Lesson 2

- syntactic characterization of clause
elements

(see Chalker, Chapter 2,  p. 8)

-         when we talk of PHRASES we are talking of FORMAL CATEGORIES – the way phrases are formed

-         when we talk of CLAUSE ELEMENTS we are thinking of the way different kinds of formal
phrases FUNCTION, how the same kind of phrase can express different elements

VERB (V) – always realized by a VP; normally present in all clauses; determines what other elements
must occur; in a simple sentence always a finite verb phrase

SUBJECT (S) – typically a NP (head word: either a noun or a subjective form of pronouns);
determines the number and person of the verb, where relevant

OBJECT (O) – typically a NP (head word: either a noun or an objective form of pronouns); normally
follows the S and V, if two objects, then usually the indirect one precedes the direct one; can
become the S of the corresponding passive clause

COMPLEMENT (C) – typically a NP or an AdjP; subject complement relates to the S x object complement
relates to the O; does not have a corresponding passive subject

ADVERBIAL (A) – can be realized by an AdvP, PP, NP or a CLAUSE:

e.g. I’m coming later / in the afternoon / this evening / when I’ve finished my homework.
;              adverbial can occur in more than one position in the clause; frequently optional
except in SVA and SVOA.


  * Which verbs can normally build the passive?

transitive verbs (there are exceptions, though – so called MIDDLE VERBS that seem transitive but
normally occur only in the active: They have three daughters.  This jumper doesn’t fit you. Three
times three equals nine.

(see Chalker, Chapter 16, exercise 161 for more detail as regards middle verbs)


- semantic roles of clause
elements

We talk about so called PARTICIPANTS, i.e. entities realized by NOUN PHRASES

Some examples of the most common semantic roles:

SUBJECT has got a typical semantic role of the agentive participant, i.e. the animate participant
that causes the happening denoted by the verb:

John is cleaning the windows.

DIRECT OBJECT has got a role of the affected participant – animate or inanimate, not causing the
happening but directly involved in the action expressed by the verb:

 We’ve sold our house.

INDIRECT OBJECT has got a role of the recipient participant – animate being, passively involved by
the happening or state:

I bought him a book.

SUBJECT or OBJECT COMPLEMENT has got a role of the attribute – two subtypes: identification and
characterization:

IDENTIFICATION: She is a teacher.   They named their son James.

CHARACTERIZATION: She is a good teacher.   I find him very intelligent.

attributes may be current or resulting:

CURRENT ATTRIBUTE: She’s my sister.  She seems unhappy. I consider him my best friend. (with verbs
used statively)

RESULTING ATTRIBUTE: She became a teacher.  He turned traitor.  She drives me mad.

(with verbs used dynamically)