£Ľtŕfŕ-;A&
it
EXTRACTS  ADAI'TED   FROM  ORIGINAL  EGYPTIAN   TEXTS AND   USED   AS  READING-LESSONS
Funerary wishes from the tomb of Amenemhgt.   Th. T. S. i. PI. 27. .        .        .    70
From the Poetical Stela of Tuthmosis III.   Urk. iv. 611. 620.....    90
From the autobiography of the vizier Rekhmerě'. ÄZ. 60, 69 . . . .   107 From the funerary stela l.ouvre C 172.   Sharpe, Eg. Inscriptions, i. 82.    .        .123
From the stela of Tjetji, lirit. Mus. 614.   J E A. 17, PI. 8.....   138
Funerary wishes from the: tomb of Amenemhgt.   Th. T. S. i. PI. 27. .        .        .   146
From the stela of Nebipusenwosret, Brit. Mus. 101. JEA. 21, PI. 1. . .   168 From the accounts of the  RoyaI Court, P. Boul. XVIII, 31.   Own copy, cf.
ÄZ. 57, 58.         ............  20j
Legend  accompanying  ,(  scene  of  foreigners  bringing  tribute  to  the vizier
Rekhmergt.   Urk. iv. 1098-9..........233
From the archives of the temple of Illahún. Moll. HL.\. p. 18. . . .255 Beginning of Chapter 30 » of the Book of the Dead as found on heart scarabs.
From the papyrus of Nu ;n tne British Museum......268
From the hymn to Rě< on a door-jamb from the tomb of the general Haremhab,
Brit. Mus. 552. Hieroglyphic Texts, viii. PI. 27.......291
Autobiographical text from the stela of Beb, Leyde n V 88.   Boeser, ii. 10.         . 309
From the precepts ascribed to the vizier Ptahhotpe.    P. Brit. Mus. 10509, 4,
11-14 = [Dévaud], />/. 264-74.   •        •        •......323
Inscription on a rock in the island of Sehél in the First Cataract.   Urk. iv. 814-15. 335
From the medical ťapyrus Ebers, 78, 6-10........o4V
From the stela of Sesostris 111 at Semnah.   Berl. AI. i. p. 257.          .                 .361
From the tale of the Elo<iuent Peasant, B 1, 82-6.......361
i rotr •—,*•■  giver. Co ;|1(. v[zjer for t^c aiin-Äníiiration of his office, Newberry.
Rekhm., Pis. 2-3.                                                                                                ,g.
Hymn to the White Crown of Upper Egypt.   Erm. Hymn. 1, 1-2, 1.          .        . 380
From the autobiography of the sailor 'Ahmosě.   Urk. iv. 6-7.....399
From the book of tales relating to the sons of Cheops.   Westc. 9, 1-15.     .        . 4'9
24 a
DIRECTION   OF  WRITING
§ 16
LESSON   I
§ 16. Direction of writing.—Hieroglyphic inscriptions consist of rows of miniature pictures arranged in vertical columns or horizontal lines. These columns or lines, as well as the individual signs within them, read usually from right to left, but more seldom, and then only for special reasons, from left to right. In spite of the preference shown by the Egyptians for the direction from right to left, that from left to right has been adopted in modern printed books on grounds of practical convenience.
The signs that represent persons, animals, and birds, as well as other signs that have fronts and backs, almost always face the beginning of the inscription in which they occur, so that the direction in which this is to be read is but rarely in doubt.1   For example, the words í^'á'íl J%i—-g5j■=»^f& must be read from left to      ' Exceptions occur
'^'•^------.      -i _                                                           jn   vertjcai   columns,
right because the birds, men, kid, and basket with handle all face toward the left.    b"t affect only the
,                                                     order   of   these,   not
Upper has precedence over lower, both as regards lines of hieroglyphs and thesignswithintiiem; as regards the signs within the lines. Thus in the word [l^j§^ the order of i«ni.i6;ííiá.i.). the signs is f + =s= + = + a + sj -1------y «_
Here is a short inscription written in all four possible ways. The arrows show the direction in which the writing is to be read in each case; the letters give the order of the lines; the numbers indicate the sequence of the individual signs.
Note the effort that is made to arrange the hieroglyphs symmetrically and without leaving unsightly gaps. Observe, further, that no divisions are marked between the individual words.
§ 17.   Phonograms or sound-signs (§ 6, 2) are of three kinds:
1.    Uniliteral or alphabetic signs, representing single consonants. Exx. 1—/; -=» r.
2.  Biliteral signs, or combinations of two consonants. Exx. ea«+» (or more briefly mil);  ľtj p + r (pr).    See below, § 31.
3.   Triliteral signs, or combinations of three consonants. Exx. J n+f+r (n/r); j= A + t+p (kip).    See below, § 42.
These three kinds of phonograms will receive detailed consideration in turn. The most important, as being the most frequent of occurrence, are the uniliteral or alphabetic signs (§ 18).
25
§18
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
> See Sethi, ai-           § 18. The alphabet1 is shown in the adjoining table (p. 27).    How the
i« «í the end of ibis    Egyptians named their letters is unknown ; the student will find it convenient to
00 '                     refer to them in terms, partly of the sounds which they approximately represent
(column 4 of the table), partly of the objects which they depict (column 3); thus
— is called ' bolt s'; — is '«'; ^ is ' the vulture '.
For transliteration into English writing, the symbols given in the second column should be used; these are our own letters differentiated by diacritical points or marks wherever the sounds to be indicated are unknown to English or would there have to be represented by more than one letter.
The remarks in column 5 should be carefully read, though the comparisons with Hebrew and Arabic letters will be of interest only to students acquainted with Semitic languages.
• See Az. 34, 51-            § la.  On transliteration.2—As in other languages, words in Egyptian
were made up of sounds partly consonantal and partly vocalic; but, as explained in the Introduction (§ 7), hieroglyphic writing consistently ignored and omitted the vowels. Thus the two signs \\ might in effect represent was, zves, ews, awsa or any other combinations of vowels with o> + .? which the language permitted. Since we are thus as a rule ignorant of the actual pronunciation of early Egyptian words, the only mode of transliteration that can be regarded as strictly scientific is a mode which renders the consonants alone; therefore in most recent books on hieroglyphs \} will be found transliterated simply ws, without reference to the particular vocalization attaching to those consonants in each individual word.
A little practice will accustom the serious student even to such uncouth transliterations as Im', 'di, wit, or O; but since he will need sometimes to refer ~i~.il.> m tht> wnrrU th'is rendered into modern written characters, a convenient method of pronunciation must also be devised. The course usually adopted is to use the English vowel e in every case except where the consonants / and ' occur; in those two cases a (pronounced as in French) is substituted for e. Thus the following pronunciations are obtained: men for mn, djed for dd, sedjem for sdm, nefrct for nfrt; but hena for hnf, adja for <d>, weya tor wu and aa for O. Individual teachers have their own methods of pronunciation, but the method just described is probably as good as any, and is recommended here. In order to help the beginner, vocalized transliterations of the kind just indicated have been added to the purely consonantal transliterations in the vocabularies accompanying the first two lessons. Thus ' • hi (" chet") thing' must be understood as meaning that the Egyptian word J, having the signification 'thing', is to be transliterated in writing as hi, but may be pronounced conventionally ' chet', with ' ch' as in Scotch ' loch', see the alphabet, column 4.    But it must never be
26
THE   ALPHABET
SIGN	TRANSLITERATION	OBJECT DEPrCTED	APPROXIMATE  SOUND-VALUE	REMARKS
(..(JI) W*A	1	Egyptian vulture	/the glottal stop heard at the commence-■jment of German words beginning with (a vowel, ex. der Adler.	I corresponds to Hebrew n 'dlefh  and to (Arabic \ 'alijkamzatttm.
	i y	flowering reed ((i) Iwo reed-flowers ((2) oblique strokes	í usually consonantal y ; at the beginning (of words sometimes identical with i. y	(corresponds to Hebrew * yôdhi  Arabic í tí yä. ( used under specific conditions in the last (syllable of words, see § 20.
.=—a 1	w	forearm quail chick	a guttural sound unknown to English w	I corresponds to Hebrew r tayin, Arabic j P fain.
J	b	foot	b	
D	P	stool	P	
*%«^.	f	horned viper	f	
k	m n	owl water	m n	icorresponds to Hebrew : nun, but also (to Hebrew b lärnedh.
■=-	r	mouth	'	í corresponds  to Hebrew -\  risk,   more (rarely to Hebrew S lärnedh.
ra	h	reed shelter in field*.	h as in English	(corresponds to Hebrew n hi, Arabic * \hä.
I	I'-	wick of twisted flax	emphatic h	corresponds to Arabic »■• há.
m	ll	placenta (?)	like ch in Scotch loch	corresponds to Arabic ŕ hä.
1 1=1	h s š	animal's belly with teats 1 (1) bolt í (2) folded cloth pool	perhaps like ch in German ich s sh	I interchanging early with c=í, later with (@ h, in certain words. (originally two separate sounds:    (1) z, (much like our z; (3) /, unvoiced s. early hardly different from *-=* h.
ň	4	hill-slope	backward k; rather like our q in queen	(corresponds to Hebrew p qôph, Arabic
^35»	k	basket with handle	k hard *■	r corresponds to Hebrews kaph, Arabic 1 ^kdf. Written *^7 in hieratic.
0	/	loaf	t	
^=3	t	tethering rope	originally isk (t or tj)	1 daring Middle Kingdom persists in some (words, in others is replaced by *=» /.
r-=>i	d	hand	d	
^	d	snake	originally dj and also a dull emphatic s (Hebrew s)	\ during Middle Kingdom persists in some (words, in others is replaced by t——-> d.
OBS. Later alternative forms are <? for w, «= for m, y for «, and j for t. Of these, <? arose from an abbreviated form of \ in Middle Kingdom hieratic, so that it appears in our transcriptions of hieratic texts belonging to a time when <? was not yet written in hieroglyphic ;2 <= and \ originate in the biliteral signs for im* and // respectively, while \j is taken from the word «/ 'crown of Lower Egypt'.4 Note also that % is used for^ in a few old words.
1 The form ( u   1 usually employed in printed books is not found on the monuments until a quite late period; early detailed forms are t>—'-*   and   mnnmini.                    3 AZ. 29, 47.                   * As m not before Tuthmosis I, AZ. 35, 170.                    * Already sporadically as ?i from
early XII Dyn., ex. Petrie, Gizeh and Rifeh 13^.
27
§19
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
' See particularly i'~'"it>:i, vol. 1; also below, Appendix A.
aßers/i.i. la, rigiu ; 34. Sim. 4rf for drp, Siní 4, 37.
> Vrt. 11. 648, I a. So nt for ní 'of (f.), Kc«í. S, 4. 7. i a ; fw tor (to ' one ', Amrah >9. 5-
4 See Cusn, S/ttJ. p. *.
forgotten that the vocalizations thus provided are purely artificial makeshifts and bear little or no relation, so far as tlie vowels are concerned, to the unknown original pronunciations as heard and spoken by the Egyptians themselves.
Obs. By an elaborate process of inference scholars have succeeded in determining
from the Coptic the position and the quantity of the original vowels in a large
number of words ; but the quality is far less easily ascertainable.1
In this book \, originally unvoiced s (š), and —, originally more like z than
the s by which it is usually transliterated, will both be consistently transliterated
as s, since the two sounds had undoubtedly become fused by the time of the
Middle Kingdom; only when it is required to indicate the original sounds, will i
be used for p and z for —.
In many Middle Egyptian words ^ d had already obtained the value of = d, and *= t the value of = t, as is proved by the occasional substitution of = for original '"*), and of a for original ■=. These changes of sound were, however, confined to certain words, and it is advisable always to transliterate written *-( as d and written = as t, even where we chance to know that these signs were sounded as d and I respectively. For 5= / with a tick see Sign-list, under V 14. The hieroglyphs • 1} and •— h interchange, but much more rarely than the consonants mentioned in the last two paragraphs. They must be distinguished carefully in transliteration.
ra h and \ h, like <=* k and ů k, represent quite distinct sounds, and must
never be confused.
Obs. 1. It follows from what has been said that biliteral and triliteral signs containing an original d and / should be transliterated with these letters unless accompanied by alphabetic d or t. Thus ô is read wd except in such a form as ftS.2. w^dt and °| is read ntr except in such a writing as ^-g-jS ntrt.
OBS. 2. In Dyn. XVIII and even earlier, *~t and = are sometimes found for original == d and =. t by a kind of false archaism. Exx. t^>j~^A víhiv for ■wdhw ' table of offerings';2 ^ in for ttt ' this' (f.).s
OBS. 3. Suffixes which are, or once have been, independent words are in this
book preceded by a dot, ex. ^V^"__sdin-twf' he is heard', originally 'one (Iw)
hears [sdm) him (/)'. A hyphen is used only in compound words, exx. "T*1^ r-pr ' temple'; (1^=*= 'Itnn-ktp ' Amenhotpe', a man's name. Grammatical endings like the t of the feminine are not marked as such in transliteration, ex. ^^ sit 'Daughter'.*
§ 20. Semi-vowels and weak consonants.—The hieroglyphs \ i and \ w are consonant-signs, but the consonants represented by them being closely related to the vowels i and u respectively, they exhibit peculiarities in their employment which entitle them to the appellation of semi-vowels. Indeed, the Egyptians seem to have regarded them, except at the beginning of words, as but little more essential than the unwritten vowels, and they are therefore frequently omitted in hieroglyphic writing.    This is particularly true of gram-
28
SEMI-VOWELS   AND  WEAK  CONSONANTS
§20
matical endings, though full writings might there have appeared indispensable for the avoidance of ambiguity. For example: ^)^> ddw means 'speaking', a masculine participle, but this is very often written summarily as ^| dd; the same writing ^ dd is also, however, the proper form of the infinitive dd' to say'.
Here we touch upon one of the principal sources of difficulty in the interpretation of Egyptian texts. Summary writings are so much commoner than full ones, that grammatical distinctions are obliterated and become a mere matter of inference. When, in a given context, the beginner is told that a form written dd is to be understood as ddw, he should take this assertion on trust until such time as he is able to appreciate or criticize the reasons which prompted it.
\ is transliterated i because it seems, from the start, to have possessed two sound-values in Egyptian : 1,y or i like < yôdh in Hebrew, ex. \—1$) i<h 'moon', Hebrew rn;, Coptic ioo_; 2, 1, ex. ink, ' I', Hebrew '?ix, sometimes written (]~ in the Pyramid Texts.
(Ji) y is barely found as initial letter in Middle Egyptian except in the interjection \\\-Ti yh 'hey' (§ 258).1    Elsewhere it is employed only in grammatical      iin?«^ea',ci«»». endings corresponding to ii or simply i in Old Egyptian.   Whereas \\ can occur   ^ritinB''j'So.^""P' either as last letter or as last but one, exx. masc. ^(](| mry 'beloved', fern. \()i)»
\                                      1111                   1-111                r         ; An obscure exeep-
mryt, » (less often 11) can occupy only the last place ;2 there it has the value/ of   -ion, § 17;.
i, which it sometimes replaces, ex. _5,^9 Drty 'Djerty' (a town), Dyn. XVI11       .,
for B loa Drti,2 Dyn. XI.    For the origin of » see § 71,, 4.                                           yiM/roreiriierYawi,
<=-<n                  '         '                                                    &                             3 ' J' ^                                                             Cairo 3OO0I.
^ / and ■=» r may be termed weak Consonants, since they are very susceptible of change or omission ; both tend to be replaced in writing by t\ i.
21. Absence Of the article.—Old and Middle Egyptian dispense, as a rule, with any equivalent of the English article, whether definite or indefinite. Thus ^ m may be rendered, according to the demands of the context, by ' the name ', ' a name', or simply 'name'.
0ii5. Fui Egyptian equivalents of both articles, appearing first in MiJúic Hyypu^::
and becoming regular only in Late Egyptian, see below, §§ 11a end ; 262, 1.
EXERCISE   I
(a) Learn and write out from memory, both in hieroglyphs and in transliteration, the following words:
*|\ m (' em') i, in; 2, by means of, with (of instrument); 3, from, out of. — n (' en') 1, to, for (in sense of dative); 2, to (of direction, only to persons). *=> r (' er') i, to, into, towards (of direction towards things); 2, in respect of.
___pn (' pen ') this m(asculine)]
tn (' ten') this, f(eminine)
follows its noun. 29
Exerc. I
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
^r7»(]í] ky (' key') other, another, m. <_,                                                       precedes its noun.
Q   it (' ket') other, another, f.         J
(l-l^s im (' yem') there, therein, therewith, therefrom.
l_p bw (' bevv ') place, m., singular only. ® ht (' chet') thing, f.
^| Plh (' Pteh') Ptah, name of the god of Memphis. (]^> iui ('yew') is, are. /v-mw m (' ren') name, m. Jj^j dd (' djed ') say, speak. |        hnr (' hena') together with.
(b)   Write in hieroglyphs the following combinations of letters :
(N.B. Here and elsewhere the student should conform to Egyptian usage with its preference for a symmetrical arrangement of the signs (§ 16). The individual words will, however, best be kept separate, contrary to the practice of the monuments.)
hn, 'rk, grh, sft, plr, my, snb, hrd, iili, wit, dsf knd, ptpt, wib, Ism.
(c)   Translate into Egyptian, adding transliterations to the hieroglyphs: (N.B.    The words are to be translated in the order of the English, unless a different
order is indicated by small numerals before the words, or unless instructions to the contrary have been given in the Lessons or Vocabularies.)
(i) To another place. (2) To Ptah. (3) 'Another 3thing "is there. (4) In this name. (5) "Ptah 'is there in this place. (6) Together with another name. (7) A 'thing 'is in this place.    (8) 'Ptah 'speak(s) in respect of this thing.
L E S S C M   II
§ 22. Ideograms or sense-signs, as we have seen § 6, 1, are signs that convey their meaning pictorially. More often than not they are accompanied by sound-signs (§§ 6, 2; 17;  18) indicating the precise word to be understood.
Thus @, a picture of the sun, immediately suggests to the mind, besides the notion of the sun itself, also the notions of light and time; the addition of sound-signs is indispensable to define the exact meaning and the exact word intended in a particular context. Hence © enters into the words ^0 rr ' sun', ' day' (also written ®); JH.^0 hrw ' day ', ' daytime' (also written f); ^0 rk ' time', ' period '; ^J 0" win ' rise', ' shine' (also written $J"jj").
Obs. Note that one and the same word may often be written in several different ways ; such different writings are called variants of each other.
3D
DETERMINATIVES
§22
Similarly, .^k, depicting a boat, appears in the words ^1^-dk wii 'solar bark'; ^-«A hd ' fare downstream'; ^-tík dpi ' boat'.
[Pf (also, but less frequently, {(J) represents a combined palette, water-bowl, and reed-holder. Hence it is used in the words |!f| si 'write' (the spelling ~ffl is almost confined to the Old Kingdom; |Jf^ si' scribe': ^jfól »"''smooth', ' finely ground', originally of pigments.
J, an animal's ear, is found in ^^ sdm ' hear' more rarely written fj\%> with all the component consonants ; also in (j"^" id, ~<e sh ' be deaf, and various other words.
As the example of <tf|^ shows, it is by no means necessary that an ideogram, when accompanied by phonograms, should be accompanied by all the signs needful to express its complete sound-value. It is only from full writings that the sound-value of ideograms can be ascertained; these are, however, on the whole rarer than short and summary writings.
§ 23. In several of the examples quoted in § 22 the ideogram follows one or more phonograms and ends the word. In cases such as these it is called a determinative, because it appears to determine the meaning of the foregoing sound-signs and to define that meaning in a general way. Words written ideographically may also have determinatives, ex. $f^ sš ' scribe'.
Only some of the commonest words, like ^ dd ' speak', {™ hn' ' together with', lack determinatives; and many, like I^!,j§!j§ hkr 'hungry man', \^Ja Wr ' flee', have more than one.
Obs. The name ' determinative' is in many cases historically inaccurate, the ideogram having been the original sign with which the word was first written, and the phonograms having been prefixed to it subsequently for the sake of clearness. In such cases it might be more truly said that the phonograms determine the sound of the ideogram, than that the ideogram determines the sense of the phonograms.
§ 24. GdiCííC determinatives.—Ideograr»? that s^rve to determine a considerable number of different words can naturally only express the kind of sense borne by these, and not their specific meaning; they are therefore called generic determinatives.
The following is a list of the more important generic determinatives; they may be learnt gradually. For fuller details the Sign-list at the end of the book must be consulted.
Hr man, person.                                      rh old man, old, lean upon.
jS woman.                                              |"ä official, man in authority.
ŔS people.                                             J§ (Dyn. XVIII ^ or^), exalted
2) child, young.                                             person, the dead.
31
§24                                         EGYPTIAN
$ god, king.
rjj or /^ king.
^ god, king.1
ŕ   or £ goddess, queen.1
J high, rejoice, support.
T praise, supplicate.
V& force, effort.
iy 2 eat, drink, speak, think, feel.
Ü lift, carry.
iH  weary, weak. Jej enemy, foreigner. &^ enemy, death. f^ or *=* lie down, death, bury. f mummy, likeness, shape. S head, nod, throttle. *"% hair, mourn, forlorn. .£2»- eye, see, actions of eye. so- actions or conditions of eye.
<Q  (less accurately £) nose, smell, joy, contempt.
<á7 ear, states or activities of ear.
«— tooth, actions of teeth.
v—o force, effort (interchangeable with W).
.   n substitute for *_3 in hieratic, less often in hieroglyphic.
GRAMMAR
£j—ii offer, present.
—& arm, bend arm, cease.
Q envelop, embrace.
f=Q phallus, beget, urinate.
J? leg, foot, actions of foot.
J\ walk, run.
A- move backwards.
^ limb, flesh.
O  tumours, odours, disease.
/Q bodily discharges.
*&l and ^ cattle-TW savage, Typhonian/3
T  skin, mammal.
<|g» bird, insect.
^s, small, bad, weak.
<es* fish.
Ito- snake, worm.
A tree.
\ plant, flower.
f^i or f^ vine. fruit. garden.
v— wood, tree.
..•CD corn.
ii»or« grain.
i=i sky, above.
© sun, light, time.
1 The king was often thought of as tilt incarnation of the falcon-£od Horns, anil the queen as the incarnation of the cobra-goddess ttljô, commonly known as Buto; moreover, both deities were typical of their class, whence the employment of falcon and cobra as determinatives of royalty and of divinity; but the former alone was so used at an early dale.
2  Note the difference from ^ in the position oi both arms.
3  This animal represents the god Seth, identified by the Greeks with Typhon, the brother and murderer of the good god Osiris, and the enemy of Horus, son of Osiris.
GENERIC  DETERMINATIVES
§24
j   night, darkness. ~JZ star. jl fire, heat, cook.
-'y1 air, wind, sail.
c=i stone.
Z)  copper, bronze.
• ° ° sand, minerals, pellets.
—' water, liquid, actions connected — with water.
t—r (less often t=i) sheet of water. n irrigated land. ■=3 land (later often replaces n). £^3: road, travel, position. ^/M desert, foreign country. | foreign (country or person). @ town, village, Egypt. CI house, building. =■ door, open. tf±] box, coffin. fl- shrine, palanquin, mat. -söje, boat, ship, navigation.
(^ sacred bark.
nP clothe, linen.
"^ bind, document.
's rope, actions with cord or rope.
^=\ knife, cut.
^CL hoe, cultivate, hack up.
x break, divide, cross.
t7 cup.
Ö vessel, anoint.
S (less accurately ô) pot, vessel, beverages.
ô bread, cake.
m or ,—i loaf, cake, offering.
^£7 festival.
=ss= (also vertically |, older form =a=)
book, writing, abstract.
CD ' royal name, king.
I one; the object depicted (§ 25).
1    1 1 1 1 (also !, 1 1, ° ° °) several, plural.
\ substitute for signs difficult to draw
(mostly hieratic).
1 The hieroglyphs spelling the royal name are written inside this; see below, p. 74.
This occasion may be taken to urge upon the student the desirability of acquiring a good hieroglyphic handwriting. In writing, the printed forms of the hieroglyphs may be abbreviated where needful, but care must be taken not to ignore any essential or characteristic feature. The transcriptions from the hieratic and demotic shown in Plate II (facing p. 10) are examples ot the author's own hieroglyphic handwriting; though not to be regarded as models to be copied, they will serve to show the kind of way in which modern Egyptologists represent the old hieroglyphic script. Note that these transcriptions are written from right to left, i.e. with the signs pointing to the right (§ 16). It is important for the student to be able to write with equal ease in both directions, so that, when copying a text, he can retain the direction of his original.
§25
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
11 Inslittiisal'scliilrts < ti ;S' tbe / had prob-.-iljlv lallen as early as O.K., d. Ilebr.Arab. rind  see AZ.  44, 80,
1 K. Sethe, Dir Nominahatz im ägyptischen und koptischen ; see in A bbrevia-tions under Nomitials.
§ 25. Purely ideographic writings.—When Ideograms stand for the actual objects which they depict, the phonetic signs that would indicate the names of those objects are often dispensed with. Ideograms so employed are usually followed by the stroke-determinative i ; if the noun is feminine, the stroke is preceded by = /, the feminine ending (§ 26).1 Masculine exx.: f rr sun ; f hr face. Feminine exx. : £ niwt town, city ; ßj lift horizon.
Obs. 1. The stroke 1 was early extended to other uses as well; not only was it retained when such words as © K ' sun', f hr ' face' were employed in their derivative meanings of ' day' and ' sight' respectively, but it is sometimes found also with ideograms that have become purely phonetic, the whole ideographic word being transferred to a phonetic usage; so ^ si ' son', which is written with an ideogram belonging to the old word zt (pit) ' pintail duck '.
Oes. 2. Ideograms meaning what they depict, and therefore accompanied by the stroke 1, were in the Old Kingdom often accompanied by phonetic signs ; a few cases have survived in M.K., ex. ^ j ' man' (varr. "J" and ^J).
§ 26. Egyptian distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine. Most feminine words ended in => / (probably vocalized -at),1* exx. ~^ st 'woman', ®t niwt ' town'.     Most other nouns are masculine, as ^0 rf ' sun ', f hr ' face '.
§ 27. Verbal sentences are those in which the predicate is a verb-form having the sense of a simple finite verb in English or Latin (' loves', ' loved', amat, amavit).
In such sentences the normal word-order is: 1. verb, 2. subject, 3. object, 4. adverb or adverbial phrase (preposition with noun).
Exx. ^J™^®^,^ w^n rr '" Pl tne sun rises in the sky. "•"ffij&Pul^fJL rb s$ sllr m krwpn the scribe knows a counsel on this day. Obs. Sentences having in the Egyptian a verb-form serving merely as copula "fi :" fhie hrtolr prouped for convenience sake with the non-verbal sentences, see § 28.
§ 28. Non-verbal sentences.2—This is a convenient class-name for all those sentences which either have in the predicate no proper verb at all, or else have one with the attenuated meaning of the copula (' is', ' are', ' was', etc.).
The copula (i. e. that ' link' between subject and predicate exoressed in English by some part of the verb ' to be') is often left unexpressed in Egyptian, as happens regularly in Semitic and less frequently in Greek and Latin.
Ex. ^sJssiL^ rf m pt tne sun 's m tne sky-Non-verbal sentences are classified according to the nature of their predicate.
There may be distinguished :
1. Sentences with adverbial predicate, such as 'the scribe is there', ' the
scribe is in the city'.    Note that a preposition together with its noun constitutes
34
NON-VERBAL  SENTENCES
§28
an adverbial phrase, so that predicates like ' in the city' come under this head. See in detail Lesson X.
2.   Sentences with nominal or pronominal predicate, such as 'the scribe is a knave', ' he is a knave', ' I am he', ' who are you ?' The term ' nominal' here means ' consisting of a noun' (Latin nomeii) and the reference is to nouns substantive only.    See Lesson XI.
3.   Sentences with adjectival predicate, such as ' the scribe is good'. See Lesson XII.
No small part of the first twelve lessons will be devoted to mastering the different ways in which Egyptian expresses sentences of these three kinds.
Obs. 1. Hitherto it has been usual to group together the sentences described by us as ' non-verbal' under the heading of the ' nominal sentence '. This is a term borrowed from Arabic grammar and has a signification rather different from ' nonverbal sentence' as here employed.
Obs. 2. The sentences expressing existence or non-existence described below §§ 107-9 are partly verbal, partly non-verbal. Another type of sentences to be dealt with in Lesson XXIII is non-verbal in form, though its predicate has verbal meaning ; we shall refer to it as the ' pseudo-verbal construction'.
§ 29. Sentences with adverbial predicate.—The word-order is the same as in verbal sentences (§ 27); since there is no object, and since the copula is in many cases omitted, this means that the order is 1. subject, 2. adverb or adverbial phrase.
Exx. 2ľ^sá1.!k &' *m ('he sun-god) Rě< (is) there.
ľľj0^rLS re m pt the sun (is) in the sky.
To introduce such sentences the word i)^. iw is frequently used. This is an old verb (perhaps a specialized variation of the verb a\ iw 'come') which has only this one form, and is employed in certain cases to be specified below with the meaning of the copula (' is', ' are', etc.).
Ex. ^^m^SLS ™ n mrt trie sun 's 'n tne sky-When the subject is a noun, the word iw occurs only in independent statements or assertions made with a certain detachment, and in these the presence of iw is much more common than its absence. Thus the difference between iw r' m pt and rr m pt is that, whereas the former type of sentence gives considerable prominence and importance to the affirmation which it contains, the latter is the form of words chosen for simple, unobtrusive description, particularly when there has to be expressed the equivalent of an English adverb clause, i.e. clause of time, circumstance, condition, etc.; see the next section.
When the subject is a pronoun, the sentence, with iw has a wider use, see below, §§37. 117.
35
§30
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
$J@'Z<s%.lZwi*rrmŕí
§ 30. Dependence, tense and mood in Egyptian.—The student must realize from the start that Egyptian is very sparing in its use of words meaning ' when',' if',' though', ' for', ' and', and the like ; consequently, it often devolves upon the translator to supply the implicit logical nexus between sentences, as also between words.
Similarly, distinctions of tense and mood are not marked in the same clear way as in English.
What is said here applies both to verbal and to non-verbal sentences, though in verbal sentences the ambiguity of meaning may sometimes result from the fact that the omission of vowels in the writing has obliterated differences between verb-forms which were really distinct and possessed distinct significations. In their particular contexts any of the following renderings may be legitimate:
the sun rises in the sky
the sun rose in the sky
the sun will rise in the sky
when the sun rises in the sky
when the sun rose in the sky
if the sun rise in the sky
let the sun rise in the sky
that the sun may (might) rise in the sky, etc.
/ the sun is in the sky the sun was in the sky let the sun be in the sky when the sun is (was, will be) in the sky the sun being in the sky (circumstantial), etc.
When, however, a sentence with adverbial predicate like the last is introduced by iw, the range of possible meanings is narrower, and almost confined to main clauses einbuUylm; an assertion (sec abov; * 29, below § 117); thus we nbtain :
the sun is in the sky the sun was in the sky
but also to express an emphatic contrast: whereas the sun is (was) in the sky. At the present stage of his knowledge, the beginner will do well to translate all these sentences as referring to present time.    On the other hand, if the sense appear to demand it and the rules already given permit, he may insert in his renderings such an English word as ' when'.
Ex- ^•J*0'20'!^'~^s=$='<Sá w^n rr' *w ll m rSwt> (when) the sun rises, the earth is in joy.
\rf m pt
\ iw r< m pt
3°
g i  r h (' rech') become acquainted
with, know. ©Ik*-*- km ('chem') not know, be ignorant of. m Kr (' Ser') t>e silent, cease.
LESSON   II VOCABU LARY
_p© hrw (' herew') day, day-time. ® fT" grk (' gereh') night.
J^^jf rto/Creshwet'Jjoy, glad-
iái* hd (' ched ') fare downstream, northwards. rnl^_A hi (' ha') go down, descend.
«^Ik sdm ('sedjem') hear; with « 'to',
hearken to, obey (a person). pi n won ('weben') rise, shine forth.
© var.  1   r' (' ra') sun, day ; with det. M, Rg<, sun-god. Ü-,   n|o) if A (' yaeh ') moon. "^ ti (' ta') earth, land.
TT                  \            '
9:
pt (' pet ^ sky, heaven.
shr (' secher') plan, counsel.
ness. -^ dpi (' depet') boat.
_pí]lík^ák lull ('weya')  ship,  bark, particularly divine ship.
■•—1 fl^» gr "ds (' nedjes') poor man, commoner.
}jfivarr- ~Ü~, ,á ^Cse')aman-
J) st (' set') woman, iffi t& SH' sesh') scribe.
iht (' achet') horizon. '-"-' pr (' per') house. ®   niwl (' neywet') town, city, var.         f (' she') lake, pool.
EXERCISE   II
(a) Transliterate and translate:
CI a
(í)  Write in hieroglyphs and in transliteration:
(N.B.    Words in brackets are not to be translated.) (1) The scribe goes down into another boat.    (2) Ptah knows this counsel.
37
Exerc. II
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
(3)   (When) this poor man fares downstream to the city, the house is in joy.
(4)   The moon rises in the sky. (5) The scribe is silent by day and by night (render: in day, in night). (6) This land is in joy, (when) Rě< goes down into the bark. (7) A pool is in this city. (8) This woman hearkens to the scribe. (9) A man is there in the house.
LESSON   III
§ 31. The biliteral signs (§ 17, 2), or combinations of two consonants, are of great importance, and a few must be learnt in each of the next lessons, i. Signs with / as the second consonant:
—=■"     y^.p'     X1*'      ó- °id =£. ■" m    ß '>
-f\ wi            y mi            ^ h          25 u                        |£ /,
% ť            "f h>              ^«           U kí                        j[ 4,
§ 32. Phonetic complements.—The biliteral signs (and similarly the triliteral signs, see below § 42) are almost always accompanied by alphabetic signs expressing part or the whole of their sound-value. Thus SS^ is to be read //, never in, which would be written Sffi^^ ; similarly J^f»-^ is to be read, not bbn, but simply bi. Alphabetic signs used in this way are called phonetic complements.
The exact mode of combination varies with the individual signs. In the list of § 31, -f\, y, "»., U, &, and \ follow the pattern of SS^, the remainder (except —) vacillating between this arrangement and that exemplified by J^f»-^, where the first consonant precedes the biliteral sign and the second follows it; v.'ith . the e::ccpt;3r.=! arrangements ~S* ',"rl ~ t" ^n^ What is customary in each case must be learnt by use.
The complete absence of phonetic complements is uncommon, but is seen in such words as \ hi 'thousand', 1g.$ si 'son', ^"^ bik 'servant', ^ kit 'work', ' construction'.
§ 33. The personal pronouns appear in Egyptian under several different forms, each of which has its own restricted field of employment. There must be distinguished:
1.   Suffix-pronouns, see below § 34.
2.   Dependent pronouns, see below § 43.
3.   Independent pronouns, see below § 64.
38
SUFFIX-PRONOUNS
§34
§ 34. The suffix-pronouns (more briefly suffixes) are so called because they must follow, and be suffixed to, some preceding word.  They are as follows :
Sing. 1, c. $ -i     I, me, my.
Sing. 2, „ 2, „ 3. „    3.
Plur. I, „ 2, „    3,
3. c-
Thou, thee, thy. Thou, thee, thy. He, him, his, it, its. She, her, it, its. We, us, our. You, your. ", -SH  They, them, their.
■w    They, them, their.
<=* 'k
Mr'»
— -In
Dual 1, „ 2, „    3,
•ny   We two.us two,our."| ■tny  You two, your. * -sny Theyt\vo,lhemtwo,| their.
Also fern.,1 $ not occurring before Dyn. XIX." Kings sometimes ^ (I 24);3 §, rarely for kings in Dyn. XII,4 is replaced by ^ ! or fl» in Dyn. XVIII, when § occurs for gods.7 Other writings of the suffix: j48 or I])!' on early M.K. coffins; in inscriptions sometimes (|,10 seldom 1." The suffix was regularly omitted in O.K.; so too sometimes later." Reversed in hieratic, viz. *=>. Later also o -t.
Old only p -í, later also — Rarely —
Or ^ -tn, later also ,■—, or J^ -hi. Or J_ -sii (old -in), later also written fFi or ~ZL' exceptionally p, f\, ~12* Also written ,f ,, a later suffix, a few examples of which are found as early as Dyn. XVIII.13
Obsolete in M.E. except in archaistic texts;14 usually replaced by the plural suffixes.15
' si' them ',' it' (§ 46) as object of the infinitive, i.e. used like
Obs. 1. For fal ~ the suffixes, see § 300.
Obs. 2. For the forms assumed by the singular suffixes after dual nouns, see below § 75, 2.
Obs. 3. In •f^TT imj>tw-tiy ' between them' (§ 177) -ny might be a very rare suffix 3rd pers. dual; ™ or ~ after v«bs is best explained differently, see § 486, OBS. 2.
OBS. 4. The exceptional writings of sii without « are paralleled by even rarer ones with ■/« ; reasons have been givenle for thinking that the final « fell away at an early date, though revived for -tn in Coptic.
§ 35. Among the chief uses of the suffix-pronouns are the following :
1. as genitive after nouns, with the  sense of our possessive adjectives.
Exx. "y1*— pr-f 'his house', lit. 'house of him'; ^P" niwt-sn 'their city', lit
' city of them'.
I  Lac TS. 17,9; Wcsic. 6, 7.
■ Mae. Abyd. i. 15. ■Bert./i/.i. p. 158; Urk. W. 163. < Ikhtrn. 6. 8.
•  Urk. iv. 36Ö; 840, 7-
•   Urk. it 80S, 14; 813, 14.
' D.tlB.tf; Urk. iv. 61a.
•  Lac. TS.  3a, 3 ; 14, 1.
•  Lac. TS. 13, 16. n i '4, i- 7-
lf BersA.i. 14,9.11. la ; Urk. iv. 119.
II  Cairo 30057, ?• " Dyn. XI, Jiamm.
114, 13-16; .Dyn. XVIII, Urk. iv. 57a, a. 6; 1031, a-10.
111 ,/««. 29, 6; ]HA .6,64 C5): H, 6,11.15.
" First of all in iww ' they are ', ew. CVA.iv. 54,10; 1031,4.
" Erm. Hymn. 13, 3; 13, 5; Mar. Abytt. i. 19.
IB Urk. ir. 3,6a, I a ;
4>5,17-
'• CLŕ.REiu Graupe ling. ďtt. CAartlito. Sémili-fuci, iL 66.
39
§35
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
1 Cf.   also  P. Pet. II16 B, 6, qu. §96, 2.
1 Exx. Sebckkku 8; Peas. 1! 1, 22; Cairo 20497,1; Westc. 11,8.
'Without suffix,/'/.
* Louvre C 3, 16. Sim. T. Cam. 2; Urk. iv. 364, 10; after iní, Louvre C 3, 7; rat ds-f ' himself, lirit. Mus.
5 BI/, i. 26, 197. Sim. Siut i, 27S-9 ; Ca'ro 2OCO3, 7 ; IVtStt. 6. 24. Anticipating a suňix serving as subject,  Weste. 7. 8.
0 C'rk.iv. 116. Sira. Pí. 1RI. Dsiry,A,lm. i.  12.
T M /irw-f, Peas. i 1, S3, sim. Bersh. ii. : j >i, 16. Rhtw ' than •,.-if'.^/n.il6Ŕ. fľ/w-'.>■ >',ctu.iŕ ,&.,& 'except thyself, 1ÍUDGE. p. 291, 10; 366. 10. N he-ii-i 'by myself, ' alone', Mill. 2, 2.
2.  after prepositions, as 'J ?;-z' ' to me'; |~|1 hn'-s ' together with her'.
3.   as nominative with the simple tenses of the verb. Exx. ^ť=^> dd-k ' thou sayest' (§ 39); ^^~ sdm-n-t ' thou (f.) hast heard' (§ 67).
Obs. Note that pr-f in Egyptian may mean, not merely ' his house ', i. e. ' the house of him ', but equally well 'a house of his ', contrary to the use of the English possessive adjectives; exx. below in § 115.1
§ 36. 'Myself, 'thyself, etc.—Egyptian distinguishes no special reflexive pronouns.    Hence ]^"—ZZ dd-f nf could quite well mean ' he says to himself'.'
For emphatic ' myself, ' thyself, etc. use may be made of Y\ ds-, later also written 23> with appended suffix.3    This is found
1.  after nouns, as in f^Yl*— Rr ds-f Ré< himself, i.e. in person.»
2.   to strengthen a suffix when used as genitive; ex. ^^Yla ru'* -s'* my own name.5
3.   adverbially, with the meaning 'by one's own effort'; ex. =_^^-g-JTi퍍t~ŤŤi sn n-k krwt di-sn the bolts open to thee of themselves."
In later times ' myself, ' thyself are regularly paraphrased by |"^j $ lifw-i (5 73i 3). l*^!^* h?w-k, lit. ' my (thy) members '; early examples also occur, some preposition always preceding.'
§ 37. The suffixes as Subject Of ^ ,w-—Like other verbs, \\ ho ' is', 'are' (§ 29) may have a suffix for its nominative. The student must remember that the sentence with iw, though here for reasons of convenience classed as non-verbal (§ 28), is verbal in actual form.
Ex. 1 jsi"~i^'vi,,~ hv-n m prf we are in his house.
We have seen above (§ 29) that, if the subject of a sentence with adverbial predicate is a noun, the effect of placing iw before it is to give it the importance of a more or less independent assertion. This rule does not necessarily hold when the subject is a suffix-pronoun; the suffixes must lean on some preceding word, and izü is tne worG most commonly used to support the suffixes in the cube before us.
Hence such a sentence as ho-a m prf may have two meanings: (1) either it is a main clause, the assertion ' we are in his house', as above; (2) or else it may be a subordinate clause of some kind.
Ľ... ^tSáWĚÍ^iTiA,"*— -"-f í'. ™m'1 mprf the scribe rejoice-, (when) we are in his house.
§ 38. Sentences with the ^ m of predication.—Egyptian cannot say
ho-k sš for ' thou art a scribe', but only
^^".^.[Pfil *™-k m s$- l'f- tnou art (as) a scribe. Here the preposition ^ m has the signification 'in the position of, 'as'; hence it may be termed the m of predication.    By its aid the pattern of the sentence
40
THE  ŠDMF FORM
§38
with adverbial predicate may be adopted in order to express sentences which in English have a nominal predicate.   An example with nominal subject would be: 'ftt^P^'-if.ü.^tMjli iw nds pit m si this commoner is a scribe.
Obs. The predicate here usually, if not always, expresses what in logic is termed an ' accident', an acquired attribute rather than a permanent ' property '. § 39. The Šdm-f form of the verb.—We have incidentally become acquainted with a form or tense of the verb in which the subject, sometimes a noun (§ 27) and sometimes a suffix (§ 35, 3), is added directly to the signs expressing the verbal notion ; exx. <^*— sdm-f' he hears', .oj^ |^§ sdm si ' the scribe hears'. In describing the various parts of the Egyptian verb it is usual to take the verb ^k s-m 'near' as paradigm or model; and since, following the example of Semitic grammar, precedence over the 1 st pers. sing, is given to the 3rd pers. sing., the verb-form to which reference has just been made is known as the šf/ni'f1 form (pronounce sedjemef).
We shall see later (§411, 1) that the Sdm-f form appears to have originated in a passive participle followed by a genitival suffix-pronoun; an original ' heard of him' came to mean ' he hears' or ' he heard '.
To create the passive of the šdm-f form, an element ^\ -tw, sometimes more briefly written ° -t(zv), is inserted immediately after the verb-stem, as in ^»J T_L, sdm-tw r pn ' this utterance is heard', .r^^t-. or d%>^_ sdm-twf' it (i. e. this utterance) is heard'. The element -tw is really an indefinite pronoun like our ' one', French on, and is sometimes still so used independently, ex. ^t^ dd-tw ' one says', ' it is said' (see too below § 47); from this use sdm-twf ' he is heard' was doubtless derived on the analogy of the active sd>nf.
Obs. The suffix-pronoun after -tw was undoubtedly felt as the subject of a passive, not as the object of an active; otherwise the dependent pronouns (§ 44, 1), not the suffixes, would have been used.2 However, such constructions as hr-tw Sdm-twf (§ 239), Iwtw Sdm-twf (§ 463) show that the origin was not altogether lost from sight.
\TP-     P="
The full form ^ follows any determinative that the verb-stem may hr "J"!^"— rlytw-f ' he is known'.    The shorter writing ■= may either precede or follow the determinative, but e^w 's more correct than *5"3l.    The passive ending -tw is in all cases inseparable from the verb-stem. The full paradigm of the Sdmf form is as follows: Active ist sing. c. -t^'it sdmi I hear               ^
2nd  „   m. .tf^<=< sdm-k thou hearest     d% „    „    f. ^^= sdm-t thou hearest     ^ 3rd   „    m. ^s'~-sdm-f he (or it) hears 4$ „    „    f.  .«^J sdm-s she(<?r it) hears   <«J
1 The transliteration with / is here adopted since the term has to apply to Old Egyptian no less than to Middle Egyptian. The paradigm and exx. below are ■written with j, as being solely Middle Egyptian.
1 '/tfr-lw st in Urk. iv. 658,4 is ' that one might pull them' rather than 'that they might be pulled'.
Passive
\ or •"l^á sdm-iw-i I am heard =» or ^^^ sdm-tw-k thou art heard = or "^Jäisti. sdm-tw-t thou art heard — or <e>\^ sdm-twf he is heard or aJlcV-4 sdm-tw-s she is heard
4'
§39
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
1 Old perfective, ex. SA. S. 40; participle, exx. £1. 1, 13 ; Vrk. iv. 331, ra; infinitive, see § 300.
' Exx. Sin. B 105-6; Louvre C 3, ta.
» Pt. 634 ; Si. 47, ly, Urk. iv. 137, 10; «o. 17-
Active ist plur. c. /^™* s4m-,t we hear 2nd   „    „  <fs^~ sdm-tn you hear 3rd    „    „ ^,P~ sdm-sn they hear
Passive
=^>~ or "«^,-7-, sdm-lwn we are heard
a^r?i sdm-tw tn you are heard
-^PrTi or •"KPim sdm-lw-sn they are
heard
>^> or 4?j;° sdm-tw is or are heard
Before nouns 4%^ s4m hears or hear     ^| Indefinite <^=^ sdm-tw one hears.
The duals are omitted, since they are ordinarily replaced by the plurals; nor has it been considered necessary to encumber the paradigm with the variant writings of the suffix-pronouns, for which see § 34.
When the subject of the šdmf form is a suffix, this is inseparable from the verb-stem or, in the passive, from the verb-stem accompanied by -tw; -tw is itself inseparable from the verb-stem.
When, on the other hand, the subject is a noun, this, under given conditions (§ 66), may be separated from the verb.
Exx. ^P£2 dds «/she says to him.
IZdPfi! dd nf si the scribe says to him.
in^dT"— dd-tw nf r pn this utterance is said to him.
1^"g"^®^iS *w ,?rt ** m pt now the sun was in the sky.
When the agent has to be expressed after the passive of sdm-f, or indeed after any other passive form of the verb,1 it is introduced by the preposition \_ in 'by'.
Ex- it^'TJL'l—tí dd-fw r pn in s this utterance is (to be) said by a man.2
Much more rarely, the preposition _?_ hr, properly ' with ' or ' near', is used for the same purpose.3
§ 40. Meaning of the Šdm-f form.—This difficult topic is reserved for detailed discussion in Lessons XXX, XXXI. Provisionally, it may be said that the šdmf form excludes the meaning of hardly any English tense or mood; see too above § 30. As a past tense, it is to no small extent replaced by another form, the idm-nf (pronounce sedjemnef) form, to be described in Lesson V. In most cases the student will do well, at this stage of his knowledge, to render šdmf as an English present. But to serve as indications of the wider meaning, three common uses are here specified, and may be utilized at once; the employment in clauses of time has been previously mentioned (§ 30 end).
1. The šdmf Torrn is often used without any introductory particle in rendering the equivalent of an English clause of purpose; see below §§ 219. 454, 3.
Ex. ra^ J4,jPf^^'<—P J.S !lll>-k si, 4df shr-k thou sendest the scribe that he may say thy plan.
42
MEANING  OF   THE   SDMF FORM
§40
2.   Or else it may express a wish or exhortation; see §§ 440, 5 ; 450, 4. Ex. ra^J^|lf$ hib-k si mayst thou send (or send thou) the scribe.
3.   Preceded by the particle \^ ih, the fundamental meaning of which appears to be 'then' or 'therefore' (§ 228), the sdmf form serves to express a consequence destined to take place in the future, or else an exhortation based on previously stated facts.
Exx. ^^lP-=-f|a lb dd sr then the official will say.
\ s ^^»—^*=» ih dd-k it si-k then shalt thou say to thy son.
VOCABULARY
T jS\fjj]ff l'< office, hall, diwán. U <j| kit construction, work, device. &?jÉ Otylýma. "*"=ífci '1 donkey, ass.
PTQ^flrf"secret-
(J       *\---- itrw river.
JS\   j -S3»» msh crocodile.
r mouth, utterance. ^ hr face, sight. ^ hr upon, concerning, because of;
before suffixes written   ^ jRi m in, with (of instrument), from, as;
before suffixes (] "fes. im.
1 Tiic apparent / written in this word has been shown to be a determinative wilh some unascertained symbolic meaning, see Attn. 43, 311.    Until recently tí and r/were held to be distinct words, see AZ. 48, 18. 1 For the reading with final -y see Cairo 20184, k ; ISrit. Mus. 572.
^r .ba m"see-
\ jL >á^ di cross ; ferry across.
__/9m f i rejoice, be glad.
ITl^jTl hib send.
tes,.'^ si son.
<^ J» sit daughter.
\Zs§tvar- Zjř u (not uf°r ^'
father. %».^3*>g? bik man-servant. -^.'^"^rJ bikt maid-servant.
K
side.
*5*
wit road, way,
EXERCISE   III
(a)  Transliterate and translate:
KV?"
43
Exerc. Ill
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
1 Sometimes used to accompany, or even to replace, a simple m when used as a grammatical afformative.
(<5)  Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration :
(i) The crocodile is in the river. (2) The moon rejoices, when the sun is in his horizon. (3) Then (ih) shall thy name be heard by the vizier. (4) This scribe is in his office by day (and) by night. (5) The donkey goes down to the city upon another road. (6) The scribe sends this boat, that we may cross in it. (7) He rejoices because of thy utterance. (8) This land is in joy, when thou art in the sky.    (9) He fares down to this city, his daughter with him.
LESSON   IV
§ 41. Biliteral signs (continued from § 31):— ii. with I as second consonant:
£ mi          o__0, less accurately _n, mil           j
iii. with ľ as second consonant:
^_ we       ö ly iv. with w as second consonant:
JE  mi       ö   nw (rarely also for hi)
— mw      -2a> rw v. with b as second consonant: ? ib             ^T7 nb
W» Ivw (rare)
A>_i hw
X sui (old sw)
P sw
t=4 dw (later dui)
§ 42. The triliteral Signs (§ 17. 3) represent combinations of three consonants, and have naturally a far more restricted use than the biliteral signs. They need be learnt only as occasion arises.
Like the biliteral signs, they are usually accompanied by phonetic complements (§ 32). Two arrangements are particularly frequent: the one consists in adding the third consonant only, exx. f ~^ rhf stand up, arise; _§_ hpr become ; J^ sdm hear.
44
THE  DEPENDENT   PRONOUNS
§42
The other consists in appending both the second and third consonants, exx. ŽÍ "fr good, happy, beautiful; $"• 'nb live; "ťn ¥P rest' become at peace.
Obs. The student may be puzzled at finding ^> in sdm here treated as a triliteral sign, while in i 22 it was described as an ideogram. This contradiction must be explained. In the case of the triliterals the distinction between phonograms and ideograms becomes particularly precarious. Thus probably all words containing the consonants h + t+p are etymologically connected with the verb-stem lap 'rest', ' be propitiated'; they are, moreover, all written with the sign «±= representing a loaf placed on a reed-mat—a sign taken over from a word =7= hip' altar', perhaps literally ' place of propitiation'. The sign _t= in any given word may be described as ideographic in so far as any connexion of meaning is discernible between that word and the word for ' altar',' place of propitiation'; it may be described as phonetic, on the other hand, in so far as the sound-value outweighs, or throws into the shade, such similarity of meaning.
§ 43. Personal pronouns (continued from % 33-5):—
2. The dependent pronouns' are less closely attached to a preceding
word than the suffix-pronouns (§ 34), but can never stand as first word of a
sentence.
Sing. 1, c.   \^ wi    I, me.
Plur.
2, m.	=,\tw	Thou, thee.
2, f.	*= tn	„        ,,
3.m.	\\ sw	He, him, it.
3,f.	hv	She, her, it.
3.f.	L*<	(see § 46).
1, c.	,,,«	We, us.
2, c.	~ tn	You.
3. c.	P~i«	They, them.
Or e$.    Varr. as in the corresponding
suffix (§34), ^>.2 M.3 W V etc-
Later also =&■ tw.
Later also J^ tn.
Originally iw.
Early  } ;  later also written  ~ or —.
Originally iy.
Later writings ~, Pi7iäl-   Originally St.
Rarely — n.                             \
Or *= tn, later also —. or " tn. 1 "^ uscd
r\    T          1             1            •           — r »s!uffi*«
0r _L sn< 'ater a'so written —,: (5a4).,b or ~.    Originally in.               '
Obs. 1. For the sw, sy, and st which, from Dyn. XVIII onwards, are occasionally found as subject to an adverbial predicate or to the old perfective, and which may stand at the beginning of the sentence, see below § 124.   See too Add., § 148, i, Obs. Obs. 2. A form ^^ is very rarely found as object in place of in 'you'.0   In one text ^_ ' thou' (f.) is used strangely as a suffix-pronoun.'  Both are probably explicable by § 34, OBS. 4. § 44. Among the chief uses of the dependent pronouns are the following: 1. as object of any form of the verb8 except, as a rule, the infinitive. Exx.  ra^J^,]^$  hib-k wi 'thou sendest me';  i3fc-*)»0& énf sw  'he ferried him over'.
Obs. Sn as object is uncommon, usually being replaced by st of § 46 ; some exx. may, however, be quoted.9
1 See ÄZ. 30, 16.
2   Urk. iv. 1 58, 16.
5  Urk. iv. 385, 4.
'  Urk. iv. 158, 17.
a  Hamm. 199, 6.
w Spieg.- Portn. I. 4, '6.
s1' So too an archa-istic dual, my, Erm. Hymn. M, 2.
*   Erm. Gramm} p. 83, n. a.
7 Erm. Hymn. p. 40.
1 After active old perfective, et. Lac. TR. 1, 54; after imperative, Sft. S. 179 ; after participles and Qmty.fy form, see § 375-
*  Dend. 9, 11 A ; Urk. v. i6a, 6 ; Urk. iv. 346, 12; 61S, 5.
45
§44
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 See above p. 44,
1 Sin. B. 363. Sim. »1. S. 108.
1 Exx. below i 11 y,
1   Si«. B 333-4.
' Sin. B 173-4.
"■ Si*. B 31.
' Si. S. 161 ; ft». *''• 13,72; sw,Eb. 51, 1 ;.y, íř^j/r. 10, 7; ŕ», /Vi. iv. 656, 1.
' Inferred from tbe old extended form /«, AZ. 30, 20.
10 Siut I, 270. Sim. Si. S. 86-7.
» Siut 1. 372.
llŕfťj/ť.9,3-4.Sim. SA. i". 115, after Mt.
" Si. S. 134.   Sim. Urk. iv. 693, 8.
)31Uiiosual or problematic uses. seep. 41, n. 2; M.o.K.vs. 6, 5.
14 Urk. iv. 1090. Mi tw followed by hr + infinitive, see 5 334, second ex.
2. after a number of particles like fj[lc= ist ' lo', ^^ mk' ' behold', ^ «« ' not • "Za *" ' that '• as we" as the relative adjective ~ nty ' which ' (§ 199); in these cases the pronoun frequently serves as subject when an adverbial predicate follows.
Exx.
■ mk' wi m-bih-k behold, I am before thee.2
^^=^> Ä^^if '"k tw m bik-i behold thou art my servant, lit. as my servant. Note that the m of predication (§ 38) is employed also in this case.3
^ľľP5v?á nn s(y) m M* lt was not m my heart.'
|ľ|^^JJ_~^i^J^>— sšm pn nty wi hrf this state in which I was, lit. this state which I (was) under it.''
3. as subject after adjectival predicate.
Ex. í^fSCá nfr tw hn'i thou art happy with me ;" tw here is for tw, and is to be carefully distinguished from the indefinite pronoun of § 47.
§ 45. Reflexive use of the dependent pronouns.—Like the suffixes (§ 36), the dependent pronouns are used reflexively.
Ex. ^—^AT*™^ rdiiľi?) wi hr lit-i I placed myself on my belly.'
§ 46. The pronoun |IQ si appears to be an old form of the dependent pronoun 3rd sing, f.,' which has been specialized for certain particular uses, mainly in place of the 3rd plur. ' they', ' them', or of the neuter ' it'.
1.  as object of the verb.
Exx. ~~M,"~iPQ 'nn-sn st they turned themselves about.' Note the reflexive meaning.
^r^j^P^lg^ di-k sdm st s/é thou shalt cause (that) thy son hear it.10
2.  after the particles, etc., named in § 44, 2.
Exx. ^^"P^l^^ mk st hfl hr-k behold, they (my gifts to thee) are before thee."
J^I*ľj3^> aw nty s* *m tne P'ace where it is, iit. which it (is) therein.12
3.  as subject after adjectival predicate.
Ex. Í^L^SlTUr nfr st r & "&* lt ls more beautiful than anything." Obs. For st as object of the infinitive, like a suffix, see § 300.
§ 47. The indefinite pronoun ^ tw ' one', French on, which we have found used like a suffix in the 'simf form, ex. ^3fr dd-tw ' one says' (§ 39), may also be employed after the particles mentioned in § 44, 2 and others like hr, § 239 ; k), i 242.
Ex- j^^^>"~i^r m& tw dd-tw behold, one says, lit. behold one, one says." Obs. For an independent use of tw at the beginning of a sentence, see below § .333 í a unique ex. before sdm-lw, see Add. § 148, 1, Obs.    For its employment as
46
USES  OF  ADJECTIVES
§47
indicating the passive voice in the ir/m/and other forms of the suffix conjugation see §§ 39. 410; in the pseudo-verbal construction iwtw occurs (an ex. in § 332), as well as ivn-lntw (§ 470); cf. also hr-tw (ki-iw, iw-tw) idm-tw-f, §§ S39. 24í. 463. A very exceptional example after the infinitive used absolutely, 5 306 (last ex. but one). Syntactically, tw is treated as of masculine gender, see § 511,5.
§ 48. Adjectives may be used as epithets, as predicates, or as nouns.
1.  when used as epithets they follow their nouns, agreeing with them in number and gender. The ending sing. f. is => /, as with the noun; for the plural, see below §§ 72. 74.
Exx. P.S.|_1.JH5« sbr Pn M-n tr|is evil counsel.
•^J53 hi nbt n/rt every good thing.
These examples illustrate the fact that *=> nb ' every', ' any', ' all', and demonstrative adjectives which, like pn, follow their noun, have precedence of position over other adjectives.    So too the suffixes when used possessively.
Ex. ^á*-"l)-§. si/fSrit his little daughter.
The word for ' other', m. ky, f. kt, precedes its noun, see Exercise I (a); so too the demonstratives pi ' this' and p/(y) ' that', see below §111.
With the adjective nb the plural ending (§72) is usually, the fern, ending often, omitted in writing, exx. "j^-^? ntrw né(w) ' all gods '; ^ !}t nb(t) ' everything'.
Obs. The mase. plur. ending is, however, sometimes shown;0 Copt, nim is invariable.     i9) 180° 8; Aciť*n.
2.  when used as predicate, the adjective precedes its subject, and is invariable    ?v=; oyn.xvui,fri. both in gender and in number.
Exx.  J^^jä nfr ibi my heart is happy.
JISPw bin sy she is bad.
Note that a dependent pronoun, not a suffix, is here used as subject (§ 44, 3).
3.  when used as a noun, the adjective is generally followed by some appropriate determinative. Exx. ™!)i«.i> Sri ' sma'll boy', 'lad'; J"^s§ nfrt 'beautiful woman '; J"^"1)?)) nfrt ' beautiful cow'.
§ 49. The ending V "wy, much mor" rarely1 written V as regnlaHvin Old      ' &in; 4,31:
_          .        .                 .               , ,    ,            ......             .          ,                       ',                    ÍVÍ.ÍT. 817,9.
Egyptian, is sometimes added to adjectival predicates in order to give them an exclamatory force.
Ex. I^rV" a  nfr-wy pr pn how beautiful is this house!2                                  ' Sa. f. XTai. 2,
5-=»JT   . —   J       J ť   r                                                                                                         ii;/».637.6i9;E»M.
Obs. It is probable that this -wy is merely the masc. dual ending (below § 71)    Hymn, 6, 1;   Cairo with a special signification; in this case nfr-wy would mean' twice beautiful', compare modern Arabic marhabatén ' twice welcome'.
30089, d 6.
§ 50. The Egyptian adjective has no special forms to indicate the degrees of comparison. Comparison is effected by means of the preposition ■=» r, which here signifies ' more than ', literally perhaps ' relatively to'.
Ex. *«( PQ«=>f ^ '*' st r & "M they were more numerous than anything.5               ■ w*- ■»• «93. s.
47
i 51
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
§ 51. The sense of the English neuter ('it', 'thing') is expressed in Egyptian ■ pi. S99. Sim. »frt,    by the feminine.    Exx. m ^^L 4ft' an evil (thing)',' evil';'  *J Ars'on account
bint, Pias. B I, 151.                ,         _                           ,                 ,. n        ,             ■l.          ,     e
• Ptat. B 1/39.        of 't -2    Compare too the use of f0 st, see above § 40.
§ 52. The meaning of the dative is rendered by means of the preposition — n ' to', ' for'.
Exx. m% J^JJá"-? ■=• hib-k si n nbk thou sendest the scribe to thy lord. ^~—S 4dn ntn we speak to you.
VOCABULA R Y
ů
J var. _ii n great, large. ikr excellent.
A  var. í__o dl give, place.1
a     var.          rdi give, place.1
5- g   <"»$ live; life.
=±= /4// rest, go to rest, become at peace ; set (of sun); peace (noun). u*~ŕ t fr stand up, arise.
0 I $<■ appear, shine (of sun, gods or king).
P11^1*0 s-" remember.
1*""" nfr good, beautiful, happy.
Jlö'fe.   bin bad, miserable.
£=4%^» 4ľ*> evil, sad.
"^ rSi plentiful, rich, many.
' Id this verb appearing in two variant forms (| 309, 1) 4 is probably an ideogram depicting some gift, perhaps a loaf; t_0, increasingly common as Dyn. XVIII is approached, represents a hand holding such a gift. For 4_fl is sometimes snbttitnted      ". the two usually not being distinguished in hieratic; 4~J at is not identical with a_a ml.
Sw empty, free (with  m of, from). ^ ib heart, wish. Jí    var.    ,    nb lord, master.
£t                    1
^Z7 nb every, any, all. — mw water.
S^S) hrd child.
QJflQfll ity sovereign, monarch.
£(j mi like.
0   \ mitt likeness ; m mitt likewise.
EXERCISE   IV
(N.B.    In analysing complex examples like (1) and (s), the student should first transliterate the whole, and then divide it into its component sentences and clauses.)
(a) Transliterate and translate:
48
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
Exerc. IV
>\g
0 t\ů
0
(4)
(5)
■n.
So id
(3) J
IT    (6) «$£
I       (7) ra^>p-^^<
*f,D^
(6)   Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration:
(1) How beautiful is this thy house! Behold, it is in my sight (lit. face) like heaven. (2) The sun sets in life2 every day. (3) Behold, thou art with me as a maid-servant. (4) She is more beautiful than her daughter. (5) Evil is on every side (lit. road). (6) Then we will stand up (and) speak to our good lord. (7) Every man is in joy, when he hears (lit. they hear) it. (8) Mayest thou go down in peace to thy city. (9) How excellent is this thy counsel in (lit. upon) my heart, (O) sovereign, my lord!
For ihe plural suffix see § 510.
5 A common Egyptian phrase meaning perhaps ' to set in full vigour'.
LESSON   V
§ 53. Biliteral signs (continued from § 41) :— vi. with p as second consonant:
\J wp                   i*=— kp
vii. with m as second consonant:
-— im          ti  nm         Dorö hm
viii. with n as second consonant:
^3; in          -J- zvn (rare)          1J- nn          '^f hn
^g, wn        tra mn                  % hn           -^ hn
€\ km        '"5* gm
^r-TT tm
1 sn (in), later 4
PECULIARITIES  OF  HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING.1                              iSeeERM.Gr».»>«.«
§ 54. The classification of the hieroglyphs into (1) ideograms or sense-signs   subject iš dealt with
1   /   \      .                                        1    •          /.  ,-\                   1            ■                    ,   *                .               in greater detail; also
and (2) phonograms or sound-signs (§ 6) covers the entire ground, but, as shown   lef. o. ss 9-66.
in I 42, Obs., the line of demarcation between the two classes is often difficult to
draw.    Nor must it be imagined that all the signs contained in the sub-divisions
of these main groups stand on an equal footing and conform to identical rules;
on the contrary, custom plays a very important part in deciding what writings
are possible and what are not, though variant spellings are very numerous.    A
few examples will make this statement clearer.
49
§54
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
' See AZ. 49, 15; Ftt. 38, 69-70. Ety-niologically the word appears to mean ' belonging to (n() the sedge {ran)', the plant-emblem of Upper Ejrypt, as the papyms ■aid was of Lower ľ.íot. Theetymolo-gital feminine / ol smí remains in the writing ot ' king ', although variants show nsw to have been the consonantal value as early as the Pyramids. Some scholars prefer to transliterate nitwt or n hot, bnt serious difficulties then arise in the case of the derivatives nsyt ' kingship", niym 'kings', etc. A recent alternative view regards nsw and niiwt as entirely different words, see Jf/ES. 6, 8.
' House' (fir) is written c7, much more rarely n ; such a writing as JLci is never found.
' To be firm', ' remain' (mn) is always ^| or the like, never V
The club-sign J is used with phonetic (or semi-phonetic) value in a few words like j>$ Am 'slave', J=^ Amt 'female slave', as well as in the common expression |,J_ Am/' His Majesty' (see further below, Excursus A, p. 74); but it has not otherwise obtained currency as a biliteral for Am, the sign o being used for that purpose.
Yet again, some signs used phonetically must be preceded by letters representing the whole of their sound-value: so *fä in (JJ'fci—á! U 'thirst', which is phonetic inasmuch as the entire word (|J%1 ib 'kid' enters bodily into the writing of the etymologically unrelated verb for ' thirst'; here ^j alone is not phonetic, since such a writing as ^H—jä without \ J would be quite abnormal in early times. It is useful to describe such signs as pAonetic determinatives; other examples are V in JLYá $«'sentence', 'saying'; £ (tr) in \ZJ\iH, ^W pair of horses'; 'ijV (>r) in ^^H*^*^» miir ' miserable'.
Enough has been said to indicate that a correct theoretical account of all hieroglyphic spellings would be a very long and tedious undertaking. TAe metAod of tAis book is largely based upon lAe view tAat beginners, Aaving once mastered tAc main principles of tlie writing, sAould not inquire too curiously into tAe nature of individual spellings, but sAould learn bolA tAe AieroglypAic groups and tAeir transliterations mecAanically. It is as unnecessary—to take an extreme instance—for the beginner to know why \ZA 'king', strictly 'king of Upper Egypt', variant \^§, is to be read nsw and not szutn1 as it would be for a learner of English to know why the word pronounced plow is now written ' plough'.
The student must, accordingly, expect to find in the Vocabularies a number of spellings which he will not at once understand. In order, however, to elucidate a few simple problems that may perplex him at an early stage, some paragraphs will be devoted to «.trtaia types of pecu!'.,-.r writing.
§ 55. Abbreviations.—These are commonest in monumental inscriptions, stereotyped phrases, formulae, titles, and the like.
Exx. f y tnA wdi snb, in full YlSTM^klPT 'ma>' he live' be ProsPerous' be healthy' (below § 313, end), attributes bestowed on the king and on honoured persons by the gods, and prayed for by men on their behalf; often appended as a token of respect to words for ' king', ' lord', etc.
~ or J J mľ-Arw, fuller writing ^X-WŘ 'true of voice', an epithet added to the names of dead persons and hence often practically equivalent to our ' deceased'. Originally applied to Osiris with reference to the occasion when his regal rights, being disputed by Seth,  were vindicated before the divine
50
PECULIARITIES  OF  WRITING
§55
tribunal in Heliopolis. The same epithet is also used in connexion with Horus as the ' triumphant' avenger of the wrongs done to Osiris.
J-f wAm rnA 'repeating life', another epithet given to deceased persons in Dyn. XVIII and thereabouts.
2jJ ki nAl, in full •H.^j—'J, ' victorious bull', an attribute ascribed to the Pharaoh.
J& n-sw-bitl ' king of Upper and Lower Egypt', literally ' he who belongs to the sedge of Upper Egypt and the bee of Lower Egypt'; compare ^^^ bily ' king of Lower Egypt', a derivative in -y from bit.1
-g hily-r, literally ' foremost in position', a common term for local princes or mayors.
1CT1! 'fy-r Amw-ntr 'overseer of the priests', more fully ^"7"°]JJJ (§ 73).
§ 56. Graphic transpositions.3—Signs are sometimes transposed, either in order to give a more pleasing appearance or for some less assignable reason.
A small sign may be placed under the breast of a bird even when the latter has to be read first; thus Sfr, according to the word in which it occurs, may be read either tw or zvi; ^ similarly either /; or it.
Thin vertical signs show a peculiar tendency to precede a bird which they ought properly to follow. Exx. |^> wd instead of \\; J^ wdi in place of \\ ; i]k= 'k* ' neld ' as variant of ^ |°;   f^'h mr ' pyramid' always for ^J=A-
Economy of space is one reason for such writings as p*J for [IJ-fc sól ' star'; |aj for ^.JJf Ary-Ab{t)1 'lector-priest'. So too in vertical columns (j J is of frequent occurrence for ()(]<=> -yt and J«f for &JJ %r rdwy ' under the feet (of)'.
§ 57. Transpositions with honorific intent.—There is a common tendency to write words like \2-&. nsw 'king' and "\$ ntr 'god', as well as the names of specific kings and gods, before closely connected words which in actual speech were pronounced first. Exx. ^$ si nsw ' scribe of the king'; "|| Am-ntr ' servant of god', i. e. ' priest'; ©£ mi Rt ' like Rě<'; !)"$^i] \ mry 'Imn ' beloved of Arnim \5   Note that abbreviated writings are here frequent.
§ 58. Monograms.—(1) In certain verbs involving the notion of movement the ideogram J\ is combined with a phonogram. So with \ i : Jj()js ii come.
„    —í: QX is go (imperative); ,fcx »is bring, offer; Xjjl sb bring,
conduct, pass. „    = í: ^^-A im go. „    «=» í: 5°^ it take, carry off. ,,    a nw, in :  J_ in bring, fetch. „    ^ sSm : P^^jO sim guide, lead.
1 Vocalized as in-tibya in a cuneiform tablet from Boghaz Keui; see AZ. 49,17.
1 AZ. 28, i2S; 49, •9-
' SteXec. 25, 139; Pyr. iv. S 17.
4 Probable meaning ' holder of the ritn.il book', hence hbit), not hb; set/EA. 41, 1 i,n. 3.Sim.A»-(r)-«/r ' necropolis' omits the fcm.erv\\n%,JEA. 34, 344; so too »^(0, S 48, 1.
• Cf. also ' beloved of his lord' written nb-f mry, e.g. Sinai 87; 'praisegod' writ-ten«/rířw/,e.g. p.173, last ex.
SI
§58
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
1 Readingfromlate variants (BrugsCH, Wörterbuch 976) and from Coptic henkt.di. a!>o the play on words I'y: 37, 39-
1 See   Onom.   II,
'   See    M.    Bur-chardt,   Die  allka~ ruandischen    Fremd--jj:rie  ".nd  Eigennamen im Aegyptischen, Leipzig.1909-10.Also particularly    W.    F. iil>GERTON,'Eg. Phobic Writing' in JA wo> 473, mainly nswer to W. F. .   BRIGHT,  7'ke  Vo-. ii:ation 0/ the Eg. ä.-.'lahic Orthography, Mew Haven, 1934.
'JEA. iv, PI. IX, 10. bim. Urk. iv. 648, 5; 65°, °-
4 Urk. iv. 1119, 2. Sim.iriDyn.XII,£/Y. ii. p. 3°-
• Lei. 145-Í. ' See ÄZ. 56, 61.
7 Sh. S. 38, contrasted with 106. Sim. rih!.-H\Peas.hi,ll6.
Urk. ir. 363.
' Peal. E 1, 199. 1 Urk. iv. nil. 1 C'rk. iv. Ilia.
(2) Some other common monograms are :
£ or £ in Ir season           j^ mm                               g hrt-hrw daytime
I in rnp be young            \ rs{w) southern               + 'h palace
^ „iit m                          4ŕ Šm'w Upper Egypt     -£■ wdt judge
§ 59. Defective and superfluous writings.—Such writings as ^*-5
for ;-»»/ ' men', ' people', and |£ 5 for linkt' ' beer' are in no way at variance with the rules already given, but are apt to puzzle beginners. The omission of m and n here is probably due to calligraphic reasons; but the Egyptian was under no obligation to prefix to an ideogram more phonetic signs than were needed to remove obscurity. Conversely, a superfluous w is inserted in l)^.*^ i(zf)/' flesh', ' meat', Coptic showing that if is to be read.1*
§ 60. Group-writing.2—A peculiar method of writing with biliteral instead of alphabetical signs, e.g. — n for r, f^ In for A, and with some other groups, e.g. ra]^ hi for /ŕ, ^ľľ: *°r l'< especially often in foreign words or etymologically obscure names, e.g. () j§|rü^(]5>&!V], a foreign land, to be transliterated 'lid. not 'Iiliwiw 3; ^~*=^> rmt, not cimitw,i a man's name. Traces already in the Pyramid Texts, and partial exx. even in some M.E. words, e.g. ^11*— ddtif for ddtf, §409.
§ 61. Determination of compounds.—Compounds and other closely connected groups of words may show one common determinative or group of determinatives; exx. J 3^=7 A a bw-nb 'every one', lit. 'every place'; 22ľ7al rh-ht ' a wise man', lit. ' a knower of things '.s Doubtless for this reason titles preceding the name of their owner are usually left without a determinative of their own, ex. |if j~^ sš N At ' the scribe Nakht'.
§ 62. Avoidance of the repetition of like consonantal signs in contiguity.'—When, for inflexional or other reasons, two like consonants either fell together or else came into close contact so as not to be separated by a full vowel, there was a strong tendency to write them but once. Inus, within the limits of a single word, ^^ m(w)f is written for K^ll] m(w)t-li (§ 309), Jj~ inf for Ji,~ ««•»•/(§ 413). In the kind of verbs known as geminating (see below § 269) this rule is still stricter, the alternative writing with repetition being practically excluded.
The same tendency not seldom manifests itself when a word ending with a certain consonant is immediately followed by another word beginning with the same consonant, ex. ^^1PQ ir-ni ist for ir-n-i is st 'lo, I did it'." This case occurs particularly often with uniconsonantal words or the like, so that they then find no expression at all in the writing ; exx. ßii?Ci, di-tw irf m for di-tw irf m m ' by what means (lit. with what) shall one ferry across ? '; • P j£1cE smvsn-f for smi-sn n-f they report to him'10 beside P£P~.U
52
THE  INDEPENDENT  PRONOUNS                          §62
Conversely, a consonant is sometimes abnormally repeated, doubtless to mark the retention of a sound that in other combinations had fallen away; exx. 33~Jj3 P1T1—\~Ř si-sn~n wi for si-sn wi 'they shall convey me';1 %£Ě—\\$t mtn~n wi for tntn wi 'behold ye me1;' flSauSs/r. w>t~tn for wit-n 'our road'.3
See Add. for § 62A.
§ 63. Doubtful readings.—A consequence of the complex and often defective nature of hieroglyphic writing is that scholars are still often in doubt as to the correct transliteration of words. Thus J£5 linkt 'beer' (§ 59) is in other books on Egyptian almost universally read Ait; in old-fashioned works ^^,r§ nsw ' king' is regularly rendered as swtn; and so forth. Among readings which are not yet fully established we incline to gnwty for <J^ 'sculptor', sdrwty for gi, ' treasurer'.    Where there is a choice, shorter readings are preferable to long
ones; thus we read mni for 31^ ' moor', though the stem is probably mini.
See Add. for § 63A.
§ 64. Personal pronouns (continued from §§ 43-6) :
3. The independent pronouns * almost always stand at the beginning of the sentence (exceptions § 300), and are more or less emphatic in meaning.
Sing.
, i?ik               I.           Also written 1),°,,» \£,*§t or <°,$ ; early
also vj\-§£ «; king sometimes ^.g,7 ^ s
Plur.
2, m. , 2, f. 3.ni.
3.f-
1,  c.
2,  c.
3,  c.
,ntk ; ntt \ntf 'P nts
Thou.
Thou.
He, it.
She, it. , (ji inn We. nttn         You.
j ntsn       They.
Later also m ntt?
From Dyn. XVIII also ~£_ Hitherto noted only in very late texts.1 Later also ~*ti nttn. Later also     ~
These pronouns often stand in parallelism to the particle (§ 227) or preposition (§ 168) J_ in followed by a noun, and are clearly related to that word etymologically.
OBS. This series is closely connected with the personal pronouns in Hebrew and Arabic. The element in is probably demonstrative in origin,11 the t may be that of the feminine, and the variable endings are mainly those of the suffix-pronouns.
In the Pyramid Texts and the Old Kingdom the place of the forms above given for the 2nd and 3rd pers. sing, is occupied by an earlier type of independent pronoun formed from the dependent pronouns by the addition of t.1' The two masculines have survived into Middle Egyptian as archaisms.
Sing. 2, c. ■=;$? twt   Thou.           Later $J{ twt.13
„    3, c. ^f swt      He, she, it.   Originally suit.
Obs. Twt and hot were originally masculines only; in Middle Egyptian they are found for both genders.14    Swt as a particle meaning ' but', see below § 354.
1 Sin. B 171. Sim. Lac. TP. 47, 31. 23. Forthelossofat in -in, tn see i 34, Obs. 4.
■ Lac. TR. 78, 3; Mar. Abyd. ii. 30,33.
s Peas. B i, 7-8. Sim. Sh. S. 7; Kopt. 8,6. 9. So already in Pyr., see ÄZ. 44, 80, n. 2 and above p. 34,
* ÄZ. 29,13 1 ; 30, 15 ;   Gunn, Studies,
5 Cairo 20007. « ÄZ. 23, 8. 1 Urk. iv. 813, 9. 1 Urk. iv. 835, I{.
■ M. u. K. 1, 8. o.
11 JEA.it, i»«-
11 PSBA. 12, 325.
" ÄZ. 30, 17. For ttt seeabovep. 4.6, n.8.
18 Already in Erm. Hymn. I, 5.
» Twt, see Erm. Hymn. 1,5; I7rk. iv. 223, 10:229,13 ;343. 10. Swt, see iô. 231, mWi^11'. 358. 3-
53
§65
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
§ 65. The uses of the independent pronouns to be noted at this point are :
i. as subject of sentences with directly juxtaposed nominal predicate.
Exx. ^,1^.^'=' ink it-k I am thy father.
2£^[1 ntf si-s he is her son.
t=^>°^'^^ twt nb-i thou art my lord.
2. as subject of sentences with adjectival predicate. This use is almost confined to the ist pers. sing.
Ex. ^5,J!^ ink nfr I am good.
In both uses a certain degree of emphasis rests upon the pronouns, and in some contexts it would be desirable to translate, ' it is I (who am) thy father', ' it is I (who am) good', etc.
Observe carefully that it is against Egyptian usage to employ the independent pronoun when the predicate is adverbial; ' thou art in the house ' may be rendered by !)>=.&■? or by ^=11^. but not by 4$^
§ 66. Word-order.--It is now necessary to supplement what was said on this score in §§ 27. 29.
The dative (§ 52) differs from other adverbial phrases (i.e. preposition accompanied by a noun) in its tendency to follow as closely as possible the word that governs it.    The following sentence exemplifies the usual word-order.
Pž1SÍHá=Qľy.L—¥*—\2x2- smi si Mipn n nbf m niwt tn the scribe reports this secret to his lord in this city.
This word-order is, however, modified when the subject or object is a pronoun; also when the preposition « governs a suffix-pronoun so as to form a dative case. In these conditions the rule is that a noun must not precede a pronoun and that the dependent pronoun must not precede a suffix.
Exx. ra^J^«=^. hibf tw he sends thee.
raS*. Jjlr=^'lMá hib -w s* t'le scribe sends thee.
iľk-**—iS»*~ di tn srf his son ferries you acre.".;; .-.- 'you f<"-ry his son across', since tn may be the suffix just as well as the dependent pronoun.
> si.s. 86-7. Sim.            &=>*!]! ¥ZX ^Sb-n-i nfst I answered {idm-nf form § 67) it to him.1 n*, b :. ja-,.                 jL^M i» n-k st si the scribe brings it to thee.
ra^Jd.rřilTru^AtoP h'b'n n'n nb'n nfr *' fir's our g°od 'ord nas sent to us a despatch about it.
>  urk. iv. 368.                M^ZPo tot-wy n's si how like (t0)her h is!'
' Ptas. B 2, J«.               lÜI^L ** n'k St lt d0eS n0t be'°nS t0 thee> ^'lt-  lt 'S n0t t0 tnee-3
' Urk. iv. 1166.               1&^?í iw n'k llrw nfr holiday is thine, lit. a good day is to thee.4
• Common as • m.            1^*—IF itff n-i he is mine, lit. he is to me."
Certain particles, termed enclitics (§ 226), which cannot stand at the beginning of a sentence, may take precedence of the subject (when a noun) or
proper name.
54
THE  ŠDM-N-F FORM
§66
the object or the dative. Such are grt' now' (often best left untranslated), rf (with wishes, commands, questions, etc.), and hm ' assuredly' in the following examples.
Z>£\k! fí°-=-2íí]—It »>■«•(*) grt mrfirt-(i) r rd u ntr n now I made my tomb at the staircase of the great god.1                                                                       ■ Cairo 20099, 2.
P^-T^OT Ml r/n-k mitt iry let me relate  to thee  the  like    ^k'Tt ■"'' 'l thereof. -                                                                                                                        ' s*. s. 11. Sim. a.
...                                                                                                                                                                           la; before dep. pron.
Similarly in more complex constructions, as J^wX^I)!),^ ti sw hm iyf' and    *•IO-now indeed he was returning \3    See §148,1.                                                              >íí». Ri,
Such non-enclitic particles as ^^ mk ' behold', ^ nn ' not' (§ 44, 2) stand at the beginning of the sentence, preceding even the verb. Examples below § 119, and often.
Obs. Exceptional word-order is more often than not due to motives of emphasis, see below §§ 146 foil.; but compare also § 507.
§ 67. The sdm-n-f form.—This second common form of the verb is constructed, as regards its pronominal or nominal subjects, as well as in its mode of expressing the passive, exactly like the šdmf form (§ 39). From that form it differs only in the insertion of an inseparable element — n immediately after the verb-stem or after any determinative which the verb-stem may have.
Exx. <^"i"l5>^*— sdm-n-i hrw/l heard his voice.
■"%,—lál^íä sdm-n ntr hrw the god heard the voice.
<rlk—P01á sdm-u st ntr the god heard it.
^S^°3rl^á sdm-n-tw hrw the voice was heard.
2Ü"— pr-n-fhe went out.
't'Sü^^lF'3'' 6'b-n n-k nb-k thy lord has sent to thee.
ifiP^Ta ms-n-lw-i I was born.
Observe that the rules of word-order given in § 66 apply also here. A full paradigm is unnecessary; the one point to remember is that the formative n is inseparable from the verb-stem.
In its origin the Sdm-n-f form appears to have resulted from the combination of a passive participle with a dative of possession or agential interest. Thus 2ÜW prnf would mean ' gone out to him ', -0%,™ sdm-n-f' heard to him '.
Since the Sdm-n-f form expresses essentially what occurs or happens to someone or by his agency, it was at the start no less indeterminate, as regards time-position, than-the tdmf form. We shall later on become acquainted with one affirmative use (§ 414, 5) in which the idm-n-f must be translated as an English present; and so too very frequently when it is preceded by the negative word n ' not' (§ 105, 3).    These are, however, exceptional cases; almost
55
§67
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
' Lib. 141. Sim. P. Xak. 18,11; 39, 12 ; " Ví-, iv. 1090, 14.
' iW.i.8,10. Sim. .Tu.-. R 7. 59-
1 IVestc. 8, S. Sim. Sttr. B 189-90; P. Kit. 30, 31 ; Peas. Bl,;4-5; Urk. iv. 17, 7-
* .^. -í. 67. Sim. /./. i. 15, 13; Brit. M. > í 14, 3 ; Hamm. Ii ;,.); 199,6; Cairo rc- S ii./-3.4;a0543, «13; i'rk. iv. 34, 5. u. 16; 55, 16; 131, 14; 748, 2. 6. 10.
'Cairo 30538, u.b 9. Other exx. see % 45a,
1 ď.
everywhere else the šdm-nf term is restricted to past time. It is thus employed of past time in affirmative sentences, where it may have the meaning of the English past tense ('he heard'), of the English present perfect (' he has heard'), or of the English past perfect (' he had heard'); the latter two uses are particularly common in clauses of tíme (see below § 212).
Exx. ... as a man longs to see his home ^fTj-^l^T^jil0^ irnf rnpwt 'lit m ndrt (when) he has passed many years in imprisonment.1
His Majesty proceeded in peace, he had overthrown his enemies.2
J^&ä,^ shr-n-f hftywf (when)
§ 68. The compound verb-form iw šdm-n-f.—We have seen (§ 29) that (|^> iw, properly the copula 'is' or 'are', confers upon sentences with adverbial predicates the value of a detached or independent statement. It is also frequently employed before the šdm-nf form in main clauses to mark some more or less important event in a narration.
Exx. The prince came to the king and said: il?j5~j§Sli"3* *w '»"""' Qdi I have brought Djedi.3    English present perfect.
H^rpxZLCTfi" li" wp-nf rf r-i he opened his mouth to me.* English past tense.
The student should make use of this form at the beginning of narrative sentences in the Exercises, reserving the simple šdm-nf ter subsidiary sentences. The form iw šdm-nf, to which we shall return later (§ 464), gives a certain smoothness and elegance to recitals of past events.
§ 69. Verbal sentences as noun clauses.—A striking characteristic of Egyptian is the ease with which it can treat an entire sentence as a noun. We often find words having the form of verbal sentences, without any equivalent of English ' that' by way of introduction, as object of verbs of saying, thinking, wishing, etc., or as subject of their passives; and a similar use occurs after prepositions.    Sentence-like groups of words thus used *c call noun clauses.
We shall be much concerned with such constructions in the later parts of this book. For the moment all that is needful is to state the principle and to illustrate it in one particular case, namely after the verb (r)di 'give', 'place', ' cause' (§ 70).
§ 70. The Šdm-f form after (r)di.—The verb (r)di ' give', ' place' often takes as object another verb in the šdm-f form, and then means ' cause' or' allow'.
Ex. t-^^^%^, di-i sdm-tn I cause you to hear, lit. I give (that) you hear.5
Similarly as subject of the passive of (r)di.
Ex. 5^=-!lílÔ5.??^,11k!&>Ä. rdi-t(w) iry-i hrw m 'In I was allowed to pass (lit. one gave I passed) a day in Yaa.8
56
LESSON  V VOCABULARY
Ji    in bring, fetch, remove.
CI linw interior; det. ®, the (royal) Residence. ±$ sn brother; |"^ „/sister. ^$ hmt woman, wife.
, tJ hmt female
\
^king
\J wp open. ■^J^-A šm go, walk. "S*K Sm find-
•O /~~v,
í J ZZ. wr^ ke Pure- clean; det. sŕ
(ordinary) priest.
^   JixM wii answer (" 'to' persons).
I<ÍLSfl    ^r nunger  (vb.   and   n.); hungry.
U^EElS ib thirst (vb'); thirsty-
___f I mnh efficient,  beneficent,  excellent.
^Jk®   Kmt the  Black  Lan<i i-e.        6 (early also -f) S! back; m-si at the
SyPt-                                                        back of, following after.
^^ Dirt the Red Land, i. e. the        -7« r hand, arm. Desert.
/««(male) slave: I slave.                   "
of Upper Egypt, king. 11 var.    j 1 Jí utr god.
^J   /bread.
|^S hn£t beer.
|J P ^y5 (lbs clothes, clothing.
tsm hound, dog.
I
EXERCISE   V
(a)   Transliterate and translate :
ft MTÉ     m ^\J±MYŘ-^\UZŘZí:
(3)
íH,
>&K
Dq
(4)

OKto^W*^   b)
.ralL-^Jb
57
Exerc. V
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
(6)   Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration :
(i) The scribe opened his mouth that he might answer the king: (O) sovereign, my lord! Thou art greater than any god. Thou art my lord, I am thy slave. This thy humble servant» is like a hound following after thee. The Black Land (and) the Red Land rejoice (because) thou art (iwk) beneficent king. (2) He caused them to go down to the boat. (3) How evil is thy utterance; thou art not (§ 44, 2) my brother. (4) She is my sister; she is in thy hand as a slave.
' ' This thy humble servant' is to be rendered simply bii Im ' the servant there', a respectful circumlocution for the ist pers. sing, in Middle Egyptian.   See ÄZ. 27, tia ; 30, 126.
LESSON   VI
1 Also  with value lb, 5 41.
' Also with value hw, 5 41.
s See KAI'LKNER, The ľlural und Dual in Old Egyptian, Brussels, lyay; ürman, Die Pluralbildung det Ati&ptitthen, Leipzig, ifi';s ; also Rtc. 35, 75. For the dual, see ÄZ. 47. 4"-
1 Ci.ltvw 'fathers', but here -yw is written out only rarely before Dvn. XIX, see AZ.
48. ■;■
£3\ hr (not to be confused with H g).
3 4r
4ř\   nh
§ 71. Biliteral signs (continued from § 53) :— ix. with r as second consonant:
^2^ ir             n pr           y mrx
^5, wr        V or "^ mr      ^ hr x. with h as second consonant:
<s___ bh2            ü> ph.             "=\ nth      ^
§ 72. Number of nouns and adjectives.3—There are three numbers in Egyptian, singular, plural, and dual. The dual is used only for pairs of things or persons.
Sing. m. has no special ending.    Ex. J_$ sn brother. „    f. ends in -/.                        Ex. \,~$ snt sister.
Plur. m.....-w.                       Ex. J"^,* snw brothers.
f.       „     „   -Wt.                             Ľ.X. _L.Í5^~,?, snwí sisifcia.
Dual m.    „    „ -wy.                     Ex. ±Y1kŘ snwy Pair of brothers.
f.     „    „ -ty.                       Ex. JL°i5i5 snty Pair °f s'sters-
Note that the plural of nsw 'king' is written ^JLIW or ^.ľľľfií »ÍT^ť?)4
§73. Writing of the plural and dual.—1. The oldest method consisted in the repetition of the ideogram with which the singular was written, thrice for the plural, twice for the dual.
Exx.        Sing.                              Plur.                                     Dual
r-, (n) pr house.          ri^1 prw houses.            R prwy the two houses.
^ (~) irt eye.               —                                 2! irtV the (two) eyes-
58
WRITING  OF  THE   PLURAL  AND   DUAL
§73
This method of writing is archaistically retained in many monumental inscriptions of the Middle and New Kingdoms. The phonetic spelling of the words often precedes the ideograms, which thus appear as determinatives (§ 23).
Exx.  Plur. P=*^$$ff srw officials.    Dual äí^fli thnwy pair of obelisks. „    70^°000 nkwt trees.             „   ^§ fly pair of limbs.
2.   On the same principle, words that are written purely phonetically may have their component sound-signs, or some of them, repeated. This again, so far as Middle Egyptian is concerned, is for the most part a consciously archaistic practice.
Exx.      Sing.                                Plur.                                      Dual
°] nlr god.                   'YY\ ntrw gods.                   °|°] ntrtvy pair of gods.
^ m name.                "ZľŽľŽl rnw names.                          ----------
í U hki magic.            |uuu hkiw magical spells.                    -----------
3.   Towards the end of the Old Kingdom a determinative of plurality, consisting of three strokes 1 1 1, ", '{ or |, more rarely of three dots •••, \, came into
general use.1    As a rule it accompanies some sign or signs which in earlier times      'Superstition,   as
°                                          _                           r                                      .                                         .                          wel1   aa   motives   of
would have been written thrice, and serves as substitute for the repetition.              abbreviation,  helped
r                                       in  the development:
Exx. J.cvf.ir, snw ' brothers' for old JL°^aaff                                             see**. 35, 73 ; az.
*jj ntrw'gods'               „    ,,    °\"Y]
57', prw ' houses'            .,    „   ^"^^
Sometimes, however, the ' plural strokes' stand independently as the mark of plurality, as in J fe nfrw ' beautiful' (m. plur.); they may even accompany words that are plural only in meaning, not in grammatical form.
Exx. p~ sn they.    J^ü.f r/tyt people, subjects.     *^ rSi many.
4.  The sign w, less frequently ", which is seen in the dual endings ^ -wy and " -ty (§ 72), was originally a mark of duality employed, like the plural strokes 1 1 i, to obviate the repetition of ideograms; thus the archaic writing J_" snty ' pair of sisters' was at first no more than an abbreviation of JT^. Since, however, Old Egyptian orthography habitually omitted the -y of the dual endings -wy and -ty, the substitute & of the original pair of ideograms soon came to be interpreted as that semi-vowel. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, accordingly, \\ had ceased to be a special mark of duality and had become a sound-sign for -y, with a use restricted to the terminations of words. Henceforth ' pair of sisters' is written X°sSi9 snty< where \\ is y and where the determinatives j3j3 have to be added.
Obs. The sign Í) originally represented consonantal (semi-vocalic) y, but at the beginning of some words it seems to have possessed a value indistinguishable from "&.   /;   hence it is transliterated /.    At the end of words y is written Q ň or », but       ' On this question
J                           1 1                           see Verbum, i. §5 loo
not as a rule interchangeably; (| (j may occur as last letter but one, see above § 20.a    foil.
59
§74
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
1 /'<a>.Rl05 = Bi, fit. Sim. Sin. B 196; S/i. S. 165 ; Urk. iv. "OS, 4-
' 7*. T. S. ii. 11.
1 Sh. S. 87. ' .H«. B 16.
•  ÄZ. 13, 76.
•  Sin. B 63.
' P. Kuh. 1, 3. ' /fcw. B I, 167.
•  P. Kah. 6, 9.
'• St. S. 85; see Piť 38, 197. A convincing ex. *4rwj. 103,
» Lib. 65.
,J Z.ŕí. 106. See too below § 263, hrm-n-w
"CofBns,B4C,S4.
§ 74. Omission of the plural and dual endings.—As seen in the last section, the plural and dual numbers of nouns were usually indicated by repetitions of signs or by the use of special determinatives. All the more readily, therefore, could the actual phonetic terminations -w and -ml, -wy and -ly, be omitted in the writing. Hence we find f<=f§á in place of f"?")},*, srw ' officials ', ^jjá in place of *^$$ nity ' pair of ladies'; indeed, the abbreviated spellings are the commoner, the full feminine plural being especially rare. For example, ^j?! usually, nay possibly always, replaces the theoretically correct full writing *o%&, hmwt ' women', ' wives'.
In the case of adjectives, the plurals and duals of which were formed in the same way as with nouns, such abbreviated spellings are yet more common. The ending of the feminine plural is here never fully written out, and even the plural strokes may be omitted; J^and J"^ are equally legitimate writings oinfnat. In the masculine plural of the adjective the plural strokes are often dispensed with. exx. ^,^,,'fii^^ ipdw ddiifu) 'fat birds';' —o^jf^ hw ividm ' sturdy oxen'.2 Obs. As we have seen (§ 48), ^ nb 'all', ' any',' every' was early often written as though invariable, but occasional variants show that this was not the case.
§ 75. After nouns in the dual
1.  the sign for the suffix ist pers. sing, is occasionally preceded by \\ y, exx TYMS raT* 'mv hands';3 ^i|(|Ji$ rdwyi 'my feet'.4
2.   the suffixes 2nd and 3rd m. sing, and 3rd f. sing, sometimes show an ending * -y,5 exx. "T^*^ rwy-fy 'his two hands'" (also written ~f^"~~ ') I P°T"íf sptyky 'thy two lips';8 "»JJr» mnty-sy 'her two thighs'.9 In this case the dual ending is occasionally omitted after the noun, ex. f *^" gs(wy)-fy 'its two sides'.10
§ 76. The use of ^ -fy just mentioned (§ 75, 2) is extended, strictly speaking inaccurately, to certain words
1.   Having aual form but singular meaning, ex. £>"~p/i(7vy)-fy ' its end'.11
2.   having singular form but a meaning with some implication of duality, ex. i"5"^jS"^ľ sn-nw-fy 'his fellow', lit. 'his second'.1'
§ 77. Apparent duals and plurals.—i. Certain words ending in -w, mostly abstracts, are by a false analogy written like plurals (§ 73, 2. 3); exx. \J | nfrw ' beauty'; ™ mnw ' memorial', ' monument'; ra^Jr'ľT! luw ' neighbourhood', ' time'. Similarly, certain words ending in -wy and -ly, though not really duals, are apt to be written as such; exx. J^^T ll!wy 'night'; § (var. J^) niwly ' belonging to a town '. However, íffl (var. Q) phty ' strength' was early a true dual;13 whether ü^fttf' hnty 'period', 'end' was so or not is doubtful.
2. Other words sometimes written like plurals, such as 1)"^*,°, irp 'wine',
60
ADJECTIVES  IN  -Y
§77
J^] nbw ' gold ', are treated grammatically as singulars ; — mza ' water' is some-      , Leydcn v h    . times a plural,1 sometimes a singular.2                                                                       "'""■9'l8'
3.   Many collectives"' in -/ are written with the plural strokes, though they      ■ see Rtc. 31,83. are really feminine singulars and are so treated syntactically;  exx. ^ujj^iVi
mnmnt ' herd'; ^(j (|a 4i hnyt ' sailors '.
4.   The plural of ^^ rmt ' man ' (Latin homo) is written ^,* or ^*1?. but
appears from such phrases as ^ S"??  a" men *to De properly a feminine collec-      ' Peas- R f>-tive riutii); verv rarely the writing; Sí^ rmtt nbt is found.1                                  ' siui 1, 315. see
-'■>''                 '                                                     "                                                                                                                    too A'«. 35, 77.
§ 78. Status pronominalis.—When a suffix-pronoun is added to certain
feminine nouns, an  apparently intrusive -w  occasionally appears  before  the      ' p'as-B '■126-
feminine ending -I.    Exx. ■7°^, dpt 'boat',' but 7^^~ dpwt-f 'his boat';7      , s'"t'h 'j™3'
ßZ Wbt ' meat',8 but fí\t*~ aŕivlf'h\s meat'.9                                                       ' -»«'i.^s-Other
U^                                        IJ-r^                  J                                                                                                 exx., saJEA. iv. 3S,
Obs. This phenomenon is due to a displacement of the accent when the suffix is    n.8;aisojí/«//i, Brit, added ; some such pronunciation as dope  (from original dápivat) may be assumed    with'/for'™, sdiyt**), for the status absolutus, becoming dejneatef, with the original w retained under the    s'"' s> 7-protection of the accent, in the status pronominalis.    The Latin terms here used are borrowed from the grammarians of Coptic, where such modification of the noun before the suffix is regular.
§ 79. Adjectives in -y.'"—The ending -y is employed to form adjectives     " s™ <iz. 19, 44; from nouns and prepositions.    Exactly the same formation exists in the Semitic languages, and the Arabic grammarians have invented for it the term nisbe-adjectives, or ' adjectives of relationship' ; this name is sometimes applied to the Egyptian counterparts.    Examples are ;
From i^^Y1 rsw ' south wind', m.u          From "^^ mhyt ' north wind', f.11         " See Az. 44,1.
sing. m. ^^ or J rsy ' southern '.              ^J=, ]^J or "^ mhyty {mhly) ' northern '.
»1    f-   ITi or 1° rsyt (rsfy-                     2° or 13 mhytyt (mhtt).
plur. m. i^,°, or \\ rsytu (rsw).             1?-\*, or "^^, mhytyw (mktyw).
'<    ^    ~ii^, or 1~ rsXl-'f (rsiľl, rsl).         12'*: or 11 "tJtytywt (m/ilwl, vtkit).
From the preposition «=- /■ (!]«=. ir) ' to '. sing. m. ()"^*V^, \"^ or ij<=- try ' relating to ', ' connected with '.
..    f-    ÍTVÍ or ([T iryt (iri). plur. m. i|"5*\|| iryw, irw. „    f.    :]"r*V^| or !j"^"VÍ irywt (irwt, irt). As the above writings indicate,  the  formative  -y   is never written  out in  the  feminines,  and the semi-vowels y and  w are   also   elsewhere   usually suppressed ; for reasons of practical convenience, the less correct transliterations given in brackets are to be preferred as a rule.    The -y of the m. sing, is often, but by no means always, written out, and as regards the m. plur. the latent
61
§79
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
1 Differing from /, with which it is often confused, only in the rounded back of the iiead and the rather plumper breast. But in painted inscriptions the colour is brown.
1 PI- 69- 75- 435-
* This hieroglyph represents the tongue, which is 'what-is-in-the-nionth'; hence its vr.lue imy-r is due to a >v!.id of graphic pnn, see AZ. 40, 142 ; 42,
' Aur 1, 350. The suffix in mlityf, ' his northern one', seil. ' boundary', B.H. i. li. 50,has its ordinary p. ssessive sense; sin). ! ie lirst ex. on p. 6».
presence of that semi-vowel is betrayed by the use of the sound-sign ^ livj (tyw)1 in derivatives from f. nouns (so mhytyw above) or from m. words ending in /, ex. »J-^,^1 hftyw ' opponents', ' enemies', an adjective used as a noun and derived from the preposition J^ hft ' before', ' opposite '.
Obs. In Old Egyptian the formative was either omitted or else written with
ň -i.    An alternative ending \ -w survives in some nouns like ^\* hr-ai ' lower
part' and Q& miizv ' peer '.2
Prepositions that have a special form before the suffixes exhibit the same or a similar form in their derivative adjectives in -y.
Exx. 1)"^*^ iry ' relating to' from -=» r ' to' (form with suffixes -=^ r- but occasionally also ()<= ir-)
i^=, hry ' above'             „      * hr ' upon    ( „                „        _£. fr') HK«'»y '(who is) in'      „      ^>K'in'       (......        \%im-)
In titles and the like these adjectives are sometimes abbreviated in such a way as to be indistinguishable from the prepositions from which they are derived. Exx. J^" imy-r ' overseer', variants ^,"7", '""l ,3 lit- ' one-who-is-in-the-mouth ' (of his subordinates); 2£ hry-tp n 'great chief of a province, lit. 'great one-who-is-over-the-head'.
Owing to their resemblance in sound to duals, some adjectives in -y from feminine nouns are written with a twofold ideogram (see above , 77, 1).
Exx. § niwty from • niwt' town' in the expression °j| ntr niwiy ' local god'. jgj ihty     „   ö ilft 'horizon'    „           „        ^,[8] H r ihty ' Horus of
the horizon'.
§ 80. Adjectives derived from prepositions may, like the latter, govern a noun or pronoun.
Exx. ^.P^e^í fry s^' ' he w^° 's over t'le secret', a common title.
IJ-j-^,2. Itnyt-f what is in it', lit. that-being-in it.
The adjective £° tally (also mitw, § 79 Obs.), which is derived from a f. noun £^ »«V 'copy', may similarly take a suffix, ex. S^ä"— mity/'h'ts equal'.*
From the noun ® tp 'head' and its derivative preposition ® tp 'upon' (§ 173) comes the adjective 0®x, varr. ®, a, tpy, also written J, with the two meanings (1) 'foremost', 'chief, 'first' and (2) 'being upon', ex. IT^fe^f 'Inpw tpy dwf' Anubis (who is) upon his mountain'. There is also a secondary adjective ®° tpty ' first', but this hardly occurs until Late Egyptian.
The beginner must bear in mind that such adjectives in -y, in their most
summary writings, are  easily mistaken for their originating  prepositions ;   the
example 'lnpw tpy dwf]ust quoted is a case in point, doubt here being the more
justifiable, since a prepositional phrase may sometimes be closely linked to a noun,
ex. 2-2-á nb-r-ir 'lord of the universe', lit. 'lord to the end' (§ 100,  1); see
further § 158.
62
USES  OF  ADJECTIVES
180
On occasion some word may intervene between an adjective in -y and the word it governs.
Exx. -H£P~s^ imt-sn hit 'their originals', lit. their that-being-in-front.1 I^^P^^, iry nb sim every functionary, lit. every one-relating-to a business.2 —$$®§ ny wi R' I belong to Rg<, lit. I am (§ 44, 3) belonging to RěV
§ 81. Like other adjectives, those ending in -y are often employed as nouns. Exx. äM°i§ sbty ' peasant', ' fowler', properly ' one-belonging-to-the-country
1^2 imntt ' the west', from |° imnty ' western'.
=j^^v, hr(t)-ntr 'the necropolis', lit. 'that under-(i.e. possessing-)-the-god'.*
^^>3 hryw-i' ' those-upon-the-sand', i.e. the Bedäwin.
1  Urk. iv.   00;  cf. Peas. B r, 193. ' Urk. iv. 1106.
s Eb. 1, 7.
1 See above p. 51,
VOCAB ULARY
-s2>- ir make, do.
J\ pr go forth, go up. -V ph reach, attack. ^^ftft mr love, wish. ^3 mh fill (m with). Ýj^^j hilt capture, take as plunder. e^a||<s«_€ň dbh ask for, beg. \     imnty western. 4M]     iibty eastern. S** wr great, important, much.
^"likl^v] Kii Ethiopia, the Cush of the Bible (f.)
Q"°^i t 1 irtt (earlier irt-1) mi'k-
era
___mnw monument.
000
n r—1    *_,          ,        ,
c *»   mnmnt cattle.
)$ rmt man ; "'^'j
Si rd{00t-%J(f© nhh eternity.
SHW t,S boundaT f ^A  mr pyramid.
.-''ljD| it barley, corn.
. ht body.
■mt(t) people
hist hill-country, (foreign) country.
hr under, carrying, holding (preposition).
EXERCISE   VI
(a)  Transliterate and translate:
1  1  lOoai  1  1
(2)

63
Exerc. VI
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
tii^  (3) ^zr?^)i   (4) b^^tpt, wffi,
~MT J^^S^MT, ? MIS    w t^&T&aP
(í)   Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration :
(i) They went forth to Cush, they reached its southern boundary, they captured its towns, they brought away all its inhabitants (lit. those-under it) (and) all its cattle. (2) He loved his brothers (more) than his own wife. (3) I have made for thee many great monuments (and) have placed them in the Southern City.1 (4) Thou fillest thy hands with (hr) all good things. (5) Rě< placed him as king in this land, all southern (and) northern countries (being) under his feet. He is our beneficent lord; all his plans are like (those of) Rě( himself. (6) He is the god who-is-in my body.
1 ' Southern City' was a name commonly given to Thebes.
LESSON   VII
§ 82. Biliteral signs (continued from § 71):— xi. with s as second consonant:
I is          f| ms (mi)        ^ ns (ui)        \ lis        I is (ii)        <= gs (gl)
xii. with k as second consonant: ^^ ek xiii. with k as second consonant.   í j« (ši) xiv. with / as second consonant:
=a mt         T\   mt (also mwt)        ^— ht        "^* st (it)
SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS
§ 83. Subject and object.—Egyptian shows no trace of case-endings, and the syntactic relations of nouns were indicated either by the word-order (§§ r 7. 66) or by the use of prepositions and the like, e.g. the use of n ' to', ' for ' to express the dative (§ 52).
64
SYNTAX OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS
§83
With the personal pronouns, the subject of narrative verbs, i.e. the nominative, is expressed by the suffixes (§ 35, 3), and the object, i.e. the accusative, by the dependent pronouns (§ 44, 1).
Obs. The use of the Latin case-names vocative, dative, etc., in reference to Egyptian is more convenient than strictly scientific. In the case of the genitive, at all events, it could hardly have been avoided.
§ 84. Verbs taking two direct objects hardly exist in Egyptian." To express the predicative adjunct found in English after verbs of ' making', ' becoming', and the like, Egyptian uses the m of predication (§ 38).
Exx. ^^ j§^»\1.&#»H 'r'tt a'' f,X* m rb&y mv P611 made me celebrated, lit. as a known one.1
^~^.^>^_®'>— rdin-f wi m hry mwl-fhe placed me as chief (or, he made me chief) over his town.2
ö^jj^iji hpr-f m ig it becomes 19.3
The same construction is found with verbs of'seeing' and 'knowing', as ^$,lk mil 'see', 'regard (as)',4 =\& sii 'recognize (as)',* and "S*^ gm ' find (as)'.'
After the verbs of ' appointing', ' making' «=■ r ' to' is apt to be used in place of m, with little, if any, difference of meaning.
Ex. ^"^V"**"^-^ rdin-f sw r r-prt hily-f he placed him as (lit. into, i.e. so as to be) prince and chieftain.7
The verb  Pj*3k^ s^" ' teacn' takes a direct object of the person and
introduces the thing taught by -=- r ' concerning '.* See Add. for § 84aS_ .      .                          _
§ 85. The genitive is of two kinds, direct and indirect."
A. The direct genitive follows the noun that governs it, immediately and without connecting link.
Exx. ^=>Iv1 imy-r pr overseer of the house, i.e. steward.
^1) ^ nb imih possessor of veneration, venerable.
2*§*?w rb hrt-ii nb-f knowing the desire of his lord.*
This form of genitive is usual wherever the connexion between governing and governed noun is particularly close, as in titles, set phrases, etc. Hence an epithet belonging to the governing word will normally follow the genitive.
Ex. J^MÜ0^,5?,™*! imy-r shlyw mnfy an efficient overseer of fowlers.10
Examples where the direct genitive is separated from its noun are of extreme rarity."
In expressions like *\ j hm-ntr ' priest', lit. ' servant of god '. °] Q n hwl-iitr 'temple', lit. 'house of god', \ZF? pr-nsw 'palace', lit. 'house of the king', í-JLI^ ■w-*ík' ' prince', lit. ' son of the king', the priority given to ' god' and ' king' is purely graphic, and due to honorific reasons; see § 57.
0 See, however, i below.
1 Urk. iv. 119. Sim. PSBA. 18, aot, I. 5.
1 Btrsh. i. 33. Sim. BH. i. .,4, j.
' Rhind 14. Sim. Peas. B 1,137; Urk. iv. 113, 11.
• Adm.l.e, ; Mem. 8. RatherdifTerently, Budge, p. 46, 14.
s Urk. iv. 1095, 1. ' Urk. iv.  1 io8, 6.
' BH. i. 15,46-7. Sim. Stbtkkhtt 14. 17 ; Peas. B ], J37; Urk. iv. 31, 9; after iV ' make', Ft. 486.
" PI- 37- 309- very rarely with two objects, Brit. Mus. 581 ; Lil. Fr. 6, l, n.
s* Combined e.g. in ihe frequent si Hr nt rnhw ' Horns-throne oftheliviny', UrkA\. 137, la zná passim.
' Brit. Mm. 6>4, t.
10 Sin. B 244. Sim. Peas. B 1, 16.
" Exit. Sine 1, i88. 301-
65
$85
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1  č/r*.iv.I.Sim.á*. 2, u ; 30, «5; 1119,2.
■ BH. i. 26, 159. See.tó.12,8; 49,95; 71,69; much material ANTMES,/OJJf«.
u Note the suppression of the fem. ending ■ !; xe/EA. 27, 44,
Ib Perhaps a demonstrative in origin, see I'SBA. 32, 322.
' Eb. 74, . 2.
' Lac. 7"a\ 2,01; 22. 92;  23, 19.
8 Sin. H 165.
•   Th. T. S. i. 30 F.
" iVaí. R 42.
•   Vrk. iv. 1S5.
" ľcas. K 35. " PI. 442.
13 Jw, H 2S7-S. Sim. ib. B 33-1; Kept. S. s.
After Dyn. XII filiation is sometimes expressed by the help of the direct genitive, ex. ^iHP^.1 j§U3k£ 'I'h-ms si 'Ibn <Ahmose, son of Yeben'.1 In Dyn. XII and earlier a peculiar inversion is frequent; 2AVGIÍSV?H^ul9 Nhry si Hnm-htp si Hnm-htpJ means ' Khnemhotpe, son of Khnemhotpe, son of Nehri', not' N., son of Kh., son of Kh.' as it would have done later; and here, as often, the determinative is absent after the two fathers' names. This mode of writing shows much variation, the word for ' son' being sometimes omitted.
The use of the suffixes after nouns with the meaning of English possessive adjectives (' my', ' thy', etc. § 35, 1) also exemplifies the direct genitive.
Obs. Coptic shows that the direct genitival relation led to loss of accent and consequent reduction of the vowel in the first of the two words, cf. Copt, nib-ii'\aid. of a house' beside neb 'lord'; yith-eloole 'vineyard' beside ydhe 'field', Eg. lkt.u The status cmstructus so formed has left no trace in hieroglyphic writing.
§ 86. B. In the indirect genitive the noun is preceded by the genitival adjective — ny ' belonging to', a derivative in -y (§ 79) from the preposition — n 'to' 'for'.2b The genitival adjective agrees in number and gender with the governing word as follows :
sing. m. — ny         plur. m ^ nyw            rare and jdual m. —^ nywy'-
f.   ~2 nyt           „    i.~2 nywt         archaisticf    „    f.   "^nyty*
The transliterations given are those demanded by strict etymology, but since these words were probably already much reduced by the M.K., there is some ground for the handier renderings m. sing. n, m. plur. nw, f. sing, and plur. nl.
At an early period the genitival adjective shows a tendency to become invariable in the form —. The dual is very rare; from M.K. on "? is often replaced by —, which may also, though far less frequently, stand for ~.
Exx. \Z.ň~~^2í nsw n Kmt, the king of Egypt.«
é?iT7Is n*wl nt "ft?' tlle c'tv of eternity.*
feá!?? J s1 wrv' nw !bdw, the great ones of Abydus.7
^IfflJJIlKSJL. r,w n sbty Pn> tne asses of this peasant.8
2|iä~&i hmwt nt wrw, the wives of the chiefs.'
When an adjective or other word intervenes between a noun and its genitive, it is the indirect genitive which is used.
Exx. jj'^J^—äM= 'nw n& nfr n s&* a" go°d produce of the country.10
^f.äx^Sž'lln imyw-rk nw rwyt thy overseers of the portal."
§^l]^»—~mfn sdiwl imf nt pr-lid valuables were in it belonging to the
treasury."                                                                                                 See Add.
OBS. For the genitival adjective as predicate, see § 114, 2 ; before idm-f and
idtn-n-f, see  §§ 191-1;  before  the  infinitive, see §305;   before  prep. + noun,  see
% 158; after adjectives, see § 95; after passive participles, see § 379, 3.
66
SYNTAX OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS
§87
§ 87. The vocative may stand at the beginning or at the end of a sentence ; more rarely it stands in the middle, but it must not interrupt a sequence of words belonging very closely together.
Exx.  HTflUfi?
^-— \  hsw,  hs tw   Hry-S-f O   praised   one,  may
Arsaphes (the god of Herakleopolis Magna) praise thee.
"%^Ht^*Ě sdm rk n'h hity-f hearken thou to me, O prince.2
S^M^fc-^to^ÄÄT+o^fflO mk **" r nh™ «■*. 4fy, hr wum-f šmr-i I will take away thy ass, peasant, because it is eating my corn.3
In ordinary parlance no introductory interjection was used ; but in religious and semi-religious texts (|j§| i, var. (|*J* is frequent for ' O', the synonym rn^ hi,5 var. rrj^A being much rarer. Exx. IjjŠJiJij i nb snd'Q lord of fear';* HjSJ-fj ť rn/iw ' O living ones';' ra^jifí|Sí|(j^ hi sš Nbsny ' O scribe Nebseny '.8
§ 88. Adverbial uses of nouns.— 1. Indications of time are often expressed by a noun used absolutely, i. e. without preposition. The normal position of such a noun is towards the end of the sentence, in the position regularly occupied by adverbs.
Exx. ÍP-A^^^^f^Ä^ šms ib-k tr n ivnn-k follow thy desire so long as thou livest, lit. time of thou-art.'
I^PÝjETTžláí^fiTi^M" *w srnh-n-(i) 'Iwmitrw rnpwt ksnt I nourished (the town of) Imiotru in troubled years.10
Very common as adverbs are ^] dt ' eternally', lit. ' eternity', and ®_; rt nb ' every day'.    Note the mathematical use of ^n sp 10 'ten times'.11
If the adverbial phrase is a date, it may begin the sentence :
Ex. fa"... $lW^_hit-sp 12... wdi hm-f year 12... His Majesty proceeded.12
2. Nouns may further be employed to qualify adjectives or adjective verbs, like the accusative of respect in Latin or the genitive in Arabic; a very common use.
Exx. PJUf spd hr sharp of face, i. e. clever.'3
1^525"° ntr-tn bur mrwt your lovable god, lit. your god sweet of love.14
T~\:f. ~Ů7"? rhn-f ihi nf ib he knew I was serviceably minded towards him, lit. that I was beneficial to him in heart.1"
§ 89. The noun with the function of a sentence.—1. This use is frequent in headings, lists and the like.
Exx. "^^p, °, ki phrt another remedy.    Title introducing a prescription.1'
^P"-' wrs I head-rest, 1.    Item in a list of goods."
ZľuľiŠŠ 'fly Nht the brewer Nakht    Written over the picture of a brewer.18
2. Not infrequently, however, such self-sufficient phrases convey comments or even narrate a fad.
Exx.   ?[*^^J| sir mir a real remedy.    Comment accompanying a spell.19
1 Peas. B I, 196. Sim. ib. R. 90; .Srn. B 156; Ui. 17; P. Pit. II16B, 6.
' Si. S. 12. Sim. Peal. B 1. 30; B 2, lW,P.A'aA. I, 2..
1 Pias. Bi, i 1-2. Sim. P.Ptt. 1116 B, '2-3.
4 Sittí 3, 1; Louvre C 166; C 177; Cairo 20538 ĹU2.
s ífi.ii.471; these particles alwaysat the beginning of the sentence.
• Cairo 30089, 7-Sim. Lac. T.R. 7, 1; 8, 1.
7 Cairo 20014. Sim. ir>. 20003, t-
' Budge, p. 467, 12.
' PI. 1S6. Sim. Ptas.Ki,n9;PSBA. 18, 202, 8 ; Hamm. »4,4-
11 CairoJoooi. Sim. Sin. U 45.
11   Rkind ib.6.
Sim.
11 Stas.no. 340. Sim. Sin. Rfi-6; J'eas. Bi. 224.
"S//.Í.8, 10. Many exx. Sin. B 48 foil.
11 Cairo 20115, * 4 ; Sim. 20040, 1 7-8.
"Berlin .4V. ii.p. 26.
" Eb. 44, 19. Sim. headings of accounts, etc. /; Bout, xviii. 2. 10. 16. 19. 33. 36.
" P.Kah.  18, 15.
'■ BH. i. 20.
»í». 2,6.    Rather differently, Wtstc. 10,
67
• BII. i. í6, "'■ Sim. Hanini, no, a; tVÍ. iv. 940, 4; ÄZ. 69, 30, 16.
■ P. Kah. 31,5.
• íl». R 6. Sim.IÍ. Ba4o;BriLMu8.6i4, li. 13.
« Ä. R 67-8. Sim-/f'ŕjŕc. 9, 15; Lac. TR. i, 1 ; 21,41; J3i
J9.
'* In Arabic known as ŕWa/ ' substilu-<ion\ /J^. 71, 56.
•See .4Z. 18, 15.
■ Louvre C 11, "• Sim. /". A'tfi. 19, 16; /VA.iv. 206.635.636.
' ta B1,84. Sim. li. R5; £AiM4l,4; 42, 4; Cr.*.iv.6,7-8.
• Leyd. V 3, 4. 8. Siin. ií. 7 ; Cairo 20105; 6V*.iv.8o, 15. See ÄZ. 29, 120.
• Sk. S. 47-Pms. B I, 84; 9, 23-» iff. i. 8,
11 Cairo 2O0y3, 5.
" />. Á'tfA. 12, 4. -Sim. Cairo 20001, 6 ; Silit I, 286.
§89                                        EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
Tl W f -°-QQ°ft' <i/ /Site/ iry/ ni another favour that was done to me.    In the midst of a narrative ; the favour is then recounted as a kind of apposition.1
If the eleven workmen are waiting here for their remuneration (?), Je^J!^ bw nb nfr all well and good, lit. everything good.'
Obs. These uses will be found recurring in the case of the nominal parts of the verb: with the infinitive § 306, and with the participles and relative forms § 390.
§ 90.  Apposition.—Words  in  apposition  may be  separated from  one another by other words.
Ex. ^^'^ön«-^®?!?] 'r ntr r iht-f, n-sw-bit Shtp-ib-Rr the god mounted up to his horizon (i. e. his tomb), the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Sehetepibrě1.3
A suffix-pronoun may be used to anticipate a noun placed in apposition after it.
Ex. How shall this land fare V^E&^T«!—?! m llmt-f> nt-r Pf m>4 without him, that beneficent god ? '
A style of apposition common to Egyptian and the Semitic languages" is found in three special cases :'
1.  to indicate the material of which a thing U made.
Ex- O^l&ItT^ !""' rš h'Ä1) wrt toge'her with the great altar of cedar, lit. together with cedar, the great altar.*
2.  with measures and numbers.
Ex. |f 5^9" hnkt, äs 2 beer, two jugs, i. e. two jugs of beer.7
3.  with indications of locality.
Ex. Ž^f J J'a Ti-wr Sbdw Abydus in the Thinite nome (province), lit. Thinite nome, Aby    j.8
Obs. For the nominal subject in apposition to a dependent pronoun, see §§ 131. 139; to the demonstrative ^a», see § 130. For the m of predication emphasizing a noun in apposition, see § 96, a.   For n Is negativing a noun in apposition, see § 247, 2.
§ 91. Co-ordination and disjunction.—1. Egyptian has no special word
for ' and'.    The co-ordination of nouns or adjectives is often effected by direct
juxtaposition.
Exx. ^S»^,1"'=^JT,<(ol ° ,1^?ff,1^ gmnl dtbw iirrt im I found figs and
grapes there.'
V=A7Will? tii-f rsy mhiy its southern and northern boundary.10
The repetition of a preposition, a suffix or an adjective may help out the
sense.
Exx. Yiľi^^ŕHT1!^ iiwttnprw-tn your offices and your houses.'1 Sm"!jÉ'5'&mÍ&*i ft'* nbt m & m n'wl a" my property in country and in
town.14
68
SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS AND  PRONOUNS
§91
Closely connected words may be coupled by means of * hr, lit ' upon'.
Ex- ľ^Tr^Ališ i( ^ &* wind and rain-'
Or else J3 ft1' ' together with' is employed, especially when the co-ordination is less close.
Ex. BlPiA^ýlZJťFiíMO »uwl hnt snwi my children and my brothers.*
2. ' Or', like ' and', may be left unexpressed.
Ex. ~3rSr3^-' ísw "^ fttyJ *& any commander or any prince.3
Here the repetition of nb assists the meaning; a repeated preposition or suffix may have the same effect, as was seen in the case of' and' above.
A special word for 'or' is T°^ r~pw, which is placed after the last of the alternatives.
Ex. J^$$Jí&.í.ljyi1iáTe m **, m sn, m knms r-ýzv as lord, as brother, or as friend.*
§ 92. Gender of nouns.—A few remarks must be added to what has been already said on this topic (§ 26).
1.  The names of foreign countries are treated syntactically as feminines, ex. ^'^»WČiT^fL K>& ft* the vile Ethiopia (Cush)'.8 The same holds good of names of towns' and, in part at least, of those of the nomes or provinces.'
2.  J1*^) ht (orig. iht) is fern, when it means ' things' or ' property', but is apt to be treated as a masc. when it means'something', 'anything', ex. •^f^.S» ft mr ' something painful'."    With the plur. the use is variable."*
3.  ^ it 'wood', 'tree' is not really a fern., the / being radical; cf. ^j^fl fit ndm ' sweet(-smelling) wood',»ITr^SkT ft ft' a high tree '.10
4.  ~ hi 'body', 'belly' is usually fern.,11 but instances occur where it is treated as masc."
VOCABULARY
Vár*enter-
^P513^  wstn  var.  \A      A wstn
stride. v>—-W    ni}t   be   mighty,   victorious;
mighty (adj.). p*§ sns worship.
^?ty var. ŽĽĹ Šsp receive, take.
st (earlier //) shoot, throw, pour.
-^ ij dwi adore (in the morning). mwt mother.
1 var* $P4IjÉ ms chiId*
,   4w mountain.
* Weste. 1 r, 14. Sim. Ä«/4. 17; Utk. iv. 659, 16.
« Sk. S. 138. Síni. Peas. B i, 94; Sitt, B 84; Sinti, 304.
1 Ktpt.%, 9.   Sim.
Cairo   30040,  9-15 ; Eb. 99, 3-3.
« Pt. 379. Sim. Eb. 6, Mi a4,3; 93,&-7-After each of two alternatives, Eb. 39, >7-
•  Bff.i.S, 10. Sim. Sin. R 55; L'ri. iv. 697, 9-
*  Cairo 30025, is-I3;íi«/4,i3-4^6>i. iv. 689, 10. 15.
' Sinti, 151; Brit. Mos. 1103; but m. see BH. i. 8, 30.
• Sh. S. 134; P. Turin 133, 9. Sim. Atn, Sin. h 315. See too Eb. 42, 18; 107,
JO.
"P.Ram. IVidi; Hearst 6,2 contrasted with Eb. 1, zo; 47, 9. ■ Urk. iv. 719, 3. » Si. S. 156. " Eb. 36, 6.15. » EÍ.&, 8; 41,14. See too   Verbum  ii. I 14» 3*4-
69
Vocab.                                         EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
jn * P'ace'                                           P l\\Řvar. P l\^shiWremem
voice,
\^p<= «f/ oblations, offerings.
® '^1$l varr. 1%,—=^ra voice,            .       „          '   . -
Ä'           ÍJŕ                                   ->—J varr. ^jfl, <= *,r true, real,
sound.                                              *=éu=          —o
(det. also   n ;  abbrev. ^ var. ^  aÄe/  (for wdhw,                   H) ^ doon
§ 19, Oes. 2) table of offerings.       sq.     , , ,     iqq .     ,. , 0 >   . ^_ '                          s           ^(v£V| »w«/ (also jř^ tmntf §81) the
\IP lk var' 1 "S-^ ^ evil- wronš-                   West.
doing.                                              ~k^2 *£■''netherworld.
=Ú\77\ iiw food                              }SJ * eternity, everlasting.
UQ ^ £rt praise, favour (noun).              ©   ýr with, before, (speak) to.
1 For the reading see ^ÍZ. 46, 107.
EXERCISE   VII
(a) Study the following funerary wishes from a  Theban nobles tomb {Dyn. XVIII)1:
&T        S3       W    eW      ~

í;//y-r (§ 79)        /r             íí         'Imn-m-hit         mir-hrw                       tk-k
O overseer     of the house,     scribe     Amenemhět,      true of voice )                 Mayst thou
or justified ) see '-'í-       enter (and)
/r-yč        í«       '/>»«/         íw/«-£        hr         sbi       n         dwit               dwi-k
go forth   from   the West,   mayst thou   through  the door   of the netherworld,       mayst stride                                                               thou adore
?á >J7- *   r   ni- \\ t*~ \ -a
Rě<    (when) he rises       in     the mountain,    mayst thou   him   (when) he sets   in      the
worship                                      horizon,
S    Aim á- T =ůXT< ?A.--    ä
íí/-/é              iwt        htpk         hr            šbw        hr wdhw    n      nb           41
mayst thou  oblations  (and) be because of      food     (from)   the       of the lord       (of) receive                    satisfied                                upon   altar                        eternity.2
1 Adapted from Th. T. S. i. J7.
1 The ' lord of eternity' it Osiris, the god of the dead.   A large part of the temple offerings was passed on for use in private tomb-chapels 'after', as the texts say, 'the god had been satisfied therewith'.
70
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR                                         Exerc. VII
(b)   Transliterate and translate:
MMMřr,   m mnJE-^Ml,lŘM,P" Ul®  o» WniHM^^ftólM^MP^
71»-  wí!MUXVkai
(c)   Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration :
(1) I am (one) good of counsels in the house of his lord. (2) Mayst thou hearken, O sovereign my lord, to this (the) daughter of thy handmaid. (3) The overseer of the city found his brothers and sisters at (hr) the door of the palace. (4) My praises reached heaven. (5) The wife of the priest went down into the boat.    (6)   Thy hands are mightier than (those of) all  the  gods  of Egypt.
(7)   The  gods  are  satisfied  when  they receive  oblations  upon  their  altars.
(8)   May I hear thy counsels every day.    (9) He sees the gods in their beautiful places of the West.
EXCURSUS   A
The Titulary and other Designations of the King.1
The student now possesses the knowledge of Egyptian writing and grammar requisite to decipher the royal names and titles occurring on innumerable monument: of =tonc. The 'titulary ' (~^J°f^, nhbl)1 consisted of five 'gre->t names' (^^» rn wr),s which were assumed by the Pharaoh on the day of his accession. We have not here to study the gradual development of the titulary; it will answer our purpose to illustrate it in the forms in which it occurs in Middle Egyptian.    The following is the full titulary of Sesostris I (Dyn. XII):
S.ÝIIli-MlÝlll>^íí(UEl¥Q]!^)AÝl!li<l® «1 Vr rnh mswt, nbty r*ý mswt, Hr now fn/i mswt, n-sw-bit ffpr-ki-Rr, si & S-n- Wsrt, di mk ddt wis mi J?r dt Horus ' Lifé-of-births', Two Ladies ' Life-of-Births', Horus of gold ' Life-of-Births', King of Upper and Lower Egypt ' Kheperkerěc' ['the ka of Re< comes into being'], Son of Rě< 'Sesostris' ['man of (the goddess) Wosret'],4 (may he be) granted life, stability and wealth like Rě"< eternally.^1
1 See H. Möller, Die formale Entivick-lung.ier Tituiaturder ägyptischen Könige, Gliickstadt, i 938; A. Moret, Du caracúre reUgicuxdelat royauti pharaoniaue; Paris. 190a, ch. 1.
2 ř>*.iv.8o>ii;i6o, 11 ;Br. T^j. 1077,19.
*   Vrk. iv. 361, 3. 14-17; Br. T/tes. 1077, i9.
*  The name S-n-Wsrt belonging to three kings of Dyn. XII was formerly read IVsrtsn (Usertesent, whereby its identity with the Sesostris of Manetho see p. 76,11. 1) was obscured. See Vttt.2,1-14; JiZ. 41, 43-
ľ!
Excurs. A
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Sinai 196; after t!ie first cartouche is 3 ion gstring of epithets not belonging to the tnroe. Both the titu-1 .i! ies quoted conclude with epithets not belonging to the names {' may he be granted tile*, etc. and ' beloved of llathor', etc.;. These are so typical that it seemed advisable   to    retain
1 Seas.   pp.   a I—2 ;
* On these symbols sce/£A. 30, 50-1.
' AZ. 34, »67.
A titulary of Tuthmosis III (Dvn. XVIII) from Sinai is similar in form :
Sto—KTS^IUÍ?2V^IÁ?W!Ž«(iii)V0CaS(H?w^:\^
Hr kí nhí h' m Wisl, nbly wih nsyt mi R' m pt, Hr nbw sifm pkty äsr h'w, n-sw-bit Mn-hpr-Rr, si R' Dhwly-ms-nfr-ffpr^w), mry Hthr nbt mfkit Horus ' Strong-bull-arising-in-Thebes', Two Ladies ' Enduring-of-kingship-like-Rě<-in-heaven', Horus of gold ' Powerful-of-strength, holy-of-diadems', King of Upper and Lower Egypt ' Menkheperrě'' [' the form of Rě< remains (?)'], Son of Rě<, ' Tuthmosis [' Thoth is born'] beautiful-of-forms', beloved of Hathor, lady of the turquoise.1
The comparison of these two titularies discloses five elements common to both; these common elements are followed by names that are variable in the case of every king. The underlying idea is that the king, while being the re-incarnation of Horus, or protected by the goddesses called the Two Ladies, or appearing as the golden Horus, reveals his individuality by exhibiting the divine nature under some aspect peculiar to himself; thus Sesostris I is the Horus who infuses life into all who are born, Tuthmosis III is the golden Horus who is powerful of strength and whose diadems are holy. Similarly, the names in the two ' cartouches' or ' royal rings' describe the nature of the king in his capacity of' King of Upper and Lower Egypt' and of' Son of Rě<' respectively. Whereas an Englishman distinguishes two different kinds of name, Christian and family name, the Egyptian kings distinguished five, which we term the Horus name, the nebty name, the golden Horus name, the prenomen and the nomen. These we shall now consider in turn.
1. The Horus name, less suitably called banner-name or io-name, represents the king as the earthly embodiment of the old falcon-god Horus, who early became the dynastic god of Egypt, and as such was identified with the sun-god Rg', himself also at some very early period the dynastic god. This name is frequently written within a rectangular frame, at the bottom of which is seen a design of recessed panelling such as we find in the facades of early brick tombs and in the false doors of Old Kingdom mastabas; * on the top of the rectangular frame is perched the falcon of Horus, in more elaborate Dyn, XVIII examples crowned and accompanied by sun and uraeus ;M see the annexed figure. It is not quite certain whether the building symbolized by the rectangle and facade (together termed the fXB srS)' was *e king's palace or his tomb. The former alternative is the more probable, since in the oldest times the Horus name was the commonest designation of the king, and it is unlikely that a purely sepulchral name should have been chosen for the purpose. Still, its associations with the ka or ' spirit' came to be very close. On the whole, we may conclude that the Horus name denotes the aspect of Horus worn by the king whilst dwelling in the palace.
72
THE  TITULARY  OF  THE  KING
Excurs. A
2.   The nebty name, so called because the probable reading of the group ^ is nbty 'the two ladies',1 displays the king as standing in a special relation to the two principal goddesses of the period immediately preceding Dyn. I, when Egypt was still divided into two kingdoms; these were the vulture-goddess }J2Ä Nfjbt Nekhbet of the Upper Egyptian city of El-Káb and the cobra-goddess J=£ Widt Edjö1* of the Lower Egyptian city of [fg Dp; these cities were in the close vicinity of the early capitals of % Nhn Hieraconpolis and £ P Pe respectively, and it is to this reason that the two goddesses owed their prominence. Probably Menes, the founder of Dyn. I, was the first to assume the nebty title, symbolizing thereby the fact that he had united the two kingdoms.* The Greek interpretation mip«>5/3a<riXeiow 'lord of crowns' is probably secondary; doubtless protection by the goddesses was in the mind of the Egyptians, not merely ownership of the crowns with which the goddesses were identified.
3.   The golden Horus name is more disputed. Some high authorities3 have supposed, on the strength of the Greek equivalent ô.vrnrá\mv {nripnpos 'superior to (his) foes' on the Rosetta stone, that the monogram fa symbolized Horus as victorious over p=ij Nbl(y) 'the Ombite', i.e. the god Seth who was worshipped at Ombos near the modern Kůs.' This was, no doubt, the interpretation of Greek times, but the evidence of the earlier periods points in another direction. In a context dealing with the titulary of Tuthmosis III that king says ' he (Amün) modelled me as a falcon of gold' (J l}53'^—ffí bii n nbw),' and Hashepsowe calls herself'the female Horus of fine gold' (^""Iff] Hrt nt dfm)\" the concept of the golden falcon can be definitely traced back to Dyn. XI,7 and an inscription of Dyn. XII describes the golden Horus name as the 'name of gold' (^—r=i m n nbw)? King Cheops (Dyn. IV) and king Merenrě« (Dyn. VI) have the title ^ with two falcons over the ' gold' sign; but the two falcons are normally a circumlocution for the reconciled enemy-gods Horus and Seth, so that, on the hypothesis here combated, Horus and Seth would both seem to be indicated as vanquishers of Seth. Lastly, the names following the group ^ are far from being always of a bellicose character. There seems but little doubt that this group meant' Horus of gold' except perhaps in the very latest periods ; * but exactly what god was intended is a problem still unsolved.
4. The prenomen is the name which follows the title ]& n-sw-bit ' he who belongs to the sedge and the bee'; the plant ^\ swt symbolizing Upper Egypt is supposed to be identical with the flowering scirpus-reed or sedge, Egyptian ^ Smr, a common emblem of Upper Egypt;10 the exact connexion of the bee with Lower Egypt is still obscure. In effect the title means ' king of Upper and Lower Egypt', and the Rosetta stone translates it by /Sao-iXti? rS>v re ávm rau TÜv Kara \<apôiv.    The prenomen itself is almost always compounded with the
1 Rcc.    17,      113 ; PSBA. 20, 200.
u Commonly called Buto, sec above p. 33, n. J; also JE A. 30,
55-
1 See Unl. 3, 13 ; also Ann. 44, 3 79 IT.
* H. Brugsch, Die Atgyplologit (Leipzig 1897), 202 ; Sethe, in J. Garstano, Ma-háínaanJBHKhalläf (London, 1902), 19.
' We mast carefully distinguish between this Ombos, which is that mentioned by Juvenal in his fifteenth Satire, and the other, the present Kôm Ombo, some 25 miles norlhof Aswan, where there is a much visited temple dating from Graeco-Roman times.
1 Vrt. iv. 161.
' Uri. iv. 137.
' Lac. TS. 55, 5.
*Btň.A/,i. p. 138.
»SoMoret, apxii. p. 22, quoting his earlier work Rec. 23, 23 ; Thierry, op. cit. 66-83.Fnrtlier discussion, Mitt. Kairo, 4, 9ff.
19 GRIFFITH.ViVŕ™-
giyphs, p. 29. rCeimer agrees, however, that the sign is too schematically shown to be identifiable with any particular species.
73
Excurs. A
EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR
0  Ranke (JAOS 70, 65) has made it probable that the divine name Kě< waa originally read before -if-/, in which case the Herodotean Chephren would be due to later misinterpretation.
1   Examples showing the rope as such ire rare, even in quite early times. That bexeillustratcdisfrom Cairo 1558, a relief dating from the reign 01 Saliuiě« (Dyn. V).
•^•35.4; Qui-ttLL, Hierakonpchs (l.onďon, 1900), i. 38.
1 AZ. 34, 167.
* Sin. B 113; Urk. [v. 83, 13; 103, 11 ; 383, 16. A less plaas-ible explanation Bull. n, I41.
■ AZ. 43, 158.
■ 7or4«<irii.79,11; Mab., Kam. 34, vj.
' llamm:\l, i.
■ Urk. ít. 158, 10.
• Urk. iv. lot, I. " Ír». B 336. 11 Wtití. 5, 3. 3.
name of the god Rě< ; typical examples are (®]5ip Shlp-ib-Rf ' propitiating the heart of Re<' (Ammenemes 1), (s^^J Nb-mift-R' ' lord of truth is Rě< (Amenophis III); one of the first cases of Rě< as an element in a king's name is with (o^J R'-hc-f Chephren of Dyn. IV, and the instances without Rě< all date before Dyn. IX. The prenomen and nomen are invariably written within 'cartouches' (this French word means an ornamented tablet of stone, wood, or metal destined to receive an inscription) or ' royal rings'. The cartouche depicts a loop formed by a double thickness of rope, the ends tied together so as to offer to the spectator the appearance of a straight line;' strictly speaking tjie loop should be round, as it is in one or two very early examples,2 but becomes elongated and oval because of the length of most hieroglyphic names enclosed in it. The Egyptians called the cartouche XčUQ šmv* from a verb-stem Sid 'encircle', and it seems not unlikely that the idea was to represent the king as ruler of all ' that which is encircled by the sun', a frequently expressed notion.4 Another name of the cartouche, not found before Dyn. XIX, is ™q mn!.s
5. The nomen is introduced by the epithet ^ si Rf ' son of (the sun-god) Re«'. The name in the cartouche was, as a rule, that borne by the king before his accession to the throne; it is almost the equivalent of our family name, for Dyn. XI affects the nomina \"~_ In-t-f Antef and ™*fíô Mntw-litp Menthotpe, Dyn. XII the nomina l)™^,-^1 'Imn-m-hit Ammenemes and 'jP*^"~ S-n-Wsrt Sesostris; Dyn. XIII shows several kings of the name sa. ^5 Sbk-htp Sebkhotpe and Dyn. XVIII consists almost entirely of rulers named H™^ö 'Imn-htp Amenophis and 3j*jf|P jphwty-ms Tuthmosis. The first Egyptian kings to distinguish a nomen and a prenomen were those of Dyn. V.
In the period covered by this book the five names of the titulary have a rigidly fixed order. The principal name is the prenomen, and this is often found alone or accompanied only by the nomen. Only very rarely does the Horus name serve for identification purposes, ex. 5^^P(I Hr H'-m-mľt ' Horus Appearing-in-truth', i.e. Amenophis III.'
To introduce the king's name the phrase J J_ km n is often found; this we translate 'the Majesty of, but the origin of the expression is obscure. One example will suffice:
N-mfit-Rt, si Rf, 'Imn-m-hit year 19 under the Majesty of the good god, lord of the two lands Nema<rě<. son of Rě<, Ammenemes (III).'
As speaker the king often refers to himself as J^ hm-'i ' My Majesty',8 var. jig hm-i;3 he is addressed as j«^ Am-i" 'Thy Majesty', var. ji^;n the 3rd
74
DESIGNATIONS OF THE KING
Excurs. A
pers. \^__ hm-f 'His Majesty',1 var. J1^*— * is also exceedingly common. The word km also occurs in the stilted phrase ^!_L,£jín m hm n stp-si 'in the Majesty of the palace '.3 The plural J j j ~ hmw-tn is found addressed to gods or even to honoured men (' your worships');4 Hashepsowe, who styled herself king, though a woman, employs the feminine form j^^5| hmii.5 The translation of hm as ' Majesty' is a mere makeshift; the precise meaning of the Egyptian word thus used is unknown, though a word of similar appearance means ' slave '.sa
The ordinary word for king is \^,, ^at$ tisw (§ 54); far less common is Will *ty> var- íáí-^>6 which we conventionally translate 'sovereign'; another fairly common appellation is ^g n^> ' 'he Lord'.' We cannot here discuss other epithets of the king, such as °jj ntr nfr 'the good god' (perhaps rather ' the beautiful god'), *=?~ nb trwy ' the lord of the two lands', J^-fl-rn &r "6 f h ' Horus, lord of the castle'; for nb-r-dr see § 100, 1. As regards the term Pharaoh (Hebrew nips, Greek $>apaá, Coptic nppo: noirpo),8 the facts are as follows.9 The Egyptian original ^ Py-ri 'Great House' was used in the Old Kingdom as part of many phrases like smr Pr-n ' courtier of the Great House', and clearly there referred to the palace itself or to the court, and not to the person of the king. From the end of Dyn. XII onwards the term is written ^Z^ÝIP Pr-ri ruh wdi snb 'Great House, may it live, prosper, be in health' with the auspicious wish-formula discussed §§ 55. 313; but still it seems to mean only the palace. The earliest certain instance where Pr-'i refers actually to the king is in a letter to Amenophis IV (Akhenaten), which is addressed to ~ ^U^=7 Pr-ri <nh wdi snb nb ' Pharaoh, 1. p. h., the Master '.I0 From Dyn. XIX onward it is used occasionally just as hm-f' His Majesty' might be used ; we read ' Pharaoh went forth ', ' Pharaoh said', etc. In other words the term has become a respectful designation for the king, just as the head of the Ottoman government was termed the Sublime Porte. The final development was when a proper name was added to the title, as in the ' Pharaoh Hophra' of the Old Testament; the earliest Egyptian example of this use is under one of the Shoshenks of-Dyn. XXII.
In conclusion, a few words must be said concerning the way in which the royal names may be best represented in English. The Horus name, nebty name, and golden Horus names ought perhaps to be translated; so far as that is possible, at least, for the epithets employed as names are often very obscure in their meaning. The prenomen and nomen, on the contrary, must be left in their Egyptian forms, for to replace {e-g) ' king Tuthmosis' by ' king Thoth-is-born' would be obviously absurd. The question now arises as to how such names as Qhwty-ms should be vocalized, for only in the rarest cases do we know how an old Egyptian name was really pronounced. The practice followed by a number of writers, to whom the author of the present work belongs, is to utilize the names
1 Hamm. 193, 3. * Weste.&, r. 3. 13.
■  See Gaud. Sin. p. S3.
' AZ.41, 89; Tar-khan i. 79, 5.
■   Urk. iv. 363, 6.
5' Recent discussions: AZ. 75, 112 ; JĚA. 29, 79.
• fl.JlS». S. 173; Urk. iv. 15, 9.
7 P.Boitl.i.s\\\,i,\i; Urk. iv. 1093, 14; HI!, 13-
' AZ. 53, 130. ' PSBA. 13, 72.
10 P. Aai. 38, 17. However, Ann. pi. 93> 5 probably diues fioni Tuthmosis III, see Hi. p. 160; cf. also Brit. Mus. I48 {Hier. Texts vii, pi. 43), Tuthmosis IV.
75
Excurs. A                                         EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR
1 Manetho was an Egyptian priest coo-temporary with the first two Ptolemies, who wrote an Egyptian history in three hooks. Only excerpts remain, which are preserved in the works of Josephus, Afričanu» and Ensebins. See Waddell, Marutho (Loeb Classical Library), London, 1940.
given by the historian of Egypt Manetho (first half of the 3rd cent, b.c.),1 so far as the forms handed down by the excerptors of Manetho are fairly recognizable as transcriptions of the hieroglyphic writing; so, for example, Tuthmosis for ghwty-ms, Sesostris for S-n-Wsrt, and so on. When, however, the Manethonian form is either absent or barely recognizable as an equivalent of the hieroglyphs, a guessed transcription will be found preferable, for example ftáremhab for Hr-nt-hb, where Manetho gives Harmais. We shall deal further with such guessed transcriptions in Appendix B at the end of this book. Here we need only warn the student against one specially barbarous transcription of a royal name; Thothmes is still used for the Manethonian Tuthmosis by many Egyptologists who ought to know better.
For the various names of the Egyptian kings see H. Gauthier, Le Livre des rois ď Egypte, 5 vols., Cairo 1907-17, in Mémoires . . . de ľ institut francais ď archeologie Orientale. In English there is the smaller work, E. A. W. Budge, The Book of the Kings of Egypt, 2 vols., London, 1908.
1 Siut 1, 337. 1 Siut i, I??. Sim. liiiln tti, id.  1, 8.
1 Suti i, 315. ■ Eb.   70, 4.    Cf. r-wtty nt, BH.  i. , lot, qu. § 137.
LESSON   VIII
§ 93. Biliteral signs (continued from § 82) :— xv. with d as second consonant:
xvi. with 4 as second consonant:
== '4 (later 'd)           | wd (later wd,~\)                 "f" ti4
I 4d (later dd).
H
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES
§ 94 The sentence with adjectival predicate will be treated fully below in Lesson XII.
For the adjective as epithet, see above § 48, 1, where it was seen to follow its noun and agree with it in number and gender. It remains to be noted that such an adjective may on occasion be separated from its noun by a genitive or by an adverb.
Exx. Jm.^TT^STiTMWK?"!® sa>¥ nt R-krrt &rt imt Snut his holy places of Rokereret which are in Siůt1
3íä11^'C7 we *m n^ ea-c^1 one thereof.3
Occasionally, however, epithet and noun adhere so closely together that they are treated as a compound. Exx. J^i 1 if" t-hdsn ' their white bread';4 TXtiPiTi gs-brysn 'their upper side'.5
76
SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES                                §94
1 Lac. San. i. p, 46. Sim. Btrsh. i. ■4>4-7; VrkM.^i, 8; 654, 14.
Two much rarer methods of expressing the adjective as epithet now call for description :
1.   The adjective is used as a noun and the qualified noun follows as an indirect genitive.
Ex. I^1?^.}!—ÄNi'ÄÔ hwrw n rhty a wretched washerman, lit. a wretch of a washerman.'                                                                                                              ' *?• ,?'■   "«»■
Sim.   tb.   175;    heil.
OBS. See below §262, 1 for we »'one','a'; the construction of tin «, hi n    AI. i. p. 161, 3. ' these '(fin) is also comparable, as well as nhy n ' a few',' a little', and hli n' many' (§ 99)-
2.   The adjective follows its noun as an indirect genitive.
Ex. "7°—«=>J^>—J ' « tbwt n hd a pair of white sandals, lit. of sandals of white.1
Obs. Here again the adjective is used as a noun.    For a similar construction with noun clauses, see below § 191.
§ 95. It has been seen (§ 88, 2) that nouns may be used, like the accusative of respect in Latin, to qualify adjectives. The indirect genitive is sometimes employed similarly, when a suffix-pronoun follows the noun in question.
Exx. [Pfáls—\\\"— s* lhr " dbfw-f a scribe excellent with (lit. of) his fingers.3
Twenty women J^J^.^JTlViPiTi m n/rwt nt h'wsn who are beautiful of body, lit. as beautiful ones of their members.4
In the masculine instances it is not quite certain that n is the genitival adjective. It might be the preposition «; for a similar ambiguity see I 379, 3 below.
§ 96. The emphatic and the emphasized adjective. 1. It happens not seldom that an adjective bears an emphasis such as to make the meaning of the whole sentence dependent upon it.
"W*~ ir U in m st ksnt, sn-nw fiw n nb-f
3 Adm. p. 104. Sim. below S 144, 4.
' PI. 319. Sim. Peas. B 1, 384, qu. 5 "48, 3-
1 Cairo 20538, ii. ' 9-
' Sh.S. 188.  Other exx. Ktc. 38, aio.
1 Wistc. 5, 10.
Exx. 1«=»?iLlíil.&j!ln'!TíVo'á?~?''— 'r M in m st ksnt, sn-nw pw 11 nb-f as for a heart (which is) brave in evil case, it is the equal of its lord.5
lä^fl^H—PVíSíä-^"*^ wr twl n sfw r "& greater is the claim of the mild man than (that of) the strong.'
^^^= dd-i wrt I speak a (thing that is) important.7
2. As the above renderings show, the emphasis of the adjective often requires to be brought out in English by a relative clause ('which is', 'that is'). Egyptian occasionally utilizes the m of predication (§ 38) with the same intention ; the adjective then ceases to be a mere epithet, and is employed as a noun.
Exx. Seek out for me ^ á~l&Pól^ á $■,$-!& 1Jh| sitn m sii, sn-tn m ikr a son of yours who is (lit. as) wise, a brother of yours who is (lit. as) excellent.8
■°-.11-^^^ iryi m wrt I will do (something) which is (lit. as) great.9
' P.Ptt. 1116 B, 6. Sim.    Wesu.   5, <!«■ 59S;  JEA. PI. 8, 7-8;   Vrt. 814, 17-
• Urk. iv. 350.
10
iv.
77
§96
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Cairo 30026. Sim. Berth, i. 14, a.
1 Peas. B1, 53.88. Sim. Wtstc. 9, 7. See too ÄZ. 55, 65.
*   Urk. ir. 410.
A BH. L 32. Sim. t.4. 36, 15s (iíwy «^; I.AC. 771\ 8o,a8; also aV«/ 1, 334 {spa ivn itfiy ntrw); cf. further Crk. iv. 893, 16 (nty • ■ instead of tiny).
*  Cairo %oi$q\BH. <- '5. 54-
*   Bersk. Í. 14, 1.
7 Cx./Voj.B a, 13a.
1 Wri. iv. 68. Sim. ib. 495, 14; 557,3.
It is not possible to distinguish between w + adj. used as noun and the case where m + a real noun is employed as a kind of emphasized apposition.
Ex.  IMWTVUánWi.....ľT^-L  i '"b™ tpyw  t,,  m  hmwntr
hmwt-ntr.....nw r-prpn O ye who live upon earth, such as are (lit. as) priests
and priestesses.....of this temple.1
Obs. We shall find similar uses in connexion with the relative adjective (§ 199, end) and the participles (§ 393).
§ 97. Comparative and superlative.—The Egyptian adjective has no special forms for the degrees of comparison. The preposition ■=» r is used, as we have seen (§ 50), to render the meaning of the comparative.
The meaning of the superlative may be conveyed by a genitive.
Exx. ^^—^^,ft, wr n Wr"u> greatest of the great.2
^,i»5>>^~«=-^_»— ink wr wrw m ti r 4rf I was greatest of the great in the entire land.3
Or else by means of \\%^ imy (§ 80).
Ex. ^I-J-^ÍhJ wr *my s'hw greatest of (lit. being in) the nobles.4
The repetition of a suffix may help to indicate superlative meaning.
Ex. ^ *■—15)"—- si-f smsw-f\ús eldest son, lit. his son his eldest.5
For 'very' ^ wrl 'greatly' (§ 205, 4) is of common occurrence.
Ex. "flj^i|% Hi wrl very difficult."
The common phrase -=-f rTi? r & n^ ' more than anything'T conveys much the same sense.    So too wr ' one ', ' alone':
Ex. ^(]^,| wr ikr alone excellent, i.e. uniquely excellent.9
• Adm. p. roo; Urk. iv. 85. 103.
11 Urk. iv. 320, 17; 31a, 14; 331, 13.
11 PS B A. 18, 301, 1. S.
'»  Urk. i. 78, 5.
" See ÄZ. 40, 92.
!s Urk. iv. 1109.
" Si. 31, 17.
,: Urk. iv. roa.
'» Peas. Bt. 30.
" Peas. B 1, 46.
80 Urk. iv. 30, 11 ; 1089, 11. Without det., il>. 736» 13-
EQUIVALENTS OF ENGLISH ADJECTIVES,  ETC.
§ 98. The word for ' other' has an ending i, doubtless dual in origin: sing. m. ^»!j!j ky {kit)       plur. m. *^$ kywy [Múry),' varr. fj^,1" pT," f* u „    f. ^ kt (kitt)             „     f. "2* kt {kiti), only known from Old Eg.»
The transliterations in brackets give the correct etymological values.14    Ky is no true adjective, but a noun to which another may be added in apposition. Exx. >=»(|I]Ü9 ky sp another time, lit. another, a time." "ľ 2°. ľ 1 kt Pkrt another remedy."
TMi^JľJIMí h"? nsy">other kings."
A suffix may be attached to the word for ' other': k^. kty-fwit its other side.18
' kt are frequently used as nouns; for the plural ' others ' the phrase "f •*] *, kt-kt™ var. ^T?ft4 kt-hy™ lit. ' other things', is common.
Ex. ~\\ *=A, \ ky and
78
EQUIVALENTS  OF  ENGLISH   ADJECTIVES,  ETC. ' One'.....' other' is expressed by -^ wr.....•=»§![ ky:
Ex. (H>-f\^i§i«—liTJLríTJĽ05 '*" Wlt'f wrt -r mw> ^ -r %t 'ts one s"*e
was under water, the other under corn.1
Or else by ^-\\ ky.....**\\ ky:
Ex- IJÜO—^"ll^ll A^ŕ» ky ky one embraced the other.2
Or else by ^7 wr ' one'....., «— su-nw-f' his second':
Ex. ^^1«—*2 [,'»— wr dd-fhft sn-nw-f one. said to (lit. before) the other.3
Or else is merely implied :
Ex. SMľr-£1 rdi'n w* hlst » h>d land gave me to land.4
§ 99. ' Many',' few', * a little '.—For these notions % hh ' million' (§ 259) and nÍ3r.M 1 nhy 'a little' are often used with the indirect genitive.
Exx. $—^ hh n sp many times, or often.5
raSL ľ 1—toft1? nfy n rmí a ^ew men-°
Tď^m —I>^°1m , nhy n hm,t a little saIt-7
§ 100. For ' entire', 'complete', 'whole' several phrases are used.
1.   -c.^— r dr-f, lit. 'to its end'. Exx. ~_2_-=JL»— '' Pn r ir'f ' tn's entire land';! l$j=»_5>- msr r 4r-f' the entire army';ä ^^"P^'^.P dr-n-f s(y) r dr-s ' he had subdued the whole of it';10 also without suffix, \\—il*7i<=-^. "" " /</ r dr 'all these things'.11 Note too the phrase 2JLá "6-r-dr lord of the universe', lit. ' lord to the end', a title given to the sun-god " or the king;13 so too nbt-r-dr is an epithet of the queen.14
2.   £ijl2;«— mi id/, lit. 'like its form'. Ex. *71Qn£1i2lP wnwt (lult-nír mi kd-s ' the entire priesthood of the temple'.15   A rarer synonym is 2^ J^ mi ki-f.l!"-
3.  -=y*^^ r mi-f' according to its length'. Exx. ^^.©-=/*i«— hrw r iw-f 'the entire day'; " "^ill0',*,-^^"— ti hnyt r iw-s ' the entire navy';17 without suffix l-l-™-=/?iľTi—fit 1 nn r rw n rnpwt'all these years'.18
§ 101. ' Each', * every', of time, is rendered by the noun ^o^1)^ tnw ' number', later ,^.=^^1] tnw, followed by a direct genitive in the singular. Exx. -=-UŽ^lVf? r tnw rnpt every year, lit. at every year.1' —°^1V4 *]^© tnw dwrw every morning.M
§ 102. ^ s ' man' is common for ' Someone *, ' anyone'; also, combined with a negative word, for ' no one'.
Exx. 1*^1^^ ifl if h>'k s if thou examine someone.21
^sSy—J[ nn wn ib n s no one has a heart, lit. not is a heart to a man.22
§ 103. For ' everyone', ' everybody' J"^ j nô ' every man'23 is the most usual expression ; but J^^ft1? &u> "i< lit- ' every place',24 and ^ft^ hr nô, lit. ' every face ',25 are also frequent.
79
[98
• Pias. R 46.    Sim Urk. iv. 744, 4-6.
1 Urk. v. 48. Sim. BH. i. a6, 165 ; Pias. B 1,153.
• Urk. iv. 36. Also exceptionally wr . . . nit, Westc. 8, 3 3.
4 Sin. B 38-9. Sim. BH. \. 35,40-1 ; Sem-nah Disp. 3, 8; Urk. iv. 652, 10.
» Eb. 30, 17 ; Urk. iv. 1091, 8.
* Adm. 7, 3. Sim. P. P ' IIIÖB, 7.
' Peas. B 1, 48. Sim. Pr. 1, 6.
' Westc. 9, I I ; P. Pet. 1116B, 1.
■ Kept. 8, 3 ;   urk. iv. 655, 16. » Sin. Bin. 11 Siut I, 369. 11 Urk. v.  51. 64. 73; Hearst 6, 7.
" Mi/1.2; Adm. 15, '3-" Sin. B 173. 374. " Kept. 8, 3.   Sim. Siut 1, 151.
IS» Peas. B  I, 41 ; Westc. 6, 14. "PI. 380. 38a. ľ Urk. iv. 6. 18 Adm. 13, 3.
'• BH.i.B,ll; Urk. iv. 55. 70. 719. 10 Urk. iv. 117.
'■ £i. 38, 3.
» Zel. 131.
" Sk. S. 6 i Lei. na. 119.
» Sial 3, 3. S ; Pr. I, 13; lei. 107. m.
» Adm. 6, 3 j Urk. iv. 17,10.
§103
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Parenthetically like quisqut after a planí, Urk. iv. 752, 14; .££.69,31, 19. * Siut 1,277. a88; Vrk.vt. 747, 17.	
1 After    negative, P. Kah, 5, 58;   Eb. 109, 2.	
* Eb. 41, 18; 2: 107, 12. 20.	104,
s   After   negative, Eb. 37, 13; no, 3.	
M See GUNN, A«, ch. 25.	-SVm-
• See Gönn, diet, ch. 10.	Stu-
'  Urk.   to.  65O, 3, í 49", a.
' A different formulation of the same stmdpoint in Gľnn, Sirntits. ch. 36.
' See GoNN, J/a-•r;>.-, chs. 11—13.
1 Brit Mus. 137a.
11 BH. i. 8, 10-11.
■« Kofi. 8, 8. " PI- 13. ■' Si». B 58.
'Each one', 'each' is also represented by í no;1 but ^;o wf nb 'every one'2 is equally common.
'Everything', 'anything' is f^T ht nit, lit. 'all things';» *^",ht alone is also used for 'something',* 'anything',5 see above §92, 2.
NEGATION § 104. Egyptian is. rich in negative words, each of which possesses its own peculiar syntactic uses.    For the moment we are concerned only with the
commonest of these, which appears in two forms, 2Z, tin and -*- ». Old Egyptian did not make the distinction and Dyn. XI still often uses -*- for ZZ,* For ZZ religious texts show the variants ~ and ~, seeming to point to the reading nn.' In a few texts -- interchanges with the particle J_, so that their phonetic values must have been very similar; -*- is also sometimes written as —, and the preposition — « ' to' has -^- as a common variant (§ 164). Late Egyptian writes J in for ZZ "". and al1 instance occurs already in Dyn. XVIII.7
The distinction between ZZ ntt and -*- n is rather obscure;  possibly ~**
is always a predicate 'not is.....', ' it is not (the case that).....', while ->- is
more closely linked to the word which it precedes and qualifies; cf. ov and /xt) in Greek.8 In carelessly written texts the two are apt to be confused, especially after the middle of Dyn. XVIII.    See further below § 235.
Obs. The replacement of the sign of negation by — in some MSS. of the Book of the Dead is clearly due to superstitious reasons.
§ 105. Negation of the narrative verb.—The negative word precedes the verb, and specializes its meaning in a strange way.'
'• -"-■/§*>"-~ n fám-f has past meaning for the most part, and as such provides the ordinary method of negating the narrative Sdmnf form.
Exx. -*-*^~g^á^Z;^'—=§ * MO b* n Srrnb, ir-n-(t) ht n hity-t I did not do things for any small man, I did things for the prince.10
í\Ů$t--------"-JľrŤj ]rS»JkH '*' "ni-----nbpr nhw m mSr-i I returned ....
there had not occurred loss in my army.11
We shall see in § 455 that n šdmf may occasionally refer to events in the present or the future, but such cases are not common enough to delay us here.
2-  —■"&"— nn *dmf has future meaning; see further below § 457.
Ex. ^ž^lí^^T^ nn wtsf dirt he shall not {or never) wear the red crown.1'
3-  -"-".&ZI n fdm-nf has often present meaning.
Exx. The mouth is silent -^-J^^aZl * fdwňf and does not speak." Hi! A-D^-*-ľ^ZIÍ"— fnw Pw< n rdi-n-f sif he is one who comes again, he does not turn (lit. give) his back.1*
80
NEGATION  OF THE NARRATIVE VERB
§105
The three rules given above are sufficiently accurate for the purposes of the beginner, but will require considerable elaboration in the sequel, where it will appear that the Egyptians themselves approached the matter from a quite different angle from that of tense or time-distinction. To avoid giving a wrong impression from the start, we will enter somewhat more deeply into the discussion of n šdm-nf (see further § 418). It has been seen (§ 67) that šdm-nf though in use mainly a past tense, etymologically expresses no more than that something happens to someone or through his agency. Hence « šdm-nf means in effect ' it does not happen that he hears', a certain space of time being envisaged during which his hearing might have taken place. We may define the function of n šdm-nf as to deny the occurrence of an action throughout the course of a more or less prolonged period. Hence it is common in generalizations, proverbs, and statements of custom, for all of which English usually employs the present tense.    But n šdm-nf'may also be employed where the context is past or future.
Exx. He found the canal stopped up — \\^~~TL-**-í?~ n s^'n dPl t?r'f and no boat sailed upon it.1                                                                                          ' Urk-iv 8m
Such and such things must be done to prevent a snake from coming out of its hole, --^a"Z_ n Pr'nf and it will not (or never) come out.2                              ' £*■ 97. '9.
It is not quite easy to explain the reason why n šdmf and nn šdmf are not used in these two instances; nor is it possible to affirm that they might not have been used. Nevertheless two things are clear: first, n šdm-nf occurs only in contexts where, in the widest sense of the word, a generalization is being made; and second, a position of affairs is implied which n šdm-nf declares not to be interrupted by a negative instance.
The student must realize clearly that the affirmative and negative uses of the Egyptian verb-forms are separate things, not to be confounded with one another. For instance, it cannot be taken for granted, because šdm-nf may be rendered ' he had heard', that n šdm-nf, the same form with the negative word n in front of it, may be rendered ' he had not heard '. In point of fact, n idmnf appears never to have this meaning.
§ 106. ' Never'.—All three forms of negation described in the last section can, if the context requires it, be translated with ' never' instead of ' not', as is shown by several of the examples there quoted. If, however, it be desired to state more explicitly and emphatically that something has never happened, -%© n sp followed by the šdmf form may be employed.
Exx. —Ü©-**-1'I02,I7m1W3i",="=&=7 n SP "X* bt «it dwi r rmt nb never did I do anything evil against any people.3                                                                       ■ Cairo 10719, «3.
~"""Ô9^~2°B2žo-"" * SP tr'lfa) m*et dr pit ti never had the like been done since the primal age of the earth.*                                                                                       ' tvt.iT.37t.
81
§106
EGYPTIAN   GRAMMAR
Sec further below $ 456, where grounds are given for thinking that sp is here a verb meaning 'occur', so that n sp iryl would mean literally 'it did not occur that I should do'.
1 Urk. i». 348, 9. Sim. it. 305, 3; 306, " I " 5'. 3; D.tl B. 155; Caulfield, 4.
* Sin. R 34. Sim. T. Cam, I4. 15 iiier mi ' u  though ', qn.
1 iFw/,.6, 36. Sim. 1".    í,   5;    Fkaszk,
Barett 363. Inter-»Xiiife cxx. with in,
if Sim. B lao. 133. ,*:f.on in adjectival predicate, «e { 467, end.
4 J*tai. R j. Sim. i'rk. jr. 139, 2,
• Ptat.    B  I,    89. Üim. ib. 304.
* Ĺ. /* D. Berlin bowl. A furt lief development, lee JEA.
EXISTENTIAL  SENTENCES § 107. To express existence, whether absolute or as relative to some situation, i.e. presence, the verb i&~ wnn 'exist', 'be' (perhaps originally 'move', ' run') is used.
1.  The Sdmfiorm of this verb varies according to the time and the duration which are envisaged. The longer form j£~ wnnf is commonly employed for the future, but may refer to any time-position where the notion of duration is stressed ; the shorter form J*.*— wnf lays no stress on duration, and tends rather to have past reference.
Exx. 3&~5LjÉIZI.S.1 wnn Pl< wnn't l""l so long as heaven shall exist, thou shalt exist with me; lit, sky shall exist, thou (fern.) shalt exist.1
ÍÍUlFžliE9'? V'»^ wn nrw I set out early, (when) it was day, lit. (when) day was.'
Of the two forms, wnn-f alone is common in main clauses.
2.   The phrase Q^jS iw wn (in which wn is Idmf form, § 462) means ' there is', ' there was '.
Ex. QejS'Ť'IIJr^SUIl'jrr^á«— iw wn "ds> P^1 ''«/there was a commoner, whose name was Djedi.1
Since lw is avoided after words like (|f«= 1st ' lo', ^ nn ' not', ~ nty ' who' (§ 44, 2), here wn occurs alone with the meaning of iw wn.
Exx. IP^Sá"— Ist wn ^mtf a"d he had a wife, lit. lo, there was a wife of him.1
^žš^J*.^,*,"— ntywnwr n wrwf whose great ones have one greater, lit. who there existed a great one for his great ones.*
Note that absolute existence is but rarely asserted; usually there is some
qualification in the form of a genitive, an adverbial phrase or an adjective, as
is indeed the case with several of the examples above quoted.    When such
a qualification occurs, there is a tendency for it,  rather than the notion of
existence, to become the real predicate, the verb wnn then degenerating into
a mere copula (} 28).    Hence we shall find the model of the existential sentence
much empiojed in sentences expressing possession (?§ 114-15), sentences with
adverbial predicate (5§ 118. 120) and sentences with adjectival predicate (§ 142).
Obs. For a case where the iw of iw wn is changed into wnn according to the
rules enunciated in §§ 118, 2 ;  130, see below § 1,50.    And for a case where iw in iw
wn is omitted after n writ ' there docs not exist' (§ 108), see § 394.    So too ir wn ' if
Ihere be ' occurs for a theoretic ir hv wn}
82
THE   EXPRESSION   OF   NON-EXISTENCE
§ 108
§ 108. Non-existence or absence is expressed (i) by means of tl^k nn wn ' there exists not', ' there existed not'.' Since wn here represents hv wn with iw suppressed (see 5 107, 2), this phrase escapes from the rule (5 105, 2) that tin + Sdmf always has reference to future time.
Exx. ^^U^»'^" nn wn phwyfy there is no end to it, lit. there docs not exist its end.2
—ě^iiT^á—ra3šk^ťí' "" w" mlrn nm>l 'here was none wretched in (lit. of) my time.3
People say: ^ä tin wn there is nothing, lit. there does not exist.'
2.  More rarely -*-^° nwnts occurs with identical meaning; wnt is possibly the SdnitfTorrn of the verb, see below { 402, end.
Ex. -"-^""ó^^rriríTi " wnl km/stí there is no remedy for them."
3.   Frequently ^; nn '(there is) not' stands alone for 'there does (did) not exist'.'
Exx. ^^"^"^i1?, nn mif/yiv there are no righteous.'
^MTTASrHT^rT "" k-U dns sfyr-ht there is none light-hearted who is heavy (i.e. slow to move) as regards his appetites (lit. the counsel of the body).*
As in the sentences expressing existence, so too in those expressing nonexistence, some qualification is as a rule added, and this is apt to become the real predicate ; exx. below {§ r 14 ; 120: 144,4; 304.
Ons. In a sequence of parallel denials of existence, if the first begins with nn wn, the second is likely to omit wn as superfluous ; nn may then be rendered ' nor'."
§ 109. ' Without'.—We have seen (§§ 29. 30) that sentences of various kinds may be used, without the help of conjunctions, to express the equivalents of English adverb clauses. Sentences having as predicate ^ nn ' there is not' (5 108) are frequently so used, and in this case nn may often best be translated ' without'.
Ex. ^p.T.SšľlITiíi^^ľaiíili.^P disn n'k n(4 "" drwf< dt »"
hnlys may they give to thee everlasting without an (lit. there is not its) end, and eternity without a (lit there is not its) term."
^iS. nn wn and -"-£»<* n wnt (5 108) are less often employed in this way. Exx. IpTÍ^^^á:^??";•— L"w rd, nn wn mntf a healthy body without malady, lit. its malady does not exist."
TiSľTi-*-—°\1\a wlb- b1, n wnl '&w making offerings unceasingly, lit. offering things, there was not cessation."
Obs. Nn is very commonly used in this manner with the infinitive as its subject, and there occurs a similar use with the lighter negative word n (§ 307). For n« +noun + suffix employed as a relative clause see § 19S, 1.
1 See Cukn, dies,  pp.   tu 160-1.	S/it~ Toll.;
* Ub.   130. other ex. below	An-i "J.
Hat-Nub U,  9 | 394,end. * Adnt. 6, 4.	Sim. ,   qn.
1 See Gunx, dier, ch. 19,	S/ti-
0 Et. 100, i j. Turin 156, 4.	Sim.
T See GUNN, rfiV/, ch. t;.    R written n, it. p. ■" Lit.  111. Adm. J, 1; Sin.	S t ii' arely '95-Sim. B84.
1 Peas.   B 1,     109. See too below f( 144. 4; .194-	
■• Em.   Bff.  i. 19; Sin. B61-J.
" Sin. Bill. Sim. it. 199; Adm, Sr 1; Urk. iv. 163, 15.
11 Tnrin 159, 5.
" 6VJ.hr.519. Sim. Berth, ii. 11, top   14.
83
§111
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Pr. a, 5-	
» Lei. i6.	
* P. Kak.   5, Sim. Lei. 77-	*7-
« Peas.   B í, Sim. Sin. BJ56	5'-
1 P. Kah.  \% Sim. £VA.iy. 17a 1*6,4.   A*tfr,e.g	*3-
1  /te».   B 1,   75-S^ii.i'i.g.Si-a; J/«> ii'.  *3;   in all these L..ISCS preceded by on* re ' one of. T Western. Sim. #. 9, ai. 27.	
• Si*. R 56-n, 507.	Sim.
*   Wesic.   u A.^.e.g. ř7r*.iv	10. 175»
1D £«-.39.131. Sim. /Víri. B I, 19; Rkind
» CV*. i». 119.
11 See -ÍÍ. 54, !"«•
» Am. R 5-
" Sin. B 137. Ta, sing, f., Cairo 20153. 10497. 30691.
day'; but a^\S\°^ P' ißw ' this papyrus-roll'.1 Exceptionally, pf, tf and pfi, tfi may precede their noun, as in £fř Pf g* ' that side',1 «ll^ni '/' ^.W ' that remedy '.3
The plurals in n all precede their noun, and are connected with it by the genitival adjective — (5 86). Exx. }4~P=-M*, nn * srw 'these officials';« Sk—Ini "' " 'wt '^ese dwellings'.5 Occasionally the noun is in the singular, ex. \\—KS "" " s-liy 'tllese Peasants '. ''t- ' this of peasant'." Before Dyn. XVIII the vernacular began to drop the genitival «, ex. \\°&, nn hmwt ' these women';' but this practice, which later became regular, is very rare in Middle Egyptian, and is not found in good monumental texts.
The demonstratives beginning with n are thus really singular pronouns, not plural adjectives, and often occur with the neuter sense of' this' and ' that'. Exx. "2(ZDc\ dd-n-f nn ' he said this';8 °J&\ ply n> ' what is this ?'3 Participles agreeing with these apparent neuters are in the sing. m. form, but the suffix 3rd sing. f. (s ' it') is used in referring back to them (§ 511, 3).
Tor the same demonstratives as subject of sentences with nominal predicate, see below § 127, 2. The singular pw is very widely used in a similar way as an equivalent, invariable in gender, of the pronouns of the 3rd pers. ' he', ' she', 'it', ' they', ex. ^®3°^ &' Pw ' he ls R£t' I *°r this construction and its extensions, see §§ 128-31. 140.
Otherwise, the singular demonstratives are seldom used except as epithets. Pi rarely occurs as a predicate, when it may be translated ' such', referring to something that precedes or follows; ex. "}£&&*-p> Pw Wsir 'such 's Osiris', lit. 'this is he, (namely) Osiris'.10 Pn and pfi are found still more rarely as virtual neuters meaning ' this' and ' that', ex. il«!^^"15*!. ri-i Pf1 r P" '*
knew that from this '."
Obs. From pi and ti as demonstrative pronouns are derived the prefixes JJ, p-n-'he of and J~ t-nt-' she of, which, however, occur in our period only as components of proper .lames." The genitival adjective seems to have fallen away early, since JgAfl piy and A. ti are found as variants of/-»- and t-nt- at the beginning of Dyn. XVIII or even earlier.
§ 112. Meaning of the demonstratives.—Pn, In, nn are the commonest words for 'this', i.e. near me, at hand, both of time and of place. They are apt to be used in a manner rather redundant to our way of thinking.
Ex. Ill J.M°Ô~"~2!5"—— &*n étypn n hntt-f tn then said this peasant to this his wife."
Pw, as an epithet, is confined to high-flown diction and religious texts, where the preference for archaic words is very marked; ex. ÜZ/^Ä^eJ^PPi fnďk pw špss ' this thy noble nose' in a speech to the Pharaoh." Even in religious texts pw, tiu tend to give place to pwy, (ivy, forms employed only as
86
THE MEANING OF THE DEMONSTRATIVES
§112
epithets; ex. Táo&IIZH ntr pwy >> 'this great god', where the M.K. texts have pw, and those of Dyn. XVIII pwy.1 Note the curious use in vocatives, ex- IJLIlá0^ bkiy pw 'thou (lit. this) magician'.' For the other uses of pw see above §111.
Pf, pfy, pfir with their feminines and plurals, are employed where some opposition between ' that yonder' and ' this here' is intended; but also, like Latin iste, to express some emotional stress, whether of disgust or of admiration; exx. .•.j-<L kr pf 'that (vile) enemy',3 S?»<LiiP.L bnw pf Spsy 'that noble Residence (of long ago)'.' Note that such a nuance of admiration is particularly often applied to things and persons belonging to the past.
Pi, ti, m are both the most recent and the weakest of the demonstratives. Frequently they mean'this', like/«, tu, k»;4* exx. <&™ tiditt(l)'this province';' \—"S'&Jl^T' " »' » gmkivt 'these candles'.* So particularly with designations of time, exx. &\^\<=> m ti it 'at this moment';» '=Jž^.^<f m pi hrív 'on this day', 'to-day'.s Elsewhere, however, they have merely the force of the definite article, their regular use in Late Egyptian and onwards. So already before Dyn. XVIII: '^'—/öl^l^VSk^i^.tra ni nltnty m pi mhr 'the corn which is in the storehouse'?
EQUIVALENTS OF THE ENGLISH POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
§113. The sense of English'my', 'thy', etc. is usually conveyed, as we have seen (§ 35, 1), by means of the suffix-pronouns, which are appended to their nouns as direct genitives. Some less frequent alternatives have now to be considered.
1.  From the demonstratives pi, ti, m (§§ 110-112) are derived the possessive adjectives; it will suffice to quote the forms of the ist and 2nd pers. sing.
With sing. m. noun    With sing. f. noun    With plur. noun
Sing 1, c. 'my' J£!)!|$ fi'V-i10          -SJIá ''W         \l\\&~~ niyi n
„    2, m. 'thy' 2^^"=" P'y'k            QM<=»tiy-t        \\(|o>— myk n
Similarly for the other persons and numbers. Forms without y are sometimes found, ex. Jjjp pi-s 'her'.11    Hieratic almost always "^^QH^ etc.11*
The possessive adjective is not uncommon in the more popular writing of Dyn. XII and after, but does not become usual until Late Egyptian. Its construction is identical with that of the demonstratives from which it is derived.
Exx. ^kHHÔSá ž,y{ tmt my wife."
S IIP—USrí^íM n'y's n hrdw her children.13
2.   !)f try, more rarely written l)!Ti »ř^£,(?)> ls sometimes used as an unchangeable substitute for the suffixes of the 3rd pers. sing, or plur.    It seems to
1 Uri.-v. 15. Pwy, hvy also Wexu. 9, 11; 10,9.
' Urk. v. 177, 7. II. 14; Wtstc. 7, ao;
*   Urk \1. 8.    Sim.
a.648,14; 6G1,15.
*  Adm. Jo, 8-1 j. Sim. Sin. -B 44.
u Io this sense written piy in L. E.; the same distinction already Urk. iv. 654,16, see p. 85, n. 5.
*  Pias. K 6S (B 16 dltt(l)/n);sÍTo. m,ti. R 110 (B 75, »»).
' Siut. í, 197,
' ííi. \\i;P.Kah. II, 19; Urk. iv. 27, 16; 6s8, 10.
■ fh.T.S. iii. 16; Pahtri 3.
' Pias. R 4. Many exx, Pakeri 3.
10 Urk. iv. 894, 9; Pahtri 3; in hierogL usually without i. u Urk. iv. 1067. Sim. ii. 1069. 1070. T]-n, T. Corn. 5.
"' Without y: P. Kak.l6,i,i;T. Cam.
7-
11 P.Kah.l*, 12. u P. Kak.  1 3, 10. Sim. Pr. 3, 3.
»ľ
§113
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
> Variable still in »tilt tri 'the like thereof, Hamm, 114, ik:/£^. 16,19. Sim. Cairo ao53g, i. * 3; AI. 58, 14".
» Sin. R. 11. Sim. Sk.S. 21; £ii. 63; AJm. 7, I a.
« Urk. iv. 109a. f im. SÄ i. 25, 83; Urk. i». S3- 659- 743-
' F. Kah. J9, 43.
■ Eb. 55, I.
« Urk. i». 114. 5-
! fV*. iv. 1011. Sim. 14.650,5; 1068, 10; Rhind 56-9; Wtsíc. 9, II. On one coffin n-k-imyt after a fem. nonn, S I C 339.
>43-• Urk. iv. 666.
be nothing more than the adjective 1)"^*\J| iry ' relating to' become invariable in this particular use,1 and is often best rendered by the English ' thereof,' thereto'.
Exx. His Majesty had sent an army, Vwl5ü$&i:i1ir s,'f smsto m hry iry and his eldest son was the chief thereof.1
21 iTi ty trw (?) the law appertaining thereto.3
So too after prepositions, exx. J^fj*^ 6/t iry 'according thereto' ;* ^1)"^" hr-si iry ' thereafter';5 jl^"^* m-m iry ' among them '.*
3. A more emphatic equivalent of the English possessive adjective, corresponding roughly to our 'of mine', 'of thine' is provided by the series Iftl^ll] ni-imy, ^(^l)!) nk-imy, etc., for which the variants "JH^, 3I& etc. are found. These phrases follow their noun.
Exx. "=šI^^Í)Wl m-ht iiw n-k-imy after thy own old age.'
ft^ZSw-----~H^ hdmw nsn-im(y) footstools belonging to them.8
Obs. In origin this -itny was probably the adverb elsewhere written without y, § 205, 1, cf. Copt, 'titmau ' there' after wentai ' I have', lit. ' there is with me'.
• p. Kah. u, 4-Sim. Eb. 99, 4.
*» Lxc. Stilt jur.ti.
'- r/r*.iv. 561. Sim. ib. 144, 10; P. Kah.
II, 31.
11 Leb. 131. Sim. pt. 315 (in La with h vml).
u Cairo JO538, ii. fi^. Sim. Peas, B 3, iic—r.
i« Pus. B I, B 2, l6.
393;
SENTENCES  EXPRESSING POSSESSION § 114. Egyptian has no verb meaning ' to possess', ' to have', nor yet any verb meaning 'to belong to'.    In order to express these notions, use is made of the preposition — « ' to', together with its derivatives.
1.  When — n itself is employed, the rules governing the sentence with adverbial predicate (§j 29; 37; 44, 2 ; Lesson X) come into play. Note, however, that when n is followed by a suffix, it acquires that precedence in word-order which we have noted in § 66 as peculiar to the dative. Compare for this construction the Latin est mihi, sunt mihi.
E**. SľT.ÔTJ^f &f,~-LiiáWWT'k bt-i nbt mi, m niwt nsn-i 'Ihy-snb all my property in country and in town (shall belong) to my brother 'Ihysonb.9
iSf____^JJ wnn'sn ■■■ Sbk-nht it (myoffice) shall (belong) toSebknakhte.9*
I&ctÝ "" ""* '*% thou shalt have life, lit. life is to thee."
III—?—íi nn wn M n s no man has a heart.11
^iJľv1—lUI&Tl^L nn is n sH hr hm-f there is no tomb for him-who-rebels against his Majesty, i. e. the rebel shall have no tomb.1*
—-3= nn n'k si '' does not belong t° thee."
2.  When the subject is a pronoun, the genitival adjective — n(y) may be employed as predicate. According to § 48, 2 this will be invariable in number and gender, and according to § 44, 3 the dependent pronoun must be used. The association between adjectival predicate and pronominal subject is here so close, that in the case of the 3rd person m. \$ sw, f. r% sy, the biliteral sign *~j ns is regularly found linking the two together as "-t;}^, ^[rv
88
SENTENCES  EXPRESSING  POSSESSION
§114
Exx. —^^s^ n(y)-wi Rr I belong to Rě(, lit. I am belonging-to Re'.1 "PJ^n n{y)~s{y) imy-r pr it (this province, f.) belongs to the steward.2 So too in indications of measurement.
Ex. ^^2™ n(y)-sw m{> }0 it (the snake) was of 30 cubits.3
3.   For ' belongs to me', ' belongs to thee', or alternatively ' I am (thou art) owner of, the independent pronouns of § 64, or at all events forms evidently very closely akin, are employed;* some emphasis is here laid on the possessor. It the subject be pronominal, it is represented by the dependent pronouns.
Exx. ^§£f°) ntk now to thee belongs gold.5 láÄPwá *n& sy sne belongs to me.8    A personal name. In certain religious texts of the M.K. ~;^ nnk is written for ist pers. sing, in this employment.7    For another possible use of nnk, see § 300, near end.
Obs. For the same purpose Late Egyptian uses forms7a clearly descended from the older hut, šwt, definitely proving the kinship with the independent pronouns.
4.  N-i-im(y), n-k-im(y) (§113, 3) occur with the same meaning and with a like construction.
Exx. ^í)^J)!)r<T,il ľ 1 n-k-imy ltd to thee belongs silver.8 Hf^i?i!F1^i-'? rntyw, n-l-im sw the incense, it belongs to me.9
Obs. Nif is found as a noun meaning ' its content',10 and n-k-itny similarly as a noun meaning ' thy possessions '.1I
§ 115. To convey the meaning ' I have (had) a.....*, ' thou hast (hadst)
no.......' the existential sentences of §§ 107-8 may be employed, the subject
being qualified by a suffix-pronoun (see § 35, Obs.).
Exx. IP^^^j^"— isťdiii hmt-f and he has a wife, lit. lo, there was a wife of him.IS
—SSI nn wn tp'fhe has no head, lit not exists a head of him.13
_*-sg<=},°|\ip n wnt swwt-s it has no reeds." So too in cases where "^ nn is best rendered as 'without' (§ 109).
Ex. ^^l^^fi^íBláP mk tw m H'w/< n" hki-hwt-s behold, thou art a city without a ruler, 1!.. as a city, not is a ruler of it."
See Add. for § 115a.
1 Eb. I, 7. Sim. ÄZ. 57, 7*; Nav. 1, 7; Nebesh. I I.
1 Peas. B 1 , 16.
> Sil. S. 63.    Sim.
/'/J1W45. 46 ; HUDGF. P-  319,3.
*  See ÄZ, 34. 50: 4'. "35-
B Urk.ii. 96. Sim. Ad/n. 10, 4.
•  Beri. Hi. Pap. iii. 42 a. Sim. lirit. Mas. 1Í03 ; AZ. 54, 49.
' See ÄZ. 54, 40; 58, Í3.
" See ÁZ. 50, 114; J E A. 20, 13.
8 Urk. iv. 96. Sim. ib. 344, 11-13; Ann. .19,  l89. 9-
' S/t.S. 151.  Sim. Sin. B 222. 11 Rhind tg. 11 Pras. Bi, 103-4.
>• Pias. R 3.
" P. Ram. tinpubl.
14 Uri.v.151. Sim. Bersh. ii. 31, 14.
16 Peas.   B I,   190. Sim. .ft'». B 13. 47.
VOCABULARY
bii var. J!]l) jg h marvel        £3^ sni (later snd) fear; i£5^|| \n at)-                                                          sndw (sndw) fear (noun).
«, hpr become, happen.                            |jy ^ b(J ^^  agreeable; adj.
5j^ &nm )oin' endue {m with).                              sweet, agreeable; n. sweetness. !S=s2 smn make firm, establish.                   &s, p___CI iwnn sanctuary.
89
Vocab.
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
In
is tomb, tomb-chamber.
M;—Y shni supporting pole, support.
•^ nbw gold.
fAi° ^(/silver.
Mjfl hki ruler, chieftain.
■O p tiw breath, wind.
t hry t apprehension, dread.
^
Au *
JĽ, «A mrwt love (noun).
íVík/ charm, favour.
V.   .      I      I
5 J?   Snbt breast. | ~   hf piece of flesh; plur. flesh, body. — £i fad nose (earlier fnd). ™* var. Y| í/ magic knot, amulet, protection. \<& !t moment. T n°     ndty helper, avenger.
EXERCISE   IX
(a) Study the following text;1 Amen-Rer, the god of Thebes, addresses the Pharaoh Tuthmosis III (Dyn. XVIII, 1501-1441 B.c.)
¥á  To^á  (0^®)		f	ä  UTá	___      ^CQ
s/i           ndtyi        Mn-hpr-Rc       tnh			^/           wbtvi	«      mr(w)l-k
My son,   my avenger.2  Menkheperrě1,3 J may he t   live			[eternally: I shine forth	through    love of thee.*
^  ľlň  Jfc?-	K    T		t7  UM*w	oicr^
hnm      'wyi          h'wk	w      «		r«^          ndm-wy	iimt-k
Endue   my hands   thy body	with   the protection of life.5     How sweet    is   thy charm			
*=*         U-^i	|/<-"™.jí»		*           &	«^-.^
r                 inbl-i	smn-i		to             »«	iwnn-i
against          my breast!	I establish		thee            in	my sanctuary.
JMfefl   ™   Aá	Ife-^		£^       &	S   --f
4y»            »•*£       <#■«'		biwk	sndw-k           m	//í£»                «fotí
lands
i« heaven.
I marvel      at thee.    I place   thy might (and) the fear of thee in        lands         all,
ZJWZ1Z   -    LIT,     P^IÍfí      7
hryťk               r               4rw                  sfynwt               nt
the dread of thee       to           the limits   of the (four) supports      of
1 Extracts from the so-called * Poetical Stela', found in two «ample» at Kamak ; see Urk. iv. 611. 6ao.
1 Throughout Egyptian temple-ritual run« the conception of the king as 'the living Horus', and consequently any god who is worshipped and regarded by him as his father, becomes thereby identified with the god Osiris, whom Horns ▼indicated and avenged after his murder by the wicked god Seth.
1 Prenomen of Tuthmosis III, see Excursus A, p. 73.
*  Note here and in sndwk, hryťk below the counterparts of the Latin * objective' genitive.
•  Amen-Rět is here the sun-god, bestowing life by means of bis rays.
90
SENTENCES WITH  ADVERBIAL  PREDICATE                 Exerc. IX
(b)   Transliterate and translate:
ĺ?i  (3) mi-^-^n^ « mzäP-ráÄ
~~^7&?$   (s)-ZE   w s^TMlL'-s^M
(c)   Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration :
(1) To thee belongs the sky and (lit. with) all that-is-in iL (2) Never had the like happened in the time of any king. (3) How pleasant is the voice of these women in (hr) my heart! (4) (May) the gods of Egypt give the breath of life to thy nose,1 that thou mayst adore Rě< every day. (5) The overseer of works built for me a tomb on the west of my city. (6) Others shall not hear this. (7) Re' caused him to arise as ruler of this entire land. (8) Then shalt thou say the like thereof to thy children. (9) Silver and gold are in thy house, there are no limits to (lit. of) them. (10) Life is thine in this thy city of eternity (i.e. the tomb).
1 For the Egyptians the concrete symbol or lire was the breath, which the gods ' gave into the nose ' or the king, the king doing likewise for his subjects.
LESSON   X
SENTENCES  WITH ADVERBIAL  PREDICATE1                             . See sethe, n.-
§ 116. This topic has been touched upon in many previous sections; we    LEr- Gr- **63?foiI-must now gather together what has been already learnt and supplement it with further details.
First let it be noted that the term predicate ought, in grammar, strictly to include the copula (' is ',' are', etc.). It is, however, extremely convenient to use the term 'in a looser sense, and we shall not hesitate to speak of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun as of itself constituting a predicate.
The adverbial predicate may consist either of an actual adverb, like \\^ im ' there', or else of an adverbial phrase composed of a preposition + a noun, ex. ^tvI',~ «t pr-f'm his house'.    In the latter event two special cases call for
91
§116
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
remark: (i) the preposition used may be the datival — « 'to', 'for', which serves to convey the notion of possession and involves certain deviations from the usual word-order (see § 114, 1); (2) the preposition may be the ^ m of predication (§ 38) or the ■=> r of futurity (§ 122), and then the predicate corresponds to an English nominal predicate, i.e. a predicate consisting of a noun.
Neither of these special cases affects the expression of the copula or of the subject; in other words, the same rules as to subject and copula which hold of the adverbial predicate generally hold of it also in the case of the n of possession, the m of predication, and the r of futurity.
The copula is often left unexpressed. When it is expressed, one of the two verb-stems iw ' be' (§ 29) or wnn ' exist' (§ 107) is employed. The different shades of meaning resulting from the insertion of the copula in its various forms will be studied in the following sections.
When the subject is a noun or demonstrative pronoun nothing prevents it from standing at the beginning of the sentence; but it may be preceded, either by iw or by a idm-f form from wnn (in these cases conforming strictly to the type of the verbal sentence, § 27), or else by a particle like mk 'behold' or nn ' not', which modifies the meaning of the sentence as a whole. When the subject is a personal pronoun, some supporting word must necessarily precede it, since the independent pronouns are normally not used with adverbial predicate (§ 65, end), and the suffixes and dependent pronouns must always be attached to some preceding word. The suffix-pronouns are employed after the copula in its various forms (thus iw•/ wn/, wnn-/), but when the supporting word is a particle of the kind above alluded to, it is as a rule the dependent pronouns which are used (exx. mk sw, nn sw).
As just stated, the employment of the independent pronouns as subject of the sentence with adverbial predicate is exceedingly rare, and may be archaistic,
■  P>r. 1093.1114.     since a few instances occur in the Pyramid texts.1    In Middle Egyptian only the
following have been noteü:
■ 䙾s35'(L-        ÄViM-^Tiink *• (9 m **>*l myself was in J°y-2
™.pb is5.B 39)' Sim'            s^áľľ-l&Tá ;tltrl n ní/m ht-i my heart, it was not in my body.3
Obs. For important ramifications of the sentence with adverbial predicate see below Lesson XXIII on the pseudo-verbal construction. For cases where the grammatical subject is the logical predicate, see § 126.
§ 117. The presence or absence of \\ iw in sentences with adverbial predicate.—The verb iw states facts as such, declares this or that to be the case. 1. With nominal subject it serves to introduce some statement, often a description, of outstanding interest, and the clause containing it must be translated as a main clause.
92
SENTENCES  WITH  ADVERBIAL  PREDICATE
§117
Exx. QgjlJ^-iTi^l^ílílíl" *w idw-k m sht thy field-plots are in the country.1 Statement of fact.
(]<;•=.^Jl^fi, ľ!^*—Q!&i^i^.i ľ 1 iw d'fo" im'f A"r l'rrl nSs were in lt>
and also grapes.2    Description of the land Yaa.
1?fllPj$1«l.?E:í'i^i£El/f! "" ms *trw m s"f forsooth, the river is blood, lit. as blood.3 In a pessimistic description of Egypt. Note the m of predication. (§38)-
i^Sk^P*J11«i, tw nl m sb>yl this is an (lit. as an) instruction.4 The subject is here a demonstrative pronoun.
Only rarely does it happen that such sentences have the value of English subordinate clauses ; they have such a value, for example, when a strong contrast is expressed or a medical symptom emphasized.
Exx. It was he who subdued the foreign lands, (|^>!)«!L,áĽk22en"§J£2 *w it/ m hnw fly/ (while) his father was within his castle.5
^rrPžimLU "" -^'s "'* n^ -r s& an^ ^er b°^y 's 'ike what is on (lit. under) fire."
When iw is omitted, the statement or description becomes less obtrusive.
Exx. ^^ffi'^'%,c? ^^ hrl-k m pr-k thy rations are in thy house.7 In the midst of an argumentative passage.
'5'^, ° ^"f^LL! dkrw nô hr litw/a\\ kinds of fruit (lit. all fruits) were on its trees.9    Part of a description.
0 =\ * 'j>,'& —jžŽq^ pshv m rwnw the apportioner is (now) a spoiler, lit. as a spoiler.9    From a descriptive passage ; note the m of predication.
This too is the ordinary way of expressing an attendant circumstance; it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between descriptive sentences and clauses of circumstance.
Exx. Every man was caused to know his order of march, f9%,^fg Mr m-si htr horse (following) after horse.10
I passed three days alone, ?á^l"5"^Š"^ *M m sn-nw-i my heart being (lit. as) my (sole) companion.11    Note the m of predication.
2. When the subject is a suffix-pronoun, the sentence with iw has a wider range of meaning, see above § 37. On the one hand, it may express an independent statement or description.
Exx. I^Jtiimll"')..!,.?, *w'i br (*szt,t "' br n$w I was m receipt of (lit. under) favours from (lit. of under) the king.12
1JL.jk"f".jks^—^á *w'f m imy-lpt n irr he is (lit. as) a pattern for the criminal (lit. the doer).13    Note the m of predication.
On the other hand, sentences introduced by iw + suffix may be quite subordinate in meaning, i.e. may serve as clauses 0/time or circumstance (§ 214).
1 Peas. Ľ 2, 65. Sim. Sin. B 217; Weite. 7, 17; i ■> Á: iv. 244, 10.
' Sin. B 81. Sim. í4.RS;ňaj.R46-7; Leb. 134; sldm. 2, S.
4   Urk.    iv.    J 090. Sim. Leb. 34.
ä Sin. B 50. Sim. Uri.iv. 2, 10. Sec too below 5 323. kaiher differently C'rk. iw. 65;, '.■•
• Eb. 97, 3. Sim. P. Kuk. 7, 38.
1 Peas.Ľí ,93. Sim.
• Sill. B S3. Sim. ib. B186-7. 339-40; Si.S. 48-51; Uli. iv. 657, 10. 12. 14.
9 Peas. B r, 24S.
10 Urk. iv. 652, 10. Sim. Sin. B 244. 290; Sk. S. 16; WíiIí. 7, 15; 10, 1 ; Cairo 20001, 3í tjrk. iv. II04, I-II.
"S/:. S. 42t. Sim. Urk. iv. 139,  7.
" Sin. B 309-10. Sim. P.Kah. 11,2!; Urk. iv. 59, 5 ; 405, 7. 9.
" Pias. E 1, 2iS. With r of futurity, cee § 122 below.
93
§117
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 St. S. 33. 101. Sim. ii. 67 ; Sin. B 3; /jt. 83; Mill. 3, 1 ; Utk. \r. 974, 16.
■ Sin. B 68. Sim. /Hern. 7 ; Urk. vt. ».14.
Exx. A storm went forth, 1^~^tt^== ^u"n m Wi4-wr (while) we were in the Great-green (the name given to the open sea).'
Men and women are in jubilation, l^^í-^á *w'f m nsw (now that) he is king.2    Note the m of predication.
Obs. A certain contradiction may seem to be involved in the use of iw to introduce (i) detached independent sentences and (a) clauses subordinate in meaning, even though the latter use is confined, or nearly confined, to examples where a suffix-pronoun is the subject The difficulty disappears if we assume that what we take to be a clause of circumstance was originally felt as parenthetic, i.e. as an independent remark thrown into the midst of, and interrupting, a sequence of main sentences. The use of parentheses to express temporal and circumstantial qualifications is frequent in all languages. In Late Egyptian and Coptic iw becomes increasingly common as the mark of a clause of time or circumstance.
*  Cairo 20164. Sim. ft. 30003, 4I -?"*-B169. 174; P. Kah.
II, 23.
•   Ma«. Aiyd. ii. JO, J 7.
> P. Kuk. I J, 13. Sim. Sin. B 43; Situ i.jSi; Ui. 14a. 145; Urk. iv. 651, 17.
« JEA. ii. 6. Sim. Sin. B 77; Siut 4, 35; Urk. ÍT. 573, 10.
f Wn-f in clsuses of time see below 1454. '.«id-
1 Urk. ir. 339, 17. Sim. ii. 1034,13.
§ 118. Tense and mood in the sentence with adverbial predicate.—
1. The types of sentence studied in § 117 are strictly regardless of time, and there is nothing about the form of the examples translated there with ' is' to prevent them, in a different context, from being translated with ' was' or even with 'will be'; the example iw n-k rnh in 114, 1 contains a promise for the future, and may, accordingly, be freely translated ' thou shalt have life'.
So too the simple unintroduced sen'ence with adverbial predicate may express a wish or command.
Ex. InrrP?^-"?■="£' —Illi dii-ln: tiw » <nh r fid « wihy Sbk-htp ye shall say : The breath of life (be) to the nose of the.....Sebkhotpe.5
Similarly, when the negative word nn precedes (§ 120).
Ex. ^2Ü?*--&5^*-J,,¥,"(ii"^,)řl ** rnf m-m fnfyw his name shall not be among the living.4
2. When, however, it was desired to convey more explicitly some temporal or modal distinction of meaning, this could be contrived by the use of the verb wnn or of the particles to be enumerated in § 119.
1 he future is frequently expressed by means of JfS£2 wnn-f a jdm-f form from wnn 'exist', 'be' already familiar from the existential sentences (§ 107), of which we have here a development
Exx. i<Z°MÔ2á1& wnn 4H hmtim my wife shall be there.5
jSj~<=aj§—®3 wnn-/m hid n Rr he shall be in the disfavour of Re'.6
The other idmf form of wnn, namely Jf*-«— wnf (§ 107), is probably never used in simple affirmative statements with adverbial predicate; it is, however, common in a number of usages.' So, for example, in order to express purpose (Ho, 1).
Ex. jd—ifi^4«»t= ii-n(f) wn-(l) m si-t I have come that I may be thy protection.8
94
SENTENCES  WITH  ADVERBIAL  PREDICATE               §118
So too after (]_£, ih (§ 40, 3).
Ex- IJLSá.&ÍP—1' fywn-imlmsn ntr therefore let me be in the following
of the god.1                                                                                                                  ' c«10 3°538, it
And again after rat   cause   (§ 70).
Ex. ^"ráH^j^l rdi-n-s wn-k m ntr she has caused thee to be (lit. that thou be) a god.1                                                                                                           ' "•"■   v"j-   '»■
'       ö                                                                                                                                                                                Sim. Mar.   Abyd. ii.
In none of these last cases could iw have been employed.    The verb wnn    3°, w, P. X'h. 36,
,                                   3* ; ^ri-iv- 776, 14
thus supplies various parts of the Egyptian verb for 'to be', iw itself occurring    Am. 103, n.
t                     1                                                                      -                                     -i                      f            1                               "   Partial    excep-
almost only in main clauses,B and having a very restricted range of employment,    tions, P. 93. „. 5. The same phenomenon is to be observed in many other languages, where the different parts of the verb 'to be' are taken from various stems; so English 'be', ' are ', ' were', Latin sum, erat, fuit, German bin, wäre, ist.    We shall frequently have occasion to refer to this important rule.
Obs. In theory wnn could supply any missing parts of iw, when followed by ■ Old perfective an adverbial predicate.3 In practice it is not possible to illustrate all the different jjmljyj^': iďm"rf cases, though what will be called the pseudo-verbal construction (Lesson XXIII) form (5+71) mt-kr-l, supplies examples of some (e.g. wn-ln-f\ 470) which would otherwise be missing.           kted); thepámcípľeš
vmn   and     wn,   see
§ 119. Particles used in the sentence with adverbial predicate.—   5 396' Some of these have been mentioned already in \ 44, 2, where it was seen that they are followed by a dependent pronoun, when the subject of the sentence is pronominal.    For fuller details see below §§ 230 foil.
1. ^^J mk (for the variant writings see § 234) is a compound of which the first element appears to be an imperative, ' behold', and the second element is a pronoun 2nd sing, m.4    When a woman or several persons are addressed,      ' See/v. js, i8«; a different pronoun is apt to be used.    Thus we have the series :
^" mk behold thou, sing. m. or general.
J^ mt-> later k" mt> behold thou, sing. f.
.S^"-11^ mtn, later ^fsj mtn, behold ye.
This particle appears to depict the sense of the sentence which it accompanies as present and visible to the mind; more often than not the time referred to is the present
Exx. JVTi^P.^fTSe-«*! mtn Spswt hr idw behold, noble ladies are (now)    ,./ ^J:1^"^ on rafts, i.e. have been deprived of their luxurious boats.5                                        l69-
^íu^ác?^ m& w* r-gs-k behold I am in thy company, lit. at thy side."        sin. b 77'; fem. í i[
^^fS^l^^á m^ iw m m^nw behold thou art a herdsman.7    Note the m      ťplas. b i, 'j77. of predication (§ 38), which is indispensable here and in all similar cases.                 *m*?u"il left,1'!'
2. ()P«= ist, later l)P0 ist, archaistically fr= st, the form used in Old Egyptian before pronouns, is clearly related to the enclitic particle (| P is ' Io', ' indeed' (§247)."    It describes a situation or concomitant fact, and sentences introduced    ,8) ,t6.Xa''9' 't7'
95
§119
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Brit Mas. 614. Sim. Cairo 2054$, 9. 17; fiUDGK, p. J84, 9; Urk. iv. io)0, 8.
* ÍVi.iv.689. Sim. if: 137, 16; Budge, p. 380, 8.
i ftat.R44. li'ts/c, 6, 10-11		Sim.
* L'ri.'w	2 60	Sim.
tf: 119,4.		
■ Louvre C15 L'rk.  iv.   If7,		Sim. 5    (^
« See P		SB.4.
"í. 47'.		
' .?<«. R	13.	?.
(č. 898, I I	890 926	Sim.
' Urt.ii	897	Sim.
'■■■ 209, 7; «'3. 7-	27'	u ;
•• W-i.iv r<. 86, 7.	661.	Sim.
11 Rhind 31. Sim. iľ. 22. 33; 6Vrf>. iv. i 104, 8. 9 (van.).
" Sin. B 118. See ""■ 24,34; -*£• 43,
,: Pias. Bt. 25. Sim. M«t. p. 97.
" Lac. TK. -. p. 24V. n. 2
by it may often, though by no means always, be rendered as clauses of time or circumstance.
Exx. I spent many years under king Antef, QP«=—JLJL12^ to Í! Pn kr
st-hr-f (while) this land was under his charge.....P*^ J^>fei§*— st- w' m b'^'f
I being his servant.1
Year 30, 1P0i^l_?^f^"ö"6^i ist hmf hr hist Rtnw lo, His Majesty was in the land of Retjnu.2
Followed by the enclitic particle ^ rf (below § 252), ist announces a situation with a view to some further narrative. The meaning is very much that of the French or, and may best be rendered in English by ' now '.
Ex. Cw">°í)ô.l?í]U~ to rf pr Dhwty-nht pn hr smi-ti now the house of this Djehutnakht was on the river-bank.:l
3.   HP<=> isk, p<3» sk (below § 230) are archaic variants of ist, st, and have the same meaning.
Exx. IP'HTP.Wíľ^'^'S toi hmt-s m inpw when Her Majesty was a child.' Note the m of predication.
P'^ž'^JP-'0,1?,'»— sk wi m šmswf v/hen I was in his following.5
4.   J ti' has similar meaning to ist, from which it may possibly be derived. Examples do not occur until after Dyn. XII, and then at first only with sw ' he ';* later it may be followed also by wi ' I', or, more rarely, by a noun.
Exx. I was his companion J^TJÍJÍmI ti sw hr pri when he was upon the
battle-field.8
I knew thy qualities J^1<=^/\||, '* w' m sty wnen I was in the nest.0 Uä'^äTSK'+Jn *' h*nf dsf hr him iibty lo, His Majesty was himself in
the eastern fortress.10
5.  .£. hr, earlier ^,j=" or ij^.j0' ihr, indicates what comes next in order, and may be translated ' and', ' further', or even sometimes ' accordingly', ' so'. Examples with adverbial predicate are rare, and no instance with pronominal subject has been found.
Ex. «f.TvlT'i'i'^ilfH.S.w br r'5 r''S m wlh- hr-f so | + ij is what-is-to-be-added to it.11
6.   The rare "čľ^H! nhrnn means ' assuredly' or the like.
Ex.   erjkH?^il21i>f5! nhmn wi mi ki assuredly I am like a bull.12
7.   ÝSsíS $'• var'ant j(3^, expresses a wish.
Ex. t]ká77-^'='™Tl ¥ n'i SsP n0 mnil would I had (lit. that there were to me) any efficacious idol."
8.  l^jSjlik hwy-i, a compound with the enclitic particle /, also expresses a wish.
Ex.  IV^^/SIl^, htti-i wi im would that I were there."
96
SENTENCES WITH ADVERBIAL  PREDICATE
120
§ 120. Negation of the sentence with adverbial predicate.—The
word ^ nn is placed before the subject, which may be either a noun or a dependent pronoun (§ 44, 2).
Exx. ^iij^f"^J^ »» mwt-k hn'-k thy mother is not with thee.1 —ž'á^si^PiTi nn w* m-hr-ibsn I was not in the midst of them.2 Sentences of this type may on occasion be equivalent to English clauses of
time or circumstance.
Ex. ^CJ^^^ZZT^T^ZIll*^^^s."— wins» lp-ti nn tw imf they decline (existence)
on earth (§ 158, 2), thou not being in it.3
The model of the sentence expressing non-existence (§ 108) is used when
universals are denied; the subject is then an undefined noun and the negation
may be expressed by nn alone, or by nn wn, or more rarely by n wnt.
Exx. ^I^«I^i»á^>X'P~ nn WÍ' rn-hr-ib-sn there was none ignorant in
their midst.4
^s!§J\^2l nn wn hnt m htf there was no greed in his body.* -"-Ä~l)^fňPá1& n wn* iw~ms *M there is no misstatement therein.6 Very rarely -*-l)P n is ' not indeed' is used ; for is see below § 247. Ex. -*.!)p—'J^^l^, « is fbr im there is indeed no boasting therein.' Before iw and wnn the negative word is extremely rare.    Certain examples
can, however, be quoted :
"Hž"3*.^^ n *w'k mPt tnou art not 'n heaven.8
--íS." Vá*~T0?"— n wnn $l'f fr "stf his son shall not remain (lit be)
upon his seat."
According to § 105, 2 negation of the future is expressed by nn idmf; the
last example is, therefore, an exception to the rule, if asS~ be a idmf form;
hence a doubt arises whether it may not be the idm-nf form, see § 413.
§ 121. Position of the adverbial predicate.—The normal position is after the subject (? 29); a pronominal dative may, however, sometimes precede it (§ 66).
Sometimes a short adverbial predicate may intervene between the subject and some words which are joined to it or qualify it.
Exx. -^^«^(I^C^^^.Vi rmw *m bnr 'pdw fish and birds were therein, lit. fishes were there together with birds.10
3§,g,~—1+J^s^ b'ty'k n'k n imy-fy't thou shalt have thy former heart, lit. thy heart is to thee of being-in-front.11
§ 122. Use of the preposition «=- r to indicate a future condition.—
Closely parallel to the m of predication is what may be termed the r of futurity. Exx. 1^_«=-Pf^.l3á *w'f r smr ne sna" be (l't is towards) a Companion.'2
1 M.u.h'. verso2,3; sim. Siul 3,69. Demons!, proti, as subject, Urk. i-v. 415, 13. ' SH.S. 131. Sim. Sin. B 2 33—4,qu. 344, 3; /».43s; Eb. 101, 15 ; 108, 20.
>Cain)583,3. Wilh n »m. snbj. MZ. 69, 37,
* Sk. S. 100. Sim. P.b. 69, 3; Urk. iv. '23, 13; 135,3; Arm. ■<>3, 5-
■ BH. i. 7. Sim. Adm. 3, 3 ; Buhen, p. 91.
' Urk.iv. 973. Sim. Cairo 30765, 3-4.
7 Urk. iv. 973.
•   Hark. 68; sim. ib. 69. Also some doiibtfnl cases written with —. Gu NN, Studies, cb. xxi.
*  BH. i. 25, 98-9.
10  Sh.S. 50-1. Sim. iV«.B8i-2,qu. §117.
11   Urk.iv. its. Sim. between noan and gen., im.{f) Sin. SiS-i-S;Sh.S.i5-6; Beil. Al. i. p. 258, 16-7; knt.{l), Jlamm. 114, 11.
" Sin. B 280. Sim. Siut 1, 237; IMeir iii. 8; Peas. B I, 95. 315; Cairo 3053a, ii. c 18.
97
122
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
■ n. t. s. u. n.
1 Si/t. B 43. Sim. :ó. 215. 224; Leb. 81.
' Urk iv. 101. Sim. Adm. p. 101.
' Bří. i. 26, 155. So too after «« ' there ;s nothing', Aar. B t, i ao; after n wnt, with samemeaning,/¥. 21 J.
• Vrk.ir.ij. Sim. i'í. iv. 506,8.
» £V>. iv. 656, 5.
7 T. Cam. 7. Sim. Cri. iv. 649, 15.
' Graffito in the ttmple of Sahurěf iMöller.)
' See Em Sfr. J II tst£. p. 119, n. 2.
^sí^í'ls"=>+2§^iT! m£ sw r wnmw behold, it is for food.1
Obs. For the use of this r after verbs of' appointing', ' making', see § 84 ; and for its development with the infinitive see § 332.
§ 123. Omission of the subject before adverbial predicate-Instances are occasionally found:
Exx. (Js^lPsl' *w m* s&r n-r 't was "ke the counsel of god.2
IÍL&IMľíä J^?i^ "n m 'u'-ms hfl-hr-tn (this) is not falsehood before you.''
^ZHüz^ee"— nn wn hr-hwf there was none beside him.4
-^TláfIkjäiF^S? n dd* hi n-i r ht nit I did not say 'Would that I had' (lit. would that to me) about anything.8
See further below § 153 for the omission of the subject in wishes, greetings and the like.
§ 124. The pronominal compound f$ tw-i.—In Dyn. XVII are found the earliest traces of a new method of expressing the pronominal subject when the predicate is adverbial.    The full paradigm, some forms of which do not occur until the Late Egyptian stage of the language, is as follows: Sing.                                                      Plur.
ist pers. c.    |$ twi I.                                     %~ twn we.
2nd pers. m. g£ twk thou. „      „     f.   !j$ tw-t thou. 3rd pers. m.  \l sw he, it.
„      „     f.   p^ sy (later \<i) she, it. Impersonal    3fc3fc twiw one."
Exx. }.ej?_~—1&?i^itiTiJL^&S sw &r ll n r"n'a'> íw'n hr Kmt he is in possession of (lit. under) the land of the Asiatics, we are in possession of Egypt.7 Pw^?*—£1£rLS sy m br'f m* Í! Pl lt seemed to him like heaven, lit. it (the temple) was in his face like the sky.8
Obs. These new pronominal forms are conjectured9 to have arisen from ntt tvl ' that I', etc., see § 223. At all events the parallelism of stv, sy and si (perhaps from *t-sw, *t-sy, *i-st by assimilation of t to s) with twi warrants the distinction of them from the dependent pronouns of § 43.    See § 330 for an extension of this construction.
VOCABULARY
IjT var. J Vi J\ ^abandon, forsake.        IP-A Sms follow, accompany, serve;
Z^-jAsé send; pass (time).                                 ÍP$,"Í\   šmSW0T   ÍPI.^i
=    .                                                                   šmswl following, suite (noun).
^fl .«compete; completion.             ^^ ^ ^^ ^
ľUJí^ j3 skl PIou£h. cult'vate.                       old age.
98
a~ twin you. \°,sl they.
öjk^^ hmw rudder.
5k JL^» (abbrev- "*> 'Pd bird-<=*^'*==' rm fish.
iht field.
lid month.
Y var. Y i  ''t office, rank.
|I ^27 var. ffl hi festival, holiday.
LESSON  X
ra
Vocab.
~k  0
___Ojřffi   hnw jubilation, praise.
I   1y] r-pr temple, chapel, shrine.
Q n hwt nouse> large edifice; 'IP A
hwt-ntjr temple. -£■& hity heart, breast.
itv wrong, crime.
h  high,  tall;   A kiw height.
EXERCISE   X
(a)  Transliterate and translate:

« yr
A
0
w J^J^MJH^J^ÉP     (4) ^l,^l>-
Ř raim-fl,, ,
»9 ®
1 I  I  1  1 £nli 1  I 1
1 See p. 423, Add. to § 86.        3 The ordinary priest* ''««-#> '--ved in the temples in rotation, one month at a time.
(i)  Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration :
(i) I crossed in a boat without a rudder (lit. not was its rudder). (2) Thou shalt be an old man of thy city. (3) All my property shall belong to my brothers and sisters. (4) There were old men there and (lit. with) children. (5) He caused me to be in the following of His Majesty, when he was at (lit. upon) his southern boundary. (6) He entered into the temple, the entire town being in festival. (7) I say to the birds which-are-in the heaven and to the fishes which-are-in the water: How great is the might of this god! (8) I ploughed my fields with my own asses. (9) My office was (that of) he-who-is-over the secrets, (to) God sends it to thee in the completion of a moment.
99
§125
EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR
LESSON   XI
1 See Sethi, Nc-minalsat*, SS J3 foil.; Lef. Gr. SS 603. '»H.
>  Sin. R 3. Sim. Urk. It. 61, 14; 118, 3; 1069,6-7.
>   Peat. B I, ía. Sim. ti. 140. 161; nit, M. u. K. a, 3-9 j *# Budge, p. 38, 7-9-
'RiMl.n. 7W, Lac TR. 11,9; Em. Hymn. 1,5, qo. Exert 3l(«)i Vrt. It. 338, »5-
■  M M.K., veno4, 7-
■  FraSER, Satrah, do. 36a. SeeaJaoAor. B I, 158-0; Jfitfc. 7. 17-8; Hamm. 43, 13. More complex exx. f>«. it. 371, 9; 558, "5-
SENTENCES WITH NOMINAL OR PRONOMINAL PREDICATE1
§ 125. We have seen that, with the help of the prepositions which have been termed the m of predication (§ 38) and the r of futurity (} 122), the model of the sentence with adverbial predicate could be utilized by the Egyptians to express the meaning of English sentences with nominal or pronominal predicate; examples have been quoted in {§ 117. 118. 119. 122. In the present lesson we have to learn that apart from-the method just alluded to, Egyptian possessed a specific and well-characterized model for constructing sentences with a noun or pronoun as predicate. The principal divergences from the sentence with adverbial predicate are that here the independent pronouns of § 64 are freely used, that iw and wnn are not employed, and that the demonstrative word pw (§110) makes its appearance as an important syntactical element.
The principle underlyir.g the Egyptian sentence with nominal or pronominal predicate is the principle of direct juxtaposition, the subject preceding the predicate as in the sentence with adverbial predicate. This construction is still very common in Middle Egyptian when the subject is a personal pronoun, and a previous lesson has taught us that in this case the independent pronouns are used (§§ 65, 1); the copula is not expressed.
Exx. «g,$í<i& in& Stnsw í was a follower.»
<S1«!LS—Si j&S»á nt& it n nmh thou art the father of the orphan.'
■^^alTr swt n^"n he is our lord.*
When the subject is a noun, direct juxtaposition is practically obsolete, though it was still common in the Pyramid Texts. A few Middle Egyptian examples may be quoted, notwithstanding.
Exx. S^.^'&^JL^jSá m^t't mkt Re *y (*•) protection is the protection of Re<.«
^-—^P^^ULá m n mwt-s Twii the name of her mother is Tjuia.'
Other examples will be found below S 127, 1. 2. 3.
Obs. The old construction nom. subj.+nom. pred. survives also in the important construction In + noun + participle, see below §§ »27, 3; 37a; 373; to this the counterpart with pronominal subject is of the form indep. pron. + participle, quite in accordance with the examples quoted above.
§ 126. Subject and predicate.—In sentences having an adverbial predicate there is no risk of confusing subject and predicate, since an adverb or adverbial phrase is by its very form precluded from being a subject in the grammatical sense. The necessity of defining the terms ' subject' and ' predicate >becomes urgent, however, when we proceed to consider the sentence with
100
DEFINITIONS OF  SUBJECT AND   PREDICATE
§126
a noun or pronoun as predicate; for we are evidently not justified in speaking of sentences with nominal or pronominal predicate unless we are able to distinguish the subject from the predicate in any given sentence, and here the criterion of form fails us. In English such a criterion is often afforded by the agreement of the copula with the subject in person and number, as in ' I am your friend', ' they are a united family'; in Egyptian no such help is forthcoming, and we are consequently thrown back upon the logical definitions of subject and predicate as respectively 'the thing spoken of and 'that which is affirmed or denied of the subject'. A good test for the logical predicate is to cast the sentence into the shape of a question; then the elements which correspond to the interrogative word constitute the logical predicate. Thus in ' I am your friend' the logical predicate is ' your friend' whenever the sentence answers the question ' what am P? '
Returning now to the Egyptian sentence with adverbial predicate, we find that more often than not the adverbial predicate does state exactly what is affirmed or denied of the subject. In iw n> m sbiyt 'this is (as) an instruction' (§ 117) the corresponding question would be ' what is this ?' and consequently m sôryt is the logical predicate, besides being'the grammatical predicate. Such is the natural or normal state of affairs, and we may define the grammatical predicate as that element in a sentence (or even in a subordinate clause, § 182) which either by position or by form would normally express the meaning of the logical predicate; and the grammatical subject as that element which in like manner would normally express the meaning of the logical subject A distinction between the two kinds of predicate would, of course, be unnecessary in practice, if both always coincided ; but we have now to see that such is not the case. In the sentence iw dibw, im-f kn' iirrt ' figs were in it and grapes '(§117) we are indeed informed where figs and grapes were, so that im-f, the grammatical predicate, is in a secondary sort of way also a logical predicate; but this is not the real point of the sentence, which is to tell us what was there, and accordingly dibw hnf iirrt ' figs and grapes', although they are grammatically subject, must undeniably be considered as the real logical predicate. Such cases are frequent,1 ' Sim. sm. b 68. not only in Egyptian, but also in English, where a stress is laid in pronunciation quoted in s 117.' upon the logical predicate whenever this does not coincide with the grammatical predicate; thus ' he is in the house', with even intonation, answers the question ' where is he ?' and ' in the house' is simultaneously grammatical and logical predicate; but if we say ' he is in the house', the question answered is ' who is in the house?' and the stressed word 'he' is logical predicate, although it is grammatically subject. So in the English translation of the above-quoted Egyptian sentence, a slight stress is laid on the two words 'figs' and 'grapes'.
101
§126
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Weste. 7, r. Sim. Sin. B8l; Peas. R I. 2: ££.51.15-6. Pn + indirect genitive Urk. iv. 744.4-6. The but ex. of f 115 is except ion«!.
■ Sin. B13.
» Lac. Sáre. i, p. 213; Sim. JEA. 16, 19, 1. Exx. with m, P.Kan.t$,i\\P.Ptt. 1116 A, 58; P. molk. Mose. 13, 4; with nft, led. 37.
*  For alternative wars of expressing 'who art thon*' see S 495, end.
s Urk. v. 160, 11.
•   Urk. v. 10. Sim. m ty tw 'who art thoa ?' Liskt 30, 33.
In the Egyptian sentence with nominal predicate it is certain, both from general considerations and from examples like those of § 125, that the normal word-order was 1. logical subject, 2. logical predicate, as in English and as in the Egyptian sentence with adverbial predicate; hence the formulation adopted in § 125. When, therefore, as we shall find to be the case in many instances, the logical predicate precedes the logical subject, we are justified in regarding this as a departure from the normal word-order, i.e. as an inversion quite analogous to the use of stressed 'he' in the English sentence, 'he (and no one else) is my brother'.
Obs. The definitions of grammatical subject and predicate have been framed to accord with the fact that in some sentences with adjectival predicate, as well as in verbal sentences with S4m-f and similar forms, the word-order is 1. gramm. pred., 2. gramm. subj.; for the reasons of this see below §§ 137, Obs. ; 411, 1. Later on, the term ' grammatical subject' will sometimes be used in antithesis to' grammatical object' or again to another kind of subject for which we have coined the name 'semantic subject', see below § 297,1. When 'subject' is written without qualification, either there has seemed but little likelihood of confusion, or else the word so described is subject in more senses than one, as in § 115.
§ 127. The logical predicate comes first in the following cases, exemplifying the kind of inversion explained at the end of 5 126:
1.  When the logical subject is »-»y'his name', rn~s 'her name'.
Ex. 'Ti P$*$ f f í iuZá*— "ds Ddl rn-f a commoner whose name is Djedi, lit. a commoner, Djedi is his name.1
Note that in this case, as well as in others quoted below under 2 and 3, direct juxtaposition is used in spite of the fact that the grammatical subject is not a personal pronoun.
2.  When the logical subject is a demonstrative pronoun. Exx. ^~\U&"~~\W dpi mwt nn this is the taste of death.'
-řl&xS^HÍáo^-^dr^Pi? w,t Dhwty nw r pr Mfit this is the road of Thoth to the house of Ma'et.'
3.  When the logical predicate is an interrogative pronoun; in this case the logical subject, if a pronoun, is a dependent pronoun, since it occupies the second place.'
Exx. (jTP^flSsflT^—P iisi tr iht irlfh ns what is, pray, the thing which thou hast done to it ? *
°^.{&ľllr\ ŕir rfs™ who is he ? •
4.  When the logical predicate is an independent pronoun. The greater emphasis of the independent pronouns always tends to give them the force of the logical predicate.    Possibly the second and third examples of § 125 would
102
SENTENCES WITH  NOMINAL PREDICATE
§127
have been better translated ' it is thou (who art) the father of the orphan' and ' it is he (who is) our lord' respectively. When the pronoun is stressed in this manner, it is not seldom accompanied by the enclitic particle \ f is ' indeed' (§ 247). Ex. «S^IPt-d^^áscSa ink is hki Pwnt it is I (who am) the ruler of PwEnet1
It is no absolute rule, however, that the pronoun, when accompanied by is, is to be understood as logical predicate. Nor yet is such the case with jS»*^ omni and iS~ vmt, which are similarly used; * these are probably fern, participles from the verb vmn ' be' which have come to be employed as particles meaning ' indeed', ' really', see below § 249.
Exx. ^aSTW?—^^^ ink wnnl imy lb n nb-f mfi I was indeed one truly in the heart of his lord.*
,5,*£"T^11aSál3 ink wnt mry rmt I was indeed one beloved of people.4
§ 128. Use of 0^ pw for the pronoun 3rd pers.—The use of the
demonstratives exemplified in § T27, 2 gave rise to an idiom of the highest importance; the demonstrative pronoun a\ pw (§§ no. ill) came to be employed as logical subject after logical predicates consisting of a noun, not however with its own proper meaning of' this' or ' that', but as an equivalent for 'he', 'she', 'it' or 'they' invariable in number and gender. Compare French ce in c'est, ce sont.
Exx. 2H§ <$t ^r i"" li 's ^et *** ne 's ^e<-° Answer to the question ptr r/sw ' who is he ?' quoted above § 127, 3.
2s3ŕ3E:íle~ď3-^ tmt Wb pw n R' she is the wife of a priest of Re<.« Answer to the question ' who is this Reddjedet ?' quoted below § 132.
}^^>S»$Id^ hwrwpw they are wretches.'
The logical predicate may be an independent pronoun:
Ex. »^e^,^^ ntfpw m mfit it is he in truth.8
Or else, rather rarely, it may be a demonstrative pronoun:
Ex. "tf&l ý'ŕw this is it«
Sometimes pw is absent in places where we might expect it; it is then impossible to be sure whether there is a deliberate omission of pw, for sake of brevity or some other reason, or whether we have the construction of § 89, 2.
Ex. ^—"7" {iw n r (it is mere) breath of the mouth.10
Obs. For 'he is Re'', as we have seen 51*5, ntf Rr can also be said; but in that case the pronoun is more emphatic and tends to obtain the value of the logical predicate ' he is RěV
§ 129. Position Of 0^ Pw-—If tne logical predicate consists of several words, pw may be intercalated before some of them."
Exx. M;á«-M=I>5»0I?,« shlypwn Sht-hmit he was a peasant of the Wády Natrún."
a IO3
1 Sh.S. 151. Sim. Lac. TR. 19, 45; Sin. B 333; Nav. I b, >7-
1 See   Verbum, ii, S 978.
•  Brit. Mos. 614, 7. Sim. Cairo 30543,16; Mill. ix. 18.
*  Torin 1447. Sim. Leyden V 4, 12; Louvre C1, 10; ÄZ. 34. »7-
■ Urk. v. 10. Sim. Í1V1.B47. 57. 58. 60; Urk. iv. 17, II. 16.
• Weste. 9, 9.
'Berl.^/.i.p.258.
10 r7re.iv.H3. Sim. ii. 133, 16.
11 RnlesmH.ABsL, Zur Tonversehmelt-ung im Atteugypti-sehen, Leipzig, 1910, ch. I.
" Peas. R I. Sim. .Si«. B30-1; Ei. 103, 9; W«/f.9,9,qn.n.6 above; Uri.iv. 349,4.
§129
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Sin. B8r.   Sim. /»•33°; £ft*.T.lt,l. 1 Urk. v. JO, 9
1 Lei.}». Sim. ii. 20-I; BH. i. 35, 76; Wette. 8, 13; Urk. "■■369, >; 5<9> 9-
* /OTA 18, »03, 16. Sim. Peas. B I, »J»-3-
■ r>*. iv. 973, 10. Sim. ii. 973, 8.
"/?«. 39,121. Sim. A'4iW 57. 58; Peas. B l, 19. Nifw + jt\. form 'these it is which .....'AZ.fKf.ii. 23. Similar in appe*Mii;t'. bat different in reality, are cases like ti pw it/ 'it is that girľ, if'«/*-. 13, 32; aim. Ei. 103, 6-7, cf. ii. 103,9, qu. I 19O1 '•
>7ieJ^13Ě.^>*^0''S ti pw nfr, 'Ii> rn-f it was a good land, whose name was Yaa.1
IS^MZj^^á &w í"" hnt Sil they are H u and Sia.* Answer to the question ' who are these gods ?'
Obs. Compare the similar intercalation of short adverbial predicates, above §121.
§ 130. °\ pw in sentences where both subject and predicate are nouns.—As we have seen (§ 125), the original method of expressing sentences where both subject and predicate were nouns was by direct juxtaposition; but long before the Middle Kingdom that method had become obsolete and had given place to another based on the use of pw described in § 128. The logical predicate (or part of it, § 129) comes first and is followed by pw as a purely formal logical subject; the real logical subject is added in apposition to pw.
Exx. ■=217Q^r't2i] dmi pw 'Imnt the West is an abode, lit. an abode (is) it, namely the West.3
oooi11^—"5"i»ll mnwi"" n s nfrwfa. man's goodness is his monument, lit. the monument it (is) of a man, (namely) his goodness.*
Rarely either the subject or predicate may be a demonstrative.
Exx. Ipili'&o^'ŤS'fe.^B.'r' Ml-ipw m m wn mľ this is my character in reality.5
2£o^j].«a>. pi pw Wsir such is Osiris, lit this (is) he, Osiris.*
The substitution of this construction for the method of direct juxtaposition was evidently due to the desire to indicate the logical predicate more clearly than could be done by that method, in connection with which inversions were frequent. Now a demonstrative word like' this' is far more often logical subject than logical predicate; we are more prone to say that' this' is so-and-so than that so-and-so is' this'. H ence the intercalation of a demonstrative in a sentence in which both subject and predicate are nouns (in Egyptian it must occupy the second place, inversion here being the rule, j 127, 2) is apt to mark the preceding noun as the real logical predicate. The effect of such an intercalation will be felt by comparing French e'est lui le rot with il est le rot, where the use of ce, just like that of pw in Egyptian, points unmistakably to lui as the logical predicate.
Thus whereas in the old method of direct juxtaposition the first word (the grammatical subject §§ 125-6) could be almost as easily logical predicate as logical subject (though the latter was of course its proper function), in the sentence with intercalated a\ the first word is, in the vast majority of cases, not the logical subject, but the logical predicate.
The tragedy of language is, however, that it is constantly perverting the constructions which it creates to purposes for which they were not primarily intended; by a second inversion (the first being that of § 127, 2) the sentence
104
-SENTENCES WITH   NOMINAL PREDICATE
§130
with pw could sometimes have the logical subject in the first place, thus returning to the original word-order (§ 125).
Exx. JĽŽ^ľTiO&TIVÍPSIK? 1 P&rl rw *** ¥w's ntrht oil is the remedy of her body.1 The sentence raises the question what is the best preservative for a woman's body, and the answer is ' oil'.
Ji<L./?n^!ll'i?i twt-ipw As my abomination is excrement.»
§ 131. Owing to the frequent intercalation of pw between a noun and some words that qualify it ({ 129), an ambiguity is apt to arise which requires careful attention. In a sentence like S—já D^ICállT Nwn pw it ntrw,' nothing but the context can decide whether the intended meaning was ' it (or ' he') is Nun, the father of the gods' (it in apposition to Nwn, § 90) or ' the father of the gods is Nun' (it in apposition to pw, § 130).
§ 132. The dependent pronoun in place of pw.—This construction is a development of that oiplr sw, above §127,3, an<l occurs only with interrogatives.
Ex. JUfiP^i^ttlllTlJ Pty V b Rd-^dt who is this Reddjedet?« Lit who is she, this Reddjedet ?
§ 133. Tense and mood in the sentence with nominal predicate.—
As in the sentence with adverbial predicate, so too here it is usually the context which provides the key to the intended tense and mood. The verbs iw and wnn (§§ 117. 118) are not, as a rule,' found in company with any of the constructions described in f§ 125-130, so that if it was desired to utilize those verbs, the Egyptians had recourse to the m of predication ; examples above H 117. 118.
On the other hand, mi' behold' and various particles like it' may occur at the beginning of the sentence with pw.
Exx. J^^.'='ľTi)S?'l^'u "^ b*** P™ lm'b behold., that is my due from thee.T
HP«=1^ a\r& .1  ist si pw mnh lo, he was a beneficent son.'
SrásSiKfi'1—I shook shtyfpw probably he is a peasant of his.* For smwn ' probably' see j 241.
So too with the particle of wishing hi (§ 119, 7).
Ex. t&álwJLIU&S*,1? h' rJZrh ŕ™"" ™t would that it were the end of men."
Obs. Clauses of time and circumstance utilize the m of predication and conform to the rules for adverbial predicate ; see above §5 :17 ; 119,2. So too the construction wnn-f (wtľf) m is employed after prepositions (§ 157, 2) and «V ' if (§ 150). For exceptional cases where a clause with real nominal predicate follows a preposition, see § 154 end.
1 Pt. 328. Sim. P. Kat. 8, 3«. 36. 27; Pr. I, 12; Et. 1, 8; Budge, p. 209,6.
' Lac. TP. 33, 3.
> Weste. a,t. With as'who!' GV*. y. 30, 8;/w 'who!' S498. Sim. with A*'whence!' i 5°3» 4 i í* "*, how. ever.an adverbial predicate.
* Vw exceptionally before the indep.pron., see 1468, 3.
a Hr before the con-strnčtioa with direct joxUpoTitian (f 125), see Weste. 7, 17-8.
' St. S. 1S9-00. Sim. Pt. 414; Rhmd 57; Urk. i*. so, 14.
•  BH. i. 36, l««-7.
*  Peas. B 1,44.
» ^».5,14.
105
§184
EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR
pw omitted,
133, I5.
§ 134. Negation of sentences with nominal or pronominal predicate.—Examples are uncommon.    Before a noun followed by pw ^ tin is used.
Ex. IlriMcMZ/^llá nn rfc Pw t"r h »' means (lit. is) no fighting 1 Cntiv.m. Sim.   with another.1
Cairo 30530, 7. With
...... vrk. i».            Note, however, that -*- « is employed if pw is preceded by the enclitic
particle \f is 'indeed'.
Ex. PJ-*-.í.f®l)P °>—^^JIcSJL sl{ (for 1st) «iris pw n iwt r bii pn lo, it was indeed not the season for coming to this mining region.*
With -*-.... (j p n.....is occasionally pw is omitted as superfluous.
Ex. -*. VÔáíP * "'* b he 's not myson-9
In one case the pronoun si ' they' appears to be substituted tor pw:
-"-líásíilPTv^Po * rmt k nt !ft sl *ey are not people of worth.4 Before the independent pronouns the negative word used is -*- n.
Exx. -*-^7á^.íí"íl'*- * t"& tr sm,'f I am not' forsooth, a confederate of his.*
-^Sle^árvl * nt/pw m mľt it is not he in truth.« _ Later, however, instances with ^ nn can be found.7
1 Sinai 90. Sim. Siut I, 388; Pias. B i, 95-6.
•Beil. AI. i. p. 358, 10. Sim. Lac TR. ■»7.34-
«Bert..*/, i. p. 358, 13-
*  Sin. B 114. Sim. with Is, Lac. TR. 73. 4'-
•  Sin. B 367.
' WtsU. 9, 6. See also GuNN, Studies, p. 170.
O
® I wsh be broad, wide;  broad, wide (adj.); breadth (noun). J\ var.        Ji phr go round; P      JX spdr cause to circulate.
Vf* hms sit down, sit, dwell.
Ji spr draw nigh, approach; petition («).
^^IjI ^ ra'se uP'
:O^^I nfw reis, skipper.
O V & V& var. P ? smr courtier, friend
(of the king). C~a V n ^sw commander (of a fortress
or army). tó Ř  mfr army, expedition.
^És5 var. ^[ dt serf (fern.).
-Ž)%hilt rope in front of a ship.
VOCABULARY
Ü^O Q ^ pkwyt rope at back of a ship. S^oM »/<7 truth, right, justice. ÜI */rw beauty, p^- rrzvy sleep.
^QQs mryt river-bank, ň Q © itn sun's disk, sun. "^ľ irt eye. ear. ^£$/^var.^£^,who?
Ď £ 'Iwnw, Heliopolis, On of the Bible,
a town near Cairo. ta%k s§ O'»» Atum, the solar god of
Heliopolis.
106
EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR                                         Exerc. XI
EXERCISE   XI
(a)  Study the following extract from a self-laudatory inscription :l
£         «§>         7Ř*    *    **&                      TIP
ink            grt               hity       n         nb                    rnh,wdi,snó($3i$)
I     (am), moreover,    the heart    of     the Lord  (may he live, be prosperous and healthy),
fnhwy             irty               ity                   mk          wi         m              nfw
the ears   and     eyes    ■ of the Sovereign.     Behold,         I        (am as)       a skipper
ZM     •%£:   zl$~    £IT    M    £*?
n-f-imy               hm-n-(i)              rtwy                  grh              mi             hrw
belonging to him.   I am ignorant of        sleep                 night        as well as         day.
\-tit   ZMl sS°Ä   4      &    »m~
fly-i               hms-i           hityl             hr                hitt                pkwyt
I stand up       and sit down2     my heart     under (i.e.     the prow-rope and the stem-rope.
attentive to) 1 Newbbrrv, Lift of Rekhmara, 7, 16, collated and slightly restored; see ÄZ. 60, 69.      s Le. pass all my time.
(b)   Transliterate and translate:
~>P§^     (7) ^tJ^IJPW^HlM
1 The four personal names mentioned in this passage are to be rendered Ameoemhet (7m*-m-itt' AmDn at the front *), Seobsumad (Stfi-svi-mr-t 'he is healthy with me'), Ftahhotpe (Ptk-ktpw 'Ptah is content') and 'Anlcha C«£w, shortening for some snch name as Hr.rit^w * Horns lives').
(c)   Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration:
(1) O great (wr) overseer of the house, thou art the rudder of the entire land. (2) Behold, thou art here, thou art happy {nfr) with me, thou hearest the speech (r) of Egypt; thou shalt be the commander of my army. (3) Thou shalt have a tomb on the west of Heliopolis. (4) I was indeed greatest of the courtiers. (5) This is the way to the Residence. (6) (King) Amenemhět is Atum himself, he gives the breath of life to (>-) the nose(s) of everyone. 1
107
§135
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
LESSON   XII
1 SceSETKB, A'tmi-«oAaft, M 33-37; 63-67; 85-86, etc.; Lef. Cr. M 613 folL
w Not, however, to the »infe-adjectives of S 7».
*  Sin. B 154-5, Sim, 11*. 153; Siut if 218.
*   Brit. Mas. 581. Sim. Cairo 30531, c 2.
*   Urk. iv. 67. Sim. ť*. 1078, 17.
•  Si*. B 330.
< Batui/iHitA, Urk. ».861,8.
SENTENCES  WITH ADJECTIVAL PREDICATE
§ 135. Sentences with adjectival predicate * follow, in principle, the pattern of the sentences with nominal predicate, but there are many important differences. Some of the relevant facts have been stated already in previous sections (§§ 44, 3 ; 46, 3 ; 48, 2 ; 49 ; 65, 2).
To most" Egyptian adjectives there corresponded an adjective-verb, and indeed it is highly probable that the adjective was simply a participle from such a verb. Thus J^ nfr is a verb ' be beautiful, good' and the adjective nfr may well mean properly ' being good'. We shall frequently have occasion to note that some form of the adjective-verb is substituted for the adjective itself in constructions where the latter cannot be used, just as we found (§118) the verb wn substituted for iw where the latter cannot be used; in fact, the two cases will be shown to be remarkably analogous and parallel.
§ 136. Independent pronoun + adjective.—This is the construction usual with the ist pers. sing.
Exx. ,°,)§*«^'' '§*■> ink fit mrl I am one rich in serfs.2
<§, J~—cv3 21"& 6nr n pr nif I was one pleasant to the house of his lord.:1
The characteristic and regular use of the suffix 3rd pers. sing, (nif' his lord') in this last example indicates that inr means ' one pleasant' rather than simply ' pleasant', in other words that it is here a noun rather than an adjective. Thus the construction is merely a special case of that described in f 125.
As in the corresponding construction with nominal predicate just alluded to, so too here the pronoun is apt to have emphatic force and tends to become the logical predicate. Here again (see above { 127, 4), the particle \\ if'indeed' often serves to give emphasis to the pronoun, though without always giving it the importance of the logical predicate.
Exx. ,5.l)PII!®rT ink & mif-j.rw tp li I was indeed one justified upon earth.4
-^-«éÄIP^S^ jT"ŕ * ink is h si \ am not one high of back, i. e. overweening." Here ink is logical predicate: / am not overweening, whatever others may be.
Examples with any independent pronoun other than that of the first person are very rare, if the predicate be an adjective pure and simple.'
Obs.  For  the closely related  construction with independent pronoun and participle see below { 373.
§ 137. Adjective+noun or dependent pronoun.—Except in the case of the ist pers. this is the usual construction. The adjective precedes the subject and is invariable in number and gender; it may be accompanied by the exclamatory ending $v -wy, see above § 49.
108
SENTENCES WITH  ADJECTIVAL   PREDICATE
§137
Examples with a noun as subject:
i^&ÍH^^ŕfiÔ nfr >ntn-l my path is good.1
Sjjy^jJ^iv^.m.n.e^pj^jřj^-? wr hsfi m stp-si r smr wty ni greater was my praise in the palace than (that of) any Unique Friend.*
Examples with a dependent:pronoun as subject:
ťulZjÔ nfr tw ffťi A0" art happy with me.s
■*^Pö-=-J^' rii si r £t nil it was more plentiful than anything.*
i°H$'~P» ti»t"wy n-s si how like (to) her it is ! *
With the 1st pers. sing, the construction independent pronoun + adjective (5136) is preferred,' except in the case of the adjective -~ ny' belonging to'; the construction both of ny and of the expressions for ' belonging to me, thee', etc. (ink, ntk; n-i-imy, n-k-imy) has been seen to conform to that of the adjectival predicate; see above f 114, 2. 3. 4.
Attention must here be drawn to two very important points :
1.   In the construction here discussed the adjectival predicate precedes its subject; we have good reason for thinking that, whenever an apparent adjectival predicate follows its subject, this predicate is not really an adjective at all, but the old perfective tense of the adjective-veri; see below § 320, end.
2.   With nominal subject it is impossible to distinguish between the construction adj. + subj. and the &4mf form of the adjective-verb; with a singular pronoun as subject, on the other hand, the distinction is clearly marked, since the adjectival predicate demands the dependent pronouns, whereas the idm-f form employs the suffixes. For the uses of the Sdmf form of the adjective-verb see below 5, 143. 144.
Obs. The construction dealt with in this section is obviously closely related to
those cases with nominal predicate where the secondary and inverted word-order
i. log.  pred., 3.  log.  subj.   has become  stabilized and  customary;   see § 127,
particularly under 3.
§ 138, The same construction with a following dative serves to combine
the notion of an adjectival predicate with that of possession; see above § 114, 1.
Ex. The land of Yaa.......^ZľľtTi m^HE: wr n'f ^rP r mw 'l 's m°re
abundant in wine than in water; or it has more wine than water; lit., great to it is wine more than water.'
§ 139. Adjective + dependent pronoun+noun.—An example of an uncommon kind is
^Cftľá rd-wy sw ii-i how strong is my heart! Lit how firm is it (namely) my heart.*
Here sw exercises much the same function as pw in its developed use with nominal predicate, above § 130; a still closer parallel above § 132.
1/Viu.Bl,3.Sim.t>. Bl,lo8-9;Si'it. B155; EjtM. Hymn. 4, 3; 14, 3.
1 BH. i. 35, 101. Sim. Btrtk. i. 14,10; Sk.S. 30-3o;99-ioo; Cairo 30543, 13.
•  Si». R55. Sim. P. Kah. 3, 33.
•  Urk. iv. 693. Sim. ii. 687, 16; 879, 4; Sk.S. 63. 134.
■ Vrt. i». 36».
•   But see Adm. p. 104, an ex. with a genuine adj.; also the exx. with a participle, Add. to 5 374.
' Slit. B 81. Sim. Sk.S. 150, qu. { 144, 1; P.Ptt.lllbi, 10.
• Pakeri 3; Sim. Urk. iv. 1166, 10. See too Můminalíatt. ii 85. 86.
IO9
§140
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Peas. R 45. Sim. Uri. \v. 1087, 8, where tut for « is in accord with later custom, see GuNN, Studies, p. 169.
» Pens. B t, 165.
s Uri. ÍT. 133; Sim. Sinai 90, 30-1. Present time, see Uri. iv. 366, 5; v. 170, 17.
* ÄZ. 57, 1*. Sim. Milt. ix. 18.
" Sin. B 146-7. Sim. ib. 106; Cairo 20511, í 4.
* Adm. 6, 8.
7 7*. T. S. L pp. 40. 64. PI. 15. Sim. Ftersh. i. 15.
P. Pet. iu6a,9I.
§140. Adjective+ a^ pw.—Examples similar to those with nominal predicate (§§ 128. 130) are found when the predicate is adjectival, only much more rarely.
Exx. KiJS^-^-ePSililP! Ans pw, n vis]} is pw it (the path) was narrow, it was nofbroad.1
"*"^1Pe^1& « wr is pw wr im such a great one is not really great, lit. not great indeed is he, the great one there.*
Obs. For nfr pw as a means of expressing negation, see below $ 351, 2.
§ 141. The adjective as impersonal predicate with following dative.—In the constructions already studied the adjective predicated is an inherent quality. We are here to become acquainted with a construction in which the adjectival predicate is followed by the dative; this is used when a contingent, accidental or merely temporary qualification has to be expressed. The difference is best illustrated by German, where er ist kalt means' he is cold' in temperament, while ihm ist kalt signifies ' he is cold', meaning ' he feels cold'; so too in the French il afroid as contrasted with il estfroid. Exx. I——• nfr n-tn it will go well with you.8
~i».íií&&l5!&.?. '' n'l mm wrw *" am become great among the princes.4 Z,—M'f^',Ř'**\\'ll%^^^i'*' v>4 «'(O m thfwl, 'S' n-(i) m mnmnt-i I became extensive in my wealth, 1 became rich in my flocks.    Lit. it was broad to me in my wealth, it was plentiful to me in my flocks.5 JtS^lř bin-wy n-i how ill it is with (lit. to) me.'
l^$*—"STIBini nfr'wy n t> hwt-ntr how well it goes with the temple (when a certain thing happens).7
The same construction occurs with pw, but extremely rarely. Ex. 3vs"-,J^2^1& &sn P*" n *"" ntf *m lt S0^ wretchedly with (lit it is wretched to) the place where he is.8
Obs. 1. The word with adjectival meaning in this construction is doubtless a true adjective with omitted subject, see below § 145. That it cannot be an impersonal lim-f form seems clear from the occasional presence of the exclamatory ending -wy\ another reason is given below { 467. The occasional presence of -wy also proves that the adjectival word + n cannot be identified with the Sim-n-f form; we may also point to the absence of any examples where the » is separated from its noun, as may happen with the idm-n-f form. None the less, the idm-n-f form originated in a very similar way, see §§ 386; 389, 3, end; 411, 3. For an undoubted idm-nf'form from the adjective-verb, see below § 144, 3.
Obs. a. For nfr n as a means of expressing negation, see § 351,1.
§ 142. Tense and mood in the sentence with adjectival predicate.—As in the sentences with adverbial and nominal predicate the tense must, as a rule, be inferred from the context.   Examples with both present and past
no
SENTENCES WITH  ADJECTIVAL  PREDICATE                 §142
meaning háve been quoted in the foregoing sections, and nfr n-tn in § 141 is an example with future meaning.
The verbs 1)^ iw and áS^ľ wnn (H »17. 118) have a certain limited use before the adjectival predicate when its subject is a dependent pronoun.
Exx. He has reached old age serving the Pharaoh, \\ {!!!;}■ 3r"=2žra"5"?*=* V iw nfr sw m pi hrw r sf while he is better to-day than yesterday.1                              ' n. T. s. m. 26.
^IčJá&ZItlkPwTíll mk wnn nim sy hr ibf behold, it will be pleasant in his heart*                                                                                                                            r p-Kah- s-s6-
ž51—J^Pö??PiTi *"»•!» nfr st hr ib-sn thereupon it was agreeable in their hearts."    For the idm-inf form of wnn here used see below {§429, 1; 470.            p'ea^i'',^. S"°'
For fei/ + adj. + » see below §467. Much more commonly, however, it is the old perfective tense of the adjective-verb, preceded by its subject, which is used after iw and wnn, see §§ 320. 323. 326.
The particles mk 'behold', ist 'lo', and hr 'further'* are found before      ' sin.b202-3. adjectival, as before nominal, predicate.
Exx. ^^J^^^—áíÄ1? m& nfr sim n *~mí behold, it is good for men to hearken, lit. good is a hearkening to men.5                                                            sĹŕ-^šPi 182" '*'
J^S^f^ 0^ mk dhr pw behold it (the office of vizier) is bitter."                        • uri. w. 1087.
1P«=3^1%il^^i 1st Ht wrt wit\o, very difficult was the road.'                      ' Btrsh. i. 14,1.
In wishes and in various dependent constructions the adjective itself cannot be used at all, and recourse was had to the fdmf form of the adjective-verb; see the next section.
Obs. Clauses of time and circumstance are expressed by the help of the old
perfective; see below §§ 314. 3*2. 313.
§ 143. The šdni'f form of the adjective-verb,—Just as \$ iw can be used only in a restricted number of cases and is elsewhere replaced by the idmf form of j&~ wnn (see above §118), so too the adjective must often be replaced by the édm-f form of the adjective-verb.
So, for example, in clauses of purpose (§ 40, 1).
wr-k im-s, krk im-s, <i IfSft-k im-s thou hast placed it (the eye of Horus) in thy head, that thou mayst be eminent by means of it, that thou mayst be exalted by means of it, that thy estimation may be great by means of it.8                                  i-a. Sim. píóbabiý
So too, again, after the verb rdi' cause' (§ 70),                                                  ^nTpSpioio/ '
Exx. *-»^^P^ jiTi-0^^-^ <#•' wsh swt ir wi I .will cause to be spacious the places of him who made me.'                                                                                        • w-i.iT.163.sim.
■ -       _■*,«  _.«  .«_                                                                                                                                                   tý. 103, ia; 505,13.
T=ľ&«__&_»^'o *M sirf m tt-k I will cause him to become acquainted     »• ai 139. Sim. with thy greatness.10   Lit (that) he become acquainted.                                           f&.niá,™"'
§143
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
*  See GuNN. Stu-dies. ch. 27.
*   Ar. 35; Sim. Urk. iv. 1082, 15; Nu ioat7;BtJDGB,a56,i.
*  LotmeC55. Sim. Sinai 90, 15; A'u 135*, »5- 3a- 3fi* 4°-
4 /Vöf. B 2, 103. Sim. ií. B 1, 177; Lac. TR. 1, 55.
*  Í*. .?. 150.
• tM.ir.500. Sim. Sin. B158; AW 1, 19« ; Ä» 7Í. T. J5. 26.
'ďi*/:,.'«0-1.310. Sim. S*n. 3, 17-18.
■ ŕ V*.W. 519. Sim. /a. 1077, 3; Erm. Hymn. 13, 5; Pt. 182-3;     /'«u.  B I,
• Budge, p. 113, 4. Sim. #. p. ue, 10; 362, 10; Pt. 56; Peas. B I, 208-9.
A similar use of the adjective-verb is found, as we shall see later, after other verbs ({ 186, i) and after prepositions (§ 157, 4). The cases are exactly the same as those in which um-/is found in place of iw-f. We have already pointed out (J 137 end) that the i4m-f form of the adjective-verb can be clearly distinguished from the adjective itself only when the subject is a singular pronoun, in which case a suffix-pronoun is used.
§ 144. Negation of sentences with adjectival predicate.'—Examples quoted in §5 136. 140 show how the sentence with adjectival predicate was negated when the subject was either an independent pronoun or else fw. In most other cases the adjective-verb, not the actual adjective, appears to be used, and the rules followed are those already statedln § 105.
1.  N édmf has often past reference.
Exx. -*-~Svá?? n ks-i hr lb I was not weak in the heart, i.e. I was not deemed weak.*
•*-T^frc= 8 QQ°fJH « '> r'i m inyt my mouth has not been great (i.e. I have not been self-assertive) among the courtiers.5
But it may also have present reference.
Exx. -*-l)J"^'«=7 n Is-k thou art not light*
-"-^"^J^i?, n wr n-k tntyw thou hast not much incense, lit. not great is incense to thee.4
2.  N n idm-f\izs future meaning.
Ex. ^P3rfe1SŽä nn fo'k lmfdt thou shalt not be bereft of it eternally.*
3.  N iim-nf denies a continuous or repeated action, irrespectively of the time at which the negative instance may occur.
Exx. -*-1sílJ£!^i£[ií2ei.!U^ n "dM'n n'f blbt *m reversal thereof (lit. receding therefrom) is not pleasant to him.'
-»-ß^JrSo^JTV- n Swn drpwf his offerings will not (ever) be lacking."
Obs. Most examples of « ijm-n-f are ambiguous, since it might be possible to view them as negative cases of adjectival predicate with following dative (§■ 141). However, the first of the two examples quoted above is placed beyond all doubt by the separation of n4m-n from its nominal subject
4.   Negative universals follow the model of the sentences expressing nonexistence (5108). The best examples contain participles or other adjectival parts of the verb; see below { 394.    Here only one type will be quoted:
—^JI&iSP^iS&T ** et *m'* bv1 m ntr no member of me is void of god, lit. there is not a member in me void of god.'
Obs. The negation of wishes, commands, and clauses of purpose with adjectival predicate is contrived by means of the negative verb tm. Not all these cases can be illustrated; an example of a negatived clause of purpose in § 347, 4.
SENTENCES WITH  ADJECTIVAL  PREDICATE                 §145
§ 145. Omission of the subject.—When the nature of the subject is clear from the context, it is occasionally omitted.
Ex.. Inspecting the netting of the desert-animals, 1P«=*,AW^"=>S'S' ist tSi wrt r frt nót and lo, (they were) much more numerous than anything.1
Or again, the subject may be omitted if it is perfectly vague. Thus in the construction nfr n-i 'it goes well with me' (§141) the implicit subject is the vague ' it' or ' things'.
This subjectless use of the adjectival predicate occurs also after iw, cf. § 142. The cases thus arising are discussed at length in § 467.
Jyfc iu> come.
J'y^ rndw speak, talk.   J^^ mdt
speech, word. t~J -KV/l nbm toke away, rescue. ^^ 3   ih be beneficial, advantageous. "TN       wsr be powerful, wealthy. ~T°1L M tki be precise, accurate. ™° M ml> be exact, precise.
üfl~~»3^»   %sn   be    difficult,   disagreeable, pla dns be heavy, irksome.
^ vJ§ Dhwty Thoth, the ibis-headed god of writing and mathematics.
VOCABULARY
Sbapl^^-*— iwsw balance, g (|ÍJ^3ä   rfyyt  common   people,
subjects. M—a?4gf var. 4=r s'hdignitary; rank,
dignity. ™ q        fart share, portion.
^j^fl mirty "E^teous. &3^.()(|^, iwyt wrongdoing.
if"©" iB/last vear"
-á1 kit front; m kit, r kit formerly,
o 1 *                     '
before.
^üMITr^i mA{rtw (§ 279) misery-
^T~° nn in the hand of; from; owing to; together with.
EXERCISE   XII
(a) Transliterate and trans/ate:
i¥?
a Jin©
r,¥.ur
»3
Exerc. XII
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
Tema   (5) -^Mjn~u   <«> a?
1 Rod «jr.
(í)  řfViVe in hieroglyphs and transliteration :
(i) My portion was not (too) great (wr). (2) I rescued the poor man from him (who was) more powerful than he. (3) (When) the mistress of the house speaks, it (pw) is irksome in (hr) the heart of the maid-servants. (4) I was one important (air) in his office, great in his rank, a noble in front of the common people, (s) I cause thee to be greater than any courtier. (6) Her clothes were white. (7) Behold, thou art beneficial to thy lord; it goes well with thee because of it. (8) The river will not be empty of crocodiles. (9) No man (rmt) is powerful like Ra<.
LESSON   XIII
EMPHASIS BY ANTICIPATION
§ 146. A noun, adverb, or adverbial phrase which has been removed from its regular place and put outside and in front of the sentence is said to stand in anticipatory emphasis. The word or phrase thus given prominence becomes, as it were, the pivot upon which the whole sentence turns; the effect is, however, sometimes different from what might be expected; thus in the two first exx. of § 147 the stress is upon the predicate, not upon the subject.
Except in the case of a mere adverbial expression, a resumptive pronoun must be substituted within the sentence itself for the word thus emphasized. Such a pronoun appears also in the parallels from modert languages, e.g. cetle confiance, U Vavait exprimée; ' every man that dies ill, the ill is upon his own head'.
§ 147.  Anticipatory emphasis in non-verbal sentences.    1. The
subject is put at the head of the sentence.
Exx. •jy-vw^P^'Z!" hbswl-f, wr sy r nth í his beard, it was greater ' st. s. 63.            than two cubits.1
«•.■Bifi.'ífj. S"°'           nf^M i*"1.$^' mtyw nl-lm sw the incense, it belongs to me.»
114
EMPHASIS BY ANTICIPATION
§147
IÜÜIm nl-lSiT^-J^Sfe"-"tŤM hknw Pf 4^-n-k inl-f bw pwwrniwpn that spice which thou didst speak of bringing, it is the main thing of this island.'
2.  A genitive is emphasized.
ex. áaft-^^^^k'iLl"!^—i.-Mi' ■*«;*•» «*. mk> u-f> *** r-f< r
sn-nw-f each one of them, his heart was stouter, his arm stronger, than his fellowfs).*
3.  Adverbs or adverbial phrases.    See the examples with Ir, below § 149.
§ 148. Anticipatory emphasis in verbal sentences.—1. The subject is put at the beginning:
Exx. ■E;&1.^.l?!T!P^1Qá'*—üfi"='1ňw m """ swri-twf, mr-k the water in the rivers, it is drunk if thou desirest.s
l&čH1 ľľiZlí'T'^ m^ 1ltr rdi-n-f tnlj-k behold, god has caused thee to live.*
&^4l3& mlc tw dd'tw behold. one savs-5
An independent pronoun may be used before the i&m-f and ia"m-n-f forms. Ex. ^,§2^.0 ink pr-n-l it is I (who) have come forth." This example shows the šdm-n-f form; the construction titf id?»//has always future meaning, see below 5 227, 2.  See Add. for the construction sw iim-f, etc.
2.  The object is put at the beginning:
Ex. JQs5i3'=*A~aP~S^'T'it'CT snlyk dl-n-i sn m si hi-k thy sisters, I have placed them as a protection behind thee.'
3.  A genitive is put at the beginning:
Ex. \—\z\\VV^á^llMH:*^-"?—c?*- '» "" wsfw sPry rthfrrn pr-f a sluggard, shall a petitioner stand at the door of his house ?" For the construction see 5 332.
4.  A noun which virtually follows a preposition:
Ex- T^'ÍÍ^P**"ô®ríiô'^Hty°ims<"SP**im tlu>se*at werein!t'not
one of (them) was left.«   The adverb im 'therefrom' is equivalent to im-sa ' of them'.
5.  An adverb or adverbial phrase.
&«I}4l3ř-al»l."=\^£r:i"~'~ m'^ "n wď km'f r ínT " J4"** a^ter *'s H's
Majesty proceeded to the workshop of offerings."
1^1—oVS:-Y*^ÔZ;ik1!*'lZÍlll«Sk2Í'-až»- mk in-grw-n ipwty '1 hnf-i, »a; / rdi-n-i iwt-f behold, through lack of a messenger here with me I have caused him to come."   'In is the initial form of the preposition —.
Such examples as {%?,.....iilkkL &*-& I2 ■ • • • *"* W' V** 12 ■■■■
His Majesty proceeded',10 are more probably to be explained by § 89, 1.
§ 140. Anticipatory emphasis by means of Q-=» ir.—The preposition r may have the meaning 'as to', 'concerning', and when occurring at the beginning of a sentence exhibits the original full form (|«=- ir.   This ir is often
1 St.S. 153.
< St. S. 100.
•  Sin. B 333. With put meaning, see 145°. '•
*St.S. 113-4. sim-Sin. B 143-3; Bcrsh. i. 14. S-
*   Urk. it. 1090. Sim. Sin. R t k, gu. 166.
« Lac. TR. 73, «t. Sim. ÄZ. 57, 8*.
'£,V*.ir.6i8. Sim. ib. 1075, 11; St.S. 11 ; Sin. B 333.
» Peas. B I, 384. Sim. Aim. 7, 7; n. T.S.ä.«.
• St. S. 107.
*• Stas. 340.
» fri.ir.S8j. Sim. U. 836, 6.
vp.Kat. 31,8-10; translation dubious.
«'S
§156
EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR
1 Siut s, 39.
• Lac. TS. 33, 33. Sim. Amrak 39, 3; Urk. iv. 634, 5.
> Urk. iv. 593.
• ÄZ. 47, PI. I (p. 88), 3; Sim. Urk. iv. 897, 13: after nil, Arm. 103, 11 ; after 1st Ir (§ 149, 3), .4m». 37, pi. 3,19; after or, ib. 390, 7.
9 Siut I, 317.
' BuDGK.p. 111,6.
Urk. iv. 157.
■ T. Cam. 14. Sim. ib. I{; Urk. iv. 547, 10.
•{A-i.lv. 150. Sim. ib. 879,4.
"».46,31 -J. Sim. Lac. Ttf. 73, 34.
11 Urk.rt. 198. Sim. íí. 3, 3; LeydenV4, 3; Louvre C173 qo. Exerc. xiii. («).
"Prí.iv.íís.Sim. ib- 6M1 Si 736i"•
The daughter of the nomarch reigned <=>Sö™V/?Pl^rS*TJ'l ♦" bp*"* s>'s m nht-r until her son had become a strong man.1
Thou shalt traverse the sea in sandals 21si?^"! OT* lr-n-k tp ti as (lit like) thou didst upon earth.'
Horus... who smites the chieftains who have attacked him Jf 1—«H»!!.^^! •=-~ hft wi-n n-f lt-{f) Rf nhtw r ti nb according as his father Re< has decreed for him victories over every land.3
See too the example after ir 'if, above § 151.
§ 157. Prepositions before noun clauses with adverbial, nominal, or adjectival predicate.—Here again the usual expedient of employing the idmf form of wnn 'be' (§ 118) or of the adjective-verb (§ 143) is adopted.
1.  With adverbial predicate the form JA«— wn-f (§ 107) is used where no stress is laid on the duration of the act, or unless specifically future time is referred to.
Ex. I was a priest.....together with my father ^ífi»_®~ m wn-f tp tt
when (lit. in) he was upon earth.'
The other form of the idm-f of wnn, namely jjg,™*— wnn-f, is employed when the sense is future or else markedly continuous.
Exx. Ľ*SCľ~&'ž"5iTS bn' wnn-tn m-si &nty(i) and (lit. together with) ye shall be after my statue.5
^JJjäZI^&XÍ'*— m'bt wn Hr m nhn-f while Horus was in his youth.*
2.   When the predicate is nominal, the iim-f form of wnn is likewise employed, together with the m of predication.
Ex. .S.íšl-V&IT.Í & wn hm'l m lnP since My Majesty was a child.7
3.   Here we must call attention to the peculiar use of wnn after ml' like' and r ' than'.
Exx. leÔ^il^JI"3'^ twl hr-f tni wn Ms I was upon him as though it were a falcon, lit as though a falcon were (upon him).*
f~"~^^-=-Ä^-=»^ sn-n-fwl r wn-i r Ait he made me greater than I was before.'
4.  With adjectival predicate, the iim-f 'form of the adjective-verb is used. Exx. Bandage all wounds........■=- H^tT'S »" «$*/ hr ewy so that 0'*-
to) he may become well immediately."
The god put it in my heart.... to make his house flourish 2E'*~-<=>1á'=7 ml 'if r ntr nb inasmuch as (lit like) he is greater than any god."
The princes came .... to do obeisance to the might of His Majesty.....
*"~5=C2*— n " ^'/because his power was (so) great"
USES OF  THE  PREPOSITIONS
§187
Further examples of cases 1, 2, and 4 above have already been quoted in connection with Ir 'if; see {150.
Obs. To negate clauses of this kind, the idtn-f form of the negative verb im may be used; see below J 347, 5. 6.
§ 158. Prepositions serving to form epithets and nouns.—1. Since adjectives in -y (§ 79) can be formed from most simple prepositions, it is these which are usually employed when a noun has to be qualified by a phrase consisting of preposition + noun.
Ex- f3,i?,-r^!n:li»i?lP— wbw Imyw hrwsn the priests who-are-in their times, i.e. the priests of any given time.1    'Imyw is m. plur. of the adjective from m.
Certain fixed phrases consisting of preposition + noun have, however, come to be regularly used as epithets; so, for example, r 4rf, r 4r ' complete', lit. 'to (its) end' and ml kdf 'entire', lit. 'like its form', both quoted above § 100. Along similar lines has been created the common phrase 5ř*á1& ^ '"*' l^'s thy humble servant', lit 'the servant there',' in which Im is the adverbial form of the preposition m 'in'. Similarly i^'l^^ vr Im nb 'every one thereof, ' every one of them'.'
Certain idiomatic phrases consisting of preposition + noun are made into epithets by the help of the genitival adjective.
Exx. y^rNilT^X hswi'i ni br nsw my favours from (lit. of with) the king.4 A curious parallel is afforded by the French mes faveurs de par U roi.
1"J>11/!|—.^.^JÜ Imihy n hr nsw one honoured by (lit of with) the king.5
-5*~^I<—^HJ^»= bnt-s n tp ilrw her procession on (lit. of upon) the river.**
2. Another way of analysing the last-named expressions would be to say that hr-nsw 'with-the-king' serves as a noun. Sentences can be quoted where preposition + noun together function as a noun.
Exx. "^^IPII"^? r's' fsytpw it was after supper.'
TSa?^=2 jZ br i*pv> irt m mltt wherefore is it that the like is done ? Lit. on account of what is it, the doing accordingly ?'
P«==:ÍWrľi:iV~Í<|!)Mr~ ^ľ^^JTô*!.! * S"-™ Yrdnfryl-rphw ti wi r bit hr hm-f lo, from Yeraza to the ends of the earth had fallen into rebellion against His Majesty.'
<=P5®i m s" ty ll m extolling (life) upon earth.'
§ 159. Position of the prepositions.—The prepositions always precede the word which they govern, whether it be a noun or some verb-form. The governed word thus seems to be a direct genitive, as in the Semitic languages. This view is confirmed by the fact that some, at least, of the simple prepositions are derived from nouns, exx. ® tp ' upon', lit ' head'; Ý i,® b'' behind',
1 Siut 1,311. Sim. Budge, p. 360, 6.
1 See above p. 58, n. I; and for some analogous phrases Griffith, Kahnn Papyri, pp. 78. 105; At. 59, 31.
1 Sk.S. 99; Sin. B 346. Wt tm alone, £i. 54, 30; Adm. 7, ■4-
*   Btrsk. i. 14, 8. Sim..ftn.B3io;£//. '• J5. St-*-
•  BH. i. 35, 115-S.
** Eltfk. 35. Sim. Or*, iv. 186, I3.
' Hill. 1, 11.
' eSBA. 35, 166.
•  Cfei.iv.648. Sim. J«f lr-r Kirn, ii. ^49> 9; rn»M £/t, lubj., ib. 618,1.
•  PSBA. 35, 16«. Sim. Cairo 583,3, qn. 3 130; pos&tblv also Itb. 78.
§159
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
< .u. S. 175. ' .U.S. 115.
s However, m inducing subordinate Ĺauses at beginning uf 'he sentence, §444, 2: aiso independently, p. J74. •>■ 7-
lit.' back of the head'; cf. American 'back of......', French faule de.    Moreover,
in the compound prepositions the second element is often a noun (§ 178), and in some cases the genitival adjective here appears between the preposition and a governed noun, ex. ^,]@?n—]Tí— f»-6"tfm*t *w PH 'within (lit. in the interior of) this isle';1 contrast with suffix &22°^£2 ni-hmof'within it'.1
Egyptian shows a repugnance to placing so weak a word as a preposition at the beginning of a sentence, but m-ht is sometimes so used, see § 148, 5. Apart from this, and excepting the exclamatory sentences of § 153, the only prepositions ever placed at the beginning appear to be «=»• r and — » in their initial forms ()«=■ ir and \— in; {or in see § 155, end, and for the very common ir see §§ 149-51. The cases where preposition + noun together function as a noun (§ 158, 2) can hardly be quoted as exceptions to this rule.
Note that what is here said of the position of the prepositions holds good both when they are followed by a mere noun and when they are followed by a noun clause."
§ 160. Negation of the prepositions.—The uses of ^ »« and —I) p n U
to negatives group consisting of preposition + noun will be dealt with in connection with the adverbs (§ 209).
VOCABULARY
l±£l 'r ascend, approach.                       U   ki spirit, soul, double, see below
«=» 4 w\ hrp undertake, makeoffering of. ^1 «ŕ grow. >;y™Wbenew,fresh;^>||
m mrwt anew, lit. in newness. ü     cd inr stone.
___-■». ri cedar (properly ' pine').
t      f> door.
ft house, department; iry-rt official, one belonging to a department r.  ft limb, member.
IP« Wsir Osiris, the god of the dead.
p. 172.
y~^,y1 ¥y*> staircase, terrace, hillside.
<V>t=:i^ rwdt hard stone, sandstone.
%Ľ(~) pit antiquity, old time. oiE3í var- Ě brt-hrw daytime. *fc£ var- \ Šmr(w) Upper Egypt, "u^im var. M. Ti-mhw Lower Egypt. ® var. y tpy (who is) upon, chief, first. nty who, which.
<=A\
'^, iwty who not, which not.
LESSON   XIII
Exerc. XIII
EXERCISE   XIII
(pi) Study the following sentences from a funerary stela :l
rdvn Placed
Til
me
imy-r the overseer
kit of works *
hrp
ntt
iwtl that which (is) not,s
©ÍJäC u               mnh-i                   n
because   I was efficient   and   because
as   officer in charge of that which (is) and
—        IdÉ       tľ
lír-i               Ar ibf
I was excellent     in his heart
more than
yi *
tit         m
iry-rt § 61) official
works
S   CI
rw-prw the temples
nö any
O
1 nw of
nty                 hrf
who   (was)   with him.
iw     hrp-n-(i) I undertook
m
ntrw the gods
Šmf{w)       Ti-mhw *           ink
of Upper and Lower Egypt.       I was
0=
nb                iitnt            bnr         mrwt
a possessor   of favour,       sweet        of love.
1 Louvre C 172, published Shakpb, Eg. Inscriptims, i. 8a. 1 ' That which is and that which is Dot', Í. c. everything. * The sign for T^mhw is here identical with that for */, from which it is usually distinguished.    Swf must not be confused with rsw ' south', see below in the Sign-list, under M 34-6.
1 I. e. chief builder or architect.
(ó)  Transliterate and translate:
;fj— tf^Jl— j
ücsa^s ^

^-^irrm:   <6>Histó.-á)
* The hill-slope in question is presumably that of the Lebanon.
1 Ntyw lm ' those who are there', a common periphrasis for ' the dead'.
I23
Exerc. XIII
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
(c) Write in hieroglyphs and transliteration:
(i) To thy ka, my good lord!' (2) As for Heliopolis, it is the principal city of Egypt (3) There is no man void of wrong-doing. (4) This ruler, he placed me in front of his children, he made me commander of his army, because my hands prospered more than (those of) any servant of his. (5) If thou goest up to heaven, behold he is there; if thou goest down to the netherworld, behold he is there likewise. (6) He followed his lord when (m) he was in (lit. upon) this (foreign) land. (7) If I had heard it, I would have given him gold (Izu Sdm-n-f form).
1 Words spoken bj~an attendant offering vine.
LESSON   XIV
PREPOSITIONS (continued)
N.B.—The details of this lesson are intended for reference only. For this reason the uses with the infinitive, the sdmt-f form, etc., have been enumerated, although those verb-forms belong to a later part of the book.
J 161. Egyptian prepositions are either simple or compound. The simple prepositions consist of one word only; those which consist of more than one word are called compound.
The simple prepositions (§§ 162-177) are enumerated in the approximate order of their importance; the compound prepositions (§§ 178-181) are classified according to their mode of formation. Only the more important and typical meanings are given. Note that before verb-forms like Jdmf and idm-nf the Egyptian prepositions must frequently be rendered by an English conjunction, exx. m ' when', ir ' if, see above J 155.  For further remarks see Add.
THE SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS
f 162. ^ m, before suffixes 1)^ tm., indicates position generally, the main lines of development being ' in', ' from', and the instrumental' with'.
1.  of place. 'In' a place, house, boat, etc M tb 'in the heart', m r 'in the mouth'. Not as a rule meaning 'into' after verbs of motion, r having superseded m in this sense; but f k m. Ihn m, in m' approach', ' draw near to'. So too dl m lb' place (a plan) in the heart'; dim hr ' command', ' charge', lit. ' place in the face'.
2.  of lime.   ' In' this year, day, time.    M Smw ' in the summer'; m dwrw
>. i». 4,14.         • to-morrow \m sf yesterday'; mgrh ' in the night'; m rnpt j ' for three years '.l
124
THE  SIMPLE   PREPOSITIONS
§162
3.  of states. MrSwt, Imw ' in joy', ' grief ; m snb ' in health'; mhst nt' in the favour of.
4.  of manner. M mľt ' in truth', ' truly'; m mnul ' anew'; m mitt ' likewise '.
5.  of kind, where ' consisting of is often the best rendering. M tur, dbt ' of stone', ' brick'; thtw m rnpwt ' period of years'. Here may be included the partitive use, exx. wc im-su ' one of them ' (§ 262, 1); in im-f' bring (some) of it'.'
6.  of equivalence or predication, see above §§ 38. 84. 96. ' As', ex.' I sailed down m si htly-r as the son of a prince j * rarely with suffix, ex. ittn imi ' your father, namely myself.3    Also sometimes to define a suffix subject.3*
7.  of instrument. M hpi-i ' by my strong arm'; m shrwi' by my counsels'. MU m ' fill with'; rpr m ' equip with'.
7a. of concomitance, almost like hn' ' together with', § 17 i.3b
8.  of separation. Pr m 'go out from'; U m 'return from'; f/<* m 'begin from'; Sw m' free from'.
9.  idiomatically with verbs. 'In m ' have recourse to'; * irl m' act according to ';ä mh m ' seize upon'; * mdw m ' speak against';' rh m ' know (something) of (someone)';' Iinm m 'join with'; shm m 'gain control over'; sbi m 'laugh at'.
10.  with infinitive. In various uses as above, ex. m whm ' again', lit. ' in repeating*. Particularly with verbs of movement (below §§ 304, 2 ; 331), ex. m pri ' (engaged) in going forth'.
11.  with fdmf. (a) 'when', ex. m wnf tp ti 'when he was upon earth' (§ 157, i)- (b) 'as', 'as truly as' (almost equivalent to 'if), ex. m mrr-tn 'nh 'as truly as ye love life' (§444, 2). (c) 'though' (rare): ex. .MPS^-IL'. m msdd Ibf ' though his heart hates (it) '.* (d) curiously, with the m of predication, almost like a relative clause: ' a hotp-di-nesu formula ^,-«»-»11^.»— m ^r nf sif being what (lit. as) his son made for him';,0 see below §§ 444, 3; 454, 4.
12.  with idmlf (doubtful).    ' When', see below § 407, 2.
§ 163. .=» r " originally 1)-=- ir," form with suffixes => r-, seldom !)«=> ir-;" at the beginning of sentences f)«=» Ir occurs with the meanings 'as to' and 'if, see §§ 149-51.    Original signification apparently ' to', ' towards'.
1.  of place. 'To' heaven, the West, Thebes, his abode, etc., with verbs of motion. To place an amulet' upon' the neck;" ' at' the feet of; make a tomb 'at' the stairway of the great god;u spr r 'arrive at' even of reaching persons," though n is here usual with other verbs of motion.
2.  of persons. Wp r 'open the mouth' r 'to' a person, to address him." After verbs of speaking n is far commoner than r.1'
1 Wale. 11, 15. Sim. Peas. B I, 93; P.Kah. 31,1a. 15.
•  BH. I 8,7. Sim. Mtuiich 4,6.
' Cairo 18083 (4M. 141.
** ürh. iv.651, 10, *>-J* ($ 436) m nt n &rw. Sim. Tk.T.S. iv, p. io, D. 4.
•* BH. i, 8, 11; Hamm. 114, I). See JEA. 2j, 16«.
' See See. 39, 105.
•  See Vnt. 4, 107. ' Lrt. It. 6*0, 8.
T See AZ. 39,49. ' PI. 1791 Vrt. iv. 3«8, 7-
• Vri. i». 969, 3. Sim. P. KaH. 36, 42 ; Ei. 70, J4.
w Cairo 30037. Sim. ii. 30048. xoi 17. 30J25. 30335. 30372. Kather differently 'sacoas', Uri.i1.46, 1 i 198. 2.
11 See G. Roedek. Die Praeýantim A, Berlin 1904.
11 So before nonn, liarl). 763.
M A'«/1, a 75; Petr. Court. 23, 3; Men-thmo. 18.
" M.u.K. 9, 3. " Sebeiihu 8. 11   Weite.   7,    13; Lac. TB. ii, i. " Si.S.Si. w X after tn.m, sec
Lac. TJi. 33,15.29,
qn. J 436.
'25
§163
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Sin. R ao.
» Urk. iv. 1106,9.
1 Pias. B I, 31.
** Griff. SlnJ. 57.
' Rkindtf.   Sim. Hamm. 191, 4.
■ Urk.iv. tan, 15.
•  £i. 3«. 5-
' Sin. B a«6 ; A Kak.6, u; iv*. ir. 970, 1; .4»». 37, pi.
»,15-
•  See Vog. Bautr, p. lol-a.
' Urk. iv. i wo, I. Sim. ýrt*r r ' arrears against', BH. i. 8, 17.
■• BH.\.i,l. Sim. Am. B17. 243; Aar. R3: B I, 33; J*. A ■57, q»- í "S4-
" T. Corn. i.
" Et. 18, 14. Sim. ii. 19, ai; al, 11; 60, 15.
» iM. It. 974, 4.
" Siut j, aa.
w >°**#ri 5. Sim. .S7W 1, 166; £<. 46,
11, qo. J 157. 4 i P-Ao*. 19,43, q«., 316.
" Brit. Mus. 614, 13. Siro. Hamm, no, 4; 7». r.Ä Hi. aS, 12.
" RatherdlScrentlT, Pias. B1, 104.
" Hamm. 114, 8; Urk. it. 617, 9.
" See Gunn, íí«. dt'is, eh. 9.
3.  of time. R tr n 'at time of';* r (nur rnpl 'every year' (§ loi); r nw, ' at the (right) time'; * r hrw 4 ' for (extending over) four days'.'
4.  of purpose or futurity. R m 'to what purpose ?' (§ 496); r hity-r' to be prince', see §§ 84. 122. 332.   Also with verbs, U r ' come for', hib r ' send for '.**
5.  of measurement.    10 r 10 r 10' ten by ten by ten (cubits) '.'
6.  of respect. Speak, report, 'concerning'; sbi r 'teach about' (§ 84); r lip ' according to law'.    'Ir ' as to', see § 149.
7.  of comparison. ' More than' after adjectives, adverbs, and verbs, see §§ 50. 207. Also in 'it r smnt ' too many to record'; * stomach too heavy r wnm ' to eat '.*    For the abbreviation characteristic of Egyptian comparisons see § 506, 4.
8. of separation. Hrw-r ' apart from' (§ 179); hip r ' conceal from'; sin r ' distinguish from'; rh, sii r ' know',' discern' one ' from another'.'
9.  of opposition.    'Irl r ' act against'."    Of debts, ip r ' charge against '.*
10.  with infinitive. Besides other uses (e.g. above 7) very common of futurity, ex. iwf r s4m ' he shall hear', see below § 332.    Also of purpose, ex.
r shrt hftyw-f ' in order to overthrow his enemies '.,0 Further, after particular verbs: id 'wish', ex. ?jS<=>'ö'l*ik!il'a.&S ib-i r nhm Kmt 'I wish to save Egypt';" dwi, ex. *3t\4|7,=>P!|í5iUQ «ľ«""* r sin-si' thou shalt rub it early in the morning', lit.' thou shalt use the morning to rub it';" sni r ' fear to';13 sii r ' teach to'."
11.  with idmf. (a) * so that', ex. f&S^iSr^íô?^ shm-i mmwr htp ib-k ' mayst thou have access to water so that thy heart may be satisfied'."  (6) ' until',
ex. ' the king loved me___-Hi^aíA^-H?,«- r säi-f m hip r ihtf until he
went in peace to his horizon'." (í)'more than', see above $ 157, 3." (^'according as' ex. "^^^ r mrrf ' according as he desires'." (e) ' if', in the form ir, see J J50.
12.  with idm-nf.   (a) 'until', see above § 156.    (b) 'if, in the form Ir, see
13.  with i4mtf.   ' Until', see below § 407, l.
§ 164. —> «, before nouns not infrequently written •*. and consistently so in certain papyri of early Dyn. XVIII, often wrongly transcribed as — by modern scholars;" before suffixes always —; in some rare instances written J, at the beginning of the sentence, see §§ 148, 5; 155 end. Indicates the person or thing affecUd.
1. of dative. 'To' a person, so with rdi'give',sw4'hand over'. Dd, smi n ' speak', ' report to'. Also with other verbs: w4 » ' command'; s4m n ' hearken to', ' obey' a person; hib, in n ' send', ' bring to'.    Hence of motion:
126
THE SIMPLE  PREPOSITIONS
§164
hi 'go down*, im 'go', iw 'come' »' to' a person, whereas r is used of movement ' to' or ' towards' a thing.
2.  of advantage.    'Ir ' to make' (something) n ' for' a person ; absolutely, ir
n • act on behalf of', ' help'; > nfr, ih n ' good', ' useful for'.                                     ,„',.VoG- *""'•- P-
3.  of the person interested.    For example after imperatives, see § 337, 2.
4.  of possession: ' belonging to'.    See above § 114, 1.                                          « />«„. bi, a5;
5.  of cause.    Rm n ' weep at' a thing; * n her ' through hunger';» a judge      a j,„. B, j,. Vrl. deaf » 4inu ' for the sake of rewards '.*   So n-mrwl, n^il-n, below § 181.                 iv.665, n.
* Urk. iv. 118, 16.
6.  with certain verbs.   Dgn 'look at'.5   ffsfn 'punish', lit. 'ward off for'.      ■ si*. 8279; /w*
t                                             B a, 106.
7.  in certain expressions.   A^ iw, iidt' in the sun',' the dew .*                            ■ gee az. 31,51.
8. of time.   N ibd 2' within two months';' n wnwt' in an hour';' « dt     ' sh-s-,6S-
■ Urk. iv. 751 rm. 103, 7. • iff. i. as, 6.
-                   ,                                                                                                                                                                                             ■ Urk. iv. 751, 16;
for ever .*                                                                                                                  Arm. 103,7.
9.  with idmf.    ' Because'; ex. above §§ 157, 4 end.
10.  with non-verbal clause introduced by an independent pronoun,' because', ' for'.   See above § 154.
Obs. For « after adjectives, see above § 141, and as component of the idm-irf form, see §411, a.
§ 165. ? hr, more rarely * alone," with suffixes * hr- or occasionally *","     ■• *'»' '■ '7» *>"•
^                 '   *                                   J                                                              *^  *                                           '   *=*•           passim.
signified originally 'upon'.                                                                                           h sin. b95. 173.
1.  of place.   Strictly ' upon': the ground, a road, a chariot, a bed.    Hr mw   ô'fy, tkr', sée'p. aojŮ hr ii' on water and on land'.    I followed hr rdwyi ' on my feet', i. e. ' on foot'.
But often much more indefinitely: hr rs, mht' to the south',' north'; hr frt h
' up a high tree'; hr sbi ' at (or ' through' ?) the gate'; hr Kmt ' in Egypt'."     ■» sin. b a6.
So with various verbs : sn, swi hr ' pass by'; hms hr dmi ' besiege a town', lit.      " Vrk. iv. 3.
'sit down at'."    Also figuratively: hr ibk ' in thy heart'."                                         " Pm-B'•,0'»-
2.  of provenience.   Nbw hr hist 'gold from the desert-land'.    Honey hr      „ ÄM/wl Djsp'^ pr-hd' from the Treasury'.14*   'Ii hr 'come from'."                                                  «m.»í owut. j6»;
3.  of privation. Despoil (fzun) the poor man' of' (hr) his property;" wpw-hr     >« a», b i, a3i. ' excepted from' (5179).
4.  oftime (rare).   Hr ibd 2' in two months'."    He makes a delay hr hrw j      "ji.j.174.
' for three days'."                                                                                                         " O*. iv. mo, i«.
5.  of occasion.   Pr hr hrw ' come forth at the voice'.
6.  distributive^, Latin per.   They give a loaf hr W im nb ' each of them'."   ^f'^xik^i '94'
7.  of cause (very common). Htp, hr hr 'pleased', 'content on account of something. 'lb 4w hr 'heart sad concerning', rs tp hr 'vigilant concerning', mhy hr ' neglectful about' something. Hs hr ' praise for' something. Hib, ii hr ' send (a letter)', ' come concerning' something.    Also of barter, rdi' give'
127
§165
EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR
1 Siut I, 374. 393. 396; Rkind 63.
« Bert. AI. i. p. 358, 11.
■ M. 34.
*  Rkind 35. Sim. ib. 14. 36.
•  Urk. iv. 766, 3. Bat also ' mention hr m/ 'by its Dune', Arm. 103, 3.
•   Witte. II, 34.
*  5M i. 8, 10, qo. S31».
• Cfr*. iv. 74a Sim. *'*• 745i "; Siut 1, 308;.«'«». 37,pL 3,15.
" Si«. B117.  Sim. Ptat. B I, 11-3; Cfnfr. "•3.3; «54. 5! 37. '»■ 17-
: Ö.
"lakrtp-k 1! thy head', jr »rfte'y-i- ' at ' or ' by' t* - *'" ' /£.<. 37, t,
'• «'«/<-. 4,7. Sim.
ľri. IT. 4,7.
u /V<w. R 47, qu. p. ;<), top.
'» Si». B113. 181. 11 .SV«. B 174, qu.
i 44. 3.
u Eb. 103, 13. Sim. ib. 103, 5.
■«  AZ. 47, PI.   1
(p. 83), 3.
this hr 'for' that1   Again r hi hr 'fight on behalf of';* frsf hr 'protect', lit. ' ward off on account of'.'    Note further sU hr ' rebel against' the king.
8.  of addition. Gsf hr-f' its half is (added) to it'.« So too for purposes of co-ordination, ex. de hr hyt 'wind upon (i.e. and) rain'; see above 591, 1. sin hr ' mixed with'.    Ps, wrh, wt hr' cook', ' anoint', ' bandage with' something.
9.  of maris. Hr rn ' having upon it the name'; * hr htm ' having upon it the seal'.'   A very curious use, cf. Engl. ' all over snow', ' cow in calf.
to. with infinitive, properly 'on' or ' while' of a contomitant act, ex. ii-n-i hr imsf'l returned (on) accompanying himV This use leads to extensive developments, see below § 319. Also referring to past events, probably as an extension of use 2 above, ex. His Majesty returned hr shrt Rtnw ' from (or ' after') overthrowing (or ' having overthrown') Retjnu'.'
11. with šdmf, 'because', ex. ?^l^*-^j| hr mii-f wi 'because he sees me'.'
§ 166. j*. hr, less often a, with suffixes J, hr-, 'under'.
1.   'under'the sky, the feet, etc.    Rarely, however, simply 'ať."
2.   ' under',' carrying' a load. Hr inw, not* 'bringing tribute',' presents'; the crocodile departed br-f' carrying him off';w fields h.r it ' under corn'." With verbs ftp, mh far ' loaded', ' filled with'.
3.  metaphorically, in various uses. Loaded jr mirw ' with sorrows'; lands hr riwt' in joy'. Hr dfrwt-l' under my seal'; hr st-hrf ' under his charge'. Hr sh," shr 'under (i.e. influenced by) the counsel',' will' of someone. This state (s!m) which I was ' in', hr-f, lit. ' under it'." Also of cause: tired hr Smt nut' through long journeying'."
§ 167.   *, kr<' w''k' or'near' someone.    Restricted to a limited set of uses.
1.  ' Under' a king.   Hr hm n ' (Year___) under the Majesty of, very
frequent.   So too hswt nt hr nsw 'favours (of) under the king' (§ 158, 1); imify hr ' honoured with' a god, etc.
2.  ' To' a person. t>d hr ' speak to' a person, his children, etc. Hprt hr-i ' what happened to me'."   Gods give health, etc hr-i' to me'.
3.  ' By' of the agent (rare).    See above § 39, end.
Obs. For the related particle hr see § 239; and for the perhaps different ýr as component of the tymhr-f form see below § 427.
§ 168. J. in, less frequently }*, has as sole function to express the agent (' by' someone) after verbs, chiefly the infinitive (§ 300) and the various passive forms (§ 39, end). It cannot be clearly distinguished from the particle in (§ 227), in connection with which it will be dealt with further.   Very much more doubtful
128
THE SIMPLE  PREPOSITIONS
§168
is the question whether it is at all connected with the preposition «, of which, as we have seen (§ 164), the rare initial form is J_ in.
Obs. For the possibly different in which serves to form the idm-in-f form, see §427.
§ 169. *^ hft, so written apparently for reasons of symmetry in place of the much rarer *i-, means properly ' face to face with'.
1.   'in front of. Him who is hft-k 'opposite thee', i.e. with whom thou art talking.1 Dd Iff t 'speak with', ' say to', not uncommon.2 Especially also hft-hr ' before the face of (§ 178).
2.  'in accordance with'. Act hft sS-pn 'according to this writing';3 hft friy 'according to measure';' respect him hft hprt »/'in proportion to what has accrued to him '.*
3.  'as well as' (very rare). Male and female slaves hft hrdwsn'zs well as their children '.*
4.  of time.   Year 43-----fyft lut-sp 2j 'corresponding to year 25' in the
Oryx nome.T
5.  with infinitive, 'at the time of, 'when'. Words to be recited hft wih ptirt' when applying remedies '.*
6.   with Sdmf. (a) 'when' (common). Exx. Jf;—^ bft hss-f' when he is humble';9 J^^'wL^i» bft vm'f mr 'when he was ill'.10 (i) 'according as', 'in proportion as' (seldom), exx. not high-tempered ťJf1«» hft wsr-lf) 'in proportion as I was powerful';" I built it Jf§«— hft mrrf' according as he desired'.'2
7.  with Sdm-nf.   ' According as'; an ex. above § 156.
8.   with Sdmtf (doubtful).    ' When'; see below § 407, 2.
§ 170. 2H »2i,12* sometimes £, hardly ever with surnxes,12b expresses likeness.
1.  of resemblance. 'Like' a dream, the will of god, etc.; %\^ mi m 'like what ?',' how ?' (§ 496). So often in similes, ex. He^^éJS3f ^Ve^T iw'{ mi s ilw m rhhw ' I was like a man caught in the dusk \13 For the abbreviation sometimes found in comparisons, see below § 506, 4.
2.  of conformity. He went down mi nt*f' according to his habit';" act mi ivdt' according to commands'; mi nil r hp ' according to what is lawful \15
3.  'as well as' (seldom). Exx. ra11á^2T5'''=".E.E> fy n-& m* nót-r-dr ' hail to thee as well as (to) the lady of the universe';" ®JQ JUT ^rw "" £rk " day as well as night'."
4.   with infinitive in the meaning ' like \18
5.  with idmf.    (a) ' as when', ex. his rays illuminate the two lands £^"0"
1 Pl. 79. Sim. Urk. iv. 36, 15.
'Sin. R67; B367; Urk. iv. 36, 16; 649, 14.
•  Meir ii. 6. rPl. 338.
•  PI. 180.
• Urk. iv. 665.
' BH. i. 8, 3.
1 Eb. I, 10. Sim. ib. 97, 4; Urk. iv. 734, "5! 743.4Í 757. '5-
• PI. 76. Sim. lib. T47; Siul I, 397; Urk. iv. 743, 3.
'• P.Kah. 13, 34.
11 Brit Mui. 614,9; cf. Peas. B I, 314.
11 Jti/ek 7, 31. Sim. Urk. iv. 116, 17.
»A/rinearlyO.K., ice Sign-list, W 19.
•   m.
in Examples, Ü. 3«. 9-
w Sin. B 354.   Sim. ib. 118.
» Wate. 3, 3. II. '■ Urk. iv. 10S8.
14 Sin. B 374. Sim. Urk. iv. 368, I.
" Mar. Abyd. ii. 39, 33.   Sim. ib. 13.
'• Exx. Lib. 131. 133- "38; ÍÍ-53.33; 108,3.
129
§170
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
> Urk. It. 806. Sim. ib. 687. 13; Sin. B 335; /Vru. Bi, 14a. 344; Lit. 137. 141-
*  Lib. 13a Sim. W-i.iT. 753, J. 9.
•  .P.AM. 18,a; 35, 9; 3«,S»,
« iVi.lv. 839, 16; 841,4. 1;; 86a, 14.
•  Eb. 40, 8.   Sim. Puis. Ru8.
•  Exx. />. AW. a8,
43!  »9, "s  3', •■ 35, iji Sua 1, a93. 394. 3°7-' Wtstt. 7, 3.
•   Urk. v. 13. Sim. .Si»/1, 317, qu. IIJ7, I; LAC. TR. 5, 6.
•   Wait. 10, 8. 15. aa.
» Urk. iv. 697.
» Hamm, no, 3.
M í/r*. 1077,9; et &'*. B 59.
» Ft. 135.
'• See /".Stf.4. aS, 334-
u Erm. A>m«. la, 3-4! '4, '•
■« Situ R 45.
" W«fc. 10,10.17. 34-
" Urk. It. 160,1 a.
" BH. i. as, 101-a.
" Exx. ZW Al 18. 48.
^f »d ifi» Är ' as when Re« shines'.» (i) ' according as', ex. Jl)^«^ mi dd-i ' according as thou sayest'; * especially in the phrase ÄHS^ÔÍl^ "** mrr °'^ l** ' according as this thy humble servant desires '.*
6.  with idm-n-f (rare).    See above, § 156.
7.  with the passive idm-f.   See below, J 423, 3.
8.  with the idmi-f 'form (doubtful).    See below, § 407, 2.
9.  with non-verbal clause introduced by an independent pronoun. See above, 5 154.
§ 171;. l~ hnf 'together with', in Dyn. XVIII rarely written \~ hit.*
1.  'together with' someone, less commonly something. So too with verbs, mdw hnt' talk with', t hi hnt* fight with'.    Never' with' of instrument, which is m.
2.  of co-ordination, where English has ' and'; see above {91, 1.
3.  with infinitive.      Sometimes found curiously to continue an injunction,
where English uses a finite form, ex. ä.^«=7.......ÍZj5ZIS°i ľ 1 ^r'br'h.....
hnt rdit n-f ph.rt • thou shalt make.....and shalt give (lit with giving) to him
remedies'.' So frequently in letters, contracts, etc, where however hnt may coordinate an infinitive with a preceding infinitive ;* for a further development of this construction see f 300, Obs. Also continuing construction with hr+ in(., ex. iw-f hr wnm .... hnt swri ' he eats .... and drinks', lit. ' with drinking'.'
4.  with tim-f (rare), ex. on that day on which the enemies .... were destroyed IZ^fTä^^"—^ b"f shki-tw si-/ //r'and (lit with) his son Horus was caused to rule '.*
§ 172. %\& hi' behind', derived from a noun hi' back of head'.
1.  'behind' a person.9 Nw hi 'look behind' oneself;" rn hi'turn behind' oneself, i. e. turn back;u hot hi' come behind', ' take .unawares', of evils;u hi ti ' behind bread', i. e.' at meals'."
2.  'around'. P(ir hi ini 'move around a wall'." So too frequently si hi 'a protection around' a person, where however there may be a sense of enveloping from behind, as with wings, etc.
§ 173. ® tp, an old word for' head', is used as a preposition meaning * upon' in certain phrases; §«1, tpwk ' upon thee'" is a quite exceptional writing with the suffix. Most commonly tp U ' upon earth', i. e. living. Also wrSyw tp inb ' watchers upon the wall';" the child came forth tp twysy' upon her hands', i. e. upon the hands of the midwife ;" and others.1*
§ 174. |5jf|~ hnt, rarely written ~, once 4"^ >" seems akin to a word for ' face' and signifies properly ' in front'.
1. 'in front of, mainly in a tag applied to the Pharaoh |ffll'='lÍÍ,ÝSi'=7 bnt kiw tnfyw nó ' in front of the souls of all living '.w
130
THE  SIMPLE  PREPOSITIONS
§174
2.   'among', with the notion of 'foremost among'.1 So with tu,1 sin 'distinguish ', sip ' choose'3' among' a number. Rdi' give ' something' out of' one's possessions.*   Also as a mathematical term.3
3.  in certain expressions. Pr l}nt ' issue from ' of a child as engendered by father;« rdi ii-(f) fynt' pay attention to', lit. ' place the heart in front of'.'
§ 175. %2a Iß means ' through', ' pervading'. The fear of Pharaoh is l}t fyisivt ' throughout the foreign lands'; * the influence of the god is ht twt ' pervading the members ' of his spouse.9
§ 176. Jí. dr, derived from a stem meaning ' end ', signifies ' since'.
1.  mainly of time. Dr rk 'since the time of; dr ntr 'since (the time of) the god '.10
2.  of cause.   Scarcely except in the phrase .5_~ <//--«//'since', 'because' (§223).
3.  with šdm-f. 'Since' of time. exx. _5JP4tei 4'' "'S'iwf 'since he was born';" X^1^^,^.^4J—■""&•[] n-fsSj & wn "mw »'-$'b-n Ti-mlmi Ht-zvtrt ' since the Asiatics were in Avaris of Lower Egypt '."
4.  with sdmt-f.   ' Since', but also strangely ' before', ' until', § 407, I.
§ 177. +Kt imytw» old W&>°J1 imywti,11 varr. -j-fc,15 W^r" means ' between', and possibly had its origin in the fem. dual of the adjective -J-^x imy 'being in' (§ 79). In Dyn. XVIII it is sometimes preceded by the preposition r, for which rare earlier instances substitute m; exx. =-|-^,,T «H-f^,1* *~-imytw, WW\~\\ m-imywti» &+&f m-imytw.*>
1.   ' between' two things, ex. imytiv bity ' between two bushes \21 Also followed by r, ex. imytw foist tu r Nhrti ' between this country and Nahrin '."*
2.   'in the midst of, ex. r-imytw srw 'in the midst of the nobles';" even with a sing., imytw didi-f' in the midst of its head '.*»
This preposition occurs also with the ending -ny, which may be a very rare suffix-pronoun, see § 34, Ofs. 3-2!* Exx. -j-^~ imytwny ' between them', i.e. the obelisks; ** -|-o ~*?i ? ."^ imytm-ny hpdwk ' between thy buttocks', lit. ' between them, thy buttocks'." The construction may also be r-imylwny .... r . . . . ' between.....and.....' *•
COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS
§ 178. For definition see §161.  The present list lays no claim to completeness.
A. Prepositions formed by the addition of a noun to one of the simple prepositions.—In a few cases the genitival adjective — n(y) is added when the governed word is a noun, but is absent when a suffix follows.
—Y « ib (m) 'for the sake (lit. 'heart') of." With šém-/, 'in order that' (rare)."
1 Exx.Siitti. 37a; Siaaí 181; Urk. iv. 198,9.
•  BH. i. 35, 10. 101.
■ Urk. ir. 888, 7. 1 Siut I, 376. 8 PSBA. 16, 304 ; SM 1, 386.
•  BtnkXll.Uri. It. 161. 318; cf. Pi. 630.
' P. Kah. 39, 37; 35, II. 15; Louvre C55itVi.iT. 1093, 3.
•  .SYff. B 44. Sim. Siut 1,368; Adm. 3, '• 3 ; 7, 9 i £**• iT-
1 Urk. iv. IJI.
10   Urk. iv. 1093, 3. Sim. id. 86, 4; Leyd. V4, >S-
"Sin. R 93- B 69. Sim. Urk. iv. 95, 16, qn.§!55;i63,6;994, 3-
" Urk. iv. 390, 7. Sim. il>. 157, 7, qu. «'57.3-
» Eb. 30, 1.
" AZ. 57, 7*.
•• Sir    B 5. 149.
"'           R 38; Urk.
iv.
11            iv. 131.365. '»            ir. 387, 7. "   •     =7.7«.
*        ■**• '4-« Sn:. R 38.    Sim. i«.r>.365,4;894,3. »"  ^.69,39, 13.
■   Urk. iv. 131, 8. Sim. ib. l a; .Si». B 349.
■  Eb. 30,1.
M* Allen prefen to regard this ny u the adverb of | 105, 1, see AJSlu,"!-
M Urk. iv. 363, 15.
» P. Kah. 3, 35. Sim. Eb. 108, 14.
» Urk. v. 68, 5. Sim. m-lmyvitl.n,AZ. 57, 7*-
17 With norm, L. to Z)., Berlin bowi; with iv&i,BH.A. 7; Urk. iv. 1164, II; Leuk. 33, 5-
«■ Eb. 91, 16.
•3i
§178
1 Siut i, 370; D.ei B. 16. 34.
•  AÄ*. 13,35.
» Siut i, 194, cf. 306.
' AZ. J8,16*.
' 7». T. S. ii. 36, ■7; 37, 31-34.
•Í/Í.Í.16; f/r*.ÍT.
117.13-» SiW 1, 295.
•   Urk. ÍT. 133, 10. Sim. Siut 1, 299; Brit Mos. 614, 5; Sin. B 24a 269.
•  P.Kak. 28, 12; 29, 26. 30.
» Brit. Mot. 614,6. 11 Si: B 203. Sim.
EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR &^^ m:isw 'in return for', 'as payment for',1 varr. &W&ŕ!V WP^^^iV "^WI&ä r^sw, with the same meaning as m-isw.* ^~1 m-r, lit ' in the hand of' is common in various meanings.
1.   ' together with' a person (like hne).    X came m-r Y ' with Y';e thy heart is m-r-k ' with thee '.*   Htm m-r ' contract with' someone.'
2.   ' in the possession, charge of: my portion of everything being m-r-i' in my hand'.*
3.  ' from': a letter ' from' a person;' bring something ' from' someone;,0
E» R. /Á? 26*1«?*"   n&m' ni m'r ' rescue', ' save from';" ndnd m-r ' inquire from'.'« " si. -T.' 22'; let.
o; £j. 20,23; 69,17.            4, 'through','because of someone or something: bpr m-r' happen through'
i.e. 'be done by';" m-r sfrrw ti'because of the state of the land'."    Especially also in the phrase J^,~ m-r nil 'seeing that' (below f 223).
^ r.r 'beside', 'near', var. ^1*7° r-r-r,u is uncommon.    His soul shall live r-r nb-r-dr ' beside the lord of the universe '.'*
*~? hr-r («) ' under the hand of, ' in the charge of." ^—«Jo m-rb ' in the company of, ' together with'." ^""j'^IirTl r-ei' 'on an equality with'," ' at the level of." $U^3id2 »t-i'b* usually written ^T" or Jt,1"». lit. 'in the foreskin (?) of, a very common preposition for ' in the presence of, mainly in the presence of respected personages.    An extended form is &2T* m-i>k-r™
&%, m-m 'among' people, very common;*3 varr. J^," Sš-"*5 and even
below, p. 134.
" Adm, 2, 4. Sim. ib. 3, 4; Bertk. 1. 14, 2; with inf. ft. 644.
'• ttentkm. 13.
» Urk. it. 62, 6. Sim. ii. 1104, 6. 15.
" Siut 1, 272. 277. 304.
» Berik. i. 14. 5 i Budge, p. 292, 16; Uri.n.877,15 i 931, 8; 1094,10.
" Peat. R 122; cf. Urk. ÍT. 1104, 13.
*  L. D. iii. 228 iis. n Sim. B 253. 263. B Cairo 20542, 07;
P.Pel.lljit,S; Urk. iv. 776, 14.
" Brit. laus. 614, 7; Cairo 20CII, 4.
*  Urk. iT. Ii6, 2. » Urk. It. 6«, 16. " Sin. B 280.   Cf.
"hn/s/L^nS.    *,*,-"    Perhaps a simple reduplication of»« (§ 162), cf.
" CAET.-NeWB.                                                                                            ...                 -.,-.,                    1        r<n
7*./»',PL 11;Cairo            ,^~T tp-mie (») 'accompanying , 'escorting , lit   on the temple of .,T
34019,14.
" Vrk.ll. 367, 17.
" Cart.-New«. Tk. tV, PI. 11.
»' frt.iT. 835, 12.
** Cairo 34019,14.
" Sim. R 32. 80,
" Wale. 6, 24; Rkind, title.
" Sin. B108. Sim
*j}H ;** the literal sense
2.   at
-=--^e r-mnv («) ' in the sight of," var. «=
■=-#3 r-r/ft • to the knowledge of,3" varr. ■ may be ' so that.... may know', see p. 304, n. 1.
H^raik^lTl m-hrw 1. ' in the neighbourhood of a person or place;3 stu 1, 151; euro   the time of someone.34
20531,4
" Sl\k.T.\lt\, 14.            %.■$ »t-kit'm front of': he placed me m-hit irdwf'm front of his children';35
i»"£8it?6°3l8ii'*'    t0 snrinlc 'at the prospect of work.3« ít. 711%.   7'   ''           ~="i$ r~h!t'm front of 1 ' before', temporally;3' but also locally ' in front of
« Siu. B 48; B ff.                  ..
L 35,103-4; Urk. ít.    a person.3"
1002,8.                                                                                                                                                                       (
«' sin. b 194; Urk.            .^.s^ far-hit' before': bhi far-hit' flee before';"' m front of i.e. superior in
« uři. ii. 766,3.     rank to;" ' in front of' in a procession."   Also temporally ' before'."
132
COMPOUND  PREPOSITIONS
^Ý'l1 »'-hm> ''n excess of: offerings 'in excess of what existed before.1 So also &Ý&Tľ? *»-hiw-hr: (a) 'in addition to';* (i) 'over and above' i.e. 'except', less common.3
Sít bft-hr, lit. 'before the face of. ' In front of someone, opposed to hi ' behind'; * ' before' someone, i. e. before someone's eyes." ffft-hr-n ' in presence of the entire land.*
^ m-hr(y)-ib ' in the midst of, varr. ^ J_r?' (common), %,££;7* ' in the midst of a number of people.8
?& hr-bw< ''t.' in exclusion of: (1) in the phrase ^*,?,«— we hr-hwf, which appears to mean'exclusively unique'; "(2) in phrases like ^^^J^-~ ttn wn hr-hwf ' there is none beside him';10 (3) also elsewhere as ' beside' or ' except', ex. none survived ?&j§ hr-hwi 'except me'.11
«=.4. r-hft ' in front of (rare).12 With the same sense «=»f»^t-m
^■51 j_ m-hml' in the absence of, ' without'; ^-J.1 jSJ«— m-hmt-f' without him';l3 the palace is m-htnt bikwf' without its tribute '.'*
&ffl° m-hnt lit' in the face of' (rare); ' within' the palace;ls also ' out of', ex. gold brought m-hnt Ti-sty ' out of Nubia'."
^4-& m-hsfw 'at the approach of, 'in meeting' someone," var. ^4-^mJi--=*^"| r-ht ' under the authority of', lit. ' at the staff of ',18 less correctly written -=-Jí^.ls
J^JJ^jl m-ht ' after', ' accompanying', var. ^JJ^ (very common).
1.  of place: the princes nty m-ht-f''^ who were with (or 'accompanying') him';n m-ht swtwt-f' accompanying his promenades' in his chariot31
2.  of time (frequent); ' after' death, old age, etc.; m-ht nn ' after this'.
3.  with infinitive, always ' after '.*•
4.  with tim-f. Really always ' after', but often equally well translated as ' when'. Exx. H is Majesty raged ^Jí^íJQ m-ht sdm-f si' when he heard it';" .2,j=i ^^"^^^-^UJfJ" hr m-ht spr-f r Ddi ' now when he approached Djedi', the palanquin was set down." So too when the main verb refers to the future, exx. the priest shall give offerings ^o^-ů£Eií. m-ht pr-f ' after he has gone forth' having performed ceremonies in the temples;is 1"=>l^iI=*=i_Ll Jí. ^ m'^ hip hm « ntrpn 'now after the Majesty of this god is satisfied' with his offerings, one shall cause to go forth, etc.23 Note that when the clause with m-frt precedes the main clause, the preposition is usually, though not universally,3' introduced by ir (§ 149) or by the particle Ar (§ 239); hr is used when the main verb is past, and ir when the main verb is future.27*
133
§178
> D. ,1 B. (AV) i 24; Urk. W. 188, 3. Sim. P.Kah. 17, 14.
' Urk. iy. 843, ir.
•   Urk. n. 1108, 14. 4 Wcsie. 10, 7. 14.
23. Sim. Bersk. >. 18,3-
•  Siut 1, 272 j f. Pet. 1116B, 3i; SÁ.S. 176; Peat. B1, 280.
« Urk. iy. 2, 3.
» Sin. Bloo;Sk.S. lol. 131; TV. 3, 3.
•  Rennt 1,1.
• Bersk. i. 15:11.13, 16; Urk. ít. 18, 10.
•  0r*.tV.94>. Cf. Siut I. 214-15.
"Bff.i.i6,iSs.Stc too yEA. iii. 341-3.
11 Sk. S. 108. Sim. fk/ttrn. 9.
" Urk. ir. 803, 17.
••' AZ. 61, 93.
" Sin. R 68. Sim. Mill. 3, 4 ; Urk. iy. 390.9-
u Adm. 10, 4.
» Urk. iT. 603, 8. Sim. ii. 357, 13.
•• Mm. 4.
>» Lac. TR. 43, 1; Budge, p. 13, 3 ; 46, 13; 137, 13.
" Urk. vi. 54, 10; 55, "5! 453.9 i ">44. 13-
" Urk. ir. 1021, 4.
» T. Cam. 3. Sim. Sin. R 33; B 244; Kopt. 13, 3, 3.
» Ur». It. 3, 6.
» Siut 1, 278; Ei. 4', 1-9; 59. ■>; 63. 14; Urk. ít. 916, 2.
» Urk. ÍT. 139, 10. Sim. Pr. 3, 3.
" IVeste. 7,13. Sim. ii. S, 33.    .
** Siut 1,308. Sim. ii. 398; P.Kak. 3, 33; Weite. 3, 2; u, 26; El. 56, 3ii 7«, 13:97.3.
" f/r*.ÍT.7«8.Sim. P. Kah. 33, 8: 29, 18: £«.87,9; 88,14.
» 'P. Kak. 3, 33 ; Urk. ít. 836,6 j Ann. 37, pi. 3, 36.
"^ Exception, Ann. 42. '9. 'S-
§178
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
5.  with i&n-n-f, for examples see above 5 156. The past meaning of the verb following m-kt is here doubtless strongly emphasized. Again in this case fir m-ht is used when the main verb is past,1 and Ir m-fri when it is future.'
6.  with the passive tfac/form (rare).    'After'; see below § 423, 3.
7.  with iamt-f (doubtful).    'After'; see below § 407, 2.
8.  with noun + old perfective; see below § 327. TT bt-b1' through ',* like the simple preposition At (§ 175).    Rare. ^THo^n m-hnw (»),♦ lit. 'in the interior of, common; sometimes strangely
written Al—>,i later and less frequently ^=.'
1.  'within' a place : the city, island, boat, temple, body. 1 a. ' in' before abstracts, ex. tn-hnw Art ' in contentment '.**
2.  ' out of : go out' from' a room ;' bring tribute ' out of this island.' ^t£ m-si, lit ' in the back of (common).    Almost always spatially ' after',
' following after'.    Come, go, be ' after' someone, i. e. follow him or accompany him."   Shs m-si 'run after' i.e. persecute.10    'After' in the sense of looking
»2». Kak. 4, 31 Cairo »0541, a 10; Urt. i», ä, J i j, 4.
•  P. K.k. i, 34 ; Eb. 91,16-7; 96, 21.
s Brit. Mu. 614, 5. 6; Cairo 20512,64.
4 With m before noon, Sk. S. 43. 175. Without n, Sin. B 50. 283.
•  See AZ. 59, 61. ■See víZ. 25,33-4.
«•.ft.117.Sim.Lac TR. 17, 31 ; AZ. 57, 107.
1 Sin. B 283.
•  Sk. S. 175.
•  Si** I, 278. 317; Sin. B 245 i Urt. Ir. 65', '7; H', •<■•
•• Sin. B 227. " Sin. B 239. 242. " Urk. íy. 971, u.
" Ma. 1,11'i Sin.   after, being in charge of.11    Metaphorically pér m-st ' go round after', i. e.' seek b 7; ptat. b 1,244 i   for'. u r(ß {£ „^^ > ^ anx[ous about', lit. ' give the heart after'."
■=*í£ r-si, lit. ' towards the back of (common).    Almost always temporally.
1.   'after'supper, a storm, illness."   R-si nn 'after this'.15
2.  with infinitive ' after' doing something.1'
3.  with i4m-f 'after': exx. ~f P^^JaoVTľ"! »*-*' s>b-'l >> 'after I have reached land';" -=>lŕP«l.'l=áľwP= r'sl svAf si 'after ne nas drunk it'."
*t£ hr-si, lit. 'on the back of; except in one or two special meanings less common than m-si and r-si.
1.  of place, ' upon' the earth, the desert"   ■Sm hr-si-f' walk behind him'."
2.   ' outside' a fortress or wall."
3.  of lime: one is heard hr-si sn-nwf' after the other';" men who shall come hr-si nn 'after this '.**
%>§, m-siht, var. ^fó^JtU^, ' in the neighbourhood of."
■=*~T^; r-swnt'as the price of, ' in exchange for'."
&J^J^ ">-&& (»)"'in the midst of', lit 'in the folds of (not uncommon):
people," pyramids,** a place."
""~5sÍ»^Sk *giw 'through lack of," once written at the beginning of a
clause J_ia^«S ln-giw (5 148, 5).
•=■'7 r-gs 'at the side of, 'beside' (common).    For 'beside' people in
Lib. 131.
" Sin. R 31; Eb. 60, 15.
■• St. S. 180.
11 Eb. 21, 13. Sim. ib. 41, 16; Siní I. 298. 313; P.Xak. 35, 22; Urk. T. 95,4.
M Urk. it. 112, 2; 146, 14; 383, 15; 97S, «•
'■ Watt. 7, 5.
» Vri. ir. 138,16; 661, 12.
11 UrkAv. 1104,13.
M Lonrre C 52.
" Vri.ÍT.a8,2;gxj, 13i D. ti B. 134, left; BerL leather, I, 16.
« Watc. 11, 8i AZ. 43, 33.
» With » before nooQ.iVi^S'. 136; Urk. ir. 39s, 7. Without«, Sin. B196. 281. 300.
** .SS*. B 196. 281 i St.S. 127.136; Vrt. ir. 390, 8.
n Sin. B 30a
" Urk. ir. 390, 7; cf. MM 2, n.
■» Ä«. B 154; La. 64.128.
*• P.Kak. 13, t. 30i Urk. ir. 1088, 14.
" jíj.io8íBudgi,   various senses:  in the presence of witnesses;" in the company of someone;sl f. 103, I4J 286, 3.                                                     r                                                                 ....     , „
* Pan. b i, 44.4«.   practically equivalent to  except  in ky r-gs-/ another beside him .**
134
COMPOUND  PREPOSITIONS
*^= kr-gs ' beside', much rarer than r-gs in the same sense.1 «=>® r-tp (»),* var. <=»**7* *--//-<• (») *' into the presence of, very rare. *® hr-tp, lit. 'on the head (of)', mainly in the phrase |^iP ff-ty r"b w<i> s"i ' on behalf of the life, prosperity and health ' of the king.*
S^~"=* m-tnt-r 'apart from' what was done before, lit. 'in distinction from'.'*
§ 179. 6. Compound prepositions consisting of adverb + preposition.—In this much smaller class an adverbially used noun (§ 88, i) or some part of a verb is prefixed to one of the simple prepositions.
®\ tp-m, with suffixes fl)^ tp-im-,'before', lit 'head in'. To come 'in front of a person;' also 'in the direction of a place.' JOf time, 'before' old age.7
Í^110-=" nfryt-r ' down to', lit ' end to'; of time, ' down to' My Majesty, year 16, etc.;' of place,' down to' the ends of the earth,' etc.; also metaphorically, 'down to' the lowest official,10 alone 'down to', i.e. 'with the sole exception of, someone.11
2^""=* 4r-r-r ' right down to' (lit ' end to") death.1"
Here belong such phrases as |ffl|~-= hntt-r.......§=> pht-r.....'southward to.......ending at......' (a place);" |{j|.^ Anl-r.......'^<s> mk^r.....
'southward to.......northward to.....';" all precious stones -^?-=- hit-r
' starting with' silver and gold, &<=* pAwy-r ' down to' ivory and ebony."
Some part of the verb, perhaps the old perfective (§ 309), adverbially used, enters into the composition of the following:
Y^S1* wpw-hr, with suffix Va ^ wp-hr-, lit. ' separated from'.
1.   ' except' a person or thing.1*  Very strangely, wpw-y ' except me '."*
2.  with infinitive, like hnf (see § 171, 3), where English uses ' but' and translates with a finite verb, ex. not one looked behind V^TIi-0 ^P^-b*" ifd 'Dut they fled'."
3.  before idm-f, with the meaning 'but', ex. YxTEr^^I^.O wpw-hr nfnddf (sic) htwl' but my limbs......-ed'."
_*.(•[*ŕs-=, hrw-r, var. fj^,1* lit 'apart from', is used for 'besides', 'as well
as' something."    Later, the r is omitted (rare).'1
55"^T^ ifi-m ' beginning from', used either of place" or of time.a ssj^<=» Sir-r, apparently 'beginning to', strangely comes to mean 'as far
as' of place?*     Cf. r-ir-r, § 180.
§ 180. C. Compound prepositions containing an infinitive.
"=>Bai^'S'....."* r tod.....r ' between' one thing ' and' another, lit' to
separate .r___from'."   Not before end of Dyn. XVIII.
§178
1 Budge, p. 7,11; 86,15; 287.10. » AZ. 43, a8. « Urk. It. 1074,1.
* Urk. W. 334. ' 1'» 335» »ô; 33Ä, 11; 76S, 10. Sim. Cairo 20543, 14; Hamm. 47, 5.
«UrkAv. 5*4.17; Ann. 43, 4.
1 Peas. B 1, 40. 74 j ÍVesíc. 10,6; 12, 16.
•  Urk. v. a6, 3. T Westc. 7,17.
' Urk. iv. 34» I0i 3*»7»4: 39°."-
•  Urk. iv. 648, 6; 135,13.
11 UrkAv. no?. 13.
" P.Kah. 33,14.
" Chad. Oeuvr. Div. 5, PI. 6; /i'w Th. T. 19.
" Brit. Mas. 614,4; cf. Urk. it. 1139, 3.
14 Abyd. in. 29. Sim. Petr. Qurtuh, 3, 3, 4; Cairo 30543, 10.
w Louvre C 14.
» Louvre C 14; P. Kah. 37, 10; Eb.%% 9;Berl. Al. L p. 256; Budge, p. 308» "i 408, I; 497, 8.
»•^»»».36,137 (pi. II, 1).
» Urk.i1.697. Sim.
1*. 3Ö3» 17:  439» «J 6oi, 13.
" Si«. B 328.
» Urk. iv. 665, 13.
H Sin. B 89. 90. 299; t7ri.iv.7oa, 15; 703, 12; 823, 13.
m Urk. vi. 8, i.
M Urk. iv. 135, 13; 648, 6; 11 so, 4.
» Urk. iv. 743, 6; 776» 4 í 895, iď.
w T. Cam. 4. 5. 6; Urk. iv. 649, 9.
".*<»«. 37,ph a, 16; Amarn. 5, 28, 18; Nav. 15 a, iii. 17.
135
§180
EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR
1 .SAL 15,35.53; 26,145; Urk. ir. 808, 2.
» Walt. 7, 3.
•  P. Kak. 5, 19. » P. lite* a, 1 •
AZ. 63,106. 1 4M. ir. 2. u.
•  <7i-i. ir. 66, is; 439.'; 75»,>7S "°7. 6; 1109, 8.
•  Urk. ir. 168,10 ; "50. M-
•JMiW; titles CM.
tT. I 2f,9.
* Againftt .ÍZ- 64,9. »«1»«. 42,6,6 7; 16, 16.17, etc
• Munich 4. A'-ikr-»,seeUrd. V4, 2.
»BrlLMat.614,11. 11 Munich 3, 21.
» ÍÄL 15,45-75-Sim. Hamm. 113,15; Urk. ir. 100, 3.
» SM. ir. 409,17.
"Cairo20086; To-rin 1584; Urk. ir. 749, |6. With noon, Coffins, BiP, 114.
»Btrl.Jf/.i.p.258,
21.
11 Put. B I, 79.
" .ft** 1,271. Sim. Urk. iv. 100, 4.
u í«rfl,273. With am(»),seeTarinl447; Ptat. B1, 79; Mär ÜL 11, qn. § 326; Urk. i». 366, »5.
» Urk. ir. 415, 16. Slm. ti. 776,14; 835, 7! 840,5.
» SM 3,11; Cairo a0539, iL3 Ii; Vri. ir. 1099, 2.
» See AZ. 48, 45.
n Urk. ir. 1099, I. Sim. «S. 342, 3 ; 809, 11.
- Sin. B 18.
* BUDGB, p. 353, 6.
•• i. U D. Cairo linen, 3; Lac TR. 80, 17-8.
«=•;§•& r-mn-m, lit. 'to remain in' with the meaning 'as far as', alike of place' and of time; * * as far as' her buttocks.3
«=*es^;^«=- r-lfi-r ' down to' this day."*    Cf. Sľ-r, § 179.
"""ÍLU r-di'i *''• 'm order to replace'. 'Instead of someone;* not until Late Egyptian does this become the equivalent of English ' in exchange for', in Middle Egyptian m-isw, r-swni or r-4>t.
"^Ix r-ťf,'i v*1"- """Í& r-dnvl, lit. 'so as to cancel', i.e. 'in return for' a monument, act, wrong, or like.'   Common in Dyn. XVIII.
^~^-=- m-snt-r ' in the likeness of ',*' in accordance with',' lit ' in beinglike to'.
Obs. S r-mn ' together with',' as well as', possibly a development of r-mn-m and perhaps the original of Late Egyptian irm, Copt, «««'with';* in one text only.**
§ 181. D. Compound prepositions used mainly as conjunctions.—
The following phrases are followed either by the infinitive or by iim-f.
~~\£A toffr ("). l'L ' through the excellence of'; with S4m-f, ex. he gave it to me as commander of soldiers —1s~*T? n^ir ntnh-{j) hr ib' by virtue of my being efficient in (his) heart', i.e. 'because he thought me so efficient'.'-1
—^!— n-rit-n, var. —~T nsit-?il,w much more rarely %>j£. m-Ot-n," lit. 'through (in) the greatness of. Equivalent to English 'inasmuch as', with tdm-f, exx. ~^1—§■— ^2! n-r,i-n mrr-f mir t' inasmuch as he loved truth';12 —HI—ÜHÜ!**—% «-r,í-n mnh-f hr ib ' inasmuch as he was efficient in (his lord's) heart'."
~^j— n-wr-n, lit 'through the greatness of. ' Inasmuch as', with idm-f;" much less common than n-rit-n.
—~^§ n-mrwt, varr. -—§, -"%?;^,15 once at the beginning of a sentence H~2:|g in-mrwl," lit 'through love of. (1) 'In order that', commonly with idm-f, exx. I have equipped thee ^SrSü"j£ n-mrwt ir-k n-l ht' in order that thou mayst perform ceremonies for me';" —I^J^oJž^af Á n-mrwt mnhpi t-h4 ' in order that the white bread may be established'." (2) More rarely with the infinitive, ex. —"^-~3r'»"2í«o)ô n-mrwt srwdpit-i ' in order to make flourish my offering-bread'."   So too rarely ^§ m-mrwt (or -mryt) with the infinitive.80
j£^ sb-tw (?) or possibly si-tw (?),' in quest of, var. 3"^, a phrase of obscure origin," employed with the infinitive: ex. the foreigners come 3"^3—P™^ —Ý sb-tw(ľ) rdit n-sn inv n rnh 'seeking that might be given (more literally perhaps ' in quest of the giving') to them the breath of life'."
&£3ál m-sni 'through fear' (very rare): with idm-f, ex. ^ÍJSaJ^Sk ^=11^®4 m-stt4 mu wriyw 'through fear that the watchers should see'." Sim. n-snd-n,1' n-snd.u
136
COMPOUND  PREPOSITIONS
§181
f "7* tp-r, lit 'upon the hand'. ' Before', (t) with the infinitive, ex. -fS^S ?"7,JSs1 viim tp-r s4r ' to be eaten before going to bed ';' (2) with idjn-f, ex. the storm broke as we were on the sea ® ItH^T"! tp-f sih-n it 'before we reached land'.»
"*—eV^íti® r-tnw-sp 'every time that' (very rare). With i&n-f, ex. this is what I shall say ■=>^,§,)"^-ís-í®'*Sw^1^^sfeá1^ r-tnw-sp gmm sw bik im ' every time that this (thy) servant finds him'; * tnw alone in the same sense, ' shooting (to hit the mark) •S'lrTi^^'w every time he tries '.*
1 Eb. 13,1. Sim. ib. 34,13; Peas. B 1, no.
> Sk. S.   33.   loj. Sim. Adm. 16, I.
• P. Kak. 36, 26 4 AZ. 69, 30, 16.
VOCABULARY
t hi var.  I&  fight.
*                  1___a     *>
wih (1) trans, place, put down; (2) intrans. endure; adj. enduring, durable.
\ ^l  rwd (orig. rwd) be hard, flourish; adj. flourishing.
A   ^-^  stp choose;  noun,  Pn5>^ stpw the choicest, best
fl<== ddbe stable; W 4d{t) durability, stability.
P*"| sri make great, magnify.
P (Ml        s6nt ma'ce prominent, promote.
P®.!^ ľ sbmb-ü> amusement lit distraction of heart ^<$t iwt-ii joy, lit. expansion of heart.
<=>""  hrt-lb desire, wish; lit.  what
q   1
belongs to the heart. 1 wis dominion, lordship: an old word, occurring only in formulae.
jl.__y st-hr charge, care;  lit. place
of the face, v   w"w privacy.
8 (properly ti) sir thing, concern.
j8o5 TT\ imB tribute' £ifts-B tľľ? rh palace. 1^© fhrw period, space. o§?y twl (masc.) statue, image.
T  wn being:   in the phrase » wn
mir in true being, truly. U Q dbrt signet-ring.
tíu silt (reading not quite certain) precious thing, treasure.
^ dt estate, domain; bik n pr dt or bik n 41 servant of the estate, liegeman.1
^v   H r the god Horus.
1 See Gabd. Sin. p. 77, 0. 1.
137
XIV
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
EXERCISE   XIV
(a) Reading lesson : extract from a biographical inscription of Dyn. XI:1
(N.B. The interlinear transliteration and translation are henceforth replaced by a division into sentences designed to show the structure of the passage studied-Students should, at least in the early stages of their reading, always write out the original texts which they study, paying special attention to good writing; an arrangement such as is here offered will be found conducive to a clear understanding of the Egyptian.)
*r»>,s,ifcf,T,	Iw lr-n-{i) thfw ry m rnpvit
■ti^&xm^zji	.hrhm n nô-(t) Hr Wih-rnh n-sw-bit Si-R'-'Intf,
4f-X£it!	ist ti pn hr sl-hr-f
mz-r	hntl-r )bw.
5-*Y	pht-r Ti-wr' Tn(i)
PY&Ž..Í-&	stwim bikf n dif,
£.tl—+£	Ír tpf n wn mľ.
iCZ*	iw sfí-n-f wi,
PffflTZJr,	shni-n-f sl-(i),
ZZ Jr ^ JjK^t"^"^^	di-nfwi m s t /frt-ibf
M'řS>—±Y	m thf n vwtw.
£>&->l8	silt m-t-(i) hr dbrt-lf)
wsi*-rr?	m slpzv n nfrt nbt
Xž-llZmřSb	innl* n hm nnb-fflm Šm'w m Ti mhw,
Jtf^->Jf?	m sir nb n shmh-lb,
fcJ3-znr«-	m inw n ti pn mi kdf,
-p.'.-tn	n sn4wf ht-ht ti pn;
i^—l^-^^ÍÔiu?1*^               innt ^ nhmn nb-(i) m-f hkrw hryw-	
" 11        o   o ein	n sndwf ht-ht hiswt.        W aSrl<
• Brit. Mm. 614,11. 3-6-. JEA 17, 55.
1 See f 90, 3.    Ti-vir was the Egyptian name of the ' nome' or province of Abydus.
• See 53*9, "•
' I passed a long space of years under the Majesty of my lord, Horus Enduring-of-Life, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Son-of-Re<-Inyötef, while this land was under his charge southwards to Elephantine and ending at This of the Abydus nome, and while I was his liegeman under his command (lit head) in very truth. He exalted me, and promoted my place, and put me in a position of his desire, in his palace of privacy, treasures being in my care
138
SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES
Exerc. XIV
under my seal of the best of every good (thing) which-used-to-be-brought to the Majesty of my lord from Upper and Lower Egypt, consisting of every thing of enjoyment and of the tribute of this entire land, owing to the fear of him throughout this land; (also) which-used-to-be-brought to the Majesty of my lord by the hand of the chieftains who are over the desert, owing to the fear of him throughout the foreign lands.'
(b)  Write in hieroglyphs and in transliteration:
(1) My lord gave to me my city as prince, he gave it to me as commander of the army, by virtue of my being efficient in the heart of His Majesty.
(2)  I give (use idmitf) to thee all life, stability and dominion"; all health and all joy with (hr) me in exchange for this beautiful, flourishing, efficient monument.
(3)   I caused my image to be made at this my southern boundary in order that (lit. through love) ye might flourish on account of it and in order that ye might fight on behalf of it. (4) I have paid attention to (rdi-n-i ib-i hnt) the house of my lord ; I have not been neglectful concerning his children, his cattle or anything of his. (s) My office is more beautiful to-day than it was yesterday. (6) Thy pyramid shall be in the midst of the pyramids of the Royal Children (msw nsw).
LESSON   XV
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
§ 182. A part of a sentence which is equivalent to a noun, adjective or adverb, while having a grammatical subject and predicate of its own, is called a subordinate clause, or more specifically a noun clause, adjective clause, or adverb clause.
1.   Noun clauses.    See below §§ 183-193.
2.  Adjective clauses, better known as relative clauses.  See below §i 195-204.
3.   Adverb clauses.    See below §f 210-223.
When a subordinate clause has nothing to distinguish it from a complete sentence except its meaning and its syntactic function (e.g. the replacing of a nominal object, $ 69) it is called a virtual subordinate clause. Clauses of this kind are more common in Egyptian than in English, though in English they are by no means rare, exx. ' I know he does',' the day he met us'.
Other subordinate clauses are marked off as such by means of connecting links like the relative adjective nly 'who, which, that' and the conjunctive particle nti 'that'.
139
§183
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 Fees. B I, 269.
*  Brit. Mns. 101, horiz. 4, qn. p. 169.
•  Turin 1447; Cairo aoloo, 4; Brit. Mas. 33.1- 333 í Louvre C 181.
' Urk. iv. 368, 14 i s°7,3-■ Sin. B 7. « íl«. B 18. ' Urk. i». 198, 5-9.
'■ Urk i». 368, 14.
*  Sin. B m. Sim. Lac. TR. 35, 10 j Acht. p. 43.
•  5*«/ t, 267.
'• Sm. 1, »5; 3, i«.
" Lonvre C 13,6.
Urk. iv. 363, 6.
NOUN CLAUSES
§ 183. Noun clauses, or subordinate clauses which exercise the function of nouns, remain as a rule without introduction {virtual noun clauses), but sometimes are ushered in by a word for ' that' (nit, wnt, § 187).
Verbal noun clauses, i. e. those which have a narrative verb-form as grammatical predicate (§ 27), are commoner than non-verbal, for we shall see (§ 186) that noun clauses with adverbial, nominal, or adjectival predicates were conformed to the type of the verbal sentence by use of the idmf form of wnn ' be' or of the adjective-verb; see already above §§ 118. 143. 150. 157.
_ We shall treat noun clauses from the standpoint of their function as syntactic elements in the main clause, beginning with their use as object, already familiar in the employment of idmf after rdi 'cause' (§ 70).
§ 184. Štfrn-f as object after certain verbs.—1. After some verbs like 3 rdi ' cause' (§ 70) the idmf'form has prospective meaning, i.e. points to an act that may or will occur in the future. Such verbs are \\\ wih 'permit',1 V§\ wd 'command',' ^jSj mr 'wish',* jř r j 'know',4 -Si>;|j| jmt 'think',' £3jSJ s»d 'fear',« PJ^áj sb> 'remember', 'recollect', "S-%, gm 'find a means', 'be able', ^\ dd ' say', ' think', besides the compound A&? <& m ib ' determine ', lit. ' place in the heart',' and the supposed imperative "v&^r'iM Slw'beware lesť (§338, 3).
Exx. Tc.S.vĽSZlP^ rh-nf jrp-i nf si he knew I should administer it for him."
^HZZe^'S"—ÍZUiS ddn-f rh,-f hurl he said he would fight with me.»
íláP^I^ááP-LTá^lá iw'1 sb'-i spri mtr I used to remember that I should draw nigh to the god.*
-"-"S^ZIIb!!»«!!—ľíV * gm-nf dgif n krhwyfy he is unable to look (lit. he does not find he may look) at his shoulders."
After the passives of the same verbs the idm-f form naturally becomes subject; see § 70 for an example with rdi.
Ex- jk^ífMCIE-^lk1?"—?"J mk wd (§ 422. 1) MM P> r-pr n 3bdw behold, it has been commanded that thou shouldst cleanse the temple of Abydus."
The above examples show that this use of idmf was common even when its subject was identical with that of the main verb. Not infrequently, however, it seemed unnecessary to repeat the subject, and in such cases the id"'f was regularly replaced by the infinitive. See below § 303, and compare English ' I wished to go' with ' I wished he would go' and ' I wished I could go'.
2. After some verbs like 2 rb ' know'," ^^^ m"'see > "S"& gm' find \
the objective idm-f has not necessarily prospective meaning, but may refer to the same time as the main verb (relativepresent time, § 155).
140
NOUN  CLAUSES
§184
Exx. tt\Zit*%$!%^.šM'n's *r'tw '" inw'/s^ found it (the noise) was being made in it.1    'Jr-tw is elliptic for ir-twf.
The heart of His Majesty was refreshed — j^^Z-«*^, 11 * "'" 6""'s" at seeing them row.2
OBS. To negate the idmf form thus used as object the negative verb im is employed, see §347> '•
§ 185. SdlU'll-f as object of verbs.—This use is of rare occurrence; the idm-n-f form then refers to time anterior to that of the main verb (relative past time, § 156).
Ex. fj-=---5*$^~ Jj~ ir gm-k Is-ti-f if thou findest it (the stomach) has become constricted, lit. has tied."
§ 186. Virtual noun clauses with adjectival, adverbial or nominal predicate as object of verbs.—After the verbs quoted in § 184 the construction is the same as after rdi 'cause'. 1. Thus in noun clauses with adjectival predicate the idmf form of the adjective-verb replaces the adjective itself (5 143). Exx. ■£—|»L.£ZjÔ ""'" jmf knn-i His Majesty saw that I was brave.' (jP^^—j/^J^^Pu^Si™ ist gm-ii hm-i nfr wrt ski irl lo, My Majesty had found that the cultivation of barley was very good.8
2.  Similarly, in noun clauses with adverbial predicate the idmf {01m of wnn 'exist', 'be' is employed, since iw cannot stand in this position (§ 118, end).
Ex. ^-    ííi;ál^3r* mr-nfwn-i m Midw he desired me to be in Medámůd.'
3.   Noun clauses with nominal predicate could doubtless also be expressed in the same way, use being made of the m of predication (§§ 38. 125); but instances also occur where the object consists of the construction with pw.
Ex. "S*^1)! ľÍ"^Wfto^ gm-ii-i hfiw pw I found it was a snake.'
So too the type of sentence introduced by the independent pronoun (§125)
is found as the object of rj.
Ex. T——~ ° <=>~ rj-nn-sn (read rj-n-sn) ink nb-sn they know I am their
lord.«
§ 187. Use of Z «it and «T wnt for 'that'.-The particle M nti (§ 237) and the much rarer á£~ wnt (§ 233) are occasionally used for' that' after verbs of seeing and knowing.
Exx. ^^*
$ZLtl£.~~ rfrkwl ntt htpf hr-s I knew that he would be pleased
on account of it*
T-^níH—1}^.....-^I&ESI^MI*. rb-»-í" Hlt irsrnb..... «
ndm-n nf jtjt im ye know that as to every prince.....reversal thereof is not
pleasant to him.10
1  IVtslc. 13,4. Sim. Vri. Iv. 751, 3.
' »'«//. 5,15; 6, 2.
' Eb. 40, 19.  Sim. it. 39, 13.
4 Urk. iv. 9, J 6; sim. ib. iv. 893, 6. Aft« rk, Sin. B 76. 107 ; Urk. iv. 363, 6; Berl. AI. ii. p. 36, on. §88, a; after//»-, Siul 1, 330; after lit. P. Kak. ;. 31.
8 Urk. iv. 747, 9. Sim. after mi, Sin. B 108; after mr. Ft. 398.
• Cairo 30713, «lo. Sim. Urk. iv. 341, 8.
' Sk. S. 61. Sim. after ib '»oppose', ib. 58.
■  i V/Uv. 346,3-6.
• Urk. iv. 835; sim.
'*■ 59.3. i. V- I 4.". 2 ; with l4m.n.f. Sin. Tb\1\;JEA 16,19.1.
" Siul 1,310. Sim. ib. 380-1.
HI
§187
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1  Nav.   148,   33. After rk, Crk. iv. 364,
1 Ikhtrn. 9.    Sim. -Wir. li 115.
* Crk. iv. HIT, XX. Sim. Dtstr. 85, My Iwi for nit ml.
*■ ÁZ. 58, 19*. For a further development of this construction tee p. 353,11. 11a.
* Sk. S. 153. So too &pr.ft,iö. 1310.166; /VV/.mÖB,!. Sim. »iter bprm-<-f%Leb,\Q. Some regard ftfr and ffpr-n in such cases as impersonal.
■ Sin. B 197.
• CVi.iv.363. Sim. Pishl, Iff, iii. 75, past time.
1 Pt.hfa Sim.f*. 543:^^*1.33,13; Adm. 3, 9. Without ■vry. Lib. 39; tVeste. 9, «; 7Ä< 16, 19, 3-4-
He brought the book .... £^S^^SM^^IM ifi «"/ »" Arte /k> r» when he saw that it was a great secret.1
U^áliá^TlllÍLP-S^lř^* siľn km-i wnt nnirtyfy st ub/ir-kzu-k My Majesty perceived that there was none who would do it except thee.!
The examples show that ntt and wnt may introduce both verbal and nonverbal clauses. As stated in § 44, 2, a dependent pronoun may on occasion be attached directly to ntt, and the same is true of wnt.
Exx. ^.5^"™~*8—fľľvT br fn'^w "M s* br b^m n sr by one shall see that it is provided with the seal of the proper official.3
"^•ílyá^P—C^* r rbl Sl& wnt sn kn''b untu Seth knows that they are with thee.5*
OBS. For a different type of construction (the pseudo-verbal construction) after ntt and wnt, see below § 329. Note that after verbs of saying ' that' is not ntt but r-ntt; on this and other phrases introducing the content of a speech see §§ 244-5. Noun clauses introduced by ntt may be preceded by a preposition, see § ÍÍ3.
§ 188. Virtual noun clauses as subject.—The use of noun clauses as subject is very much rarer than their use as object. 1. We have already noted (§§ 70. 184) that noun clauses may be employed as subject after the passives of rdi ' cause' and similar verbs; other cases occur less frequently.
Ex. JJlP^T^Hň-l^^^ľll bpr is, iwd-k twrst In, » sp mrk iw pn it shall happen, when thou sunderest thyself from this place, never shalt thou see this island more.4
So too in the expression -*-^ n sp ' never' sp appears to be the iim-f form and takes another idm-f form as its subject; see above § 106, below f 456. Similarly a idm-f form may serve as subject after ir wdf' if (so and so) fails (to take place)', lit. 'if it delay that.......'; see 5 352-
2.  On rare occasions the idmf form is found after the phrases expressing non-existence ({ 108).
Exx. ^Ä^^-CT*^ tin wn mwt-k hr lust thou shalt never die (lit. it does not exist that thou diest) in a foreign land.5
-*-jS.T1'io'-"*-^3?n!''— n wnt kd-l hr r-pr-f I never slept because of his temple, i.e. perhaps, I was constantly vigilant concerning it" The time referred to appears to be the past
Obs. It seems not improbable that nn sjmf ' he will not hear' (§ 105, 1) is to be explained in this way.
3.  An adjective or adjective-verb may be predicate to a virtual noun clause introduced by the fdmf form.
Exx. J^^^VÔ"-1.ÜK- nfr-ivy sim si n it-/ how good (it is) that a son should hearken to his father.'
14i
NOUN  CLAUSES
§188
1 Eb. 109, 15.	
• ľ. Kai. 2; 29, 24. 45. ' P. Kah. 28, 10.    Sim. ib. 32,	1.6 16.
' Cri.t.6,8. Sim. ib. 6, 15; io, 5; 23,
' £4.97,13 ib. 97, 14. ij.
fl"0^'"*—cE/í". 'r wr dd'f snf if it bleeds much, lit if it-gives-blood is much.1
To be explained in the same way are the formulae of valediction in letters
iu^&^OÝ IP nfr sdm "6 (r>1b w& sub) ' may the hearing of (my) lord (lit. that
the lord hears) be good'8 and 1"^^'%,'=' nfr sdm-k ' may thy hearing be good '.3
So too after nfrpw with the meaning ' there is (are) not', and possibly after
the nearly synonymous nfr n ; see below § 351.
§ 189. Virtual noun clauses as predicate with *\ pw as subject.—
Under this head we have to deal with extensions of the constructions discussed
in §§ 128. 1 %o.<                                                                                                               ' F« H»>J « Ü-
,                                                                                                                                                            rectly juxtaposed pre.
1.  Sdttl't pw.    This construction is-not rare in glosses, where pw can best    di«,le (* ,!5  «"»))
r                                                                               a            >               r                            witlioat pw  see  the
be translated 'this means'; compare in French cest que.                                          example .s/r. i 25,63.
Exx. I am Re« in his first appearances; ^rJI?*— Di*ü&!?i*-- wbn-f pw dwnv m ihtf this means (lit. it is) that he arises of mornings in his horizon.5
l-^OTsS'^f^'STST-L+JJlir rwt ni !-llly rww'f m Pw hr mnd-f
iiby as to ' movement of the heart' this (phrase) means that it moves itself in his      • £4.I0Ii)J, Sim. left breast.«                                                                                        tW^"'347'
Q«=-^l«——lláí"»*—° iy dd-f ny, 'nh-f pw if he says ny, this means he will live.'
Elsewhere pw must be rendered ' that is how....'
E"- Jtl«»»^}!0^—18 bPr hnnkpw n 'Iwnw that is how the hmii-pritst of Heliopolis came into being.8                                                                                       a'.'.2'"'5*' Sm'
Literary manuscripts often end with a colophon of the type -*^*~|!ejS*— ■=» SJ^TJtil^íř&H<]=&$■=- iwf pw, hitf r phwyfy, mi gmyt m s!.'    This doubtless      • «.í. 186-7. Sim. means: Here ends the book, and it has been copied, start to finish, from some    5;«.645-4. short-
,           .,                    .                        „           ,               ....           .          .      ,                 .            j       "ed. P. Kah. 4,2;.
other old manuscript    Literally perhaps: this is it arrives, its front to its end, like what was found in writing.
2.   In rare cases pw after the i4m-f form simply serves to introduce the logical subject, the construction being that of § 130.
Ex. ^^«-(jTPľľ. r!-f pw rhsXo slaughter is his joy, lit. is he rejoices.10   «.^^g-jf^ ,;5-Rhs is the infinitive (§ 298).
§ 100. Other noun clauses where pw serves as subject.—1. £.it°\
ink pw, etc.    Pw is here inserted in a whole sentence beginning with the independent pronoun ' I', and has the meaning of French cest que.
Ex- CT^Pl^á—é^Ká ink pw shi-n-i mwt mwt-l I have been thinking about (lit. it is I have recollected) the mother of my mother.11   Answer to the
Sim. ib. 364, 16.
question ' what has come to thy heart ?' With a noun in the place of ink. Exx. ©á^^lZI—$fcá R' P™ dd-n-fn Hr it so happened that Re< (lit. it is
t-»*. L   \         1            it           ..                                         '                                                                                 " ^ÍZ.58,16*. Sim
Re< he) spoke to Moras."                                                                                          u. 57,4«; 58,18«.
143
§187
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1  Nav.   148,   33. After rk, L'rk. w. 364,
1 Ikhern. 9.    Sim. .Mr. 11115.
* L'rk. iv. HIT, IT. Sim. />«/>. 85, nly tTvl for »// rfr.
*• ÄZ. 58, 39*. For a further development of this construction lee p. 353,0. ill
« Si. S. 153. So looApr.H,ió. 130.166; AA/.iii6h,i. Sim. after i/rm-iy.Zii.io. Some regard Apr and hpr-n in nch cases as impersonal.
1 07». B 197.
• ŕľrí.iT.363. Sim. Pikkl, iff. iii. 75, past time.
' «.556. Sim.«*. UilPKa*. 33, 11; Adm. 3, 9. Without ■vrr. lie. 39; Wtstc. 9, as; JEA 16, 19, 3-4-
He brought the book .... •^^«-IlSS.Srra^Z.S.l bft »w-f nil štiw pw f 1 when he saw that it was a great secret.1
^álláíSTlll^LP-S^y^* sii-nhm-iwnlnnirlyfy stubAr-Aw-íMy Majesty perceived that there was none who would do it except thee.!
The examples show that ntt and wnt may introduce both verbal and nonverbal clauses. As stated in § 44, 2, a dependent pronoun may on occasion be attached directly to ntt, and the same is true of wnt.
Exx. .£.5^"™~*8—fSI^T br >n>tw "U si hr htm n sr iry one shall see that it is provided with the seal of the proper official.3
"^is^/á^P—IZa^* r rbl Stlf wnt sn hn'-h until Seth knows that they are with thee.5*
OBS. For a different type of construction (the pseudo-verbal construction) after ntt and wnt, see below § 329. Note that after verbs of saying ' that' is not ntt but r-ntt; on this and other phrases introducing the content of a speech see §§ 124-5. Noun clauses introduced by ntt may be preceded by a preposition, see § 223.
§ 188. Virtual noun clauses as subject.—The use of noun clauses as subject is very much rarer than their use as object. 1. We have already noted (§§ 70. 184) that noun clauses may be employed as subject after the passives of rdi ' cause' and similar verbs ; other cases occur less frequently.
Ex. JMPsb^^HlnJL^^^ri.l hPr is- iwd-k iwrs/ '"■ " SP mrk iw pn it shall happen, when thou sunderest thyself from this place, never shalt thou see this island more.4
So too in the expression -*-^ " SP ' never' sp appears to be the idmf form and takes another idm-f form as its subject; see above § 106, below f 456. Similarly a idm-f form may serve as subject after Ir wdf' if (so and so) fails (to take place)', lit. 'if it delay that.......'; see 5 352-
2.  On rare occasions the idm-f form is found after the phrases expressing non-existence (§ 108).
Exx. ^Juj^12^?^ tin wn mwl-k hr lust thou shalt never die (lit. it does not exist that thou diest) in a foreign land.5
-*-ifS,~^^.i^*r^'l«— « wnt kd-l hr r-pr-f I never slept because of his temple, i.e. perhaps, I was constantly vigilant concerning it* The time referred to appears to be the past
Obs. It seems not improbable that nn idmf ' he will not hear' (§ 105, 2) is to be explained in this way.
3.  An adjective or adjective-verb may be predicate to a virtual noun clause introduced by the idmfform.
Exx- Í^ST^kVÔ—l^jft*- nfrwy sdm " " u'f how S00^ (it; is) that a son should hearken to his father.'
14»
NOUN  CLAUSES                                               §188
l"0^'"»—~^_£ ir wr dd-f snf \{ it bleeds much, lit if it-gives-blood is much.1       ■ £6. 109,15.
To be explained in the same way are the formulae of valediction in letters í^-^^&ÝiP Hfr s<£m ,li (r"& wd> siiB) ' may the hearing of (my) lord (lit. that      * £ £*• '<> ''• the lord hears) be good'! and J^!^^ ttfr sdm-k ' may thy hearing be good '.3       ■ aaí*. 38,3. 6.
So too after nfypw with the meaning ' there is (are) not', and possibly after the nearly synonymous nfr n ; see below § 351.
§ 189. Virtual noun clauses as predicate with *\ pw as subject.—
Under this head we have to deal with extensions of the constructions discussed
in §5 128. 1 xo.*                                                                                                               ' F<* <r«/ « di-
,                                                                                                                                                          rectly juxtaposed pre«
I. Sdm-f pw.    This construction is-not rare in elosses, where pw can best    di?,le  (* ,!5  mi)
r                                                                           °                           r                           without pw  see  the
be translated 'this means'; compare in French c est que.                                          example Ä/ŕ. i 35,63.
Exx. I am Re< in his first appearances; ^rJlř"»— Qi*ü&!?i*-- wbn-f pw
dwnv m iht-f this means (lit it is) that he arises of mornings in his horizon."            «Vi*'*'?'*' S'n
1-=-ÓTsS*"=*ld.í"*??Sfw+JJl ir rwt nl l"ly rww'f sw pwAr mud-f   'ä-
iiby as to ' movement of the heart' this (phrase) means that it moves itself in his      • £i.,0Ii,j, sim.
left breast«                                                                                                                  f. i™'/,45'.'<1"'ii17'-
\*=\3."-~—lláÝ"*"'1— ° lr dd'f ny, 'nh-f pw if he says ny, this means he will
live T                                                                                                                                                                       ' «.97,13.   Sin».
ib- 97, M- i£-
Elsewhere pw must be rendered ' that is how....'
Ex. ^.{^^^á0^—18 bPr hnnkpw n 'Iwniu that is how the /«(«^-priest of Heliopolis came into being.8                                                                                       a'ßZ'57,
5"-
Literary manuscripts often end with a colophon of the type A^*.
S^V^^&W^&QSi.-*- iwfpw, kil-f r phwyfy, mi gmyt m si?    This doubtless      • «.í. 186-7. Sim. means: Here ends the book, and it has been copied, start to finish, from some    5; «645-«. short-
,          ,,                    .                       „           ,               ,.    .     .           .                 ,                 .           j       ™»li PKak. 4,3;.
other old manuscript    Literally perhaps: this is it arrives, its front to its end, like what was found in writing.
2. In rare cases pw after the idm-f form simply serves to introduce the logical subject, the construction being that of § 130.
Ex. ^Ä^«-tjTP^5 ri-f pw rhsto slaughter is his joy, lit. is he rejoices.10   ^'mp^n-^ l;5-Rhs is the infinitive (? 298).
§ 100. Other noun clauses where pw serves as subject.—1. £&°\
Iní pw, etc.    Pw is here inserted in a whole sentence beginning with the independent pronoun ' I', and has the meaning of French c'esl que.
Ex. CT^Pa^S—álfc^á ink pw shi-n-i mwt mwt-l I have been thinking about (lit. it is I have recollected) the mother of my mother.11   Answer to the   sim.«£ 364* ij!' <-question ' what has come to thy heart ?'
With a noun in the place of ink.
Exx. <Si3°^^~—^jfl Rrpw dd-nfn Hr it so happened that Rě< (lit. it is
i~»*,l   \           1              it             .<,                                                 '                                                                                                 " ^2.58,16*. Sim
Re< he) spoke to Horus."                                                                                          a. 57,4«; S8, i8>.
143
§190
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
1 £6. 103, 9.  Sim. **. 103,6 (ýi pm mi).
« Eb. 99. 5.
• Stn. I, 7, where Eb. 99, 4 has kr-nit 'because'. Sin.H136 is obscure. In Rkind ,4. 6 »/ /w replaces «Í// /a» of *0. I. 5; these formulae ma; be rendered respectively 'that is it* {seil, the answer) and * that is the number in question*, lit. 'the equivalent '.
*Sc*C*vriHlnJEA. 35. a •».
• Uri.lv. IS. Sim. Ö. 380,13; ■#**<•*.52.
• Anthbs,   34, 8.
Sim. lý. 24,3(»^/.ík); de Buck, üL 163, i
CV1,
'£*. 97, 13. Sim. P. Kam. IV, Z 17.
■ #*t. iv. 707. Sim.
■*-5>s, 5; 758,16.
• Cr*, iv. 497. 10.
- Pi. 186. Sim il. 481.614; P.Kek.i, i9;/&4.39,Fl.i,5.
" AUiTr 5.
If he has pain in his neck.....thou shalt say concerning it: j^—I?, m—
i. U**—«JLi—\~&hš*:n' P™ n mlw n »hil-f Ssp-n-sn mrt it is (because) the vessels of his neck have caught an illness.1
Similarly with other forms of verbal predicate not yet discussed, see below H 325- 332 end. This construction is specially appropriate to the itginnings of narratives and the answers to questions.
*• T? *tfw is possibly equivalent to nitpw 'it is the fact that' and seems to correspond roughly to our use of i. e. = id est =' that is to say'.
Exx. TelTá*~l8ř!TI?M uTŠT *tpu> mdw/hnt mtw nw H nit that is, it (the heart) speaks out of the vessels of every member.1
"nr?"^E"—S^t^®KJn? nt f™ mtw-ftn hi m st U that is, its (the heart's) vessels are in the back of the head and in the place of the heart*
The view of this construction here taken is the more probable since JL~? in nt pw once occurs with a fairly clear interrogative sense ' Is it the case that ?' See below § 494, 3.
§ 191. The šdm-f form serving as a genitive. Note that here, as after
prepositions (§ 153, towards end) the idm-f form may often be best translated by
the English gerund ('his hearing').
1. Appended as a direct genitive (§ 85. a) to a noun expressing time.* Exx. i'ŤJ'fTjll.d. ""' Mn-io rnpt iy/like Min (in the) year of his coming '.* AáoT^nlTOů^P '""* Srt ^nrt-s hrw rhi-s I was its (my town's) stronghold
(on the) day (that) it fought."
■^ll^^ájkj&fffiPP^tl h ď brcl hrw mss-lwf Another (way to) know
about a child (on the) day it is born.7
Obs. That the verb-form was felt as a genitive is indicated by the analogy of the construction under a below, and by similarities in the Semitic languages.
2. After the genitival adjective (§ 85. b). See further below, §§ 442, 5; 452, 5. Often best translated by an English adjective (relative) clause.
Exx. S^7Í"^"~.ffltj,^_ ht nit nfrt nt isp hm-f all good things which His Majesty received.   Or, all good things of His Majesty's receiving."
^{á|.jS><=.—áS.*=»()= m hwn-k u tuu-k imf in thy youthful vigour in which thou wast"   Lit. in thy youth of thou-wast-in-it
Or else it may correspond to an English clause of time or place.
Exx- ZÁ®—áíS tr n v>HU'k so long as thou livest, lit. the time of thou-•shalt-be.10
"=Ji—^^1&*~ r hv n wnnk imf to the place where thou shalt dwell, lit. of thou-shalt-be-in-it.u
Elsewhere the relation to the antecedent noun is less easily denned.
«44
NOUN CLAUSES
§191
Exx. '^§ —^íf """SřJSOJÍL sp pw n hsftw n 'Qhwty-n^.t pn is it a case for (lit. of) one's punishing this Dhutnakhte ?12
^I-S/^T *ii!^>IC^? m br{yl) nt f»b''f su> through dread of his equalling him."
The virtual noun clauses thus introduced are mostly short" and attached to words like hrw, tr, sp with which a genitive is usual.
When expression of the subject of the subordinate verb is superfluous, the infinitive may take the place of the Sdm-f'form, see § 305 and compare § 184, 1, end.
'* Plas. B t, 46-7.
" Sin. B la4.
14 Longer examples, Budge, 5 a, 4-6; 71,9.
§ 192. The šf/m-n-f form after the genitival adjective.—The idm-nf form is similarly used when the reference is to relative past time, but this construction is of very rare occurrence.
Ex. ,S,iíW—If SVS~-C:«Z Ink-nsw n shpr-nf, si-mrf n ir-nf nf I am a king whom (lit. of) he bred up, a son-who-loves ** whom (lit of) he made for himself.'
§ 193. Noun clauses in other positions.—Other uses of noun clauses are more conveniently classified elsewhere. Thus the employment of iim-f, idm-n-f, etc. to introduce virtual noun clauses after prepositions (above §§ 154-7) will be treated under the head of adverb clauses, the preposition being regarded as inside the subordinate clause, instead of, as hitherto, outside it (§§ 210, 2; 222); and similarly when the preposition is followed by ntl (§ 223). Again, virtual adverb clauses (§§210. 212-221) might be taken as noun clauses used adverbially, since the noun itself has a corresponding adverbial use (§ 88, 1). Lastly, virtual relative clauses (§ 195, 1) might, if it had suited our general scheme of classification, have been regarded as virtual noun clauses in apposition.
§ 194. Idiomatic phrases used as nouns.—A peculiarity of Egyptian is its fondness for semi-proverbial sentences or phrases which are used as nouns; cf. English ' a ne'er-do-well'.
Ex- Jŕ*I/ľ,i—^KSV^IIŽ JTl? rnbt n Kmt m hiyi-ln-tw-n-i the corn of Egypt is common property.*
The m here employed seems to be the nt of predication, and the phrase translated ' common property' means literally ' I go down and there is brought to me'. So too 2-Arü!kw pr-h'f 'he goes and comes'5 means a 'popular resort'; a\'-~^Z\*-~ htrf-trf'he comes and grows' means a man who rises in rank, as one might say 'a crescit eundo';' \%fl§Q iw-ms 'but there is',' var. liíPá'' means a statement to which exception can be taken, an 'untruth' or 'misstatement'.   So too proper names, ex. (j^f/a//-»-£ ' He-is-mine', name
*" For (he active meaning see Pyr. 1130.
* Urk.'n. Sil, 8-9 completed by i6. 807, 7-8.   Sim. &.671, 3.
•  Adm. 6, 9. Sim. ib. 10. 3.
•  Adm.6,11; Urk.
It.- 387. '}■
« Brit. Mos. 574; Leyd. V 4,5; cf. also strl-trf a he-knows-and-does', ii.6;kýr./-ltjfl% he-grows^and-seizes', JE A 31, 55, n. r.
' Sin. B37; Urk. iv. 776, 10; 8o8,13; 973. »■
•  Bed. Al. U f. 158, 14.
145
74
§184
EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR
of a man, 2S«l!eiE Mrrf-lrrf' Whenever-he-wills-he-does', name of the great oo 'u? t/i'.' $    S°^ °f primordial times.'
100;
■j. s««00 fir- 4"»            Non-verbal expressions of a similar character are also to be found:
Exx. JLIlH':>|},*,&®?.«^J0i Snyl m tp-hr-m>st the courtiers were head-on-lap, «o^T R'° (re-   i.e. in mourning.«
* Lth. no. Similar phrases Siut 3, sa; AZ- 34. 39. »• *•
í ,*=>&?.&.?,& ľ s no m hr-nt-h,rw every man is face-downcast, i.e. abashed.» In both these examples the subject is followed by the m of predication (§ 38).
VOCABU LARY
^öß— nw water (a rather select word).
A nht sycamore, tree.
f © tr time, season, period.
D^t.   . '** surround, enclose. A ľ J        var"        ^ count, reckon. Ě) bMl take pleasure, have
iMatM   I             I                                                                  *
enjoyment |f./i swtwt walk about.

var. ffi
íitó refresh oneself, o
gi(w) be nar-

<=£Q .   dmt town, habitation.
|*í ^ mdw to be recited, lit. to say words, as heading (§ 306, 1).
^TÝHľ1^1 ^*sharuhen'a
place in Palestine. ]P*j_p&^i Kftiw a Mediterranean land, probably Crete, and its people.
'Ipt-swt    Most-select-of-
Places, name of the temple of Karnak at Thebes.
EXERCISE   XV
(a) Reading lesson: funerary wishes from a Theban nobles tomb (Dyn. XVIII) :>
TT»                                                        Ddmdw:                                                    [irlv.
Ä.'v'^.IS.i^.HIS^-^"                i»?* P* W (* 353) >ht, *i 'lmn-m-ht, m*-
swtwt-k r mrr-k (§ 444, 3)
TrSTJ^-O"                    br mir nfr n M
row, deprived of (m). tlt—ii ďfy shut in, confine. —-jj'v  g| 'b* boasting, exaggeration. S&'f mir edge, brink. ^\~mrhtóx\. £& hnt (for bnrl) prison.
5 hnml well, cistern.
P£d~§-
» 7"*. r.J.L J7. 146

EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR                                         Exerc. XV
•.«SAS^S^                                hntHb-kmmnwk,
TJJ/í^i.1 rälOOO^-                 ****** ^ »*a**.
KISň^oiEir^                          m-linw hnmt irl-n-k (§ 382),
1 Orig. wrongly £& through misinterpretation of *=» in the hieratic draft uo.           ' A common abbreviation.
' Recitation. O steward who-keeps-count-of the fields, scribe Amenemhět, true of voice. Mayst thou walk according as thou desirest on the beautiful edge of thy pool. May thy heart take delight in thy monument. Mayst thou refresh thyself beneath thy trees, and thy heart be appeased with water from the cistern which-thou-hast made—for ever and ever.'
(ó)  Transliterate and translate:
(I) ^^--•íiHi^T^WT-asTtTHtolL ^39   Mh$^Z\)M^r-^ľŠ   (3) e
1 A feminine equivalent of wie/.                       * 'How often'.
LESSON   XVI
RELATIVE CLAUSES
§ 195. Relative clause, or Adjective clause, is the name given to that kind of subordinate clause (§ 182) which is equivalent to an adjective. A relative clause can, like an adjective, be used either as epithet or as noun; when used as an epithet, the noun or pronoun to which it is attached is called the antecedent; when used as a noun, the antecedent is inherent latently in the relative clause itself.
Úľ