Suicide Attacks
or “Martyrdom Operations”
in Contemporary Jihad Literature
David Cook
ABSTRACT: Martyrdom operations are a factor in contemporary
radical Islam. These operations have their roots in classical jihad
literature, but fundamentally are a by-product of widespread frustration
and perceived humiliations on the part of Muslims. The attacks of
11 September 2001 are rooted within this tradition.
INTRODUCTION
S
uicide attacks or “martyrdom operations”1 are a relatively new
phenomenon in Muslim warfare.2 Given that Muslim religious
culture abhors innovation, one is compelled to ask what religious
and historical justifications account for the appearance and glorification
of this weapon during the past twenty years, and to consider the
additional factors at work in the rationalization process. One must also
note that although “martyrdom operations” nominally fall under the
category of jihad they are fundamentally different in kind from other
activities permitted in warfare. “Martyrdom operations” differ from classical
jihad in that they necessitate a greater degree of reliance upon
intangible factors, such as the intentions of the attacker, in order to
judge the relative purity of his motivation—which as we shall see is
extremely important—as well as frequently being directed toward nonmilitary
targets that are problematic from the perspective of the jihad literature.
Ultimately “martyrdom operations” rely not upon the classical
jihad literature (although as we shall note they can be justified up to a cer-
7
Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions, Volume 6, Issue 1, pages
7–44, ISSN 1092-6690 (print), 1541-8480 (electronic). © 2002 by The Regents of the
University of California. All rights reserved. Send requests for permission to reprint
to: Rights and Permissions, University of California Press, Journals Division, 2000
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tain point from this material), but upon the overwhelming sense of collective
Muslim inferiority on the part of Muslim radicals during the present
time to justify any and all tactics needed to win a given war or conflict.
It is important to note that “martyrdom operations” are, in fact, a new
phenomenon in Islam, although, as we shall see, some similar cases can
be culled from the history books.3 For the most part it is extremely rare
to find examples of Muslims who have committed suicide.4 In Islamic history
there is no equivalent to the “noble suicide” tradition of the Bible (cf.
the story of Samson in Judges 16:23-30), modern Europe or Japan, where
there is widespread cultural understanding (although usually not on the
part of the religious establishment) of people who take their own lives in
despair or as a result of guilt. Perhaps no one tries to justify such suicides,
but everyone is familiar with the spectacle of a businessperson committing
suicide as a result of failure, or political figures who take their own lives
as a result of scandal. There is simply no equivalent of this in Muslim history,
and until contemporary times it is difficult to point out even one
name of a prominent Muslim who committed suicide in the wake of personal
failure. After the debacle of the Six Day War in 1967 the commander
of the Egyptian army, ‘Abd al-Hakim Amer, took his own life,5 but
this must be seen as an event influenced by contemporary ideologies and
not as one resulting from an indigenous tradition enjoining him to do so.
Time and again prominent prisoners are taken to torture chambers in
Arab or Muslim countries under various pretexts; there is virtually no evidence
that any of them take their own lives to spare themselves the torture,
as Westerners often have done in analogous situations.
In terms of contemporary and modern history, Muslim groups have
used suicide attacks as a weapon since the early 1980s. (Others such as
the Kurdish PKK and the Tamil rebels in Sri Lanka have also used suicide
attacks.) Although there are stray reports of suicides at the time of
the “Indian Mutiny” against the British Raj in 1857, it does not appear
that large-scale suicide attacks were popular in the Muslim world previous
to 1982. In 1983, Shi‘ite resistance groups in Lebanon began using
suicide attacks first as a means to expel American and other foreign
troops, and during subsequent years as a weapon against the Israeli
Army until its withdrawal in 2000. However, this suicide-martyrdom
activity was still seen as a marginal, predominantly Shi‘ite weapon not
legitimate for Sunnis. Whereas for the most part these Shi‘ite suicide
attacks were conducted against military targets, more recent attacks
have been focused on civilian targets and carried out largely by Sunnis.
None of the 1980s Sunni jihad literature concerning Afghanistan, for
example, speaks of “martyrdom operations,” although it is difficult to
believe that no “martyrdom operations” occurred in such a desperate
war.6 Starting in 1994, however, first the Islamic Jihad and then Hamas
in the West Bank and Gaza began using “martyrdom operations” as a
weapon against Israel, and following their example militant Algerian
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Muslim groups began to do so as well. From these groups the practice
has spread deep into the radical Sunni Muslim world—in Kashmir,
India and Chechnya for example—with remarkably little religious or
legal opposition, probably because “martyrdom operations” are closely
associated with the very popular theme of attacking Israel, and lately
Russia (in Chechnya).
What is incontrovertible is that suicide attacks are qualitatively different
from other attacks. Because the nature of the attack is one which
precludes any form of retribution against the attacker (although some
regimes have taken revenge upon family or friends of “martyrs”), the
population absorbing the attack is denied any form of action that could
channel its anger into an institutional form, such as the justice system.
The possibility of seeking justice is denied while the attacked population
is still in the white-hot heat of anger, and therefore this rage is more
likely to be channeled into an uncontrolled search for vengeance. This
anger invariably drives a wedge between Muslims and non-Muslims,
because under many circumstances the anger provoked by suicide
attacks requires an outlet, and many will make the (irrational) leap that
as the attack did not differentiate between guilty and innocent, neither
should the revenge.
It is also true that suicide attacks are almost always directed not
against military targets but civilian ones, usually in democratic (or at
least non-dictatorial) societies. The reasoning is simple: no true military
benefit is expected to result from the attack. The sole purpose is to strike
terror into the hearts of the enemy, either by killing in large numbers
and exposing a weakness within the enemy’s ranks, or more commonly
by causing the other side to suffer what the avenging side is suffering,
thereby justifying the attack (according to the attackers’ perception) as
an equalizing factor in the warfare. These goals are not achievable in
large enough numbers against military targets, which have the ability to
use force to protect themselves and can be alerted quickly against a foe.
Suicide attacks for the most part, therefore, rarely occur against truly
military targets. Usually one attack is sufficient for possible military targets
to tighten security and make it difficult if not impossible for further
suicide attacks to achieve their goals. These goals, however, are achievable
against civilian targets, which can be driven into a state of terror by
an ever-escalating series of attacks. It is for these reasons that fundamentally
the “martyrdom operations” are directed against civilians, even
though the rationale is military in nature.
“Martyrdom operations” do not occur in an intellectual vacuum;
they have some basis in the Muslim doctrine of jihad. I will examine several
documents on the subject of “martyrdom operations,” including
one of the principal opinions on the subject, “The Islamic Ruling on
the Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations” (an exploration of the
legal issues conducted for jihad fighters in Chechnya).7 In order to eluCook:
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cidate the thinking behind this innovation to the Muslim law of jihad,
I will also examine the published statements of a number of radical
Muslim8 leaders such as Muhammad ‘Abd al-Salam Faraj (executed
1982), ‘Abdallah ‘Azzam (killed 1987), Yusuf al-Qaradawi,9 Salman al‘Awdah,
Safar al-Hawali, Hamud b. ‘Uqla al-Shu‘aybi (d. 2002), ‘Umar
‘Abd al-Rahman (imprisoned 1994), Muhammad Masood Azhar (the
leader of the Kashmiri group Jaysh-i Muhammad), Usama b. Ladin
and Ayman al-Zawahiri, culminating in an analysis of the document left
by the suicide attackers of 11 September 2001 conventionally called
“The Last Night.”10 The object of this article is to set forth the manner
in which “martyrdom operations” are justified in contemporary radical
Sunni Muslim literature.
JIHAD AND MARTYRDOM IN ISLAM
Jihad is based upon the salvific compact detailed in the Qur’an:
Allah has bought from the believers their lives and their wealth in return
for Paradise; they fight in the way of Allah, kill and are killed.That is a true
promise from Him in the Torah, the Gospel and the Qur’an and who fulfills
His promise better than Allah? Rejoice then at the bargain you have
made with Him; for that is the great triumph. (9:110)11
Clearly this idea of the Muslims as an eternally warring group gained
widespread support as a result of both the injunctions of the Qur’an as
well as the astounding conquests that occurred during the first century
of Islam.12 This does not imply that there were not other types of Islam
at this early period, but that jihad as the foremost and most prestigious
expression of the faith early on became a widespread, if occasionally
latent, feeling throughout the Muslim community. From this early jihad
literature it is clear that most, if not all, Muslims saw themselves as a
community empowered by God to conquer the entire world, probably
initially with the year 717 C.E. (the year 100 hijri, remembering that the
Muslim lunar calendar loses time against the solar one) as the goal for
either the establishment of a messianic kingdom or for God to end the
world.13 It is significant that shortly after the passing of this date without
any of these eschatological events having taken place the Muslim armies
suffered a collapse that stopped the conquests for several hundred years
and allowed the faith to develop in other ways.
The extent to which fighting is emphasized both in the primary religious
document of Islam, the Qur’an, and in the secondary tradition literature,
the hadith (traditions purportedly originating with the Prophet
Muhammad or his close companions), is extraordinary, even unique.
There is no other major religion in which, for example, fleeing from the
battlefield is actually designated a grave sin (Qur’an 8:16).14 The amount
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and early date of the jihad literature is also significant, as is the fact that
most of the early prominent religious figures in Islam (up to and including
the tenth century) were fighters or participated in the jihad on a volunteer
basis. Therefore, it can be said confidently that the writings of
these religious figures are not merely theoretical exercises, but practical
guides to what was still a very important component of their religious
experience.
What was the classical Muslim definition of jihad? In the classical
handbooks, conveniently summarized recently by Muhammad Khayr
Haykal in his impressive al-Jihad wa-l-qital fi al-siyasa al-shara‘iyya (Jihad
and Fighting according to the Shari‘i Policy), jihad is characterized as closely
regulated warfare enjoined by God upon the Muslim community with
the express purpose of either expanding or defending the community.15
In the Qur’an and early Muslim literature there is a strong concentration
upon embracing death and focusing upon it to the exclusion
of all else, as well as a vast morbid tradition of contemplation of death
and the grave in early Muslim ascetic literature.16 Although there is
nothing in this tradition that would indicate a positive attitude toward
actually taking one’s life in order to speed up the process, Muslims have
frequently characterized their community as one that is indifferent to
death (as opposed to polytheists, who love life).17 This attitude is already
found in the Qur’an:
Indeed you will find them [the evil-doers] of all people the most attached
to life, even more than those who associated other gods with Allah. Every
one of them wishes to live for one thousand years. This long life, however,
will not spare them the punishment. (2:96)
The correct attitude of the fighter is to see death as the goal, not
because of a hatred of life but because of the reward to be gained by
passing through it. The only regret to be felt is that one cannot die a
martyr over and over:
There is no servant [of God] who dies—who receives a good [reward]
from God—who would be happy to return to this world, because he has
[the equivalent of] this world and what is in it, except the shahid —
because of the advantage of martyrdom, he would like to return to this
world and be killed again.18
Thus, since seeking death as a martyr is considered virtuous while
seeking death for its own sake is not, the issue of who is a martyr (shahid)
is significant in the discussion about jihad. In the Qur’an, where the
word shahid appears only in its sense of “witness” rather than “martyr”
(in the sense of dying for the sake of bearing witness to a cause or idea),
we find the following idea:
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And do not think those who have been killed in the way of Allah as dead;
they are rather living with their Lord, well-provided for. Rejoicing in what
their Lord has given them of His bounty, and they rejoice for those who
stayed behind and did not join them; knowing that they have nothing to
fear and that they shall not grieve. (3:169-70)
Clearly the integral part of the process of becoming a martyr is
“being killed in the way of Allah.” At some point during the first century
of Islam the word shahid acquired its derivative and more important
meaning of “martyr,” probably under the influence of the Christian
Syriac word sahedo.19 However, one should note that the Arabic word has
a connotation that the Syriac word never had—that of being an active
martyr in the sense of seeking out one’s martyrdom on the battlefield.
In other words, in contrast to the Christian theory of martyrdom, in
which the martyr usually passively suffers but can also seek out death to
some extent, the Islamic process of martyrdom was not one (necessarily)
in which the future martyr was the passive recipient of death as a testament
to his beliefs. In Islamic usage, the shahid was allowed and even
encouraged to seek out circumstances under which death was certain.
Although some shuhada’ (plural of shahid) in Muslim history have
achieved their martyrdom through giving testimony, for the most part
the focus of the term has been on those who have died fighting or
unnatural (non-human induced) deaths.
What circumstances enabled a person to be designated with the coveted
title of shahid were (and are) the subject of controversy, and probably
gave birth to a split in the definition of jihad that persists to this day.
It is undeniable that many more people desired the title of shahid than
were willing to die on the battlefield. Most probably this fact led to the
creation of numerous hadith, indicating that circumstances other than
death on the battlefield were acceptable as constituting martyrdom.
For example:
The Messenger of God said: “What do you consider [the acceptable circumstances
of] martyrdom?” They said: “Being killed in the path of God
[jihad].” The Messenger of God said: “There are seven [types] of martyrdom
other than being killed in the path of God: the one who dies of the
plague is a shahid, the one who drowns is a shahid, the one who dies of
pleurisy is a shahid, the one who dies of a stomach complaint is a shahid,
the one who dies in a fire is a shahid, the one who dies in a building collapse
is a shahid, and the woman who dies in child-birth is a shahida.”20
This type of tradition was only the beginning of a flood of similar
ones during the course of which the word shahid lost all meaning. If all
of these traditions (recounted for us by al-Suyuti in his book on the circumstances
of martyrdom) were to be taken literally, it is difficult to
imagine a person who would die without being a “martyr.” Clearly these
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traditions circulated at the same time as a radical change emerged in the
definition of jihad. This was the idea, first promoted by the Sufis during
the ninth century, that jihad was to be defined as the internal struggle
between the upper and lower natures of the believer.
The conquests were largely a memory by this period, and this latter
definition became an important part of the jihad literature. It enabled
large numbers of Muslims to participate in the prestigious spiritual exercise
of jihad without the inconvenience of having to travel to a distant
border in order to fight an infidel enemy and die on the battlefield. This
fact should not be taken to imply that all Sufis were of a pacifist bent.
Clearly they were not. Many participated in both types of jihad, and it is
very probable that the originators of the idea of jihad al-nafs (jihad of the
soul) had in mind a considerably different goal than to excuse the bulk
of the Muslim community from actual fighting. However, the overall
effect was to diminish the allure of fighting for the majority of Muslims.
Indeed, today many Muslims, disregarding all of the evidence to the contrary,
insist that this internal definition of jihad is in fact the primary and
not the derivative one.21
To a large extent jihad in classical times was fed by a sense of
inevitable victory. Most felt that the conquests and the dominion they
brought to the Muslim community were the only necessary proofs for the
inherent right of the method employed. The goal of this jihad was clearly
stated in the Qur’an, to raise the Word of God to the highest (9:41).
Victory on the battlefield was seen as conclusively proving the veracity of
the revelation of the Qur’an and the prophetic identity of Muhammad:
“Behold! God sent me [Muhammad] with a sword, just before the Hour
[of Judgment], and placed my daily sustenance beneath the shadow of
my spear, and humiliation and contempt on those who oppose me.”22
History was therefore inevitably leading to a foregone conclusion:
the ultimate victory of Islam throughout the Earth. If the Sufis and
other Muslims temporarily abandoned jihad during the ninth century
and to some extent (with the exception of the episode of the Crusades
and the advances of the Ottomans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries)
until the nineteenth century, the feeling was not that the method
was invalid or ineffective. Rather, victory seemed so inevitable and selfapparent
that it would simply fall into the hands of the Muslims by
God’s decree and in His foreordained time.
PERCEPTION OF INFERIORITY
AS THE MOTHER OF NECESSITY
Therefore, it was all the more of a shock for Muslims—perhaps
more than any civilization other than the Chinese—to find at the beginning
of the nineteenth century, that far from being the dominant group
on Earth and on the verge of achieving God’s divine plan of realizing the
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worldwide spread of Islam, they were a comparatively insignificant and
backward community. From having so often despised European
Christians and humiliated them on the battlefield, they had to come to
realize that precisely the people they had thought were only semihuman23
now had achieved a level of civilization and power that left
their own in the dust. Many radical Muslims (and others) are very conscious
of this sudden change or reversal of fortune. The radical cleric alQaradawi
says that this lack of development has some bearing upon the
perception of Islam, as God said concerning the Muslims in the Qur’an,
“You are the best nation brought forth to mankind, bidding the right
and forbidding the wrong and believing in Allah” (3:110).24 Comparison
of this expectation of superiority with present-day perceived humiliation
produces a strong sense of the wrong turn that history has taken, cheating
the Muslims of their rightful place on the world’s stage.25
This view also gave the Muslims something of a latent admiration for
fighting as a spiritual exercise. There can be no doubt that ‘Abdallah
‘Azzam, the formulator of so much of the radical jihadist ideology and
the mentor of Usama b. Ladin, had taken this admiration and formulated
it into something of a Nietzschean philosophy, as is clear from his
text, “Martyrs: The Building Blocks of Nations.” In it, he says:
History does not write its lines except with blood. Glory does not build its
loft[y] edifice except with skulls. Honor and respect cannot be established
except on a foundation of cripples and corpses. Empires, distinguished
peoples, states and societies cannot be established with examples.
Indeed those who think that they can change reality or change societies
without blood, sacrifices and invalids, without pure, innocent souls, do not
understand the essence of this Deen [Islam] and they do not know the
method of the best of Messengers [Muhammad].26
This message seems a little stark when compared with the overall
magnificence of Islamic civilization and history, and it completely
ignores the spiritual heritage of Islam; nonetheless, it is a popular view
among many radicals.
By virtue of the amazing sequence of the conquests and the centuries-long
perceived superiority of Islamic civilization, there exists
among contemporary radical Muslims a strong imperative to rule. The
dominant radical attitude is that, although others can exist as minorities
in Muslim countries, Muslims can never be in the minority or ruled by
non-believers. To a large degree, this attitude explains why there are so
many Muslim separatist movements in the world today. It is doubtful that
Muslims are any more or less oppressed than any other group in the
world, yet contemporary radical Muslims tend to magnify their relative
“oppression” because of their collective historical consciousness of a
necessity to be superior.27 This imperative to rule has not been realized
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in events, magnifying the humiliation of present-day Muslims.28 In contemporary
radical and apocalyptic Muslim literature, thus there is a tendency
to cite traditions indicating a strong sense of humiliation among
many Muslims. These traditions have as their source the beginnings of
Islam, when many of the peoples who found themselves subject to the
Muslims strongly resented the fact that they were in a subordinate position
to a people (the Arabs) whom they considered to be inferior. The
hadith literature responds to this reality to some extent, and even cites
some of these attitudes, although usually they are projected into the
future. For example:
‘Abdallah b. Hawwala said: “We were with the Messenger of God
[Muhammad], and we complained to him about the poverty, the nakedness
and the general lack of things.” The Messenger of God said: “Take
heart, because I am more worried about the plethora of things for you.
This matter [of Islam] will continue until you have conquered the lands
of Persia and the Byzantines and Himyar [Yemen]—you will have three
army-districts (ajnad): one in Syria, one in Iraq and one in Yemen—and
until a man will be given 100 dinars and be insulted by it [because of the
general wealth].” Ibn Hawwala said: “O Messenger of God, who could possibly
take Syria when the many-horned Byzantines (al-rum dhat al-qurun)29
are in it?” He said: “God will conquer it for you and appoint you as successors
in it, until a group of them [the Byzantines] will become whiterobed,
with shaved necks, standing in service for a little black man (alruwayjil
al-usayawid)30—whatever he tells them to do, they do it. [This will
happen] even though today there are men in it [Syria] who view you as
more contemptible than the lice which inhabit the buttocks of camels
(ahqar fi a‘yunihim min al-qirdan fi a‘jaz al-ibl).”31
The juxtaposition of the contempt of the conquered peoples for the
Muslims with those very people’s new servitude to their Muslim masters,
and the unlikely nature of the latter’s victory over the powerful
Byzantines, provided a strong emotional proof, in Muslim eyes, for the
veracity of Islam. Nowadays when this tradition is cited, it appears in the
context of what present-day Westerners (supposedly) think of Muslims.
Obviously the parallel to be brought out is that at the beginning of
Islam the world powers were also dismissive of its position, but the
Muslims—with God’s aid—taught them a lesson. What happened once
will happen again. Additionally, the sense of contempt (supposedly on
the part of non-Muslims) reinforces the desire to strike back in any
manner possible to avenge the loss of dignity on the part of the Muslims.
Another commonly cited tradition reflecting low self-esteem in contemporary
writers is, “You will be many on that day [in the apocalyptic
future], but like scum.”32 In other words, the numerical preponderance
of the Muslim community will not be representative of their influence
or power. Other traditions cited are those that emphasize the power of
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the Byzantines (usually currently glossed as Europeans or Westerners)
vis-à-vis the Muslims.33 These portrayals of the present day position of
Islam in such humiliating terms—far exaggerating the reality, in fact—
reinforce the idea that Muslims must regain the power they held centuries
ago through the means they used then: jihad against the world.
They present the situation in very stark terms, in which either Islam is
ruling the world righteously, or is being oppressed and ultimately will be
annihilated from the face of the Earth. One should note that Qur’anic
verses can also be used to present this picture. In the 11 September 2001
hijackers’ letter, “The Last Night,” many of the verses from the second
page are taken from the part of the Qur’an (surat Al ‘Imran 3) that was,
according to the Muslim tradition, revealed in the wake of the Prophet
Muhammad’s worst defeat at the Battle of Uhud (625). It is clear that
these verses are meant to be an encouragement to a group under considerable
strain as a result of defeat.
It is obvious that under such circumstances many radical Muslims
(and those influenced by their interpretations of current events) are
open to the idea that at this point in history the needs of the community
demand that they not only participate in jihad, but also that because
of the awesome power of the enemy (the entire world, but more specifically
the Western “Christian” world), any and all methods of fighting are
justified to obtain the victory, or, in some cases, to stave off total defeat.
For many radical Muslims “martyrdom operations” are one method of
overcoming despair. It is attractive because it accomplishes something
and generates a spirit of optimism (note that in “The Last Night” point
8 speaks to this issue), and others are encouraged by the sense of selfsacrifice
implicit in the action.34
“MARTYRDOM OPERATIONS”
Part and parcel of the victory-at-any-cost attitude is the justification
of suicide attacks or “martyrdom operations.” In classical times, we can
find the example of groups that were said to have sworn an oath unto
death (bay‘a ‘ala al-mawt) either to the Prophet Muhammad or one of
the caliphs.35 It is significant that the very first line of “The Last Night”
(translated in the Appendix) speaks of the two cardinal elements of the
“martyrdom operation”—the “oath unto death” and “intention” (about
which, see below). It would be interesting to know to whom they took
this oath and under what circumstances it was administered, but the letter
leaves us ignorant of these details. The process of an “oath unto
death” was described as having taken place when the Prophet took the
abortive pilgrimage to Mecca in 627 that culminated in the Treaty of
Hudaybiyya.36 (This pilgrimage was conducted under difficult circumstances;
at one time there was the possibility that the Prophet and his
followers could be attacked and wiped out, which was the background
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for this “oath to the death.”) It is apparent that this “oath to the death”
was introduced into contemporary radical Islam by Muhammad ‘Abd
al-Salam Faraj, author of The Neglected Duty, who devotes a small section
to it.37
The radical Muslims from Saudi Arabia who composed “The Islamic
Ruling on the Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations”38 define “martyrdom
operations” as “those performed by one or more people, against
enemies far outstripping them in numbers and equipment, with prior
knowledge that the operations will almost inevitably lead to death.”39
The writers of “Permissibility” further clarify the nature of “martyrdom
operation” by saying:
The name “suicideoperations” used by some is inaccurate, and in fact this
name was chosen by the Jews to discourage people from such endeavors.
How great is the difference between one who commits suicide—because
of his unhappiness, lack of patience and weakness, or absence of iman
[faith] and has been threatened with Hell-Fire—and between the self-sacrificer
who embarks on the operation out of strength of faith, and to bring
victory to Islam, by sacrificing his life for the upliftment of Allah’s Word!40
Clearly this statement is designed to pull the focus away from the
questionable methodology being employed to the positive benefits in
the next world for the martyr and in this world for the victory of Islam.
Victory is everything and, therefore, the manner in which it is achieved
is meaningless. In this statement, the authors enumerate the political
benefits achieved by suicide attacks, not noting the usual lack of military
importance to the operations.
It is interesting to follow the reasoning of the writers of this document,
as they take us through the Muslim legal literature in order to provide
the justification for “martyrdom operations.” They begin with several
Qur’anic verses, the first of which is 9:111, “Allah has bought from
the believers . . .” cited above, then, “And some people sell themselves
for the sake of Allah’s favor. Allah is kind to His servants” (2:207), and,
“How many a small band has defeated a large one by Allah’s leave. Allah
is with the steadfast” (2:249).41 Although none of these verses specifically
permits suicide attacks, together they definitely leave the reader with the
impression that this is what is being referred to. The salvific covenant
begins with God’s having promised paradise to the believers on the
basis of their fighting, then progresses to the verse speaking of people
being willing to sell themselves for the favor of God, and God’s kindness
being extended to those making such a sacrifice, and ends with the
final verse speaking of a numerically inferior group defeating a larger.
The implication is clear.
However, the writers of this legal justification do not link the
Qur’anic verses together at this point; instead they take us through a
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series of sixteen traditions in which various people are seen to die for the
faith.42 Not all of these involve situations of warfare; the first two, in fact,
involve martyrdoms for the sake of the truth of God’s existence that
greatly resemble Christian martyrdoms from the pre-Constantine era.43
But the balance of the traditions emphasizes the idea that one who
attacks an enemy either alone or in a manner which makes it unlikely
that he will survive the battle is indeed a martyr. On this particular
point, there can be no doubt that the balance of Muslim tradition and
legal opinion stands with the writers of “Permissibility.”44 However, in
examining this rationale I would say that there is a substantial difference
between one who dies in battle—which is an open and declared event,
even if it is waged in a ferocious and death-defying manner—and a suicide
or “martyrdom” operation, which is by definition a secretive act
designed solely to strike terror into the hearts of the foe, or to carry out
selected assassinations or demolitions and is fulfilled by the death of the
person sent. Other military operations are counted successes if the soldier
survives; “martyrdom operations” can succeed only if the perpetrator
dies. The writers can argue convincingly that to have death as a
goal (or perhaps, more precisely, the probable outcome) on the battlefield
is not against early Muslim practice; they have not yet shown
whether they can take the logic further.
To accomplish this goal, the writers of “The Permissibility of
Martyrdom Operations” then probe the legal literature:
Having established the permissibility of plunging into the enemy and
attacking alone even when death is certain, we proceed and say that the
martyrdom operations are derived from this principle. . . . There is one
difference between the martyrdom operations and their classical precedent,
namely that in our case the person is killed by his own hand, whereas
in the other he was killed by the enemy. We also explain that this difference
does not affect the verdict.45
It is unfortunate that, in fact, the authors in the end do not explain
the differences between one who is slain in battle and one who “is killed
by his own hand,” because they seem to be substantial. Instead, after
reviewing the legal material dealing with attacking an enemy against
overwhelming odds, the writers come to the (unsupported) conclusion
that classical Muslim scholars would have allowed “martyrdom operations”
with the following conditions: 1) intention; 2) infliction of losses
upon the enemy; 3) frightening the enemy; and 4) strengthening the
hearts of the Muslims.
I return below to the question of intention, because it is clear that
this is one of the core issues of “martyrdom operations.” Essentially
these writershave come to the conclusion that if the benefit to be gained
is sufficiently important for the Muslims, the operation can and should
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be carried out. After dealing with several other issues such as using prisoners
as human shields, the judgment concerning one who assists in the
killing of Muslims, and the definitions of shahid and suicide, the writers
of this opinion come to their conclusions. However, we need to examine
one of their fundamental points of departure before turning to
their conclusions; this is the question of “intention” and how it influences
the justification for “martyrdom operations.”
INTENTION AS THE JUSTIFICATION FOR ACTION
One cannot understand the justification of “martyrdom operations”
without understanding the importance of “intention” in the Muslim
process of waging war.46 One of the first traditions on jihad in the authoritative
collection of al-Bukhari reads: “There is no immigration (hijra)
after the conquest [of Mecca], but there is jihad and ‘intention’; when
you are called to arms, respond.”47 Clearly it is an anachronism to ascribe
this tradition to the Prophet, yet it is still a significant tradition for the
development of Muslim attitudes toward warfare. The process of hijra
(perhaps better understood as “emigration with the purpose of tactical
regrouping”) was only to persist until the conquest of Mecca (in 630),48
and it was to be replaced by the twin pillars of jihad and “intention.” It
is unclear whether traditions of this nature mean (or meant) that the
“intention” to fight the jihad was the equivalent of doing so, although
perhaps “intention” in this context is best understood as “maintaining
a warlike attitude” or “being on one’s guard.” But as a result of this tradition,
actions in waging jihad are judged according to the person’s
intentions. This “intention,” however, was far from insubstantial—
clearly it was part of the process of waging war—and, as we note from
the tradition, the Muslims were to hold themselves ready to fight con-
tinuously.
From the early jihad collection of ‘Abdallah b. al-Mubarak (d. 797)
we find the following tradition:
The slain [in jihad] are three [types of] men: a believer, who struggles
(jahada) with himself and his possessions in the path of God, such that
when he meets the enemy [in battle] he fights them until he is killed.This
shahid is tested [and is] in the camp of God under His throne; the prophets
do not exceed him [in merit] except by the level of prophecy. [Then] a
believer, committing offenses and sins against himself, who struggles with
himself and his possessions in the path of God, such that when he meets
the enemy [in battle] he fights until he is killed. This cleansing wipes away
his offenses and his sins—behold the sword wipes [away] sins!—and he
will be let into heaven from whatever gate he wishes. . . . [Then] a hypocrite,
who struggles with himself and his possessions in the path of God,
such that when he meets the enemy [in battle] he fights until he is killed.
This [man] is in hell since the sword does not wipe away hypocrisy.49
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This important and early tradition clearly shows the importance of
fighting with the correct motivations and intention.
In the contemporary literature justifying “martyrdom operations”
we find “intention” mentioned a number of times. It is apparent that
“intention” is a necessary justification because it is only at the point of
“intention” that “martyrdom operations” differ from other types of suicide.
If the intention is to uplift the Word of God (Qur’an 9:41), then
the action falls under the category of jihad and the actor is a martyr. I
have already noted that the writer of “The Last Night” mentions “intention”
in the document’s very first point. One could argue, in fact, that
the entire purpose of this document is to ensure the purity of the participants’
intentions in the 11 September 2001 hijackings. There is no
mention of justification for the ethical, moral or political ramifications
of these events; apparently, these matters were not problematic. The
principal purpose of the process described, therefore, was to purify the
martyrs of any possible non-spiritual motivations or thoughts. This idea
is in accord with what the writer of “Permissibility of Martyrdom
Operations” states after giving examples of this nature:
These examples, all based upon the hadith “Verily, actions are only according
to intentions . . .” clearly support the notion that the verdict concerning
the shahid does not differ based upon who the killing party is, provided
the intention is pure. So, one who has a bad intention and is killed
by the enemy is deserving of the Fire, as would be the case if he kills himself
out of pain. And one who has a sincere intention will be in Heaven,
whether he is killed by the enemy or kills himself in error. And, one who
helps in killing himself for the good of the religion will be in Heaven.50
One must note that this statement creates a sense of ambivalence as
to how the martyr is to be judged. Objectively speaking there is no way
for the living to know precisely what the motivations of the person were
at the moment of death.51 So, in fact, it is not the “intention” that creates
the martyrdom, but the action itself by virtue of its strategic value
in the process of uplifting the Word of God.52 These highly subjective
criteria enable Muslim radicals to create a whole new group of legitimate
martyrs.
Additionally, one must ask the following questions. If all actions in
warfare are only to be judged by their intentions (which can never be
known except by God), then what are the boundaries of legal behavior?
Is everything right and just if the person performing the action intends
it for the good of Muslims? Is one to assume that correct intentions
excuse every type of behavior?53 Modern apologists of “martyrdom operations”
do not appear to confront these questions seriously, in stark
contrast to their medieval predecessors who established clear boundaries
for warfare. Although one must admit that these boundaries were
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not always observed, they certainly provided Muslims with a yardstick by
which to judge the relative rightness or wrongness of a given battle or
campaign. Because of the extensive use of “intention” as the yardstick by
which “martyrdom operations” are to be judged, even this element of
control over violent actions is lost.
ANALYSIS OF “THE LAST NIGHT”
The document left behind by the suicide attackers of 11 September
2001 entitled “The Last Night” is an interesting and important window
into the mind of a person preparing attacks of this type.54 Without
attempting to place the planned events within a larger context, the document
apparently is designed to assist the “martyr” through the difficult
task of taking his own life (not to mention those of many others) in such
a way that this act would be one of spiritual worship and not merely mass
murder. It is very probable that the four pages we have of this document
are a fragment; there is no introductory formula (“In the name of God,
the Merciful, the Compassionate,” which precedes every document written
by a Muslim) and there is a stray reference at the top of the document
apparently referring to a previous page. The larger document
presumably contained instructions for the days previous to the “martyrdom
operation” of 11 September. Most probably these preceding
pages were ripped off and disposed of as they became irrelevant. As it
now stands, “The Last Night” is divided into three sections: a list of fifteen
points for the final night of the martyr’s existence, then the “second
phase” from the time of leaving the apartment or hotel until boarding
the plane, and the “third phase” from the time that the airplane is
boarded until the end of the “martyrdom operation.” The fifteen points
listed in the first section are a mixture of piety and preparation. Points
two, twelve, thirteen and fourteen are the only ones that deal with nonspiritual
preparations, and even of these only point two is free from any
mention of a spiritual component. The other points are all spiritual and
focus upon the subordination of the soul, recitation of the entire
Qur’an—which is clearly the most important element, as individual
suras are mentioned for preferred reading material and verses are cited
to elucidate specific points—as well as prayers and devotions. There are
also points which deal with problems, such as possible disobedience or
lack of unity in the group, the possible desire to betray the group, and,
strangely enough considering what the hijackers intended to do, the
feeling that those about to die might have wasted their lives and should
be performing good works during their final hours to make up for this
waste.
“The Last Night” has a strong basis in Muslim pious literature. The
author, presumably Muhammad Atta, is well acquainted with the
Qur’an—although one should note that he only cites verses from the
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later, longer suras of the holy book, primarily those which were revealed
at the time of the battles of Uhud (625), the Khandaq (626) and
Hunayn (630).55 Part of the text, in fact, is exegetical, covering the
Qur’anic verses 3:173-75.56 Although point three (of the fifteen points
on the first page) instructs the reader to consider suras al-Anfal (8) and
al-Tawba (9), the text does not cite any verses from al-Tawba, a sura that
abounds in verses concerning jihad. In total, seventeen verses are cited,
eight from Al ‘Imran (3), four from al-Anfal, two from al-Baqarah (2),
and one each from al-Nisa (4), al-Mu’minun (23), and al-Ahzab (33).
These verses can be divided into several broad themes: five deal with
obedience or standing fast in the face of opposition, four with death,
four cover receiving support from God or defeating a larger group,
three promote indifference to fear, and one deals with the question of
executing prisoners. One should note that comparison of the Qur’anic
verses cited in “The Last Night” with those by the radical Muslim writers
cited throughout this article, and especially with the published statements
of Usama b. Ladin and Ayman al-Zawahiri, reveal that they are
working from the same ideological standpoint.
The author of “The Last Night” is well steeped in the hadith literature
and early Muslim history. For the most part the traditions he cites
are from al-Bukhari or other standard collections, but his knowledge
clearly indicates a good grasp of early Muslim history as well (for example,
the story of ‘Ali at the Battle of the Khandaq). Prayers from the
pious idhkar (devotional) handbooks—which are well known to Muslims
and are available in bookstores everywhere—are extensively represented
in the text. The author has conceived of this mission in religious
terms and presents it as a spiritual sacrifice designed to purify the heart
and the final actions of the participants preparatory to their entrance
into heaven. There is no doubt in the mind of the author that this type
of “worship” is acceptable to God; indeed it appears that, as the authors
of “Permissibility” also state, participation in a “martyrdom operation”
enables the believer to ascend to the highest rank in heaven.57 There
does not seem to be any doubt in the mind of the writer that “martyrdom
operations” are valid according to the shari‘a (although as one
reads in the opening paragraphs of “Permissibility” some have severely
criticized this type of operation).
If one had to point to the dominant theme of “The Last Night,” it
would have to be prayer. Prayer is mentioned in points five, eleven and
fifteen of the first page; additionally, specific prayers such as the prayer
of shelter (protection from airport security devices), the prayer to overcome
the fear of enemies, the prayer of the traveler (as the attackers
were “traveling towards God”), and two other specific but unnamed
prayers are mentioned in the following pages. The devotionals (which
are also largely prayers) cited are those of travel, entering a town and
that of praise, in addition to other unnamed devotionals. Beyond these
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specific prayers, the injunction to pray is given a further seven times and
appears to be the fall-back attitude of the “martyr” (the action that he
should be doing when nothing else is going on). Behind the constant
attitude of prayer lies a complete confidence in its efficaciousness as one
is passing through airport security, boarding the plane, slaughtering
passengers who resist, and ultimately facing the target and the death of
the “martyr.” Clearly the author was completely convinced that the best
way to ensure success was to maximize prayer.
One of the most interesting prayers cited is the ritual prayer against
the ahzab, the Confederates (from page 3): “O God: Revealer of the
Book, Mover of the clouds, Defeater of the Confederates, defeat them
and grant us victory over them. O God, defeat them and shake them!”58
It is clear that the writer of “The Last Night”—following Faraj,59 Usama
b. Ladin60 and many other previous leaders of radical Islam61—choses
to refer to the enemy as al-ahzab, the Confederates [against God] (cf.
Qur’an 11:17, 33:20, 22, 38:11-12), who are mentioned three times in
the text, including the last paragraph just before the target is hit. It is
interesting how this final Qur’anic reference (38:11-12) includes a list
of groups that opposed God’s messengers at various times, of which a
number have become code-words for the United States in radical
Muslim literature (‘Ad, Pharaoh, the people of Lot).62 The authors of
“The Last Night” apparently went to great lengths to recreate the situation
of the original ahzab, who gathered together to fight the Prophet
Muhammad and the Muslims in 626 during the Battle of the Khandaq.63
These Confederates included (according to the Muslim perception)
both enemies from without (the Prophet’s tribe of Quraysh and other
tribes affiliated with it) and within (the Jewish tribes of Banu Nadir and
Banu Qurayza, and those Muslim “hypocrites” who opposed the
Prophet).64 According to the Muslim account, the Jews of Medina sent
to the Quraysh asking them to render aid in completely uprooting
Muhammad and the Muslims.65 Contemporary radical Muslims note
that there is an alliance between what they refer to as “Muslim” rulers
(who are apostate in their opinion) and the non-Muslim West, similar
to the situation during the time of the earliest Muslims.
The Prophet Muhammad’s response to this alliance was to build a
fortified ditch (the Khandaq) to defend Medina, and from this position
to send out sorties against the ahzab outside. He cursed these ahzab
using the prayer cited in “The Last Night,” and a number of the
Qur’anic verses cited in the document were revealed at this time. This
strategy shows that the place of the true Muslims will be on the front
lines fighting the ahzab; only traitors and apostates will remain behind.66
After the ahzab retreated (their supplies were exhausted), the Prophet
Muhammad proceeded to deal with the Jewish tribes and the Muslim
hypocrites, exiling some and executing others.67 Clearly this is part of
the overall strategy of this manner of waging jihad: to fight the unbeCook:
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lievers and to use the war process as a time during which true Muslims
will be separated from false Muslims. All true Muslims will come out to
fight; false ones will stay home. After the (future) retreat of the enemy
(the Americans), Islam will be cleansed of the traitors, apostates, and
hypocrites.
Taking into account the references to the ahzab and the historical
situation in the background of “The Last Night,”68 a plausible scenario
for the “martyrdom operation” of 11 September 2001 seems to be that
it was designed as a provocation to induce the United States to attack
Muslims worldwide. True Muslims would be willing to fight against the
ahzab (the United States), and many others would eventually join them
either in horror because of atrocities committed by the United States,
or because they were scape-goated by its response to the suicide attack.69
Remembering that jihad is also a form of missionary proclamation for
these radical Muslims, the 11 September attack was also clearly designed
to attract people to convert to Islam.70 Additionally, the action would
have the effect of exposing weakness in the enemy, and providing leadership
by example to those true Muslims fighting the United States and
to those others sympathetic to the idea of fighting but who were overwhelmed
by despair. Possibly the time (11 September) was chosen with
the idea of using the holy months that immediately follow this date
(Rajab, Sha‘ban and Ramadan) with their superior spiritual merit.71
However, as yet, conclusive evidence for this idea is lacking.
Methods of killing are also discussed in “The Last Night.” This issue
is addressed primarily in the third and fourth pages—although there
are references to the necessity to kill people on other pages as well, and
it is clear this was a problematic point for the author. This does not imply
that the author was unwilling to kill; merely that he saw the necessity to
stress the method of killing (without causing pain) and the manner in
which one should kill (with correct intention). The murderer is encouraged
not to think of himself during the act of murder, but to focus
completely upon God, and essentially to persuade himself that the act
he is committing is solely for God’s sake.72 Of course, this enables the
person to shut down all critical faculties.
One must also note that the author of “The Last Night” gave a great
deal of thought to the problems and pitfalls likely to occur in this type
of operation. One is group cohesion. This is revealed in the constant
focus upon the ties—first spiritual, but then of blood—which bind the
group together. They are told to display unity and discipline in accordance
with the gravity of their mission and to subordinate their individual
needs to those of the larger group. However, the text of “The Last
Night” does not establish any hierarchy of command, and the frequent
reminders to obey seem to imply that it is possible (or even likely) that
members of the group could disobey and jeopardize the mission.
It is clear that one goal was to ensure that during the period of time
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covered by “The Last Night” the attackers would consider themselves to
be dead. Much of the material about preparing oneself (in terms of cutting
the hair, shaving, putting on cologne, etc.) is designed not with the
purpose of personal grooming, but with the idea of preparing a corpse.
One should note that in Islam, although normally corpses are prepared
after death, the body of a shahid is deemed to have been purified by the
act of martyrdom, and the body is buried in the state in which the person
died. It is probable that the hijackers realized that their bodies
would never be recovered or buried properly, and so made their preparations
prior to their “martyrdom.”73
Additional elements of interest include the strong mystical bent of
the writer, which is revealed by his focus upon the letters of the shahada
(the Muslim confession of faith)—how none of them have diacritical
points, and how this fact enhances the spiritual value of the statement—
is an interesting interlude in the contemplation prescribed for the
attackers at the moments close to death. The attitudes toward the soul
are equally intriguing. It is probable that when the writer speaks of
“spiritually exercising” the soul we are witnessing the inclusion of the
secondary type of jihad, the subordination of one’s lower nature. Thus
the “martyr” is to benefit from both types of jihad at the same time.
In short, this document is a very powerful and sobering one to read,
especially when one considers the enormity of what the hijackers
intended to do. No hint of this aspect of the operation is allowed to
creep into the text—with the exceptions of the references to the possibility
of the necessity to slaughter—and it is striking how the victims are
entirely irrelevant to the entire line of thought. This is especially chilling
as one reads, interspersed with details of how to slaughter innocents,
comments such as to bring a coffee cup or glass of water to ease the
attacker’s last moments. “The Last Night” focuses entirely upon the
needs of the Muslim attackers, and how they will achieve their own personal
spiritual experience of martyrdom without taking into account the
cost exacted from others.
CONCLUSIONS
After confronting the question of suicides and rejecting their connection
with “martyrdom operations” as a result of the difference in
intention and effect, the authors of “Permissibility of Martyrdom
Operations” state that suicide involves only one person, but “martyrdom
operations” involve many:
We have arrived at the conclusion that martyrdom operations are permissible,
and in fact the mujahid [fighter] who is killed in them is better
than one who is killed fighting in the ranks, for there are gradations even
among martyrs, corresponding to their role, action, effort and risk underCook:
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taken. . . . Martyrdom operations should not be carried out unless certain
conditions are met:
1. One’s intention is sincere and pure—to raise the Word of Allah [9:41].
2. One is reasonably sure that the desired effect cannot be achieved by
any other means which would guarantee preservation of his life.
3. One is reasonably sure that loss will be inflicted on the enemy, or that
they will be frightened, or that the Muslims will be emboldened.
4. One should consult with war strategy experts . . . for otherwise he may
upset the [overall] plan and alert the enemy to their presence.74
The writers note that if the first condition is absent, the deed is
worthless—again indicating the importance of “intention.” It is clear
that the reasons given are nothing more than simply saying that whatever
is beneficial to present-day Muslims in their war against unbelievers
is justified—in the opinion of these radical exegetes—because of the
grave situation in which the community finds itself. Once again, it must
be pointed out that this style of reasoning is considerably different from
that of the larger historical tradition of Islam, in which jihad is very
much a regulated type of violence and has rules which cannot simply be
abrogated because of convenience or perceived short- or long-term benefit
to the community.
In addition to these problems, one must note that nowhere in these
documents do the authors confront the most problematic part of “martyrdom
operations”—that they frequently kill (and oftentimes target)
civilians. This fact should result in the invalidation of the entire practice,
but such has not been the case thus far,75 despite a few rulings from religious
authorities in Egypt and Saudi Arabia.76 It is most probable, therefore,
that the force which drives the use of suicide or “martyrdom” as a
weapon is not its basis in Muslim law—which is tenuous at best77—but
the popular support for a type of weapon that is low in cost to the
Muslim community, but entails (oftentimes) great loss to its enemies. It
is for this reason that the issue of the inferiority complex continually
comes up. Since many contemporary radical Muslims see their community
as being essentially powerless, usually referring to themselves as
the mustada‘fun, those thought to be helpless, cf. Qur’an 7:137, 8:26,
28:5,78 they also perceive themselves as truly innocent of all possible
guilt, and even outside any moral or ethical law. Anything they do is by
definition justified, since they are the victims in every case (according to
their own self-perception).79
As previously noted, according to radical interpretations, spiritual
prestige in Islam at the present time flows from those closest to the frontlines
backwards. This attitude has a basis in the Qur’an where it says:
Those believers who stay at home while suffering no injury are not equal
to those who fight for the cause of Allah with their possessions and perNova
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sons. Allah has raised those who fight with their possessions and persons
one degree over those who stay at home; and to each Allah has promised
the fairest good. Yet Allah has granted a great reward to those who fight
and not to those who stay behind. (4:95)
A scholar in Egypt or Saudi Arabia, or any other location in the core
Muslim lands, simply does not have the moral authority that one in
Chechnya or Palestine or Kashmir does.80 When there is a disagreement
among these different scholars, the feeling one gets from contemporary
radical Muslim literature is that the former are viewed as representing
a less valid expression of Islam and more of a collaborationist
type of authority (even though the evidence is that Palestinian religious
authorities are just as much under the thumb of the Palestinian National
Authority as are those religious figures in other Muslim countries;
Chechnya is probably a different matter).81 Part of the attractiveness of
the process of “martyrdom operations” is its inherent selflessness. When
this is juxtaposed with the corrupt and tyrannical nature of much of
Muslim society (including the religious authorities), purification
through self-immolation becomes attractive.82
In addition to these more political factors, there is the personal spiritual
journey of the individual believer. Clearly a number of those who
commit suicide in “martyrdom operations” are pious by nature
(although in their representations of themselves, they may present
themselves as grave sinners); but just as many of the martyrs are probably
marginal figures whose lives have been stained by various sins. It is
only natural for many of these latter Muslims to be attracted by the
fiery purification of the “martyrdom operation.” In Islam, one’s final
actions are the key to the judgment accorded to a person’s entire life.83
Therefore those who have sinned have all the more reason to expiate
their sins by such a finale, especially after the “spin” put on this type of
martyrdom by the likes of Hamud b. ‘Uqla al-Shu‘aybi, Sulayman al‘Alwan
and Salman al-‘Awdah, and other more reputable radical scholars
such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi.84
What ramifications does the extensive use of suicide attacks as a
weapon have on the moral and ethical foundations of Islam in today’s
world? A close identification of Islam with suicide attacks, or even their
extensive glorification such as currently is prevalent in the Muslim
world, would definitely compromise the moral voice of this faith. There
is already a stark incompatibility between protests concerning killing of
innocents by Western armies and legal opinions such as “The Islamic
Ruling with Regard to Killing Women, Children and the Elderly in War”
which permit radical Muslims to kill such non-combatants. There are
also social effects to the lauding of “martyrs,” such as a weakening of the
taboo against committing suicide under other circumstances. Certain
Muslim journals have noticed an upswing in the prevalence of suicides
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in the Muslim world, most likely the result of the frequent emphasis
given to this subject in the news.85 It will probably be necessary at some
time in the near future for Muslims to disassociate themselves from
those who follow a radical interpretation of jihad, perhaps by declaring
the latter to be non-Muslims. For the present, it remains to be seen
whether “martyrdom operations” as a weapon will be legitimated or
expunged by the larger community of Muslims. This is not a small
choice for Muslims to make, because it is clear that the nature of this
weapon and its effects drive a wedge between Islam and the rest of the
world,86 and also represent a trend of thinking that is reactionary in its
attitude toward widely accepted Islamic teachings as well as toward non-
Muslims.
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Appendix:
Translation of “The Last Night”87
The Last Night88 [Page 1]—He said: one of the Companions said:
the Messenger of God ordered us to recite it previous to a raid, and we
recited it, took booty and were safe.89
1. Mutual swearing of the oath unto death and renewal of [one’s]
intention. *Shave excess hair from the body and apply cologne.
Shower.90
2. Knowing the plan well—all the angles, together with the [likely]
reaction and opposition from the enemy.
3. Reading/recitation of suras al-Tawba [9] and al-Anfal [8], and considering
their meanings together with Paradise that God has promised
to the believers, especially to the martyrs.
4. Reminding the soul of hearing and obedience91 that night [the
“Last Night”] for you will be faced with what will cause it [the soul]
to be less than 100 percent in its hearing and obedience, so spiritually
exercise its purification, understand it, subordinate it and
incite it [to good works] at that time. The Most High said: “And
obey God92 and His Apostle and do not quarrel among yourselves
lest you lose heart and your strength dissipates. And stand fast, for
God is on the side of those who stand fast.” [8:46]
5. Staying the night [praying], pressing onward in prayer, divination
(jafr), strengthening [oneself], [obtaining a] clear victory,93 and
ease of heart that you might not betray us.
6. Much remembrance [of God], and know that the best way of
remembrance is to read/recite the Noble Qur’an—according to
the consensus of the knowledgeable people so far as I know. It is sufficient
that it is the Word of the Creator of heaven and earth—to
whom you are going.
7. Purify your heart94 and cleanse it from all uncleanliness. Forget and
become oblivious to that thing called “this world.” The time for
play is over and the appointed time for seriousness has come. How
much of our lives we have wasted! Is it not [right] that we should
occupy ourselves during these hours with advancing in acts pleasing
to God and obedience?
8. Let your breast be open, tranquil to the bounty of God because it is
only a few minutes before the happy, satisfying life and the eternal
Paradise begins in the company of the prophets, the upright people,
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the martyrs and the righteous, may God have mercy on all of them.
We ask God of His bounty. Be optimistic, because [Muhammad]
“loved optimism (fa’l) in everything he did.”95
9. You should consider how—if you fall into temptation—you will be
able to resist, remain steadfast and recover. You know that whatever
happens to you would never detract from your [spiritual level] and
whatever would detract from you would never happen to you. This
is nothing but God’s test in order to raise the level [of your martyrdom]
and to expiate your sins. You can be certain there are only
minutes left until the merit will be clear—with God’s permission—
of that great reward from God. The Most High said: “Or did you
suppose that you will enter Paradise, before God has known who
were those of you who have struggled, and those who were steadfast.”
[3:142]
10. Remember the Word of God Most High: “You were yearning for
death before you actually met it. Now you have seen it and you are
beholding it.” [3:143] And also remember: “How many a small band
has defeated a large one by God’s leave [God is with the steadfast].”96
[2:249] And His Word Most High: “If God supports you, no
one will overcome you; but if He forsakes you, then who will be able
to support you after Him? And in God let the believers put their
trust!” [3:160]
11. Remind yourself of the prayers—and [those] of your brothers—
and contemplate their meanings (morning and evening devotionals,
[the devotional of entering] the town, the devotional of traveling,
and the devotional of meeting the enemy [in battle]).97
12. The expectoration (from the soul, into a siphon;98 and the clothes,
the knife, your personal belongings, your ID, your passport and all
of your papers).
13. Check your weapon before you leave and again before you leave.
“Sharpen your knives so as not to cause pain to your sacrifice.”99
14. Tighten your clothing tightly around you. This is the way of the
pious forefathers. They would tighten their clothing around them
previous to a battle. Tighten your shoes well. Wear socks so that your
feet will fit in the shoes and not come out. All of these things are circumstances
of this present [world]. God suffices for us, and what a
Guardian!
15. Pray the morning [prayer] in a group, and meditate on its merit.
Repeat the devotionals after it [the prayer], and do not leave your
apartment without performing the ritual ablutions.
Continue to pray [. . . . ]100 Read His Word: “Did you, then, think that We
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created you in vain and that unto Us you will not be returned?”
[23:115] surat al-mu’minun101
THEN YOU BEGIN THE SECOND PHASE
[Page 2] When the taxi is taking you to the a[irport], then recite the
devotional of travel, the devotional of [entering a] town, the devotional
of praise and other devotionals.
When you have arrived and you see the a[irport] and have gotten
out of the taxi, then say the prayer of shelter; every place you go say the
prayer of shelter in it. Smile and be tranquil for this is pleasing to the
believers. Make sure that no one of whom you are unaware is following
you. Then say the prayer: “God, make me strong through your entire
creation,” and say: “O God, make me sufficient for what You wish,” and
say: “O God, we place you on their [the enemies’] throats, and we take
refuge in You from their evil,”102 and say: “O God, make for us a barrier
before them and one behind them, and then fool them when they are
not looking,” and say “God suffices for us; He is the best Guardian” in
accordance with His Word Most High: “Those to whom the people said:
‘The people have been arrayed against you; so fear them.’ But this
increased their faith and so they said: ‘God is sufficient for us. He is the
best Guardian.’” [3:173]103
Then you when you have said it, you will find matters straightened;
and [God’s] protection will be around you; no power can penetrate that.
[God] has promised His faithful servants who say this prayer that which
follows:
1. [They will] return with grace [from God] and His bounty104
2. Evil will not touch them
3. [They will be in] accordance with the grace of God
The Most High said: “Thus they came back with a grace and bounty
from God. No harm touched them; and they complied with God’s good
pleasure. God’s bounty is great.” [3:174] All of their devices, their [security]
gates,105 and their technology will not save them nor harm [anyone]
without God’s permission.
The believers will not fear it [death]; only the followers of Satan will
fear it—those who at the core are fearful of Satan, and have become his
followers. The servitude belongs to God, for fear is mighty servitude
towards God, [making certain that one is] turned only towards God—
praised is He and Most High—and He alone is worthy of it. Those who
said—fearing to perish—the verses: “That indeed is the Devil frightening
his followers . . .” [3:175] [those] who are impressed by the civilization
of the West, those who have drunk of hell; it has given them to drink
together with cold water (?),106 and they have feared its weak and perishing
abilities: “. . . but do not fear them and fear Me; if you are true
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believers!” [3:175] Fear is inside of God’s followers, but the believers do
not look other than to God, the One and Only, who has everything in
His hand and the power of the people.107 The most certain form of
belief is that God will overturn the guile of those unbelievers, for the
Most High said: “That was done, so that God might foil the machinations
of the unbelievers.” [8:18] Then you must remember the most
important of all the [possible] remembrances, and that is that it must
not be lost upon you to remember the statement “there is no god but
God.”108 For if you said it 1000 times none would be able to outdo it—
even if you were silent[ly praying] or if you were remembering God [out
loud]. Of the greatest [remembrances] are the words of [Muhammad]
“Whoever says: ‘There is no god but God’ truly in his heart will enter paradise.”109
Or as he said with the same meaning: “If the seven heavens and
the seven earths were placed in one palm and ‘there is no god but God’
in another palm then ‘there is no god but God’ would outweigh them
all.”110 You should be able to consider the awesomeness of this statement
when you fight the Confederates (al-ahzab).111
The one who considers it will find that there are no pointed letters—this
is a sign of perfection and completeness, as the pointed words
or letters lessen its power.112 This is made perfect by the repetition of the
word of the unity [of God] with which you affirm to your Lord through
fighting under its banner as did the Messenger of God. It is incumbent
upon Him to raise them [to Paradise] on the Day of Judgment.
[Page 3] And additionally, do not show outward signs of embarrassment
or nervousness, but be joyful and happy, open of heart and
calm because you are going towards God’s welcome and His favor; then
this will be a day—with the permission of God—that you will finish with
the houris (women) in Paradise:
Smiling towards the face of the perished one (dead):
O youth[;] You are coming to the Gardens of Eternity[.]
In other words, you are going towards it [paradise], and saying:
“We are coming towards you!” with remembrance and prayer: “God is
with His servants, the believers, to protect [them], ease [their way],
guide [them] and to make certain of the victory in everything.”
THE THIRD PHASE
When you board the p[lane], the first step you take as you enter
should be to give the prayer and the supplications. Visualize that this is
“going out in the morning” in the path of [God] as [Muhammad] said:
“Going out in the morning and coming back in the evening in the path
of God are better than this world and all that is in it”113 or whatever he
would say. When you place your foot into the p[lane] and take your seat,
then say the devotionals, and give the prayers as a good deed to God as
we have mentioned previously. Then stay occupied with the rememNova
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brance of God—maximizing it. The Most High said: “O believers,if you
encounter an enemy host, stand fast and remember God frequently, that
perchance you may prosper.” [8:45] Then when the p[lane] starts to
move toward lift-off, and it begins to advance f[orward?],114 say the
prayer of the traveler, because you are traveling towards God Most
High—and how blessed is this journey!
Then you will find it stop and then take off.115 This is the time of the
meeting of the two groups,116 and so pray to God Most High as the Most
High mentioned in His Book: “Lord, fill us with forbearance, enable us
to stand fast, and help us against the unbelievers,” [2:250]117 and His
Word: “Their only words were: ‘Lord, forgive us our sins and our excess
in our affairs. Make firm our feet and grant us victory over the unbelieving
people,’” [3:147] and the word of His Prophet: “O God, Revealer
of the Book, Mover of the clouds, defeater of the Confederates (ahzab);
defeat them and grant us victory over them. O God, defeat them and
shake them!”118 Pray for victory for yourself and all of your brothers, and
that they might strike their targets. Do not be afraid to ask God that He
would grant you [the rank of] martyr, as you advance without retreating,
patient and hoping for God’s reward.
Then each one of you should prepare to fulfill his part together with
the one with whom God is satisfied, and to clench his teeth just as the
pious forefathers did previous to entering into battle.119
At the beginning of the confrontation, strike in the manner of
champions who are not desirous of returning to this world, and shout:
Allahu akbar! (God is great!), for this shout causes fear to enter into the
hearts of the unbelievers. The Most High said: “[And when your Lord
revealed to the angels: ‘I am with you; so support those who believe. I
will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieve.] So strike upon
the necks and strike every fingertip of theirs.’” [8:12] You should know
that the Gardens [of Paradise] have been decorated for you in the most
beautiful way, and that the houris are calling to you: “O friend of God,
come,” after dressing in their most beautiful clothing.
When God requires one of you to slaughter, go to it as if [the order]
came from their father and mother for it is necessary for you. Do not dispute,
but listen and obey. When you have slaughtered, loot those whom
you have killed—for this is one of the Ways (sunna) of the Chosen One
[Muhammad]. But he made this conditional upon being certain that no
one would be occupied with looting, and consequently abandon that
which was more important: watching the enemy—whether [they are
occupied with] trickery or attack—this danger is much greater. And if
it is thus that [page 4] they are led according to the necessity of action,
and if the group does the opposite to the action of the individual, then
forbid him because the action [ . . . ]120 the Way [of Muhammad]
(sunna)—and necessity overrides the Way.
Do not take vengeance for yourself, but strike every blow for God
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Most High. This is in accordance with ‘Ali b. Abi Talib121 who fought one
of the unbelievers in [a spirit of] vengeance against the unbeliever and
the latter pressed upon ‘Ali, and he brandished his sword, and then
struck him and then struck [again]. When the battle finished, the
Companions [of the Prophet] asked him about this action—why was it
that he had not struck [back at] this unbeliever, who had struck him and
struck him again. ‘Ali said: “This was because I was afraid that I would
strike him in vengeance for myself, so I lifted my sword [only in
defense],” or whatever he said.122 Then when he had summoned [correct]
intention, he went and struck him [the unbeliever], killing him.
“All of this was my religion123 in the hands of God, seeking to do well to
myself before God, so that this action would be for the sake of God
alone.”
Then follow the law regarding prisoners and pay very close attention
to them, fighting them as the Most High said: “It is not up to any
prophet to take captives except after too much blood is shed in the land.
You desire the fleeting goods of this world, but God desires the
Hereafter, and God is Mighty, Wise.” [8:67]124
When everything is finished according to what is planned complete
that which you have begun, striking whoever resists in the c[ockpit]125
or in the p[lane] and the c[abin], remembering that this action is for
God, Exalted and Lifted Up. The brothers should not become gloomy
because of what is imposed upon them, but proclaim good news to
them, calm them, remind them [of God] and give them courage. How
beautiful that the man should read/recite verses from the Qur’an!
According to the Word of the Most High: “So let those who sell the present
life for the life to come fight in the way of God. [Whoever fights in
the way of God and is killed or conquers, We shall accord him a great
reward]” [4:74] and His Word Most High: “And do not think those who
have been killed in the way of God as dead; [they are rather living with
their Lord, well-provided for]” [3:169] and others that are similar, or
declaim them just as the pious forefathers would compose poetry in the
midst of battles to calm their brothers and to cause tranquility and joy
to enter their hearts.126
Do not forget to take from the spoils, even if it is just a coffee cup
or a glass of water for yourself and your brothers to drink so that it is easier
for you, as now the True Promise is near and the hour of victory
comes.
Open your heart and part your breast as a greeting to death in the
path of God; be always remembering [God], and renew your prayer so
that it will be easier to follow just before the [sight of the] goal causes
one to waver and let your last words be: “There is no god but God and
Muhammad is His Messenger.”
After that—if God wills—there will be the meeting [with God] and
the opening into the mercy of God. When you see the masses of the
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unbelievers, remember the Confederates (al-ahzab), whose numbers
were approximately 10,000 thousand fighters127 and how God gave victory
to His servants the believers [Muslims].128 The Most High said:
“When the believers saw the Confederates, they said: ‘This is what God
and His Apostle have promised us, and God and His Apostle are truthful.’
And it only increased them in faith and submission.” [33:22]129
Prayers and peace be upon Muhammad
ENDNOTES
1. “Martyrdom operations” is the common radical Muslim term for suicide
attacks; it is in quotation marks because I do not want to take a stand on the
question of whether people who die during the course of these actions are actually
martyrs or not.
I would like to thank my parents, Dr. W. Robert and Elaine Cook, as well as
Deborah Tor and Jean Rosenfeld for reading this essay and making corrections
and suggestions for improvement. Thanks are also due to my anonymous readers
for helping me to clarify myself in numerous instances. Readers should note
that as a result of frequent suppression of radical websites, some of the citations
given may not be accessible.
2. Although the Isma’ili sect of the Assassins (during the ninth through
twelfth centuries) popularized political assassinations from which the assassin
oftentimes did not survive, this is different from actually committing suicide in
order to achieve the goal of the operation.
3. See Etan Kohlberg, “Martyrdom and Self-Sacrifice in Classical Islam,”
Pe’amim 75 (1998): 5-26 (in Hebrew); and A. J. Wensinck, “The Oriental Doctrine
of the Martyrs,” in Semietische Studien uit de Natalenschap van Prof. A. J.
Wensinck (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1941), 90-113.
4. Suicide is condemned in Qur’an 2:195 and 4:29, and classified as a grave
sin in al-Dhahabi, Kitab al-kaba’ir (Amman: Dar al-Fikr, 1984), 93-95.
5. Fouad Ajami, The Arab Predicament (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1981), 49.
6. See Oliver Roy, Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1986), chapters 11-12.
7. It is unclear precisely who wrote this opinion (although comparison
with the numerous fatwas of Hamud b. Uqla‘ al-Shu‘aybi reveals his influence if
not active participation) and others of its type, other than what is written on the
document: by “a group of scholars from [the Saudi Arabian] Peninsula.” “The
Islamic Ruling on the Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations: Did Hawa
Barayev Commit Suicide or Achieve Martyrdom?” at <http://www.minna.com/
html.articlesmartyrops.htm>, 2, accessed 18 September 2001. For other materials
see Brother Abu Ruqayah, “The Islamic Legitimacy of the ‘Martyrdom Operations,’”
Nida al-Islam 16 (December 1996-January 1997), at <http://www.ict.
org.il/articles/islam1.htm>; and Abdul Rehman al-Makki, “Fidayee Activities in
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Shariah,” Voice of Islam, July 2001, <http://www.markazdawa.org /English/magazines/VOICE/200107/fidayee%20activities.htm>
(these are merely summaries
of the first opinion, however); and see also Part XI of Ayman al-Zawahiri’s
so-called Final Testament available in translation at <http://www.fas.org /irp/
world/para/ayman_bk11>, accessed 8 January 2002.
8. I have chosen to refer to the Muslim groups actively involved in fighting
jihad and working to establish either an Islamic state or a pan-Islamic caliphal
state as “radical Muslims.” See William Shepard, “What Is ‘Islamic Fundamentalism’?”
Studies in Religion 17 (1988): 5-26. These people refer to themselves as
“Muslims,” but a scholar must distinguish between them and the larger Muslim
community. I cannot accept the term “fundamentalist” with regard to Islam, as
Shepard clearly demonstrates the meaninglessness of this word with regard to
Islam. Their writings and actions do emphasize their fixation upon returning to
the root, the beginning of Islam, hence I term them “radical Muslims.”
9. See al-Qaradawi, Khutab al-Shaykh al-Qaradawi (Cairo: Maktabat Wahba,
1998), 208f. for his attitude towards “martyrdom operations”; also his collection
of legal opinions, “Martyrdom Operations Are the Greatest Pictures of Jihad,” at
<http://www.qaradawi.net/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=1461>,
accessed 26 February 2002.
10. Translated by the author in the Appendix.
11. All Qur’anic translations are from Majid Fakhry, The Qur’an: A Contemporary
English Translation (London: Garnet Publications, 1997).
12. See M. J. Kister, “Land, Property and Jihad,” Journal of the Economic and
Social History of the Orient 34 (1991): 270-311; and David Cook, “Muslim Apocalyptic
and Jihad,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 20 (1996): 66-104.
13. Suliman Bashear, “Early Muslim Apocalyptic Materials,” Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society (1991): 173-207; Suliman Bashear, “Muslim Apocalypses and
the Hour: A Case-Study in Traditional Reinterpretation,” Israel Oriental Studies 13
(1993): 75-99.
14. See al-Haythami, al-Zawajir ‘an iktiraf al-kaba’ir (Beirut: Dar al-Ma‘rifa,
1997), 2: 341-43; and al-Dhahabi, Kitab al-kaba’ir, 54.
15. It is a pity that Haykal wrote prior to the time when “martyrdom operations”
came into widespread use among Sunni Muslims; he does not mention
them at all. But he speaks of analogous situations while discussing the possible
use of “weapons of mass destruction” (nuclear, chemical, biological, etc.) and
addresses the question of whether their use is permitted because they are
directed at women and children as well as fighters. He comes to the conclusion
that if it is to the benefit of the Muslims, these weapons can be used. See Jihad
(Beirut: Dar al-Barayiq, 1993), 2: 1343-61.
16. E.g., Ibn Abi al-Dunya, Kitab al-qubur (Beirut: Dar al-Ghuraba’ alAthariyya,
2000); al-Samarqandi, Tanbih al-ghafilin (Cairo: ‘Isa al-Babi, n.d.);
Ibn Rajab, Ahwal al-qubur (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-‘Arabi, 2001). See also
the address by Salman b. Fahd al-‘Awdah, “Death Workmanship,” at <http://
www.azzam /html/articles/workmanship.htm>, accessed 16 February 2002.
17. Compare the 9 October 2001 statement of Sulayman Abu Ghayth (alQa‘ida
spokesperson), in which he said concerning Americans, “there are
among the youth of this community (Islam) thousands desirous of death in the
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same way as the Americans are desirous of life,” <http://www.q8/webland.com
/personal/BuGaith/2.html>. See also al-Qaradawi, al-Sahwa al-Islamiyya (Beirut:
Mu’assasat al-Risala, 1998), 204; and Usama b. Ladin, “Declaration of War
against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places,” Declaration
of War, trans. Abu Umamah (n.p.: Khurasan Publications, n.d.), 16.
18. Al-Bukhari, Sahih (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1991), 3: 267 (no. 2795).
19. Arthur Jeffery, The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur’an, Oriental Series 18
(Baroda: Gaekwar of Baroda, 1938), 187, s.v., shahid.
20. Al-Suyuti, Abwab al-sa‘da fi asbab al-shahada (Cairo: Maktabat al-Qayyim,
1987), 36-37; compare Nasir al-Din al-Albani, “Signs of a Good End,” at <http:
//www.islaam.com>, accessed 4 December 2001.
21. E.g., <http://www.thetruereligion.org/jihad/htm> and <http://www.
thetruereligion.org/terror.htm>; <http://www.al-muslim/reality/faq1_main.
htm>; <http://wwwislamcentral.org/misconceptions/misconceptions/003.
htm>; <http://www.whyislam.org/faqs/q4.htm>; and <http://www.al-islam/alserat/jihad>,
among many examples, accessed 16 February 2002.
22. ‘Abdallah b. al-Mubarak, Kitab al-jihad (Beirut: Dar al-Tali‘a, 1971), 89-
90 (no. 105), cited in the very first paragraph of Usama b. Ladin’s “Declaration
of War against Jews and Crusaders,” al-Quds al-‘Arabi, 23 February 1998; also in
Muhammad ‘Abd al-Salam Faraj, al-Farida al-gha’iba (n.p, n.d.), 6; trans.
Johannes Jansen, The Neglected Duty (New York: Macmillan, 1986), 161; also
trans. Abu Umamah, The Absent Obligation (Birmingham: Maktabat al-Ansar,
2000), 14. (Note that Appendix 1 of The Absent Obligation, 95-99, discusses “martyrdom
operations”—something not envisioned by Faraj in the original text—
and cites in part the text of “Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations.”)
23. Gustave von Grunebaum, Medieval Islam (Chicago: University of
Chicago Publications, 1953), 33-42; Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe
(New York: Norton, 1982), 135-70.
24. Al-Qaradawi, al-Sahwa al-Islamiyya, 147f.; note also Safar al-Hawali’s
“Open Letter to President Bush,” at <http://www.azzam/afghan/html/afghanfatawaopenletter.htm>,
15 October 2001, in which he states, “I write to you as a
member of an oppressed and persecuted community in a condition like that of
Jesus. . . .”
25. ‘Abd al-Akhir Hammad al-Ghanimi, Marahil tashri‘ al-jihad (Amman:
Dar al-Barayiq, 1999), 101, discusses the psychological reasons for “martyrdom
operations.”
26. ‘Abdallah ‘Azzam, “Martyrs: The Building Blocks of Nations,” <http://
www.azzam.com>, 1, accessed 20 November 2001.
27. Yohanan Friedmann, “Islam Is Superior,” Jerusalem Quarterly 11 (1979):
36-42; Faraj in his foundational al-Farida al-gha’iba, 7-8, trans. Jansen, Neglected
Duty, 162-64, also makes this clear. For an English summary of the prophecies,
see Mohammed Azad and Bibi Amina, Islam Will Conquer All Other Religions and
American Power Will Diminish (Brooklyn: Bell Six, 2001), esp. 121f.
28. ‘Abd Rabb al-Rasul Sayyaf (pseudonym), Akhi al-Muslim (Peshawar:
n.p., 1989), 16-17.
29. The phrase al-rum dhat al-qurun was probably chosen because of its assonance,
and later interpreted with the image of a many-headed hydra in mind.
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30. Although one must admit this is the meaning of al-ruwayjil al-usaywid,
it is apparent that this is supposed to symbolize the Arabs, who did not usually
portray themselves in these terms.
31. Al-Tabarani, Musnad al-Shamiyyin (Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Risala, 1996), 3:
396 (no. 2540); al-Fasawi, al-Ma‘rifa wa-l-ta’rikh (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya,
1999), 2: 166-67; Yaqut, Mu’jam al-buldan (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), 3: 314.
32. In classical texts, Ibn Hanbal, Musnad (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), 5:
278; Ibn al-‘Adim, Bughyat al-talib fi ta’rikh Halab (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), 1: 98;
and see Faraj, Farida, 23, trans. Jansen, Neglected Duty, 186; ‘Abdallah ‘Azzam,
Ilhaq bi-l-qafila (Peshawar: Mu’assasat al-Maswadi, 1987), 28, trans. Join the Caravan,
part I (London: Maktabat al-Ansar, n.d.), 15 (also at <http://www.alri-
bat.com/JTC-Part1.htm>).
33. E.g., Sidheeque Veliankode, Doomsday Portents and Prophecies (Toronto:
Al-Attique Publishers, 1995), 251-52; Muhammad ‘Arif, Al-Mahdi and the End of
Time (London: Dar al-Taqwa, 1997), 50-52; compare “The Will of ‘Abdallah
Yusuf ‘Azzam, Who Is Poor to His Lord,” at <http://www.alribat.com /
will_of_abdallah_yusuf_azzam.htm>, 3, accessed 27 September 2001; and “The
Islamic System,” The Islamic Truth, 21 January 2000, 1-2.
34. See Salman al-‘Awdah, “Death Workmanship,” 4.
35. A standard work on the bay‘a in Islam, Mahmud al-Khalidi,al-Bay‘a fi alfikr
al-siyasi al-Islami (Amman: Maktabat al-Risala al-Haditha, 1985), does not
mention this type of oath.
36. See al-Bukhari, Sahih, 4: 10-11 (nos. 2958-62), describing the situation;
Muslim, Sahih (Beirut: Dar Jil, n.d.), 6: 25-27; and al-Nasa’i, Sunan (Beirut: Dar
al-Fikr, n.d.), 7: 141.
37. Faraj, Farida, 27, trans. Jansen, Neglected Duty, 204.
38. One should note that a great many legal rulings about questionable
military practices—the execution of prisoners, torture of prisoners, use of
weapons of mass destruction against civilians, etc.—bear the title, “The Islamic
Ruling Concerning . . . ,” clearly an attempt to arrogate to these groups the title
of “Muslim.”
39. “The Islamic Ruling on the Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations,”
<http://www.minna.com /html/articlesmartyrops.htm>, 2, accessed 18 September
2001.
40. “Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations,” 2; compare al-Qaradawi’s
ruling at <http://www.qaradaw.net/topics/article.asp?cu_no+2&item_no1461&
version=1&template>, 22 April 2001.
41. This verse, which is often quoted in the contemporary jihad literature,
was originally stated in the context of the Qur’anic version of the David versus
Goliath story (see Appendix, “The Last Night,” point number 10).
42. A note states that the original study in Arabic contained forty traditions,
but the translation abbreviated them.
43. It is interesting to note that the one classical example of a “suicide
squad” (shurta li-l-mawt) mentioned in the apocalyptic literature is not adduced
by this legal ruling in support of “martyrdom operations.” See Nu‘aym b. Hammad,
Kitab al-fitan (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1993), 263; ‘Abd al-Razzaq, Musannaf
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(Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami, 1972), 11: 386 (no. 20812); and al-Qurtubi, alTadhkira
li-ahwal al-mawta (Cairo: Dar al-Zahid al-Qudsi, n.d.), 669.
44. For example, this is as far as Faraj, Farida, 45, trans. Jansen, Neglected
Duty, 215-16, goes.
45. “Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations,” 5.
46. Intention is important to all actions in Islam. See Ibn Abi al-Dunya, alIkhlas
wa-l-niyya (Damascus: Dar al-Basha’ir, 1992), 30-76.
47. Al-Bukhari, Sahih, 3: 263 (no. 2783), cited by all of the major collec-
tions.
48. The historical reality was that the early Muslims took the title of “immigrant”
for a considerable time after the conquest of Mecca, because of their
“immigration” to the conquered lands.
49. Al-Mubarak, Kitab al-jihad, 30 (no. 7).
50. “Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations,” 11.
51. Although frequently suicide attackers leave taped messages or notes
behind with either statements for family and/or political testaments, these do
not constitute indication of intention at the moment of death, which is the decisive
point according to the tradition.
52. As al-Ghanimi, Marahil, 106, admits.
53. For example, in a counter-fatwa (against permitting American Muslims
to fight against the Taliban), Salah al-Sawi stated at <http://www.maktabahalsalafiyah.org/English/MilitaryOperations.htm>,
11-12, accessed 30 November
2001:
In the case of killing innocent civilians, one of them [radical Muslims]
may say: We did not intend these people as our targets originally; so
what results as a consequence and without an original intent, then that is
at a [sic] level of forgiven matters . . . and one of them may also say: These
civilians are the financiers of these crimes—that the United States has
committed in its opposition to this Ummah [Muslims]—by what they
pay the United States in taxes.
Additionally, see Hamud b. ‘Uqla al-Shu‘aybi, “Fatwa on Events following
Sept. 11,” where he discusses the necessity for even apparent innocents to die,
at <http://www.azzam /afghan / html /afghanfatawahammoud1.htm>, 2-5,
accessed 30 November 2001.
54. See also Nasra Hassan, “An Arsenal of Believers,” New Yorker (19 November
2001), <http://www.ny-2.live.advance.net>, for a good synopsis of the way
“martyrs” are chosen and how they think.
“The Last Night” document was discovered in Muhammad Atta’s luggage,
which was not placed on the airplane that he hijacked.
55. The Qur’an is divided into two parts: those suras revealed in Mecca
(from approximately 610 to 622), which are usually shorter and apocalyptic in
nature, and those revealed in Medina (622 to 632), which are longer, more legal
and administrative in nature.
56. Much of this exegesis is taken from Sayyid Qutb, Fi Zilal al-Qur’an
(Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq, 1996 reprint), 1: 517-23.
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57. As al-Qaradawi had stated explicitly in his statement on the subject (see
note 40).
58. Al-Bukhari, Sahih, 3: 307 (no. 2933); on this type of ritual curse see Suliman
Bashear, “Qunut in Tafsir and Hadith Literature,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic
and Islam 19 (1995): 36-65.
59. Faraj, Farida, 42, trans. Jansen, Neglected Duty, 210 (according to Faraj,
fighting the ahzab means using stratagems and unusual methods of warfare); in
Abu Umamah’s translation, The Absent Obligation, 11, the entire (much longer)
prayer is cited in the preface.
60. See his “Declaration of War against the United States,” Declaration of
War, 22, among the final prayers and curses.
61. Mohammed Masood Azhar, The Virtues of Jihad (n.p.: Ahle Sunnah Wal
Jama’at, 1996), 122-23, details the significance of this prayer.
62. See Bashir Muhammad ‘Abdallah, Zilzal al-ard al-‘azim (Cairo: n.p.,
1994) for a complete explanation of the Qur’anic references to the United
States.
63. See statement of Ayman al-Zawahiri to the American people on 9 October
2001, <http://www.q8/webland.com/personal/BuGaith/2.html>: “America
has gathered its forces together just as did Quraysh of old, together with their
allies, followers and rabble, against the group of Islam in Medina” (then citing
Qur’an 33:22).
64. Radical Muslims are very conscious of these two types of enemies: see
Safar al-Hawali’s speech, “Infidels Without and Within” (delivered during the
Gulf War), 1991, <http://www.npq.org/issuesv82/p850.html>.
65. Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-nabawiyya (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1981), 3: 229.
66. Many radical Muslims emphasize the “Jewishness” of contemporary
Muslim rulers, so to compare them with the Banu Qurayza and the Banu Nadir
is not illegitimate in their opinion; see Ayman al-Zawahiri’s statement of 9 October
2001; also Salman al-‘Awdah, “Fear of War,” 7 December 2001, at <http://
www.coralweb.net/jihad/html/wtc/salman2.html>.
67. M. J. Kister, “The Massacre of Banu Qurayza,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic
and Islam 8 (1986): 61-96. Radicals frequently refer to apostate (in their
opinion) Muslims as Jews (e.g., President Parviz Musharraf in the news column
of <http://www.azzam.com>, accessed 12 January 2002).
68. Note that according to Muslim accounts, God dispersed the ahzab by
sending a violent wind that caused them to retreat. See Ibn Kathir, al-Bidaya wal-nihaya
(Beirut: Maktabat al-Ma‘arif, n.d.), 4: 114. This could have contributed
to a plan using airplanes.
69. See Ayman al-Zawahiri’s Final Testament at <http://www.fas.org/irp/
world/para/ayman_bk11>.
70. In this context, one should note the “Videotape of Usama b. Ladin”
(transcript by CNN released 13 December 2001) conversing with Khalid alHarbi,
who stated that 11 September made non-Muslims think about “true
Islam” and want to convert. Similarly, when the Prophet Muhammad ordered
assassinations of political opponents (see Uri Rubin, “The Assassination of Ka‘b
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b. al-Ashraf,” Oriens 32 [1990]: 65-71), more people converted to Islam (Ibn
Hisham, Sira, 2: 441, and 3: 313).
71. Note the email posted by M. Muhammad on 10 September 2001,
<http:www.barutiwa.com /tijaniyyah/messages/493>, in which he reminds his
readers that Rajab (starting on 19 September 2001) is the month for prayers
against one’s enemies. Given the fact that the 11 September attacks were moved
up because of complications, it is not impossible that there is significance to the
time of year chosen; on this subject, see M. J. Kister, “Rajab Is the Month of God,”
Israel Oriental Studies 1 (1971): 191-223.
72. Compare Heinrich Himmler’s statements cited in Robert Jay Lifton,
The Nazi Doctors (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 193-213, and especially 434-37.
73. For example, on the news at <http://www.azzam.com> (e.g., 1 January
2002 and 27 March 2002), the bodies of Muslim “martyrs” are frequently characterized
as “sweet-smelling,” while those of their American or Afghan enemies
are said to give off a foul stench.
74. “Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations,” 12.
75. Compare al-Bukhari, Sahih, 4: 26 (nos. 3014-15); Faraj, Farida, 46-47,
trans. Jansen, Neglected Duty, 217; and al-Qaradawi, Mustaqbal al-usuliyya al-Islamiyya
(Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Risala, 2000), 22, in which killing of civilians during jihad is
specifically forbidden, with the contemporary radical Muslim legal opinion by
‘Abdallah ‘Azzam, “The Islamic Ruling with Regards to Killing Women, Children
and the Elderly in War,” <http: // www.islamicawakening.com / Sahar /
Islamic%20Ruling>,and the ruling of Sulayman ‘Alwan on killing Jewish children,
<http://wwwalsalafyoon.com/ SuliemaAlwan/kitalBabyYhood.htm>, accessed 7
March 2002. In both, we find that if such killing benefits Muslims it is permitted.
76. Compare “Confusion over Fatawa on Martyrdom Operations by the
Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia,” <http://www.maktabah.net>, accessed 16 December
2001; and <http://www.asharqalawsat.com /pcdaily/21-04>, with the
fatwa issued by Ibn ‘Uthaymeen which categorically forbids these actions, <http:
//www.thetruereligion.org/suicidebomb.htm>, accessed 16 February 2002.
77. Usama b. Ladin seems to recognize this, as he states in CNN’s “Videotape
of Usama b. Ladin” (released 13 December 2001)—“Those youth who conducted
the operations did not accept any fiqh [law] in the popular terms, but
they accepted the fiqh that the Prophet Muhammad brought.”
78. See Salih al-Sawi, “A Commentary upon the Fatwa Issued concerning
the Permissibility of Muslims Participating in Military Operations against the
Muslims in Afghanistan,” <http://www.maktabah-alsalafiyah.org /English/
MilitaryOperations.htm>, 10 (citing Qur’an 42:41-2); and in Arabic at <http://
www.jehad.net/maqalaat_47.html>, both accessed 30 November 2001.
79. Note how many Muslims in their denial of Muslim involvement in the
11 September 2001 hijackings used the rationale that Muslims could not have
accomplished such an action because they are (supposedly) technologically
incapable. See Cameron Brown, “The Shot Seen around the World: The Middle
East Reacts to September 11,” Middle East Review of International Affairs 5, no.
4 (December 2001): 20-1; also <http://www.coralweb.net/jihad/HTML/wtc/
whobenefits2>, accessed 15 October 2001; and “Bush Doctrine Versus the Spirit
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of Islam,” 5 January 2002, <http://www.khilafah.com/4121/printable.php?Doc-
umentID=3013>.
80. “Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations,” 1.
81. This is based upon the classical material as well; see Michael Bonner,
Aristocratic Violence (New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1996), 1-11; and also
Cook, “Muslim Apocalyptic and Jihad,” 96-104. This is stated outright in <http:
//www.jehad.net.maqalaat_38>, accessed 26 February 2002, citing Ahmad b.
Hanbal and ‘Abdallah b. al-Mubarak.
82. Talib Shaheed, “The Battlefield: The Safest Place on Earth,” <http://
www.alribat.com /TheBattlefield.htm>, accessed 27 September 2001.
83. Al-Bukhari, Sahih, 7: 269-70 (nos. 6606-7).
84. Al-Qaradawi had closely associated himself with legal justifications for
suicide attacks against Israeli targets (see note 40); on 13 September 2001 he
issued a statement condemning “martyrdom operations” against civilians,
“Shaykh Yusuf al-Qaradawi Condemns Attacks against Civilians: Forbidden in
Islam,” <http://www.jannah.org/qaradawi>.
85. Muhammad Tahir, “Suicides and Self-Immolations,” <http://www.mar
kazdawa.org/English/magazines/VOICE/200202/suicide.htm>, accessed 19
February 2002.
86. Ayman al-Zawhiri in his so-called Final Testament at <http://www.asharqalawsat.com>,
13 December 2001, trans. at <http://www.fas.org/irp/world/
para/ayman_bk11.htm>, says that “martyrdom operations” are divisive by nature
and are attempts to introduce clarity in the struggle between good and evil.
87. This text is translated by the author from the reproduction in the New
York Times, 28-29 September 2001, <http://www.nytimes.com/library/national
/092801letter.htm>. I would like to thank Carolynne White for her invaluable
help in reproducing this document.
88. Although this is page one, there is no basmala (“In the Name of God,
the Merciful, the Compassionate”); hence, this is most probably not the beginning
of the document.
89. This tradition is a paraphrase of Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 5: 248-49, 255,
258, and apparently refers to something cited on the previous page (it is also
marked off by a line from the material below it). It is not clear, however, what
“it” is (most probably a sura or a verse, since according to the gender it cannot
be the Qur’an). In this tradition, a person came to the Prophet asking that he
pray to God for martyrdom, but the Prophet only prayed that he be granted
booty and safety.
90. It is clear that this section marked with an asterisk in the text is an afterthought
on the part of the writer.
91. Cf. Qur’an 2:285.
92. Minor modifications have been made to Fakhry’s translation of the
Qur’an cited throughout this translation of “The Last Night.” The writer prefers
to use the name “Allah” for “God”; for the sake of consistency I have used “God”
throughout.
93. Cf. Qur’an 48:1.
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94. This is the first verb in the command form; all the previous points are
introduced by verbal nouns.
95. Cf. Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 2: 332. The word fa’l, here translated as “optimism”
(the way the writer is using it), meant “an omen for good” (divined by various
methods) during the Prophet’s time, so it is rather surprising for someone
knowing the hadith literature to see this tradition cited in this manner; see
Salman al-‘Awdah, “Fear of War,” <http://www.coralweb.net/jihad/html/wtc/
salman2.html>, 7, accessed 15 October 2001.
96. Verse material in brackets is supplied because the text indicates that the
citation was abbreviated, but that the rest of the verse is also meant.
97. All of these devotional prayers are listed in small prayer books well
known to Muslims.
98. For this process, see A. J. Wensinck, Concordance (Leiden: E. J. Brill,
1936-62), s.v., nafth. This expectoration is designed to rid the believer of the
devil’s influence.
99. Muslim, Sahih, 6: 72; Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 4: 123; cited in al-Nawawi,
Forty Hadith, trans. Ezzedin Ibrahim and Denys Johnson-Davies (Cairo: Dar alManar,
1976), 64-65 (no. 17).
100. There is another line that is partially cut off in the reproduction,
which presumably dealt with transportation to the airport.
101. It is curious that the writer of this document would identify this verse
as from surat al-mu’minun (23) as the other verses in the text are not identified.
102. The devotional for when one fears someone.
103. This verse was cited by Sulayman Abu Ghayth in the statement of 9
October 2001, who added, “this is a creedal statement among us and a certainty
we carry in our hearts.”
104. As the verse specifiesthat the servants will “return” from whatever mission
to which they were sent, the logic of citing this idea in a document involving
a “martyrdom operation” is problematic.
105. This is the section designed for passing through the security devices
of the airport.
106. This line is very difficult to read and the translation is conjectural.
Apparently the sense is that they (those who are impressed by the West) think
that they are drinking cold water, but they are really drinking hellfire. This idea
appears in al-Bukhari, Sahih, 4: 173 (no. 3450), where we are told that the
Antichrist will induce his followers to drink hellfire that they think is cold water.
107. Compare Qur’an 4:76.
108. The first half of the shahada.
109. See multiple versions in al-Hindi, Kanz al-‘ummal (Beirut: Mu’assasat
al-Risala, 1987), 1: 48f.
110. I could not find this precise tradition in this version, but the formula
is clear and others of its type exist; cf. al-Isfahani, Hilyat al-awliya (Beirut: Dar alKutub
al-‘Ilmiyya, 1997), 8: 368 (no. 12529); Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 1: 258; and
al-Hindi, Kanz, 6: 133 (no. 15144).
111. The euphemism for the enemy (Americans).
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Nova Religio
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112. An interesting mystical idea that stands out in an otherwise radical
Muslim text.
113. Al-Bukhari, Sahih, 3: 266 (no. 2792), is slightly different. This is one
of the most common traditions about jihad.
114. As simply the letter q is written I assume that stands for qubl or “for-
ward.”
115. Probably what is meant by this statement is the brief stop that an airplane
frequently makes just prior to takeoff.
116. Perhaps this means those of the hijackers who were the leaders (and
ultimately flew the planes) and those who were there for “muscle” (see the
CNN “Videotape of Usama b. Ladin” released 13 December 2001), or perhaps
the two sides, meaning the hijackers and their enemies.
117. It is significant that this prayer in the Qur’an is uttered by those
Israelites who fought with David against Goliath. One cannot help but notice the
parallels between the perceptions of the hijackers fighting against a superior
enemy in a hopeless battle.
118. Al-Bukhari, Sahih, 3: 307 (no. 2933).
119. I cannot find any mention of this practice.
120. Two words are too blurred to read. The context seems to imply that
if an action is taken by a lone individual who departs from the necessity of the
larger group, that action should not be allowed according to the sunna of the
Prophet Muhammad.
121. The cousin, son-in-law and fourth successor to the Prophet Muhammad
(d. 661).
122. Cf. Ibn Kathir, Bidaya, 4: 106-7 (story of the Battle of the Khandaq),
and compare al-Bukhari, Sahih, 4: 201 (no. 3560).
123. It is difficult to know whether to read this as din (religion) or as dayn
(loan); either one would make sense.
124. This verse is one that is used to permit the slaughter of prisoners in
cold blood according to “The Islamic Ruling Concerning the Permissibility of
Executing Enemy Prisoners,” <http://www.azzam.com>, 2, accessed 20 February
2002. What is being said is that there is no religious reason why the prisoners on
board the airplanes cannot be slaughtered.
125. This is conjecture. The letter m here probably stands for muhaddab
(cockpit), but it is impossible to be certain.
126. It is interesting that someone of a radical Muslim bent would mention
poetry, which is usually rejected as lacking in spirituality, but one should note
that the second half of Usama b. Ladin’s 1996 “Declaration of War on the
United States” is filled with poetry, and note the comments of Moulana
Mohammed Masood Azhar, in The Virtues of Jihad, 141-49, where he speaks of the
recitation of poetry as a laudable activity.
127. A considerable exaggeration.
128. Cf. Qur’an 33. This event took place in 626 during the second siege
of Medina by the infidel Quraysh.
129. This verse was cited by Ayman al-Zawahiri in his statement of 9 October
2001.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.