ Proč?
Úrovně univerzálnosti
1. Neuniverzální
2. Existenčně univerzální
3. Funkčně univerzální
4. Univerzálně stejně dostupné
https://workfeelsgood.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/WFG_shutterstock_323552327_editorialblacksheep.jpg
Úrovně univerzálnosti
1. Neuniverzální
abacus počítání
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FTVXUG_PngE
období vzdoru (cca 2 roky)
2. Existenčně univerzální
motivace
3. Funkčně univerzální
costly punishment
4. Univerzálně stejně dostupné
? Sociální facilitace
“Kultury můžou být rozdílné.
Jak stanovit důležité kategorie?
Hofstede
▷ IBM výzkum (117000 dotazníků): jaké hodnoty?
▷ Statistický postup
▷ Koncepty některých dimenzí převzal
▷ Hodnoty jsou relativní (význam pouze pro porovnání)
▷ Původní výzkum rozšiřoval a replikoval v dalších
prostředích
Vzdálenost moci
▷ Emoční vzdálenost mezi
podřízenými a nadřízenými
▷ To, nakolik osoby v pozici nižší
moci očekávají a přijímají, že
moc je rozdělena nerovnoměrně
Malá vzdálenost moci Velká vzdálenost moci
Inequalities among people should be
minimized.
Inequalities among people are expected
and desired.
Social relationships should be handled
with care.
Status should be balanced with restraint.
Less powerful people and more powerful
people should be interdependent.
Less powerful people should be
dependent.
Less powerful people are emotionally
comfortable with inter dependence.
Less powerful people are emotionally
polarized between dependence and
counterdependence.
Parents treat children as equals. Parents teach children obedience.
Children treat parents and older relatives
as equals.
Respect for parents and older relatives is
a basic and lifelong virtue.
Children play no role in old-age security of
parents.
Children are a source of old-age security
to parents.
Students treat teachers as equals. Students give teachers respect, even
outside class.
Teachers expect initiatives from students
in class.
Teachers should take all initiatives in
class.
Teachers are experts who transfer
impersonal truths.
Teachers are gurus who transfer personal
wisdom.
Quality of learning depends on twoway
communication and excellence of
students.
Quality of learning depends on excellence
of the teacher.
Less educated persons hold more
authoritarian values than more
educated persons.
More educated and less educated persons
show equally authoritarian values.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and
organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its
importance for survival (3rd). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 72
Individualismus
Kolektivismus
▷ Důležitější jedinec nebo
skupina?
▷ Přemýšlí o sebe jedinec
automaticky jako o členovi
skupiny?
▷ Je závislost na skupině
považována za nutnost nebo
patologii?
▷ Víc kultur je kolektivistických
Kolektivistické kultury Individualistické kultury
People are born into extended families or other ingroups
that continue protecting them in exchange
for loyalty.
Everyone grows up to look after him or herself
and his or her immediate (nuclear) family only.
Children learn to think in terms of “we.” Children learn to think in terms of “I.”
Value standards differ for in-groups and outgroups:
exclusionism.
The same value standards are supposed to apply
to everyone: universalism.
Harmony should always be maintained and
direct confrontations avoided.
Speaking one’s mind is a characteristic of an
honest person.
Friendships are predetermined. Friendships are voluntary and should be fostered.
Resources should be shared with relatives. Individual ownership of resources, even for
children.
Adult children live with parents. Adult children leave the parental home.
High-context communication prevails. Low-context communication prevails.
Frequent socialization in public places. My home is my castle.
Trespasses lead to shame and loss of face for self
and group.
Trespasses lead to guilt and loss of self-respect.
Brides should be young, industrious, and chaste;
bridegrooms should be older.
Criteria for marriage partners are not
predetermined.
The most powerful infl uence on girls’ beauty
ideals is girlfriends.
The most powerful infl uence on girls’ beauty
ideals is boys in general.
Use of the word “I” is avoided. Use of the word “I” is encouraged.
Interdependent self Independent self
On personality tests, people score more
introvert.
On personality tests, people score more
extravert.
Showing sadness is encouraged, and happiness
discouraged.
Showing happiness is encouraged, and sadness
discouraged.
Slower walking speed Faster walking speed
Consumption patterns show dependence on
others.
Consumption patterns show self-supporting
lifestyles.
Social network is primary source of information. Media is primary source of information.
A smaller share of both private and public income
is spent on health care.
A larger share of both private and public income is
spent on health care.
People with disabilities are a shame on the
family and should be kept out of sight.
People with disabilities should participate as
much as possible in normal life.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and
organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its
importance for survival (3rd). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 113, 117
Femininita
Maskulinita
▷ Maskulinita - pracovní cíle:
výdělek, uznání, kariérní postup,
výzva
▷ Femininita - pracovní cíle:
dobré vztahy, spolupráce,
příjemné místo pro život, stálost
zaměstnání
▷ Proč také pojmenování?
Femininní kultury Maskulinní kultury
Relationships and quality of life are
important.
Challenge, earnings, recognition, and
advancement are important.
Both men and women should be
modest.
Men should be assertive, ambitious,
and tough.
Both men and women can be tender
and focus on relationships.
Women are supposed to be tender and
to take care of relationships.
In the family, both fathers and mothers
deal with facts and feelings.
In the family, fathers deal with facts, and
mothers deal with feelings.
Girls’ beauty ideals are most influenced by
the father and mother.
Girls’ beauty ideals are most influenced by
the media and by celebrities.
Parents share earning and caring roles. The standard pattern is that the father
earns, and the mother cares.
Both boys and girls are allowed to cry, but
neither should fight.
Girls cry, but boys don’t; boys should fight
back, and girls shouldn’t fight at all.
Boys and girls play for the same reasons. Boys play to compete; girls play to be
together.
The same standards apply for
bridegrooms and brides.
Brides need to be chaste and industrious;
grooms don’t.
Husbands should be like boyfriends. Husbands should be healthy, wealthy, and
understanding; boyfriends should be fun.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and
organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its
importance for survival (3rd). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 155
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010).
Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind:
Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival
(3rd). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 147
Vyhýbání se
nejistotě
▷ Nakolik se lidi cítí ohroženi
nejednoznačnými a neznámými
situacemi
▷ Míra stresu
▷ Míra souhlasu s tím, že pravidla
by neměli být porušována
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and
organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its
importance for survival (3rd). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 203
Slabé vyhýbání se nejistotě Silné vyhýbání se nejistotě
Uncertainty is a normal feature of life, and
each day is accepted as it comes.
The uncertainty inherent in life is a
continuous threat that must be fought.
Low stress and low anxiety High stress and high anxiety
Aggression and emotions should not be
shown.
Aggression and emotions may at proper
times and places be vented.
In personality tests, higher scores on
agreeableness
In personality tests, higher scores on
neuroticism
Comfortable in ambiguous situations and
with unfamiliar risks
Acceptance of familiar risks; fear of
ambiguous situations and of unfamiliar
risks
Lenient rules for children on what is
dirty and taboo
Tight rules for children on what is dirty
and taboo
Weak superegos developed Strong superegos developed
Similar modes of address for different
others
Different modes of address for different
others
What is different is curious. What is different is dangerous.
Family life is relaxed. Family life is stressful.
If country is affluent: satisfaction with
family life.
If country is affluent: worried about cost of
raising children.
Dlouhodobá
orientace
▷ Zaměření na odměny v
budoucnu / přítomnosti
▷ Vytrvalost a úspornost
▷ Zájem o sociální status,
udržování „face“
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and
organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its
importance for survival (3rd). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 243
Krátkodobá orientace Dlouhodobá orientace
Social pressure toward spending Thrift, being sparing with resources
Efforts should produce quick results. Perseverance, sustained efforts toward
slow results
Concern with social and status
obligations
Willingness to subordinate oneself for
a purpose
Concern with “face” Having a sense of shame
Respect for traditions Respect for circumstances
Concern with personal stability Concern with personal adaptiveness
Marriage is a moral arrangement. Marriage is a pragmatic arrangement.
Living with in-laws is a source of trouble. Living with in-laws is normal.
Young women associate affection with a
boyfriend.
Young women associate affection with a
husband.
Humility is for women only. Humility is for both men and women.
Old age is an unhappy period, but it
starts late.
Old age is a happy period, and it starts
early.
Preschool children can be cared for by
others.
Mothers should have time for their
preschool children.
Children get gifts for fun and love. Children get gifts for education and
development.
Požitkářství
▷ Požitkářství
naplnění tužeb, užívání života a
zábava jsou lehko dostupné
▷ Zdrženlivost
užívání je nutné omezovat a
regulovat sociálními normami
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and
organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its
importance for survival (3rd). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 291
Požitkářství Zdrženlivost
Higher percentages of very happy people Lower percentages of very happy people
A perception of personal life control A perception of helplessness: what
happens to me is not my own doing.
Higher importance of leisure Lower importance of leisure
Higher importance of having friends Lower importance of having friends
Thrift is not very important. Thrift is important.
Loose society Tight society
More likely to remember positive emotions Less likely to remember positive emotions
Less moral discipline Moral discipline
Positive attitude Cynicism
More extroverted personalities More neurotic personalities
Higher percentages of people who feel
healthy
Lower percentages of people who feel
healthy
Higher optimism More pessimism
In countries with well-educated
populations, higher birthrates
In countries with well-educated
populations, lower birthrates
Lower death rates from cardiovascular
diseases
Higher death rates from cardiovascular
diseases
Kam zařadit ČR?
▷ Vzdálenost moci
▷ Individualismus
▷ Maskulinita
▷ Vyhýbání se nejistotě
▷ Dlouhodobá orientace
▷ Požitkářství
▷ https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-
countries/
Hofstede – „diskuse“
▷ Pouze relativní data
▷ Nefunkčnost průměrů
▷ Nefunkčnost dichotomií
▷ Nejvíc pozornosti
individualismu
▷ Schwartz: universalism, benevolence,
conformity, tradition, security, power,
achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-
direction…
▷ Triandis: vertical-horizontal societal structure
▷ Fiske: relationship structure
▷ Hall: context dependence
▷ Leung and Bong: social cynicism, social
complexity