iMt b vii nm-miR v* B BAB EDH-DHRA' IDENTIFICATION Babedh-Dhra' is located on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, cast olthc Ghorcl-Ma/ra'aand the Lisan rwninsulaallhc southeastern end of the Dead Sea. It issituatcd about 240 m below sea level. The site includes a walled town on the south hank of Wadi Kerak. extramural occupation in the Sahlcdh-!)i11.■ to the south and east, and a largi cemetery 500 m southwest of tlic town. The asphalt toad from Kerak to Ma/ra'a and Safi passes between the town and the cemetery. A modern settlement of four hundred lownhouscs south of the cemetery has been built for employees of lite Arab Potash Company. I hcsiicof Babedh-Dhra* has been discussed in connection with the "cities of the plain" (Gen. 1.1:10-1.'. l9:2K-^'>) because of the traditional view ih.it those cities were located at the southern end of the Dead Sea. W. F. Albright conjectured that Babedli-Dhra' was a ceremonial site for ihe cities and thai their ruins were probably located under the shallow waicn. or the southern basin of the Dead Sea. I' W. Lapp interpreted Bah cdh-Dhra' as a culiic burial ground for ihc cilics. The discovery of four other sites with Early Bron/c Age cultural materials during a survey of the southern Ghor region in 1973 led W. B. Rast and R. T. Schaub lo suggest a possible link to Ihc biblical cities. W. G. Van Haticm earned this suggestion further by identifying Bab cdh-Dhra" as Sodom. In an ankle that analyzes the tradition or Sodom. Rast has revised ihc suggestion that all the Ghor sites were historic-ally linked with the cilics of ihc plain, arguing thai the biblical tradition cvnicredonginallyonapairofcilics,SodomandGonH>rrah.Thctworclalcd Early Bron« Age (owns of Bah cdh-Dhra' and Numcira may thus haw -.:.. i.i the popular biblical tradition EXPLORATION Although extensive rums in ihc Sahl cdh-Dhra' were noied by various mnc-rcenlh-century explorers, such as F. de Saufcy, C. L. Irby, J. Mangles, and J W. Lynch, (he walled town area was m>l discovered until A. Vlallon noied it during the 1924 survey of the Ghor by the American Schools of Oriental Research and Ihc Pittshurgh-Xenia Seminary', under the direction of W, F Albright and M. G. Kyle. In ihc published reports on the survey. Albright and Million included descriptions of whal they termed an enclosure, several structures out side it, a series of supposed cairn lombs scattered over the plain, and seven fallen monoliths cast of ihc town. In 1964, further attention was drawn lo ihc she when it was realised that pollen, thai had glutted the antiquities markets since 1958 had ils origin in ihc cemetery area of Bab edh-DhraL A sampling of (his pottery was published by S. J. Sailer. In addition to ihc 197.1 Rast Schaub survey mentioned above, there have been more recent explorations of ihc Sahl cdh-Dhra' region Ihc area just south of ihc Bab cdh-Dhra' cemetery was surveyed in 1977. before the construction of (he Bub et/h-Kiru' atrial phntatiaph ol the settlement. I'mkmg mmh The temetery a imtth and MOR •/ the settlement and iirui.ui"» wnu modern lowmhipsite, by D. McCrccryand V. Clark. McC reefy publis report on the overall results of this survey, and Clark, in a later ar discussed Ihc Chalcolilhic tumuli. Farther to the cast, on the banks o Wadi cdh-Dhra'. a sounding at a Neolithic site was made by C. Bcnm 1980. Extensive surveys of I he region havealso been conducted in connci with (he 1975 1981 excavations. BAB i Ml Mil; \ 1-1 EXCAVATIONS tsPI*"S CAMPAIGNS. The rediscovery in 1964 of the site's importance prompted a serm ul' three excavation* two in 1465 and one in 1967 sponsored hy the American Schools of Oriental Research and direc-led by 1' W Lapp Two field season*, in Match and April 1965 and in February 1967. focused on various cemetery MM The majorily of Ihe iwrths and funerary building* examined »crr located in cemetery A. Cem-ner> H included a ieric* of "tboloi" localed on an ea*i »r*i line along ihe nodern road Several tombs and a funerary building were excavated in cemetery t . on (he western slopes of the cemetery area as it descends into thclihor ( cmclcry Dcontainedonly onetomb,approximately 500m lothe ml of cemetery A. Soundings In the settlement area were conducted during Ihe second field season, in the fall of 1965. Seven fields were opened up. hut fourof them were very limited The ma)or field* 11 and II on the cast and IV on the west i were pinned in relation to the settlement's defense system A major stone wall dating to the I .it I* Bronze Age III was uncovered at Ihe eastern and western rndsol the town site, (hi the east end. an earlier mud brick wall was exposed under the stone w all The small probes w ithin the settlement (fields III and V VII» yielded only limited occupational data, however, on the basis of the debus indicating a settlement and Ihe defensive walls. Lapp concluded ihat the site represented the ruins of a lown. rather than a religious enclosure as proposed by Albright In addition to the preliminary reports on the three seasons. Lapp published two papers interpreting the overall significance of the finds al Babedh-Dhra' One study linked Ihe cemetery ai Bab edh-Dhra' as a possible ceremonial burial ground lo the cities of the plain A second traced the ongmv of the first Curly Bron/c Age settlers of the area to southern Russia and connected their migration to Bub edh-Dhra' with the Kurgan movement theories of M (iimbutuv lAI'l 111 I ION TO THE HEAD SEA PLAIN (EIJSPL Afler Lapp's untimely death in 1970. Rast and Schaub. both staff members of the 1967 expedition, took over the responsibility of publishing the final report* of the excavations Their research on Bah edh-Dhra' prompted a new survey of the southern Chor in I97.V The discovery of four additional Early Bron/c Age sites (Numcira.Sufi, Feifeh. anil Khana/ir) by the survey led to the organization of a new expedition, co-directed by Rast and Schaub and devoted lo ex-ploung the interrelationship of the sites lite expedition ts sponsored h> the American School* of Oriental Rc-searcfa hour field seasons at Bab edh-Dhra' (1975. 1977. 1979, and I98l>and Numesra < 1977. 1979. IQHI.and I9K3) have completed the first phase of the expedition The Bab edh-Dhra' cemetery project is co-sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution, with I) Ortncr as coordinator. A second phase of the expedition, concentrating on Ihe sites of Feifeh and Khanu/ir. began in 1989 The I-.DSP has continued Lapp's numbering system At the town site, thirteen new fields have been investigated. Two were located along Ihe defenses: field VIII on the line of the southern wall and field XIII on Ihe ode of ihe western wall Ihe earlier field IV on the interior of the western wall was also expanded Four fields were plotted on the highest areas wnhin the town field XI in the northeast, fields XII and XVIII in the southwest, and field XVI along the northern ndge. The interior slopes of Ihe town were examined in fields XIV. XV, XVII, and XIX. Excavation in field IX lo ihe south ofthe town sue and field X to the northeast focused on extramural occupation. Area I'. which contained tombs and occupation. «;n situated west of the defensive line A total of thirty -three shaft tombs and four funerary buildings most of them in cemetery A dating (o the Early Bron/c Age have been excavated during thccxpcdilion's four seasons. Among the tombs from other areas, one was excavated in cemetery B. three in cemetery C. and one in cemetery D New areas of the cemetery that were explored were cemetery L, between ccincicriesAandD.withasinglcsiirfacebunal;areaF,wcsioriheiown,wiih lour tombs; and cemetery G. between cemeteries A and ('. wilh six tombs excavated. Two occupation areas were also discovered on the edge of the cemetery, designated areas II and J. EXCAVATION REM LIS Vftfffwf pal am /V-»,< w Mm slmil toner Stum nil fkuliiraliim Vill.gr (Mutts sue I irtdt M. I I t'lii t F, J IV. XI Mil XIV t hiliottiltn luniuli I H IA »m(i i.,inh. I H III Shan (ornht Surt«cr Nitwit R.sudJ NuldMp W.llnl i.-n llpm Kiilcmcni MM Ml MMBI VniHMfi RotM|uUi SuUiw I. II. IV. XL XII XIV. IB II XVII. F I. II. IV. XI-XIV. I ■ III XVII. XIX. I IX. X. XVI 1 .tr IB III r..mh. ->lh .(.mr-Unol I n IV trull* GEOLOGY. The town site is situated on an alluvial fan surface consisting of sediments washed out from Wadi Kcrak. A major border fault lies just lo the cast ofthe site ami extends north along the shore ofthe Dead Sea < icologxal investigation lias concluded (hat during Ihe Early Bron/c Age the floor of Wadi Kcrak w aval leasi 20 m above its present level. Posloccupadon down-cut ling of the wadihascauscd drama IK topographic change within Ihe town. Two mator tributary wadi* removed large areas of the occupational levels in the center ol'thc town. The upper levels ofthe natural stratigraphy, on which ihe town was built, include pre-Lisan gravel ami sand. Ltsan marl. and. in some ofthe higher areas, a fine-grained, cross-hedded sand with gravel interbeds ai the lop of the Lrsan marl. I'M H>t I Mill I'l KIOll. fhceailtesl esidcnee of human utilization of the Hjb edh-Dhra' area was discovered during the 1977expedition's survey near the mouth of Wadt Kcrak. Most of the light scatter of material appeared to date to the Middle Paleolithic, although there were representative Lower Paleolithic tools limited to solitary discards or found in secondary deposition. NEOLITHIC PERIOD. I're-poltcry Neolithic is represented at a site ai Ihe easternedgcoftheSahledh-Dhra'.about 5 km'3mi least ot Babcdh-Dhta' A serin of occupation level* was exposed in the skies of a trench cut on the west bank of Wadi edh-Dhra'. near a spring that today is the mtist abundant source of water in the edh-Dhra' area. I H vl COLITHIC PERIOD, ("halco-lithic remains were reported from Ihe 1977 survey of the potash company township sue Among the structures dated to the CTialcoliihtc period were several circular stone masses, below which were meager human remains i ruin at i tig burials- Nearby were fragmentary stone foundation* of a building Mosl of the Chalcohihic material appeared lo he concentrated in the northwestern area of the township site |usi south of the Bab edh-Dhra* Farls Bron/c Age cemetery' I ski s ttkONZE AGE IA. For the Early Hron/e Age. the CDSPhascon-linucd to use the terminology set forlh hy Lapp, wiilt Early Bron/c Age IA denoting the earliest and Early Bron/c Age IV the latest phases represented rWui.' mm EM I iWl lamb. m imii tiiii-iiNKv the data for Early Bron/c Age IA came predominantly from shafl-iomb burials The I appexcavation*cleared twcnly-cighl shaft tombs with forty-eight chambers in cemetery A. containing pollersof the Early Bron/c Age IA type Six additional tomb* with single chamber* were Incited on the slope* ol cemeteryC The EOSPhaicxcavatcd twenty-two I.ai l> Bron/c Ape IA shaft torn h«»ilhuuy-ihrceclumhrr« in area A.aridaghiiomtKinarcaaC.E.and G. with eleven chamber* I !u" iii.i1! 'tof shaft* from i he early ph.ii*: jic circular of elliptical in plan Exception* were three example* with rectangular shad* located in the same urea of the cemetery ( 'lumber* cut from a shall varied from one to five. Of the filly shafts excavated in cemetery A. twenty-four had a single chamber. five had two chambers, ami twenty-one had three to live chamber*. The chambers varied in shape from circulai to square. «"» Hal. slightly rounded, or domed rool - ind with a diameter between I 47 and -.5 m and a height between 0.75 and I 25 ra Within the chamber*, burials usually consisted of a central bone pile with tk nl.. arranged in a line to the left of the bone group, as seen from the doorway The bone* were usually disarticulated but partial articulation (us been observed in xcvcral chambers excavated by the EDSP. Trace* of mailing were frequently found under the bone groups Among, the tomb "I'Riu handmade ceramic vessels dominated. The most frcqueni shape* weic wide deep bowls, small deep bowl*, large ledge-handled jar*, mcdi-um-si/cd loon-handled jan. and loop-handled juglct*. All of these t■ (. , shape* occurred in both fine and plain ware* The mayonl* of vessels were fine ware with thin side* and a reddish-orange slip thai was frequently burnished Decoration, which occurred mostly on bow I* and pr*. wascither punctate or a raised, slashed hand. The plain waie pot* had thick side*, a rough surface finish, and. infrequently, a slip Punctate decoration, generally cruder in technique. was also found on these vessel*. A few of the forms have close parallel* in the Jericho I'roto-Urban A tomb*, but similar groups, especially with the distinctive ware and decoration, are not vet known outside of the Bab cdh-Dhta" area Other objects included stone mace heads, shell bracelet*, stone jarv brads, unfiled clav figunne*. and. on rare occasions, cloth and wooden objects f he only major deviation from the normal burial pattern appeared in a small group of tombs containing fully articulated burials Ijpp recorded three instances of articulated burials in the liarlv Bron/c Age IA chamber*. oncofwhichaUoctinlaineddisarlicubted burials l>urmgthc I'Ml season of the EDSP. four chambers were found that contained evidence of articulated hunal* It is clear, however. Ihul some of the articulated burials were still »<\. indary that is. were moved lo the tomb chamber from an earlier bum I before the flesh had completely decayed. Cemetery- C is set apart not only by us location at the western edge of the cemetery, but by its different tomb type* and distinctive pottery The five early tombs excavated b> Lapp in this area were located on a steep slope Shallow shafts, some vertical and some cut at an angle, led to single chum-bets, most of which had a wall of stones Mocking the opening. Willi one exception, the bunuls in cemetery C were all disarticulated Pottery from the tombs in this area was predominantly diffcrcni in shape and ware from the cemetery A types Bowls arc shallower and have a carina led profile, jar* have taller necks and arc generally smaller: and most of the pots arc ted-slipped and are frequently decorated with an applique of clay dots or a t lashed band of day. 1 bese difference* are slight and do not challenge other data that clearly show that the cemetery A and C shaft tombs arc at least partly contemporary Typical cemetery A vessels have been found in cemetery l" tombs and vice versa. Three of live cemetery C tombs excavated by Lapp had cemetery A pot types and three chambers excavated by the EDSP. two in cemetery A and one in cemetery G. had cemetery C type vessels. The different structural features of the cemetery' C tombs aie best understood as adaptations lot he slope One of the cemetery (' lombs excavated by the IT JSP on a Hat area above the slope had a deep fW. HI "WW irrurrwr [BIB shaft, two chamber*, and door openings with blocking similar to the cemetery A shaft tombs (>nly eight Early Hron/e Age IA chamber* were excavated in cemeteries (1 and F. but they offered critical sequential dating evidence In cemetery G. located between cemeteries A and C. two Early Bronze Age IA shaft tombs were cleared One of the*c (tomb G-5|. with two chambers, was located directly below an I ails Bronze Age IH round funerary building In area F, located slightly lo the west of the town site. Early Bronze Age IB hahita-n.iii.il levels were found above several collapsed I arty Bron/c Age IA tomb chamber* The slight evidence for Early Bron/c Age IA occupation is restricted t. ■ the outer limit* of the cemetery urea and is best interpreted as seasonal or temporary. I .app reported campsite data from an excavation in I he eastern area of the cemetery-. The 1977 survey ol the potash company towiuhipsiie sMihofthecemclcry recorded some surface concenlra lions of Early Bron/r Age IA pottery Area H.cxcav-aicd by the EDSPin 1977 on the high northern edge of the cemetery, yielded a midden deposit with heavy accumulations of hone and Early Bron/c Age IA domestic pottery During the 1979 season, occupation levels uith heavy ash layer* and Early Bron/c Age* I domestic pottery were observed in l he sides of a licnchduglo lay a water pipe along the modern road on I he northern edge of the cemetery area. Excavations there I area J) during the I9KI season revealed two habitation lev-els. both with structure* with stone wall foundations. I he later level is Early Bron/c Age IB. but the earlier lexrl may have been used in the latter pan of the Early Bron/c Age IA. Overall, the evidence of secondary burial pattern*, mostly disarticulated but some with partial articulation, in the Early Bron/c Age IA tomb*, the consistent basal I it l\ Bron/c Age IB occupation in the town, and the lack of permanent Early Bron/c AgelAhabilalionitlevidcnccleadlothcconclusion that during the Early Bron/r Age IA the utilization pattern of the legion was temporary- I' seems likely that there were periodic return* by a pastoral group to rebury its dead in a traditional buna I ground. The occasional .nt k ula tol burials may be associated with deaths thai occurred during these v isits. of may belong to the end of this period, as a more permanent occupation began to he established V\M.\ BRONZE Mir. IB. Early Bron/e Age IB cultural materials and occupational levels, some with remnants ol'xlonc and brick structure*, were found at the lowest lev els above bed gravel ami marl in widely scattered ii teas of i he silc. witnesses to I he establishment of village life. The I app excavations recorded Early Bron/e Age IB pottery loci at the low est levels (below (he later mud-brKi defensive line* in fteW II In fields IV. VIII. and XIV. similar loo were recorded by the EI>SPbut were not associated with surfaces or structure*. Field XII contained portions of two buildings with mud-hnck wall*, habiiational surface*, and a cobbled hearth Remnant* of mud-hrr-ck structures associated with occupational lasers and ash accumulation were also found in area* XI. XIII, and E. In area I, on (he northern edge of Ihe cemetery, a building with foundation wall* seven courses high made of small boulders was uncovered. Mud brick*, plaster remnants, and roof HXH 1 IHI HUH \ l.tj dcbn* ::■..!., H,,I .1 .,,n.(.i],!i.il building 10 thl* «TCH. Bahedh-Dhra' i* thu*nurl of ihcpatlcrn olcinctgingvilUgC4lh.il developed throughout Palestine during ihc Early Itron/c Age IB. Because die cultural malerial ofihctc village* suggests xcstigc* of the area'* earlier in-dipaiou* fhalcolithic populations. Ihc av ailahlcdata teem lofavor ■ theory of local rather than foreign cuipn for this phase of the tarty Hron/c \gc culture in Palestine. The1 .iris Hron/c \gc lit iomh**how somcconiimuiy with I arl> Bion/c Age IA types hul also display innovation. Eour shaft-tomb chambers, two surface burials, and two lound mud-brick funerary building* containing Ihc distinctive painted line decoration of the Early Hron/c Age III have been cuavalcd by l-app and the EDM" Ilii.v of ihc shaft tombs had single chamber* with disarticulated bursal- The fourth shaft-tomb chamber (A IUON). containing articulated and dtsarliculalcd buhah. apparently reused an Early Bron/c Age IA chamber alter the earlier bone group and object* were cleared out. Two surface burial* with Early Bron/e Age IB poilcry were located directly over the shafts of the Early Hron/c Age IA lombs The iwo round hunal house* represent the mow distinctive shift in burial pattern Both houses were similar in m/r(.* 5 .V7mindumcier). with entry way* flanked by onhostat* and hniel stone* and a threshold w ith a *ier> down lo Ihc floor of ihc chamber. The latest burials in one house were articulated. Ihis was probably ihc practice in both house*, as earlier bunab were m>>vcd aside after ihc flesh had decayed One of the house* j|»o revealed; extensive burning, and Ihrecol Ihc crania in H had head wound* inflicted by a sharp weapon These feature*, along with the consistent, extensive, and I hick uih-laycred areas associated wilh Ihc Early Bron/c Age IB occupational levtU. raise Ihe possjhilily of a violent end to ihc Early Bron/e Age IB occupation KAMA HRON/KAGFK-.Asuddenicrminalionof the Early Bron/e AgelB phase may be seen as supporting ihe positions of Lapp and J A. Callaway, both or whom argued lor a foreign imposition of the Early Bron/c urban culture, beginning wild Early Bron/c Age IC. On the olhcr hand, Ihc evidence for cultural cominuiiy between the Early it Age IB and If including the burial practices and artifact typologies, is compelling. The EDM' ha* found no solid evidence Tor an Early Hron/c Age 1( phase at Bahcdh-DhraV EAR IA MONZE AGE II. I he first clear signs ol an emerging urban culture appear in Ihe Early-Bron/c Age II Enclosure wallsdcfining ihc town area arc I'.uli and large buildings arc constructed on Ihc high areas of the town site. Substantial development along with population growthdcarlv characlcn/c i-ii* phase The topography of the town site area, crosmnal factors, and the massive presence of ibe Early Bion/c Age III stone wall base contributed io the difliculiy of (racing (he lull extent of (he Early Bron/e Age II town wall Iwo cast west natural ridges approximately 100 m apart bonier (he town site area on the norih and south During ihc Early Bron/c Age II, the low- valley area on Ihe cast belwcen Ihcsc ndges was closed off with a substantial mud-brick wall. Major segments of this wall (wall B). 2.5 m wide, constructed on basal gravel and preserved nineteen course* high in places. were exposed by the Lapp excavations in fields I and II Wall B was underneath flic later and larger stone wall (wall A) of (he Early Hion/c Age III. which followed Ihe ume line. A separate mud-brick structure ut least 5 by 5 m. localed lo the east and postihly connected to wall 8. may have been a gate lower jwsviatcd with the wall Exea*aiion* by the I.DSP along ihc southern and western defensive lines and on the northern ndgc have uncovered no .mIk'i ii.k.-"il j defensive wall datable lo the Early Bronze Agcll Ihc deep crosmnal cut* through the northern ndgc and the steepness of ihe slope above Wadi Kcrak in ihi* urea are probably responsible for ihc lack of any defensive wall truce* in the central portion of the northern side of ihc site Onlhesouth. in field VIM. Ihe IJrly Hion/c Age III stone wall wu* built on (he ndgedirectly on the natural marl. On the west. in field IV. (he foundation* of Ihe Early Bron/r Age III wall were cut into Early Bron/c Age II debris layers Two walls ol an Early Bron/c Age II mud-bock buildinganda courtyard were recorded; one of Ihewall* rum directly under the bier I arls Bron/c Age III stone wall, hul no signs of an I arl> Bron/c Age II defensive wall appeared. Wot of Ihc Early Brxin/c Age III town wall, tn field XIII. another Early Bron/e Age II mud-brick wall one course wide ran perpendicular toand below ihc Earls Bron/e Age III lown wall It is possible that the subsequent ^instruction of the Early Bron/c Age III wall on the west removed all traces of the mud-brick wall. In flu* case, il is possible to surmise (hat Ihc liarly Bron/e Age II town would hase ulili/cd ihe natural ridges on (he norlh and souih as defensive lines and closed off ihe low areas on the cast and we*! with walls A second possibility isihai Ihcentircarea w-at enclosed and flic subtcuuciitconstruclionofihe Early Hron/c Age III wall obliterated the trace* of this wall, except for the remaining segments at live eastern end. The Iwo highest areas on Ihc site, at Ihc southwest and northeast, began to beulili/edas public areas during the I any Bron/c Age II In (he southwest, overlooking the Dead Sea. ihc consimction of the first of two major sanctuary buildings uncosered in field XII occurred during this period The foundation of this hroadroom structure (13 by h m). was built of small to.....I......MOMS, plastered on Ihcir cxicnor surfaces. EIvc large wooden column* positioned on pedestals spaced along Ihe center of the building supported its roof. On ihc northwest, overlooking Wadi Kcrak at the highest area isf the site, ihe earnest phase of a Urge huildingexcavatcd in field XI. withal lea si fourroomsand*cvcralsvbpha*csof u*c. may belong lot he latter part of ihc Early Bron/e Age II The >i/c and location of Ihc building, together with other feature* such as the placement of benches along the walls of several rooms and ihe scarcity* of domestic poitcry support ihc interpretation thai it served as un udministralivc center. toward the center of ihe lown. domcsiic and industrial areas arc atso-cialcd with deep cultural dchns. although some of the depth it due to filling to let el off ihe steep slopes of the mtcnor The ImmI levels reached in field XVII, .l m below the surface, revealed two wcll-buili stone foundation walls of a late Early Bron/e Age II structure bordering a courtyard area The courtyard contained a deep clay-lined silo and the remnants ol two wooden clay-In:isl vols. In a 7-in-dccp trench in field XIV. four subphaxes were associated with Early Bron/c Age II material* A scries of mud-brick walk one preserved len courses high, were built directly on marl surfaces At ihc beginning of ihe Early Brorur Age II. a major Icschng of I his area look place that was represented by 15m of fill scaling the Early Hi■ hi/.- Age III level*. In Ihc cemetery, the curliest pari of the Early Hron/c Age II revealed a continuation of the burial practices of Ihe Early Bron/c Age IB A Large circular chamber entered through a slab-lined doorway (lomh A4I contained early pha.se II vessel* Also, a round mud-hnck funcruiy building with wall* sloping inward in u beehive shape < tomb A56I included two layers of Early Bnnue Age II burials with evidence thai primary burial was the normal pattern \ third funerary building with predominantly Early Bron/c Age II forms had straight walls with rounded end walls (lomh A*2) Because ai least four of the large rectangular funerary buildings utili/ed throughout ihe Early Bron/r ■■HH /'..'.' ft ' H III ffl,imuit xuili I <■! KVH t I •If-DIIK v t'0111 0mm* Aw/aw Ape III also contained hulls Bron/c Agcllpottcry typcxit seems probable that time buildings mil si already have been built in tile I .ill', H'. "i.'c V' II phase HKM bron/I v(.l III the town leached its greatest development in theI'wrly Bronze Age III A 7-m-wide continuous wall with stone foundation* and a mud-brick superstructure was constructed uruund Ihe western, mhi id,-tn. andcaslcrn sides of the site. On Ihe cast and >-iuth the footing of the wall was placed on steps cut inio the natural mail; in general, the defense system followed the naluralcon-lour* of ihe site Traces of ihe same wall along ihe northern side haw been found only ai the northeast and northwest endv and Ihe disappearance of the wall acrou most of the north appear* to hate been caused by the severe ciosion described pie-vlously. The defensive wall was buill in sections with transverse faces he- Iween 7- to 15-m inters jls. a possible earthquake-protection device Rat conglomerate slonc.cut from a local quarry, was. used as a bedding layer for the mud-brick superstructure The mu|or gate on (he west provided direct access to what appears to have been a plaza dominated b> the higher sanctuary area to the south Wooden beams along ihe southern face of the gate suggest that the gateway proper had a wooden door In a later phase, during the Early Bronze Age III. ihe gateway v.is blocked with a secondary wall made up of smaller stones, including discarded mortars Al the begjnmngof the Early Bronze Age III. a new sanctuary' building was conslructcd(ficklXII)on the foundations of the earlier one, with only slight differences in the orientation of the eastern ami western walls. The interior plan, however, differed from the earlier structure. A floor made of bock and marl covered the southern half of the building, while an clevaicd flagstone floor on the northern half was approached by a mud-brick stairway The doorway to Ihe later building wasinlhc broad wall on the west. To the west of the building a courtyard area, paved with mud brick and plaster, included a semicircular stone altar. Objects found in Ihe court or inside the building included a wooden post with an inlaid design, a cylinder seal impression with a possible cullic motif showing a lincol figures behind a wall, and several fan scrapers Wear analysis of Ihe edges of ihe fan scrapers suggested that they were probably used to butcher .inmi.lv In Ihe interior of the town, three major phases huvebcen identified, each of which involved fundamcnlal rebuilding. In the earliest phase, retaining walls were buili against the slopes of the town's interior, apparently to prevent erosion Buttress and terrace walls also were constructed to level off new areas for buildings Most of the walls during this phase wcic built of mud brick wiihoul stone foundations. In field XIV, several walls were leaning al almost a 45-dcgrce angle, a lilt that may base been caused by an earthquake The middle phase displayed rebuilding following a similar orientation, but in this phase the structures often hod stone foundations. Remains of the latest phase suffered the most deterioration, but they suggest a pattern of poorly mademud-hrick and stone struct urcstowardlheendofthe Early Bron/cAge III In field XI. the major building begun during the latter part of the Early Bron/e Age II continued in use throughout several phase* of the Farly Bron/c Age III The last use of this area involved a major rebuilding, with the construction of two flanking towers with massive stone and timber foundations, each tower being 4 m in width A to 4-m space between Ihe lowers most likely served us a passageway, and Ihus Ihis structure has been interpreted asa gate Erosion, however, nude it impossible lodctcrmine i connection with the defensive system The evidence in fields IV and XIII that the western gate was closed off in us latesl phase support* the interpretation that the northeast lower functioned as the major gate to ihe city during the Latter pan of the Farly Bronze Age 111 Throughout most of the Early Bron/e Age III. burials took place in rectangular mud-bnek funerary buildings constructed in the eastern portion of cemetery A Seven ol these buildings were excav at ed hy Lapp and two by the EIVSP Doorways were always in one of the long walls and were flanked by large orthostats A threshold stone led lo a single step down into the interior of the building. The smallest building was 2.8 by 4.8 m i the largest 7 5by 15m. Three of the buildings were approximately 4.5 by" and three others were 5 S by 11 m Five of ihe buildings had cohblcsii floors, while others had gravel or loose stones. Burials m the funerary buildings were primary' the earner ones had b< moved against the walls to make room for later bunals. Pottery for included a broad range of platlcr hnwK. small saucers, lamps, pitchc cups. jugs, and juglets. including miniature forms. A complete claisificati of the forms, including comparative volume studies and suggested lypo gicalscquem.es, appears in the final report of the Lappcxpedilron It isck from Ihe range and ihe duplication of Ihe types lhat many of the buildin were in use at the same time over a considerably long period It thus sect likely that the buildings were associated with various social units within t town Evidence for possible social stratifical ion cumc from the largest hull ing, lomb A22. which contained several pieces of gold jewelry lypic objects found in the funerary buildings included bronze knives, crescent at heads, date palettes, wooden com bs.a wide range of beads and shells us* as jewelry, and numerous doth examples, including finely woven line Four of these buildings had extensive burned areas, with remnants ■ burned roof beams and fragments of waitle-and-dauh roofing- Althouj there were a few intrusive later burials associated with the late Early Brvm Age III and Early Bron/e Age IV pottery, the destruction of the building coincides with the end of the main Early Bron/e Age III occupation of tl walled town It is possible to estimate lhat during the Early Bron/e Age III the walled town covered approximately 9 a. Extramural population also extended to the eastern and western ends Space in the lown and us im-mcdiale environs would have been sufficient for a population of su hundred to one thousand -! ii.il- Analysis of the water resources and land available lor farming during the Early Brortre Age led lo ihcconclusion that they would have been more than ample to support a population of this sue The major food crop was probabh barley, but flotation has yielded a wide assortment of crops, including einkorn. cminer and bread wheal, two-row and six-row barley, grapes, olives, figs, chickpeas, lentils, flax, ptsta- IB II III r<-U tr-tl-t It Ml UHMHIHV 135 duos. . .1 almond* The large size of the flax toed* suggests thai irrigation •a* employed. Weaving tools found in the town site, and large amount* of lincnclolh found in the burial house*. suggest a local le* I lie nulu-n i Among Ihe faunal remains, sheep and goal predominate, but l.u go mammal hones ircalwi represented, including donkey ami cow A scries of game sloncs with tudcnialiims gouged in the stone in u three-hy-lcn patient may date to the fcarly Bronze Age 111. although none have been found in ulraliried context Exchange in the local region is aliened b> ceramic object* from Ihe Bab cdh I Hn.t tombs wh»ch conumed temper found only in Ihe Numcira area. Among the cultural itemi that rclWct foreign contact, several such as slate palettes, combs, and possibly one or two cylinder seals have their best parallels in Egypt: the majority including architectural fealutev cylinder ■ail impressions, jewelry, some forms of pollers, and a caned bull's bead show Syrian, if not Mesopolamian. influence. Two metal daggers ■hoappeario be Syrian in style. One olihcmistin bronze and isihusoncof ihe earliest inie bronzes known from ancient Palestine. I he other is of relatively pure unalloyed copper. All the other copper-based ob|ects IBB* ryzed have low levels of arsenic, which may have come from Anatolia bui »hinc use wa* virtually universal in southwest Asia in the third millennium |GL I Ml lAKI.i BK(l\/t U.I III fr.lRLi BRON/.I l\ SITTLE- \ll M. I:v idence for ihe latest use of ihe Bab cdh-Dhra' Mte comes from the areas south and cast of the town I fields IX and X). one area within the tl>wn(ficld X VI). andasmall number of tombs. I n field X. about IMlmcaslof the lown site, lour phases were distinguished The cuihesl included a rectangular mud-hnci building with an associated courtyard. Many carbon-indcereal remains were recovered from theoven areas in (hecourtyard The pottery fonm front this level represent a phase earlier than the typical tilled-run bowls, "teapots." and jars usually associated with the Early Bronze Age IVA (designated the Middle Bronze Age I at other sites) I he best parallels come from levels designated Lite Early Bronze .Age III at other Palestinian sKrs A thick layer of dchns and a fill layer separated the first and second phases The lallcr ajspcars to have been limited to a brief time, with only one •all fragment surviving The last two phases, with typical laily Bronze Age IVA pottery forms, had cleat habitaiional surfaces but only fragmentary structuial remains, including Iwo long, parallel stone foundation walls To ihe south of t he town site, in field IX. only isolated oven areas represented the late Barty Bron/c Age III phase. A group of rectangular nroadroom buildings with stone wall foundation* and occupational surfaces included Early Kron/e .Age IVA materials On the northern ndge of the town area, overlooking Wadi Kerak. excavations in field XV| revealed a similar succession of late Early Bronze Age III and IV habitation. Early Bronze Age III usage included two terrace walls, one of stone and one of mud brick, and two storage nils cut into the natural soth During the Early Bronze Age IV. the area was converted into what scemvlohavrnecnaorrcmonialprecinct InihcfirMphase.severalwalls were constructed in connection with vertical and honzontal cuts made on the norlhcrn slope The terraces ercaled through this aclivily were then utilized Ihtough three successive rebuilding efforts in the area. I he wall* and door-waysof the various pluses all had a smooth plaster facing. Ihe latest phase inctudeda large flat slonc. possibly anallar.selonastoncfoundalion.amud-briek pedestal column with a flat stone surface, and walls enclosing the altar area The dozens of animal horns around this area, along with the unique architecture and an incense stand, indicate that ii may have been the Early Bronze Age IV cuIik center. In the cemetery, one shaft lomh dated to the late Early Bronze Age III ami four with Early Bronze Age IV material have been cxcavalcd The late Early Bronze Age 111 tomb it->mh Dli had a slonc-hned shaft sshose back edge was perpendicular to the front edge of the stone foundations of a rectangular building above il The building itself had no occupational debris. The doorway al the hoi-loin of the shaft led lo two latgccham-berscut into the natural marl, a passageway leads to both chambers. The walls had been plastered One ctunv pmmcit'i. EB II her excavated in 1967 included several articulated skeleton* wuh a small group of pots similar to the pottery associated with the latest lesels of the funerary buildings A few examples ol the same type of pottery were also found in the latest Early Bronze Age III tombs at Jericho Ihe second chamber, disturbed after ihe l%7 season, was clewed in I'M. It yielded thirteen skeletons and a bronze dagger. Two Early Bronze Age IV tombs were excavated under Lapp's direct ion in cemetery A. Both had sionc-lincd shafts and single large chambers, with partially articulated bsin.il* and large groups of Early Bronze Age IVA pottery. Two chambers dated to the Early Bronze Age IVA were also excavated by ihe present expedition in 197V Tbe chambers had been exposed by a recently constructed water trench thai partially cut through both chambers and obliterated the evidence ofa shaft. Some of the pottery published by Albright and J L. Kelso also belongs to ihis horizon. Although interpreiation of (he latest I arly Bron/c Age occupation al Bah edh-Dhra' remains prohlcmalical. particularly with regard to the critical question of continuity in population with the Early Bronze Age III (own dwellers, the settlement pattern of an open village seems clear. The I-DSP's rather solid conclusion regarding the Early Bronze Age IV at Bahedh-Dhra' is that there was no occupation on Ihe town site, except for the special area in field XVI and that most of the occupation seems to hasc occurred a distance from the town's ruins. The lack ol evidence within the tow n site, of course, could be attributed to the millennia-long erosion that has laken place there Bui there are well-defined areas ihat have noi suffered from erosion, including some where aggradation is the pallern. Within the defense line at Ihe western end of the lown. a 4-iti build-up of sill levels covets the latest Early Bronze Age III hahilalion and Ihe collapse of the lown wall No Early Bronze Age IV occupation was found in this area. A similar build-up took place at the eastern end. and probes there did not uncover Early Bronze Age IV levels In fields XI and XII. located on Ihe highest areas of the lown. no evidence tdhlMra' Mile a\ vf ihr fpuhm' type. F.B III. profile, widc-moulh. broad-based '.umikI juglcts Dm change is deceptive The riarross-nceked vessels can he associated uiih trade during lhc urhan phase. A comparative study of all of lhc ha-ac tomb forms throughout lhc Early Bron/c Age suggests lhal the "new" Early Bron/e Age IV lot similar tothcKisjclormsof the Early Bron/c AgclBandmay reflect a loa simpler hie paucrn following lhc breakup of the low n .ind its i luiu.li k - A scries of calibrated carbon- 14 dales from field X tugged of 2200 Kf for I he latest Earl*. Bron/c Age IVA phase* of occuj W F IÍNI ,■■ /Mi."- 14(1*24) . ' >l )«}|l«44l ) I) Ml. «Vl»*ll»»l tlh » Rvtt M»f ARnfhL M 11 < l«4i JTI :*l A Ufa M*i 1H"*41 »!> t" M i 1**41». n ľ*. I M AW. U U t!«**i MIWG f Wriftii liyitMll««! I • ti»ii IMItJ.1 n.iiw a 11 n«2i }* a ■NM Mi Mii»|*ti*ln K t Mwfcwrfll L K—. Ra*i»ao-nfca l.iwM>Wlimfi th /WH fiqiji i f*«< m". al. íl S"* ľ* Jl M.R I fehaah .nil W I R,.u .M ;«4|l*»4| >* ttl iwhmémis MbiiHiiwiiit utři i'iiwun m >i UV.-haa* r**-h. Nm Him iw*. W -1.. m TI |1W*U *% W. '1 |i*mk h ("•aviiforliWftUMnawi i» MSnVi-i l.kl.i>nh« I R.ibi MMMwfMMk l»»H IVltlSWU hl. "TW taih Brniu* IA-11 Pw*r. »lih* Bah nil limn I.-Oj. iPk (l .Sm lau l4 PMlM>M[> H'tAaa Afta l«Mi ■> »11/ i 11 »ľ| \iii.t>RiaiK«Ai (iOM«ii I RaaiandR I HdaiM. 40« rt(l«T«» 1 | ■ i ......■ '»«IIa 4 Hin (I*ii 4 >.i ji » »ai. «.,»—«»' u--i »: 4*. J. JanWiaap —t harp .»law i lO Gk* i™ i H* 301,D.w MÁNojb aft*7J2iľ«« tím. i»-|«.ul .■•!)■ n-. i .li.ii.i liiiiilik.n, ... of I ailv hi.i.K X». Aftkidtiua In lhc SuaUwn tin.* .j l.n.U A*fcaa4ua>ul Ioxmimm- mo dm. Uan of rsnabvfh 1*»H M H—aaj^ 4«S MM " * i WMr-. "ill. - KM l«f» M. Ill ..^ «iv il«Pfl. I IU M \ t. i v *«' i«:. '-i HI R ImhlkhoadD J. t 4/l(/íftll"»2j.?4ll 36r.J1|IS«)|.MI AM. li (■ (..mri fl„i„//ŕ.v i "i l">:. < i .v /...-..c-:,-', n i vMJi.i«:,» »Ii - - - ' r :n«o5i n f) !■««■ Vol™n.t..|.f«.l.™lMki.-i....ii.if \iu[>H..n T-,.|«tl, h'.m» AiiiAiUi n.l'c^n and s.n. I trad V, (Mben Innlaa" ll% D iIm. Ihkii ..( ľ u.K.,,1, |VUt ■nMaal /ř< Uli««*) Rľ I riWHiai U^*4*H«BALA * <• R I*t^ Iv.-i,*. Saul SnarfuK ■ I R-.-™ Aft IA »ih ciln l»hi. lonlaii A Btantufľ4.i|P>al »mini i Mihiiu.>í™I I»tb«jI I*Hj'(ľli D litu . liív uíC!ut*|tim*i t, R ««a Mw.j Iii.». U11 73-11; Koaly l.iaaialn. g TT; Wniyrt lawKW» maul Ul*«.a iaf»*-"--— ' * " im.i f Vnan rrr:i iiwwi i»* n* i..i.iv...,.........i-I. «, A ílafk 4í»4/:tll*«tl.V Tf.C M Btnarit lev I'll »-J». I D RaOnatad.50 «0 R. I MOM AS SI II' BANIAS 11)1 NTIHCATION The ancienl name of Baniau ipelled Paniai. Paneai. Paneia* in Greek and Laim i* lhc feminine form of lhc Greek ,td|cc)ive itivr.iov. referring lo the grolloof Pan (itivciov 'ivipov or -ir.\\i iu<: i ThiA name denotes noi only ■he town, but alto the region and ihe Jordan mmitvc-. flow ing from lhc ult (cf. Pliny My V. 71. 74». Because lhc grotto and water source* can siillhescen. lhc remain* of the town and wncluar) could he located, and the ArahK place name ll.nn.is survived, there is no question about lhc site's exact identification InthemedicsalpenodthcJcsvslising bete ktcntificd the place with biblical Dun and issued their ktlerM. found in lhc Cairo (icnizah. from (Dan fonix\»)or MeJinui Dunlcrly of Danl. In about I ITOlx. the traveler Benjamin of Tudcla even saw the place of the altar of Micalilcf. Jg. 18:29-31) in front of the cave This idcntifieatk-n had earlier appeared in Jewish and I'hmlun h'urces from the Roman-Byzantine period as ihe designation "Dan dKivnn** (Jerusalem Turgum. Gen. 14:14: Jerome. In Huzeeh. L. XIV. 48. 21 22; CCSI. 75. 7». correctly diffcrcnlwtcd. howwr. by Eos.. Ont/m. 76.6 Kl Thiserroncous identification, as well as other hiblical nanves suggested for Ihe presumed pre-HdieaistK site Baal-Gad (lot. 11:17) and Heth-Kchob (Jg. 18:28)— were relutcd on historicity geographical grounds I ui thcrmon• even tbceAislcnce »'f such an early site is doubtful because, to dale, no prc-lldlenisiK pottery has been found in Ihe extensive lurvcy* conducted The polls built here by Herod's son Philip in 2 tx r was turned < aoarta in honor of the emperor Augustus (Josephiis. Wm II. \t&. Anuq XVIII. 2H| and. to differentiate it from the one on the coast, w as referred to as Cacsarea of Philip (Ml 16 1.1. Mk. 8:27. and many other sources) It was renamed Neronias h> Agrippa II {Anitq XX. 211; and coins), hut the name thai event mils took root. esneciaJK in ihe second and third centuncs. was Cac-wreu Panias (Ptolemy V, 15. 21 and VIM. 20. 12: CIO 475U. 4921; Wad- dingtott 1620b. I'ahulti Feuiingtrumat I Ik- coins struck al Panias fr< Marcus Aurelius lo EUgahalus carry lhc oITkuI name' Sehtmle! hirrlu) kal ii.miI/om hup" Puneiou In ancient Jewish sourt the town is called Ketsanon ot Kiuin and lhc case Pamus or Panias Fro the fourth century onward, ihe name Cacsarea disappears cniirely and l. city isrefcrredlosimplv asPaniastcf Eusebiu*). lnlsbmKsources.thcsite called Bams a v. and in the I rench Crusaders' sources. Belinas. TOPOGRAPHY Bamas is located ai Ihe foot of the southwest extremity of Mount Hcrmo (Jebel csh-Shcikh). at ihe northern edge of a t nangular plaleau. about 1.5 ki i ! nu i wtdeand 2 km 11 2 mi.) long, al $00 m above sea level This hasall an (raveitinc plateau is linked between the steep slopes of Mouni Hcrmon o ibe north and |Ik ascending slopes of tbc(>\>U^ To the west it opens to the northern Jordan Valley, where the plateau i tcrmina led by a topographic step, lowering some nOmabosc lhc ground. Th scenery was formed h> the Hift Valley geological faults and volcanic flow coming from the Golan Two rasincs culling through the northern part of the plaleau form (hi town's different quarters. Nahul Sa'ar (Wudi /a"are), which separates the '"'I'M Heights from lhc Hermon Massif, runs here in a roughly southeast northwest course, tome VM) m south and parallel to the mountain foot, and empties into Nahal Hennon Its waters, perennial in antiquiiy. are used loday for agriculture upstream Nahal Hcrmon (Wadi Baniyas. Wadi Klia-shuhclitemcrgesfioin t he mountain on the north (as a continuation of Nahal Gostaland forms a gorge cutting through the low n in a northeast southwest course. From its poini of entry into the plateau, southward for a distance of about 180 m. dow n lo the point where a canyon is formed in the basalt rock, thenvenadeswereembanked by two massive vertical walls. These impressive Roman walls, hull! of smooth ashlars incoursesO 6m high, preserved almost