From Space to Time
Temporal Adverbials in the World’s Languages
Martin Haspelmath
LINCOM Studies in Theoretical Linguistics 03
1997
LINCOM EUROPA
München – Newcastle
Contents
Acknowledgments v
Abbreviations vi
1. Introduction 1
1.1. Space and time in language 1
1.2. NP-based time adverbials 3
1.3. Definition of the domain of inquiry 5
1.4. Subsidiary goals of this book 9
1.5. Criteria for isolating the semantic functions 10
1.6. The data: language sample and sources 14
1.7. Theoretical prelude: The relation between space and time 17
1.8. Mapping the spatial axes onto the time line 21
2. Semantic functions of time adverbials 23
2.1. The semantics of time 23
2.2. Simultaneous location 29
2.3. Sequential and sequential-durative location 32
2.4. Temporal distance 35
2.5. Temporal extent 38
3. General issues 43
3.1. Deixis in temporal adverbials 43
3.2. Some additional semantic functions 47
3.2.1. Medial 47
3.2.2. Approximative 48
3.2.3. Perdurative 48
3.2.4. Purposive extent 48
3.2.5. Regular recurrence 50
3.3. Alternatives to NP-based time adverbials 52
4. Sequential location 56
4.1. Anterior/posterior based on spatial front/back 56
4.2. The front/back orientation of the time line 57
4.3. Diachrony and grammaticalization of sequential markers 61
4.4. Further sources of anterior and posterior markers 63
iv Contents
5. Sequential-durative 66
5.1. Allative and ablative sources 66
5.2. ‘Beginning’ and ‘end’ as sources 70
5.3. ‘Since’ from ‘later’ 72
5.4. Deixis in the posterior-durative function 72
5.5. Anterior-durative and anterior-limitative 78
6. Temporal distance 80
6.1. Distance markers based on sequential markers 80
6.2. Other sources of distance markers 86
6.2.1. ‘Pass’/‘exist’ 86
6.2.2. ‘Within’ 89
6.2.3. ‘Back’ 92
6.2.4. ‘Over’ 93
6.2.5. ‘Yet’ 94
6.3. Deictic and non-deictic distance expressions 96
7. Simultaneous location 102
7.1. Introduction 102
7.2. An implicational map for simultaneous location markers 105
7.3. Location in hours 108
7.4. Location in day parts and seasons 110
7.5. Location in days, months, years, and festivals 114
7.6. Zero or minimal marking with certain modifiers 116
8. Temporal extent 120
8.1. Atelic extent 120
8.1.1. Zero or minimal case marking 120
8.1.2. ‘For’ in atelic-extent adverbials 126
8.1.3. Other sources of atelic-extent markers 129
8.2. Telic extent 130
8.3. Distance-posterior 132
8.3.1. Distance-posterior is modeled on posterior-durative 132
8.3.2. Distance-posterior is modeled on atelic extent 133
8.3.3. Distance-posterior based on ‘exist’ 136
9. Conclusion 140
9.1. The metaphor from space to time 140
9.2. Types of temporal expressions 142
9.3. A summary of the spatial sources of temporal markers 144
9.4. Grammaticalization in temporal markers 144
Contents v
9.5. Universals of time in language 145
Appendix: The data 147
References 168
Indexes 176
Acknowledgments
I thank the following colleagues and native speakers for providing relevant
data for this study:
Armenian Stella Gevorkian
Bulgarian Tania Kuteva
Chinese Jinyue Yeh, Stefanie Eschenlohr
Estonian Urmas Sutrop
Finnish Juhani Rudanko
Georgian Mixail Xuskivadze
Hausa Mahamane L. Abdoulaye
Italian Davide Ricca, Sonia Cristofaro
Japanese Kaoru Horie
Korean Shin-Ja Hwang
Latvian Nicole Nau
Persian Mitra Sharifi
Russian Leonid Kulikov, Vladimir Plungian
For useful comments on the manuscript, I am grateful to Nicole Nau (who
provided many pages of detailed remarks – special thanks!), Ekkehard König,
Peter Koch, Bill Croft, and Susanne Michaelis.
The original idea for this study grew out of an informal project of the StuTS
back in 1989, which didn’t get anywhere then, but should at least be mentioned
here.
I dedicate this book to Teresa.
Bamberg, 17 April 1997 Martin Haspelmath
vi Abbreviations
Abbreviations
ABIL abilitative
ABL ablative
ABS absolutive
ACC accusative
ADESS adessive
ALL allative
ANTIC anticausative
AOR aorist
ART article
ATTR attributive marker
AUX auxiliary
CAUSAT causative mood
CONDIT conditional mood
CONV converb
COP copula
DECL declarative
DENOM denominalizer
DEST destinative case
DISTR distributive
DO direct object
DU dual
DUR durative
E example
ELAT elative
ERG ergative
ESS essive
FIN finite
FUT future
GEN genitive
HOD hodiernal
ILL illative
IMPF imperfective
INDEF indefinite
INESS inessive
INSTR instrumental
LOC locative
LSit located situation (§2.1)
NEG negation
NOM nominative
PASS passive
PAST past
PERF perfect
PF(V) perfective
PL plural
POSTR posterior
PRES present
PREV preverb
PRTV partitive
PT particle
PTCP participle
PURP purposive
QSit quantified situation
REM remote
RefT reference time (§2.1)
SG singular
SPEC specific
SS same subject
SUPERDIR superdirective
SUPEREL superelative
SUPERESS superessive
TERM terminative
TNS tense
TOP topic
TRANSL translative case
TU time unit (§2.1)
VERB verbalizer
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1. Space and time in language
Space and time are the two most important basic conceptual domains of human
thinking. Neither space nor time are part of a more basic conceptual domain,
and neither can be reduced to the other. But space and time seem to show a
peculiar relatedness that is perhaps not evident to a naive philosophical
observer: Human languages again and again express temporal and spatial
notions in a similar way, as for instance in E1-3.
E1. a. (orientation) The priest stood before the altar.
b. (sequence) St. Michael's day is before Christmas.
E2. a. (movement) Pepito is going to the village to help his granny.
b. (future) The rain is going to help the farmer.
E3. a. (extreme part) We are still far from the end of the queue.
b. (last moments) You will be tired at the end of the day.
This phenomenon is so widespread in different languages across the world, and
in different parts of the vocabulary, that we have to conclude that space and
time are linked to each other in human thinking as well. One common way of
conceiving of this relationship is by saying that temporal expressions are based
on spatial ones, and that the transfer is a kind of conceptual metaphor (e.g.
LAKOFF & JOHNSON 1980, CLAUDI & HEINE 1986).
That more abstract domains of language (and cognition) may be modeled on
the spatial domain is an old insight, which goes back at least 150 years (see
HJELMSLEV (1935) on the localists of the 19th century), and probably much
further. But it is only fairly recently that linguists have begun the systematic
study of the world's languages in order to verify whether the transfer from
space to time is limited to languages of a particular cultural sphere (Europe) or
a language family (Indo-European), or whether it is a widespread, perhaps
universal phenomenon, found across the globe in languages of diverse families.
2 1. Introduction
Such systematic typological investigations became more urgent when the
old assumption of universality was challenged. In particular, Benjamin Lee
Whorf, the famous student of Hopi and author of the "linguistic relativity
hypothesis", claimed that Hopi (a Uto-Aztecan language of Arizona and New
Mexico) does not show the metaphor from space to time: "The absence of such
metaphor from Hopi speech is striking. Use of space terms when there is no
space involved is NOT THERE – as if on it had been laid the taboo teetotal!"
(WHORF 1956:146).
For the grammatical marking of time on verbs, i.e. the domain of tense and
aspect, there is now a sizable body of cross-linguistic research which shows,
among other things, that the use of spatial periphrastic expressions is by no
means geographically, genetically or typologically limited (cf. ANDERSON 1973,
TRAUGOTT 1974, 1975, 1978, DAHL 1985, BYBEE et al. 1994). Of course, not all
temporal and aspectual expressions are based on spatial ones, but on the basis
of the large-scale cross-linguistic surveys we now have a much clearer picture
of their distribution.
But the use of spatial expressions for temporal notions is even more salient
in temporal adverbials which relate a situation to a reference time expressed by
a noun phrase. In E4-7, some examples from different languages are shown. In
all these cases, a preposition is used both in a spatial and in a temporal sense.
E4. English
a. I visited my uncle in Odessa.
b. I visited my uncle in the spring.
E5. German
a. Annemarie stand vor der Kirche.
'Annemarie stood in front of the church.'
b. Annemarie wurde vor vier Monaten geboren.
'Annemarie was born four months ago.'
E6. Russian
a. Ona snjala šljapu s golovy.
'She took her hat off from her head.'
b. Ona ždet s pervogo dekabrja.
'She has been waiting since December first.'
1.1. Space and time in language 3
E7. Italian
a. Il monastero si trova tra Ivrea e Biella.
'The monastery is between Ivrea and Biella.'
b. Partiremo per Pavia tra dieci mesi.
'We'll leave for Pavia in ten months.'
Such prepositional temporal adverbials have not been investigated systematically
across languages yet. This book is devoted to their study. I examine the
most important grammatical markers expressing such adverbials (i.e.
adpositions and cases) in 53 languages from around the world, hoping to
contribute in this way to the larger problem of the conceptualization of time
through language.
The data confirm the universalist's expectation that spatial expression of
temporal notions is extremely widespread in the world's languages, being
limited neither genetically (e.g. to Indo-European), nor geographically (e.g. to
Europe), nor typologically (e.g to languages with SVO word order). In this
sense, the transfer from space to time can be said to be universal.
1.2. NP-based time adverbials
Not all temporal adverbials based on noun phrases are straightforward
metaphorical extensions from spatial adverbials. This is clear from examples
like E8 from English, where markers are used that have no corresponding use
in spatial expressions: the prepositions after and for, the postposition ago, and
the use of a bare NP (indicated by "Ø" in E8d).
E8. a. After the wedding, the couple went to the Baltic Sea coast for their
honeymoon.
b. Peace was concluded finally three weeks ago.
c. Jacob served his father-in-law Laban for fourteen years.
d. Most trees bear fruit Ø every year.
Nevertheless, such non-spatial markers have been included in this study,
because it is only by way of contrast with non-spatial markers that we can
appreciate the role of spatial markers for temporal adverbials. Similarly, tense
and aspect forms that are not based on spatial metaphor were included in
cross-linguistic studies, because we need those other forms as a background.
4 1. Introduction
Thus, the present book is intended as a study in the tradition of partial
typology, where one limited area of grammar is studied in a large number of
languages with the goal of discovering cross-linguistic generalizations. The
main goal of this work is to assemble cross-linguistic evidence for the
hypothesis that temporal notions are conceptualized in terms of spatial notions,
but in addition I discuss a fair number of additional points that arise in
connection with the data.
As far as I can tell, this book is the first typological study of NP-based time
adverbials.1 As I mentioned above, typological investigations of tense and
aspect have already been undertaken (DAHL 1985, BYBEE et al. 1994), but so far
nobody has looked in detail at grammatical marking of time through noun
phrases. It is perhaps natural that linguists should have focused on the marking
of time on verbs first, because tense and aspect are generally obligatorily
expressed in every sentence and are therefore much more salient than
temporal relations expressed by adverbials.
Furthermore, because of their generally primary nature with respect to
temporal adverbials, spatial adverbials are more salient, and spatial markers
have already been the subject of a systematic typological study (SVOROU 1994).
And finally, another area of grammar that is adjacent to my topic are
temporal adverbial clauses. These have also received considerable attention
from linguists, perhaps because of their greater complexity when compared to
NP-based time adverbials. However, I know of no systematic cross-linguistic
study of temporal clauses, although there are typological treatments of
adverbial clauses in general, including temporal clauses (cf. THOMPSON &
LONGACRE 1985, KORTMANN 1997, HENGEVELD 1997). Thus, NP-based time
adverbials have so far been upstaged by tense and aspect, spatial adverbials
and temporal adverbial clauses, but the program of partial typology will remain
incomplete until all areas of grammar are illuminated by the crosslinguistic
point of view.
The fact that this study is the very first attempt at a typological investigation
of time adverbials expressed by noun phrases also determines some of the
features of the work. First, my goal is a broad survey of the phenomena, not a
detailed examination of particular problems. Thus, I study a fairly wide range
of temporal relations that can be expressed by NP-based adverbials, rather
than focusing on a few select ones. Second, I did not attempt to construct a biasfree
world-wide sample of languages as the data base of my investigation.
1 KUČERA & TRNKA (1975) present a very thorough study of time adverbials in three
languages (Czech, Russian, English), but their main concern is with cooccurrence restrictions
rather than with the typology of form-meaning pairings.
1.2. NP-based time adverbials 5
While representative samples are certainly desirable in principle, they are not
yet a realistic goal for many areas of language structure because there is simply
not enough information available. This is certainly true of NP-based temporal
adverbials: While probably all grammars have something to say on tense,
aspect and spatial adverbial markers, many grammars are very incomplete
with respect to NP-based temporal adverbials. Thus, my generalizations are
based on a sample of fifty-three languages in which all continents are
represented, but which is heavily biased toward European languages. It simply
did not seem reasonable to me to exclude languages about which relevant
information is readily available only in order to have a balanced sample, which
would then have to be much smaller. But of course we have to keep in mind
that from this sample we do not get a picture that faithfully reflects the
situation in the languages of the world. Thus, the present work must be seen as
a first approximation to the typological study of NP-based time adverbials,
which should be followed by a more balanced study that truly reflects the
current linguistic diversity on our planet.
In the remainder of this introductory chapter I will first give a definition of
the subject matter of this study (§1.3), followed by an overview of the secondary
goals that I hope to reach (§1.4). Section 1.5 discusses the criteria for
determining the main semantic sub-types of time adverbials around which the
presentation will be organized, and §1.6 deals with the sources of my data,
especially the sample of fifty-three languages. In §1.7, I discuss a number of
views on the relation between space and time in language that are found in the
literature, and I conclude this chapter with some thoughts about the mapping
of spatial structure onto temporal structure.
1.3. Definition of the domain of inquiry
The domain of inquiry of this book consists of adverbials based on noun
phrases which serve as temporal qualifications of situations.2
As I have argued elsewhere (HASPELMATH 1997), studies in partial typology
must be based on mixed functional-formal definitions, i.e. the phenomena that
are compared across languages are delimited by both functional (or semantic)
and formal conditions.
2 I use the term situation as a cover term for events (actions, processes) and states, following
COMRIE (1985:5), HERWEG (1990:12-13), BYBEE et al. (1994:55). Sometimes the terms action or
event are used, confusingly, for the same purpose. An equally appropriate but clumsier term
would be state-of-affairs.
6 1. Introduction
This view is again confirmed in the present work. It would be quite impossible
to give a purely notional definition of the expressions which fall in the scope of
the investigation. Notionally we are concerned with temporal qualifications of
situations (answering 'when?' questions), in particular expressions that serve to
locate situations in time, expressions that measure the temporal extension of
situations (answering 'how long?' questions), and expressions that indicate the
regular recurrence of situations (answering 'how often?' questions). But it
would hardly make sense to include all expressions in these notional domains
in the cross-linguistic investigation, because the phenomena would be formally
quite heterogeneous. Consider the boldfaced portions in E9a-f, a small selection
of expressions serving to locate situations in time.
E9. a. I visited my uncle in the spring.
b. While the government prepared the attack on Jaffna, the Tamil
Tigers deported the population from the town.
c. Much later he realized that she had been right all along.
d. Coming home, he immediately began to play with the kids.
e. World War II was followed by a 45-year period of "Cold War".
f. The simultaneity of these two conferences makes it impossible for
her to attend both.
As these examples show, temporal location may not only be expressed by NPbased
adverbials (in the spring), but also by tense (E9a), temporal adverbial
clauses (E9b and E9d), adverbials based on adverbs or adjectives (E9c), by verbs
(E9e), and by nouns (E9f).
A typological study of such a diverse set of phenomena would hardly be
fruitful, and has in fact never been undertaken, even by those linguists who
claim that typological studies must be based on purely functional definitions.
Thus, COMRIE's (1985:9) definition of tense as "grammaticalized expression of
location in time" does not correspond to the much narrower set of phenomena
that he goes on to treat in his book, although he adds the non-notional, formal
condition "grammaticalized". Under all reasonable definitions of
"grammaticalized", the preposition in in in the spring, or at the very least the
Latin Ablative case in vere 'in the spring', would qualify as grammaticalized, but
COMRIE does not discuss such expressions in his book on tense. Thus, the
definition must be made more specific, e.g. "grammaticalized expression of
location in time on verbs", or perhaps, if we want to include the nominal tense
that has occasionally been reported, "grammaticalized expression of temporal
location of a situation, marked on the main word expressing this situation".
1.3. Definition of the domain of inquiry 7
Whatever the more precise formulation, it must contain another crucial formal
condition.
The formal condition on the temporal expressions that are in the scope of
this study is that they must be adverbials based on noun phrases. The qualification
"based on noun phrases" excludes adverbial clauses and adverbials
based on adverbs. Adverbial clauses are of course often related to NP-based
adverbials, and in many languages adverbial subordinators and adverbial
adpositions overlap to a large extent. On the basis of English words doing
double duty (e.g. after her arrival/after she arrived), JESPERSEN (1924:89) goes so
far as to deny the theoretical distinction between prepositions and adverbial
conjunctions. But not all languages show the same degree of overlap as English,
and in any case including adverbial conjunctions would have extended the
scope of this work dramatically. In addition, if there is a close parallel between
adverbial adpositions and adverbial subordinators, the subordinators are
generally derived from the adpositions (cf. KORTMANN 1997:§5.2.2), so that it is
easier to exclude subordinators in a study of adpositions than vice versa.
On the other hand, we must exclude adverbials based on adverbs. Adverbs
like English now, then, when?, yesterday, tomorrow, afterwards, Albanian vjet 'last
year', Modern Greek apópse 'this evening', German heuer 'this year' are
common in all languages, and they are probably more frequent in texts than
more complex NP-based adverbials such as three weeks ago or on a Sunday
morning. But since they are essentially indivisible lexical items, they largely fall
outside the scope of grammatical typology.3 Temporal adverbials based on
adjectives (earlier, previously) must also be excluded, but they are not common
anyway.
This leaves us with noun phrases serving as time adverbials, such as every
morning, last Friday, and adpositional phrases, such as in the winter and three
hours ago. The reason why I throw these together into the single category of
"NP-based" adverbials (instead of using the conjunction "adverbial NPs and
PPs") is that there is a continuum from adverbial NPs to adverbial PPs. This
continuum is not visible in a morphologically impoverished language like
English, but many languages have adverbial noun phrases marked by various
oblique cases, e.g. Hungarian kedd-en 'on Tuesday', január-ban 'in January',
kilenc óra-kor 'at nine o'clock'; Korean yelum-ey 'in the summer', welyoil-kkaci
'until Monday', cinan cwu-puthe 'since last week'. Adpositions and case markers
3 Of course, a lexical-typological study of expressions for 'yesterday/today/tomorrow', 'last
year/this year/next year' etc. would be very interesting and might yield implicational
universals such as "If a language has a special adverb for 'last year', it also has a special
adverb for 'last day', i.e. 'yesterday' ". But in this book my topic is grammatical typology.
8 1. Introduction
are on the same synchronic grammaticalization path, and due to the gradience
of grammaticalization there are bound to be unclear cases. The notion of "NPbased
adverbials" has the advantages of being non-disjunctive and
simultaneously avoiding the artificial issue of distinguishing between oblique
NPs and PPs.
After this preliminary discussion, it is now time to give a first list of the
major semantic sub-types of NP-based temporal adverbials, shown in Table 1.
Each of these semantic functions, as I will call them, is discussed in greater
detail from a semantic point of view in chapter 2. For now the English examples
given in the table should be sufficient to make clear what is meant by each of
them. In these examples, the markers of the time adverbials are highlighted by
boldface.
Table 1: The major semantic functions of NP-based time
adverbials
I. Location in time
1. Simultaneous location (ch. 7)
(a) Hour at five o'clock
(b) Day part in the morning, at night
(c) Day on Tuesday, on the first day
(d) Month in February, Ø next month
(e) Season in the summer, Ø last fall
(f) Year in 1962, Ø this year
(g) Festival at Christmas, at Easter, at Passover
2. Sequential location (ch. 4)
(a) Anterior before the meal
(b) Posterior after the war
3. Sequential-durative (ch. 5)
(c) Anterior-durative till midnight
(d) Posterior-durative since the Middle Ages, from now on
4. Temporal distance (ch. 6)
(a) Distance-future (I will return) in three weeks(' time)
(b) Distance-past two hours ago
II. Temporal extent (ch. 8)
(a) Atelic extent for two months
(b) Telic extent (I wrote the letter) in two hours
(c) Distance-posterior (German:) seit drei Jahren
lit. 'since three years ago'
1.5. Criteria for isolating the semantic functions 9
1.4. Subsidiary goals of this book
The formal expression of each of the sixteen semantic functions of Table 1 has
been investigated for the fifty-three languages of the sample, with the purpose
of uncovering generalizations in the data that inform us about the way in
which human language in general, and hence human cognition, structures the
conceptual domain of time. As was made clear at the outset, the results
strongly confirm the initial hypothesis that temporal relations are based on
spatial relations in the large majority of cases. This result is of course what we
expected from the beginning, but along the way quite a few other interesting
observations are made, and a number of subsidiary goals are pursued.
First, we need to determine which temporal relations of NPs are expressed
at all by grammatical means in languages, i.e. which conceptual distinctions are
commonly made in the grammatical sub-system of language (cf. TALMY 1988
for the general research program). As elsewhere in the domain of grammatical
semantics, the list of concepts expressed by grammar is quite limited. Those
distinctions that recur reasonably often have been included in the list of
semantic functions in Table 1, and some further subdivisions are discussed in
later sections (cf. §1.5 for discussion of how these distinctions have been
isolated). There are also some semantic distinctions that have not been included
in my cross-linguistic study but that need to be recognized from the point of
view of universal grammatical semantics; they are mentioned briefly in §3.2.
My second goal is to provide some guidelines for the investigation of NPbased
adverbials in individual languages, especially in newly described languages.
Many fieldworkers have made the experience that a knowledge of the
attested space of variation in other languages is of great help for charting the
grammar and lexicon of a new language. And this is true not just for exotic
languages – even in the study of well-known European languages, a look
across the fence at what other languages do is often helpful for a deeper
understanding of a phenomenon. In order to make such comparison possible, a
first requirement is a terminological grid that can be applied independently of
the language. A complete terminology for time relations of NPs is provided
here for the first time in a theoretical work.4
And third, as in any cross-linguistic work, I have been looking not only for
confirmation of an absolute universal (NP-based temporal adverbials are not
limited genetically, areally or typologically), but also for possible typological
4 A terminological grid is also found in the questionnaire of the COMRIE-SMITH grammars
("Lingua Descriptive Studies"/"Routledge Descriptive Grammars"), and my terms were in
part inspired by it.
10 1. Introduction
connections, i.e. implicational universals. However, there is generally no
connection between the expression of NP-based time adverbials and other
parts of the grammar,5 so there are few concrete results in this respect. Of
course, in languages with grammatical and spatial prepositions, temporal NP
markers will also tend to be prepositions, whereas languages with spatial
postpositions will also have temporal postpositions; languages with rich
morphology are more likely to have a terminative case (rather than an adposition)
than isolating languages; and so on. But these are generalizations that
pertain to the purely formal side of language structure, and a different kind of
study would have to be undertaken to pursue these issues. In this study I will
focus on those generalizations that relate to the temporal meaning of the
markers and constructions in question. Of course, it is theoretically possible that
semantic properties cluster in a way similar to morphosyntactic properties, so
that we could distinguish, say, languages whose temporal relators are
systematically based on spatial relators, wheres this is not the case in another
class of languages (as is implied by WHORF's (1956) hypothesis that Hopi differs
from Standard Average European in this respect, cf. §1.1). However, I have
found no evidence for such a hypothetical semantic typology. Different
semantic functions show a greater or lesser tendency to be based on spatial
terms, but different languages do not.6
1.5. Criteria for isolating the semantic functions
The list in Table 1 contains the major semantic functions of temporal NPs that
recur in languages, and it will be taken as a point of departure for the
organization of this work. Thus, it becomes important to give the criteria which
have guided me in including conceivable semantic distinctions in the domain of
temporal adverbial qualification in this list.
A semantic function has been isolated when there is a significant number of
languages which clearly distinguish this type from related ones in their means
of expression. Thus, the main criterion is a typological one, not a semantic one.
It would be very difficult to base such a list on semantic criteria alone, because
then there would be no way of constraining the possible proliferation of
5 An interesting exception is discussed in §6.1 (E81-87), where word order typology appears to
have an effect on the expression of temporal distance markers.
6 Whorf's claims regarding Hopi time expressions have been refuted in a comprehensive
manner by MALOTKI (1983).
1.5. Criteria for isolating the semantic functions 11
functions. Consider the examples in E10a-d, all of which show the German
preposition vor, governing the Dative case.
E10. a. Die Dinosaurier sind vor der Eiszeit ausgestorben.
'The dinosaurs died out before the ice age.'
b. Vor seinem Tod bat Mitterrand, in Jarnac beerdigt zu werden.
'Before his death Mitterrand asked to be buried in Jarnac.'
c. Rebecca wurde vor Konradin geboren.
'Rebecca was born before Konradin.'
d. Thomas ist vor einem Jahr nach Cambridge gegangen.
'Thomas went to Cambridge a year ago.'
A priori, these four specific uses could be assigned to one, two, three or four
different semantic functions. In fact, I have set up two different semantic
functions for these uses, anterior (E10a-c) and distance-past (E10d). Why are
E10a-c collapsed in one semantic function? From a purely semantic point of
view, E10a and E10b could easily be distinguished: In E10a, the time that has
elapsed between the main event and the ice age is much longer than in E10b, so
one might distinguish a remote anterior from a recent anterior (much like in
the literature on tense, cf. e.g. COMRIE (1985:Ch. 4) on remote past tenses). But
to all appearances, a distinction along these lines is made very rarely in the
world's languages (an example is the Russian distinction between do and pered,
see §4.4). An even more obvious semantic distinction is that between E10a-b
and E10c: In the former, the NP governed by the preposition vor denotes an
event, whereas in the latter, it denotes a person. Thus, vor clearly has a very
different semantic interpretation in E10c, which is best described by a clausal
paraphrase (Rebecca wurde geboren, bevor Konradin geboren wurde). A priori, we
might expect that some languages would have different expressions depending
on this semantic distinction. However, I have not found a good example of
such a distinction. Thus, there is still no reason to set up a separate semantic
function for E10c.
Matters are different with E10d. Again, the NP governed by vor denotes not
an event, but a time span, and the semantic contrast between E10d and E10a-c
is readily felt. Like E10c, E10d can be paraphrased in a way that makes its semantic
structure transparent: Thomas ist ein Jahr vor dem Sprechzeitpunkt nach
Cambridge gegangen 'Thomas went to Cambridge a year before the moment of
speech'. But in contrast to E10c, E10d is expressed by a different marker in
many languages, e.g. in English (ago in E10d, before in E10a-c). There are also
many languages that express E10d in the same way as E10a-c, so German is not
12 1. Introduction
at all exceptional in this regard. Still, the fact that many other languages are like
English means that this semantic distinction is highly relevant for a typological
study and is therefore given the status of a separate semantic function.
The foregoing discussion naturally leads to the question of how to describe
the various uses of this preposition, in terms of homonymy, polysemy or
vagueness. Given the paraphrase relation between the 'before' and 'ago' senses
of vor, we can probably exclude the first option, homonymy – there is little
doubt that 'ago' is semantically related to 'before' (see the discussion in §6.1
below). Polysemy and vagueness are more difficult to distinguish (see, e.g.,
GEERAERTS 1993), but in the light of the discussion above one might be tempted
to propose that the typological criterion of cross-linguistic distinguishability is
also a strong argument for polysemy rather than vagueness at the level of an
individual language. This, however, is clearly not the case, as has been
extensively shown for other grammatical domains. Thus, nobody would say
that the Russian past tense is polysemous rather than vague between the
simple past and the perfect reading just because the perfect meaning is a
semantic function that is widely distinguished in the world's languages. I will
give just two examples from the domain of NP-based time adverbials.
Consider the German sentence in E11, which has two readings, corresponding
to the English sentences in E12a-b (cf. KÖNIG 1974:554 for some discussion).
E11. German
Die Kneipe wird bis zehn Uhr offen sein.
E12. English
a. The pub will be open until ten o'clock.
b. The pub will be open by ten o'clock.
As will be discussed below in §5.5, there are quite a few languages that make
the English distinction between 'until' and 'by', so by the cross-linguistic criterion
there should be two separate semantic functions for these two meanings.
Nevertheless, there are very good reasons for saying that E11 is simply vague
with respect to this distinction, because a semantic analysis that covers both
interpretations is possible. An even clearer example is the following contrast
between English and Finnish:
1.5. Criteria for isolating the semantic functions 13
E13. Finnish
a. helmikuu-ssa b. kevää-llä
February-INESS spring-ADESS
E14. English
a. in February b. in the spring
Finnish uses two different case forms for locating situations in months and in
seasons, and many other languages do the same. Thus, I have distinguished
these two cases as separate semantic functions for my cross-linguistic study. But
it would hardly be satisfactory to say that therefore English in has two different
meanings in E14a-b. Thus, clearly not all languages must make semantic
distinctions that are widely made in the world's languages. As a result, our
cross-linguistic study is of no help in telling polysemy apart from vagueness.
However, cross-linguistic studies do help in distinguishing between
homonymy and polysemy. If two different meanings are expressed by the
same form in many unrelated languages, we can exclude the possibility that
this is due to accidental homonymy (cf. HAIMAN (1974) for an early formulation
of this principle). Consider the German preposition in in E15a-b.
E15. German
a. Das Fest ist im Sommer.
b. Das Fest ist in sechs Monaten.
The interpretation of in is so different in these two cases that it is not obvious
that there is a common element of meaning. But German is paralleled by other
languages, including unrelated ones, in showing the same marker in these two
cases (cf. §6.2.2 below), so the use of in in these two different meanings cannot
be due to an accident. The cross-linguistic facts force us to look harder for a
possible analysis in terms of polysemy. However, it must be admitted that
cross-linguistic replicability is still not a hard and fast proof of polysemy. It
could still be that synchronically speakers no longer perceive a relation that has
existed earlier, and that the cross-linguistic similarities are due to common
diachronic paths. Typological studies can exclude accidents and can
demonstrate the existence of facts that need to be explained, but these facts are
not necessarily synchronic.
14 1. Introduction
Table 2: The languages of the sample of fifty-three languages,
by genetic grouping
INDO-EUROPEAN
GERMANIC German
English
Swedish
ROMANCE French
Italian
Spanish
Romanian
Latin
Haitian Creole
BALTO-SLAVIC Russian
Polish
Croatian/Serbian
Bulgarian
Lithuanian
Latvian
CELTIC Irish
Welsh
GREEK Modern Greek
ALBANIAN Albanian
ARMENIAN Armenian
INDO-IRANIAN Persian
Punjabi
BASQUE Basque
TURKIC Turkish
FINNO-UGRIAN
UGRIAN Hungarian
BALTIC FINNIC Finnish
Estonian
PERMIC Udmurt
NAKH-DAGHESTANIAN
DAGHESTANIAN Lezgian
NAKH Chechen
ABKHAZ-ADYGHEAN Abkhaz
KARTVELIAN Georgian
AFRO-ASIATIC
SEMITIC Hebrew
Arabic
Maltese
CHADIC Hausa
1.6. The data 15
NIGER-CONGO
GRASSFIELDS Babungo
BANTU Swahili
Nkore-Kiga
DRAVIDIAN Kannada
Tamil
SINO-TIBETAN Chinese
KOREAN-JAPANESE Korean
Japanese
MANCHU-TUNGUSIC Nanay
AUSTRONESIAN
SUNDIC Indonesian
PHILIPPINE Tagalog
OCEANIC Maori
EAST NEW GUINEA HIGHLANDS Kobon
ESKIMO-ALEUT Greenlandic
UTO-AZTECAN Hopi
CARIBAN Hixkaryana
ANDEAN Imbabura Quechua
1.6. The data: language sample and sources
In this section I will say a few words about the language sample on which my
observations and generalizations are based, as well as on the sources of my
data. The data themselves are given in the Appendix.
The major criteria for the selection of the languages of the sample were
genetic diversity and availability of data. The latter constraint tends to be very
strong in any typological study, and my study is no exception. The members of
my sample of fifty-three languages are listed in Table 2 on the opposite and this
page.
As can be seen from this Table, the sample is heavily biased toward
European languages. Close to half of the languages, twenty-four, are spoken in
Europe, as against eighteen languages from Asia, four languages from Africa,
five languages from the New World, and two languages from Oceania. This
bias is unavoidable given my aim to investigate the expression of a wide range
of temporal relations. The relevant data are simply not available for many languages
because they are not included in an average reference grammar. In fact,
the only descriptive grammars that I could rely on were the grammars written
16 1. Introduction
according to the Comrie-Smith questionnaire ("Lingua Descriptive
Studies"/"Croom Helm/Routledge Descriptive Grammars"), which contains
detailed questions on the expression of temporal location. The existence of
descriptions in this series accounts for the inclusion of fairly inaccessible
languages such as Abkhaz, Babungo, Nkore-Kiga, Greenlandic, Hixkaryana
and Kobon in my sample.
Given this bias of the sample, it is clear that quantitative statements should
be treated with great caution – a sample that is as little representative of the
world's languages as this one simply does not allow such extrapolations. But on
the other hand, the sample contains languages from most major regions of the
world (an exception being Australia), and within each continent the genetic
spread is considerable. For instance, the fifteen Asian languages represent
eleven unrelated families, and none of the five New World languages is
genetically or areally related to any other sample language. Thus, the data used
for this study do give us a good first approximation to the linguistic diversity
found in the world. I hope that the cross-linguistic data discussed in this study
will inspire field workers and researchers of little-known languages to
investigate this little-studied phenomenon in the language of their expertise.
The data assembled here (and presented in list form in the Appendix) come
from three different types of sources: Native-speaker answers of a
questionnaire, published reference material (grammars and dictionaries), and
translations of the New Testament. The first source, native speakers, was
consulted for the following languages (for acknowledgments see the preface):
German, Italian, Russian, Bulgarian, Estonian, Armenian, Georgian, Persian,
Hausa, Chinese, Japanese, Korean.
The second source, reference materials, was used to a greater or lesser extent
for all other languages. Descriptive grammars were an important (and often
the only) source of data for those languages for which grammars of the
Comrie-Smith series are available (for bibliographical references, see the
Appendix): Romanian, Modern Greek, Punjabi, Abkhaz, Arabic, Babungo,
Nkore-Kiga, Maori, Kannada, Greenlandic, Hixkaryana, Basque, Japanese,
Imbabura Quechua, Tamil, Kobon. Just a few other grammars were detailed
enough to yield a substantial amount of the data: QUIRK et al. (1985) for
English, KÜHNER & STEGMANN (1914) for Latin, KING (1993) for Welsh,
BUCHHOLZ & FIEDLER (1987) for Albanian, HASPELMATH (1993) for Lezgian,
SCHACHTER & OTANES (1972) for Tagalog, and of course MALOTKI's (1983)
monographic treatment of time expressions in Hopi. For a number of languages,
dictionaries were an important source of data, especially for
Hungarian, Udmurt, Indonesian, Basque, Nanay, and Chechen.
1.6. The data 17
The most innovative source of data, which has not to my knowledge been
made use of in typological work before, are translations of the New Testament.
This was my most important source of data for the following languages:
Swedish, Latin, Spanish, Lithuanian, Polish, Croatian, Bulgarian, Irish, Modern
Greek, Hungarian, Turkish, Arabic, Maltese, Hebrew, Swahili, Indonesian,
Haitian Creole. All the semantic functions of NP-based adverbials that are
investigated here occur in the New Testament, so it is not difficult to extract the
relevant information from a translation. Of course, occasionally a translation is
not literal so that it does not provide an answer to the question of the
researcher, but this does not create more difficulties than in the case of
published reference materials (even the Comrie-Smith grammars occasionally
disappoint the reader because the authors sometimes misinterpret questions of
the original questionnaire). Perhaps the trickiest problem with older
translations is that they tend to be very literal, and one may suspect that the
text not always reflects the naturally occurring language. However, this
problem is probably not greater than in the case of native speakers who are
asked to translate a sentence into their language. And it is mostly restricted to
older translations of European languages, for which generally other sources of
data are available as well. In modern translations into languages such as
Indonesian and Haitian Creole, I found enough examples of very free
translations to make me confident that the less free examples are not unnatural
in the language.
1.7. Theoretical prelude: The relation between space and time
That the expression of temporal relations is often similar to that of spatial
relations has often been observed. I have not been able to trace the origin of
this observation; it may be that this has been known to linguists and
philosophers for many centuries, or that it is so evident that it has often been
rediscovered independently. In this section I will examine a number of views
from the literature, showing that claims of different degrees of strength have
been made.
The following quotations, more or less randomly selected, are illustrative of
the kinds of views that have been expressed on the relation between temporal
and spatial expressions:
18 1. Introduction
E16. a. MEYER-LÜBKE (1899:492): "Wenn die Sprache zur Darstellung zeitlicher, mehr abstrakter
Verhältnisse sich zumeist der konkreteren örtlichen Anschauungsmittel bedient,...
so sind doch die zeitlichen Beziehungen sehr viel einfacher und weniger
mannigfaltig als die örtlichen..."
b. GAMILLSCHEG (1957:245): "...die Ortsvorstellung [hat] anderen Bestimmungen gegenüber
eine besondere Vordringlichkeit... Auf ihren Bezeichnungen beruhen auch
die temporalen und modalen Entsprechungen. Der Übergang von der Vorstellung
des Ortes zu der der Zeit spielt sich immer wieder von neuem ab."
c. CLARK (1973:48): " For a long time, linguists have noted that the spatial and temporal
terms in English and other related languages overlap considerably."
d. WIERZBICKA (1973:624): "In many, if not all languages, such words as 'before', 'long',
'beginning', 'end' refer to both time and space."
e. LYONS (1977:718): "...the incontrovertible fact that temporal expressions, in many
unrelated languages, are patently derived from locative expressions... The spatialization
of time is so obvious and so pervasive a phenomenon in the grammatical and
lexical structure of so many of the world's languages that it has been frequently
noted..."
f. JACKENDOFF (1983:189): "It has often been noticed that prepositions of time are on
the whole identical to spatial expressions and that temporal PPs are attached to
sentences in the same way as PPs of location."
g. WUNDERLICH (1985:72): "Zeitliche Ausdrücke können oft nach dem Vorbild von
räumlichen gebildet werden."
h. LANGACKER (1987:148): "The fact that we often conceive and speak of time in spatial
terms..."
In these quotations, different degrees of strength can be distinguished. First,
with respect to the nature of the claim (degrees of qualitative strength):
E17. a. Temporal expressions are identical with spatial expressions
(Wierzbicka, Clark, Jackendoff)
b. Temporal expressions are based on spatial expressions
(Meyer-Lübke, Gamillscheg, Lyons, Langacker, Wunderlich)
c. Speakers conceive of time in terms of spatial concepts (Gamillscheg,
Langacker)
In addition, the claims also differ with respect to quantitative strength. Again,
different degrees can be distinguished in the quotations in E16:
1.7. Theoretical prelude 19
E18. The claim in E17 is true
a. for English and other related languages (Clark)
b. (implicitly) more generally than just for the language that is
immediately under discussion (Jackendoff, Langacker)
c. for many languages (Lyons)
d. possibly for all languages (Wierzbicka)
e. for language in general (Meyer-Lübke, Gamillscheg)
The systematic cross-linguistic study of temporal adverbials allows us to
evaluate the impressionistic claims in E18 quite directly, although due to the
bias in my sample the answer will still not be conclusive. The evidence will be
presented throughout the empirical part of this work (chapters 4-8 and the
Appendix), but let me anticipate the main conclusion here: There is little reason
to doubt that the strongest claim E18d is correct, i.e. that all languages have
temporal expressions identical with spatial expressions. However, not all
temporal relations expressed by NP-based time adverbials need be marked by
spatial markers, and some temporal relations even show a preference for nonspatial
markers.
With regard to the claims in E17, the cross-linguistic evidence is also very
important, although it can be used only indirectly to argue for the two stronger
positions. The strongest position E17c, that time is conceptualized in terms of
space, can hardly be proved on the basis of linguistic data alone. Nevertheless,
if 17b is true, i.e. if temporal expressions are (to a significant extent) based on
spatial expressions, then E17c receives support. Conversely, if speakers
conceive of time in term of spatial concepts, then it would not be surprising that
temporal expressions are commonly based on spatial expressions. Since I have
found sufficient support for E17b in my data, I will also assume the correctness
of E17c.
But what does it mean for temporal expressions to be "based on" spatial
expressions, and how can this be observed? The mere identity of related
temporal and spatial markers is not sufficient – this merely amounts to claim
E17a. Of course, E17a follows from E17b: If time adverbials are based on space
adverbials, they will often be formally identical with them, but the reverse is
not true. Space adverbials could also be based on time adverbials, or it could be,
as JACKENDOFF (1983:210) suggests, that the spatial conceptual machinery is not
transferred to the notional domain of time, but that both spatial structure and
temporal structure are instantiations of "an abstract organization that can be
applied with suitable specialization to any field". Thus, the distinction between
E17a and E17b is important. If the stronger E17b can be shown to be correct,
20 1. Introduction
then JACKENDOFF must be wrong and the hypothesis of a conceptual transfer
from space to time (i.e. E17c) is justified.
One kind of formal indication of a "based on" relation would be that
temporal markers are systematically characterized by an additional element
that is absent in spatial markers. This kind of formal asymmetry can be observed,
for instance, in indefinite and interrogative pronouns, as I show in
HASPELMATH (1997). Indefinites and interrogatives may be identical (e.g.
German was 'what; something') or the indefinite may be characterized by an
additional indefiniteness marker (German irgend-was 'something'), but not vice
versa. However, this kind of asymmetrical relation is not found in our current
domain – time expressions are never derived from space expressions by a
special "time marker".
Instead, the "based on" relation must always be understood in terms of
metaphor or conceptual shift: German vor 'before' is based on vor 'in front' in
that the spatial sense of vor is chronologically primary. At some point speakers
decided to use vor 'in front' also in the temporal sense 'before'. Synchronically
there may be no indication of the diachronically asymmetric relation between
the two, but if evidence can be found that temporal marker are often
diachronically secondary with respect to spatial markers, and if that relation is
never the reverse, this constitutes a strong argument for the hypothesis of
conceptual transfer.
The diachronic primariness cannot of course be directly read off from the
synchronic data. However, for quite a few of the languages etymological information
is available, and this consistently points in the same direction. The
details will be provided in the relevant sections.
Although it is widely assumed that humans conceive of time in a way
analogous to space, other views have been expressed. Thus, WIERZBICKA (1973)
proposed that temporal location should be analyzed semantically in terms of
the primitive notions 'world', 'become' and 'part of'.7 Thus, she proposed the
following explications of simultaneous location, anterior and anterior-durative:
E19. a. John played the piano on Monday.
= The world of which John playing the piano was a part was the
world called 'Monday'.
b. Buddha lived before Socrates.
7 In the meantime, the author has abandoned this analysis (cf. WIERZBICKA 1993:453,
GODDARD & WIERZBICKA 1994:45-46). The reason why I discuss her proposal here is that it
helps us see clearly what a possible alternative to the "spatialist" conception of time would be,
even though this conception is apparently uncontroversial nowadays.
1.7. Theoretical prelude 21
= The world of which the living Buddha was a part was a world that
was becoming the world of which the living Buddha was a part.
c. Carmen played until six o' clock.
= The worlds of which the playing Carmen was a part were the
worlds which were becoming the world of six o'clock.
WIERZBICKA contrasts this explication with one proposed by some philosophers
according to which the world is four-dimensional, and a time span can be
thought of as a part of this world. According to this view, things have both
spatial and temporal parts, so that, for instance, a woman would be said to
consist of a a baby, a girl, a young woman and an old woman. WIERZBICKA
correctly observes that "this conception is alien to common intuition" (1973:618),
but the same is true, in my view, of her conception of location in time. We do
not say of particular points or time spans that they are worlds, and we do not
speak of the changing world as a series of successive worlds. In our ordinary
language (and hence conceptualization), the world changes, i.e. its properties
become different, but the world remains the same. Indeed, the very notion of
'becoming', a semantic primitive in WIERZBICKA's theory, seems to be derived
from the notion of movement, judging by the number of cases in which a
'become' verb is derived from a movement verb.8 If WIERZBICKA's hypothesis
were correct, we should expect in addition that at least in some languages the
'before' expression would be based on the expressions for 'world', 'become',
and 'part'. However, I have not come across a single language in which this is
the case.
1.8. Mapping the spatial axes onto the time line
If spatial notions or expressions are carried over to temporal ones, there are a
priori three simple ways of doing this, because corresponding to the single time
line of one-dimensional time there are three axes of three-dimensional space:
the frontal axis (front-back), the vertical axis (up-down), and the lateral axis
(right-left). It has often been observed that it is overwhelmingly the frontal axis
that is used for this purpose. CLARK (1973:49) notes this property of English,
but it is true in general of human languages, as this
8 E.g. English become (cf. come), Polish zostać (cf. stać 'stand'), German werden (cf. Latin vertere
'turn'). For additional cases, cf. MICHAELIS (1997).
22 1. Introduction
study shows. I know of no single example of the use of the lateral axis for
temporal relations (such as 'to the left of Monday' or 'to the right of the discovery
of America'), and the use of the vertical axis is very rare. A well-known
example is the use of 'up' and 'down' in Chinese for 'last' and 'next' (e.g. shàng
'up', shàngnián 'last year', xià 'down; next'). However, I know of no language
whose regular 'before' or 'after' expression is derived from 'above/on top' and
'below/under' (but see BICKEL (1994) on Belhare, a Tibeto-Burman language of
Nepal, where something similar seems to occur). In European languages, the
up-down axis is usually restricted to marginal uses, as in the French cases
discussed by ANSCOMBRE (1993), e.g.
E20. a. Sur ce bon mot, il partit. (sur = 'on')
'After this good word, he left.'
b. Sous le règne de Louis XIV, les arts avaient fleuri. (sous = 'under')
'During the reign of Louis XIV, the arts had flourished.'
The reason why speakers of human languages so consistently choose the
frontal axis for expressing sequential location is of course that the passing of
time is conceived of in the same way as movement through space. In this way
an immediate link with the frontal axis is established, because this axis, too, is
defined with respect to movement. By contrast, the vertical axis is determined
only with respect to gravity on earth, and gravity is effective also if no
movement takes place. Of course, gravity becomes visible especially when
things move toward the earth, but crucially this movement is bounded (falling
things cannot fall further than the ground), whereas the passing of time is
unbounded. The lateral axis is clearly secondary with respect to the frontal axis,
because only objects that have a front-back orientation can be said to have a
right-hand side and a left-hand side. The frontal axis is often defined in terms of
the direction of canonical movement through space,9 so there is a close
association between this axis and movement. Thus, given that the passing of
time is assimilated conceptually to movement through space, the choice of the
frontal axis is well-motivated and well-understood.
9 Cf., e.g., LYONS (1977:691): "[Man] has his principal organs of perception directed towards
the region in front of him; he normally moves in the direction in which he is facing...". Note
that Lyons's first criterion is not as general as the second one because it does not apply to
things that move but do not have organs of perception (e.g. arrows, shooting stars). See also
the definition in FILLMORE (1971). CLARK (1973) defines the frontal axis in terms of the
"canonical encounter" situation, which also has a movement component.
Chapter 2
Semantic functions of time adverbials
In this chapter we look in some detail at the semantic properties of each of the
various temporal qualifications that are the topic of this study. This discussion
of the semantics is intended as a preparation for the presentation of the crosslinguistic
patterns in later chapters. It does not claim to be an independent
contribution to semantic theory. In order to make the chapter maximally
accessible, the presentation will be fairly informal.1 However, I would expect
that the cross-linguistic patterns discovered in this work will eventually be
useful for a deeper understanding of the semantic structures of time adverbials.
Before the individual temporal relations are discussed, I will say a few general
words about the semantics of time.
2.1. The semantics of time
Time is semantically very simple. It can be thought of as a sequence of points
which are located on an imaginary time line (or "time axis"). In contrast to
three-dimensional space, time is one-dimensional and has nothing analogous
to the vertical axis (up-down) or the lateral axis (left-right). In addition, time is
unidirectional in that for two points on the time line that do not coincide (i.e.
are not simultaneous), one is unambiguously earlier and the other is later.
Stretches of time (called time spans in this work) can be evaluated quantitatively,
i.e. as shorter and longer, and they can therefore be measured. Finally, time is
not bounded on either side. This description exhausts the properties of time
itself that are relevant for a linguistic description of temporal notions.
Schematically the properties of time can be represented as in Figure 1.
1 For formalized treatments of the semantics of time and temporal adverbials in the logicalsemantic
tradition, see, e.g., VET (1980), BÄUERLE (1979), HERWEG (1990).
24 2. Semantic functions
Of course, talking about time gets somewhat more complicated and more
interesting because of the way in which positions on the time line are determined
and temporal extent is measured. The purpose for which we need
time in language is to characterize situations, i.e. entities thought of as variable
in time, in terms of their temporal location or extent. Situations can be located
only with respect to other situations, and the temporal extent of situations can
be measured only by comparing it to the extent of other situations.2 Modern
technology has made it possible to measure time in abstract units of
measurement, but even the most sophisticated of measuring methods
ultimately relate situations to other situations (e.g. the regular swinging of a
pendulum, or the oscillations of certain crystals). The main reason why
temporal expressions are often complicated in languages is that the situations
that speakers can conceive of are so diverse with respect to their temporal
structure and can be related temporally to each other in multiple ways.
The most common characterization of situations is with respect to the speech
situation: Many languages have obligatory grammatical markers in every
sentence (i.e., tense) that characterize the situation as occurring in the past
(earlier than the speech situation), in the present (coinciding or overlapping
with the speech situation), or in the future (later than the speech situation).
Since there is such an enormous experiential difference between the past, which
can be remembered in minute detail, and the future, of which only vague
outlines are known to people on earth, one might think that the past and the
future are treated in radically different ways in languages. To be sure, there are
often asymmetries between past and future in linguistic expressions, but on the
whole it is surprising to what a high degree past and future temporal
expressions are symmetrical. The temporal relation of situations to the speech
situation, or time deixis, is more relevant to the study of tense than to the study
of time adverbials, but deixis will play a role at various places in this study. A
general discussion of deictic properties of time adverbial markers can be found
in §3.1.
Temporal characterization is also possible by relating a situation to another
individual situation, e.g. The baby was born before her great-grandfather died, or
2 This is quite evident when temporal adverbial clauses are used, but in all other cases of
temporal characterization reference must be made, however indirectly, to some other situation.
This is not always recognized, cf. HERWEG (1990:16-17): "Während die "eigentlichen"
Zeitadverbiale immer ein Element enthalten, das direkt, d.h. ohne den Umweg über ein
Ereignis, einen Zustand oder einen Prozess, auf eine Zeitspanne oder einen Zeitpunkt
referiert, bestimmen temporale und durative Nebensätze die zeitliche Einordnung bzw.
Dauer der im Hauptsatz eingeführten Situation mit Bezug auf eine andere Situation..." But
there is no "direct" way of locating or measuring time, because the only way of identifying
times is through the situations that take place at them.
2.1. The semantics of time 25
I will be happy as long as you are with me. Individual situations are generally
represented by clauses, so the linguistic expression for this kind of temporal
characterization are usually temporal clauses, which fall outside the scope of
this work. However, in most languages nouns can also be used to denote
situations. In the most common case, deverbal action nouns fulfill this function,
e.g. after my arrival, during the strike of Metro employees, before the birth of Jesus
Christ, etc. There is no clearcut boundary between deverbal action nouns used
in time adverbials and temporal adverbial clauses, because in many languages
subordinate clauses are more or less nominalized, or action nouns have a
number of clausal properties, or both. Thus, while expressions like after my
arrival in a language like English clearly fall in the scope of this work, they are
not prototypical cases.
Many languages also have nouns denoting specific situations that are not
derived from verbs, e.g. war, festival, flood, lunch, ceremony, etc. In the familiar
European languages there is nothing special about these nouns, and in these
languages they are the most typical nouns occurring in NP-based time adverbials.
However, it must be kept in mind that such nouns are in all likelihood
not universal.
The most common type of situation-denoting nouns are undoubtedly nouns
denoting what I call here canonical time periods. The major cyclic events of the
human natural environment on earth have probably always served as the main
means of locating and measuring other situations: in particular, the alternation
of light and dark, changes in the shape of the moon, and changes in the path of
the sun across the sky (accompanied by marked climatic differences). We do
not usually think of days, months and years as events, because we are so used
to these cyclic events that we mostly focus on their function as measuring units.
It appears that all languages have nouns denoting (at least a subset of) these
units of time measurement, and if this is true, then all languages must have NPbased
time adverbials. A true counterexample would be a language that
consistently used expressions like 'when it has gotten light three times' (for 'in
three days' time'), or 'the leaves have fallen seven times since' (for 'seven years
ago'). It could also turn out that there are languages whose speakers do not use
higher numbers and are satisfied with lexical adverbs like 'today', 'yesterday',
'this-month', 'next-year', etc. Such a language would still make use of the
canonical time units, but would not have NP-based adverbials falling under the
definition of my study. I have not found such a language, but I will point out
cases where a grammatical description indicates that an NP-based time
adverbial in our European languages corresponds to something very different
in the languages described (cf. §3.3).
26 2. Semantic functions
In addition to the natural time units, there are culture-bound artificial time
units. In the currently dominating culture, this is the week, as well as finer
subdivisions of the day (hours, minutes, seconds) and larger groupings of years
(decade, century, millennium). But more importantly, the cycles of the year and
the day are naturally divided into qualitatively different periods, the parts of
the day (morning, afternoon, evening, night, dawn, etc.) and the seasons
(minimally summer and winter in regions distant from the equator, often rainy
and dry seasons in regions near the equator). Probably all languages have
expressions locating situations in a part of the day or in a season, but again this
does not necessarily mean that all languages use noun phrases for this purpose.
Since there are very few of these qualitatively different periods and they are
overwhelmingly used for temporal location3, adverbs may well be more
suitable for expressing such qualitative periods than nouns (cf. §7.4). Finally,
some time units located in a particular calendar position have special names,
e.g. months within the yearly cycle (January, February,...), and days within the
weekly cycle (Sunday, Monday,...). Other time units are merely numbered, e.g.
days within the monthly cycle (March 1st, 2nd, etc.), and hours within the daily
cycle (one o'clock, two o'clock, etc.).
Table 3 on the next page lists the major cyclic time periods as used in our
culture (see LEECH (1969: ch. 7), FILLMORE (1971: 28-37) for further discussion).
Three different sub-types of canonical time periods must be distinguished for
the purposes of this study:
(A) time units, such as hour, day, month, year
(B) calendar unit names, such as January and Sunday
(C) qualitative periods, such as spring and morning
3 I.e. expressions such as 'in the winter' are universally much more frequent than expressions
like 'The last winter almost ruined us', or 'Children love the winter'.
2.1. The semantics of time 27
Table 3: The canonical time periods
millennium (= 10 centuries = 1000 years)
century (= 10 decades = 100 years)
decade (= 10 years)
year (≈ 365 days, ≈ 12 months)
seasons: spring, summer, fall, winter
month (≈ 28 days, ≈ 4 weeks)
names of months: January, February, March, April,...
week (= 7 days)
names of days: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday,...
day (= 24 hours)
parts of the day: morning, afternoon, evening, night,...
hours (= 60 minutes)
minute (= 60 seconds)
second (= 1000 milliseconds, etc.)
The time units, which are listed in the left-hand column of Table 3, can be
used both for temporal location ('in the next millennium', 'during the first
seconds after the Big Bang') and for measuring temporal extent ('for nine
months', 'two months ago'). The calendar unit names and the qualitative
periods, listed in the right-hand column of Table 3, can only be used for
temporal location, not for measuring temporal extent ('?*for two
Aprils/winters', '?*five Wednesdays/afternoons ago'). Of course, in order to be
interpretable, the canonical time periods must be related either to the moment
of speech, i.e. must contain a deictic component (e.g. 'this Saturday', 'next year',
'in the last century'), or to some conventional constant temporal reference
point, e.g. Christ's birth, the beginning of a revolution, etc. (see FILLMORE
1971). The relevance of deixis for temporal location will be taken up again in
§3.1.
Before turning to the individual temporal relations, let me briefly explain the
conventions used here for representing these relations in diagrams. I will show
the situation that is characterized by an NP-based time adverbial (the
characterized situation) below the time line, and the situation or time unit with
respect to which the main situation is characterized (the reference time,
abbreviated RefT) is shown directly above the time line. This is exemplified in
28 2. Semantic functions
Figure 2, where the characterized situation is located with respect to the
situation, so it is a located situation, a special case of a characterized situation.4
Figure 2: The baby was born before her great-grandfather died.
Bounded events whose extension is irrelevant in the context are represented by
a simple vertical line, as in Figure 2. Durative situations, i.e. atelic and habitual
situations, are represented by a parallel horizontal line below the main time
line. A vertical line at the boundary of the horizontal line indicates that the
situation or time unit is bounded. When the reference time does not locate, but
measures the time of the characterized situation, it is called quantified situation
here (QSit, another special case of a characterized situation). It is represented as
a parallel horizontal line above the time line, divided into equal portions (the
time unit (TU) is given in parentheses). These conventions are illustrated in
Figures 3 and 4:
Figure 3: I was sick for two months.
Figure 4: Claudia read the book in one day.
Further notational conventions will be explained below.
4 The terms reference time and characterized/located situation are not widely used, but I hope that
they are self-explanatory. My terms are completely analogous to those used in HERSKOVITS
(1986) in a spatial context (reference entity, located entity). SNOOK (1988) uses locating term and
located term, and the Prague Academy grammar of Russian (BARNETOVÁ et al. 1979) uses
vremennyj orientir, a felicitous term whose English translation (roughly, 'temporal orientation
mark') is unfortunately not nearly as elegant.
2.2. Simultaneous location 29
2.2. Simultaneous location
The label 'simultaneous location' refers to markers that locate a situation with
respect to a reference time (i.e. another situation or canonical time period)
which is simultaneous with the situation. In many languages the same markers
are used for this function as for interior spatial location ('in'), but in contrast to
the spatial interior function, the reference time need not properly include the
located situation. This is perhaps the prototypical case, but it is by no means the
only possibility. An example of inclusion is Carsten passed the exam last week,
illustrated in Figure 5 (here and below, S represents the moment of speech):
Figure 5: Carsten passed the exam last week.
Here the located situation is punctual and is therefore included in the reference
time, which is a time span. However, the relation may also be the reverse: The
reference time may be a point in time, and the located situation may be
durative and take up a longer time span. In this case, it would be more
appropriate to say that the located situation includes the reference time. An
example is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: I was asleep at 4.15 a.m., when the earthquake began.
Things get even more complicated when both the located situation and the
reference time are non-punctual. An example of this is given in Figure 7:
Figure 7: Lea was sick last month.
30 2. Semantic functions
This sentence is clearly true if Lea was sick for a period of less than a month
which completely fell into last month (this reading corresponds to proper
inclusion of Figure 5), but it is also true if Lea has been sick for three months
and is still sick, i.e. if the located situation includes the reference time rather
than vice versa. This is indicated by the dots at both ends of the horizontal line
representing the located situation in Figure 7. Thus, the necessary and sufficient
condition for the possibility of using expressions like last month, at 4.15 is that
the located situation and the reference time should overlap, i.e. be (at least
partially) simultaneous. Hence, the term "simultaneous location" seems to be
the best term (cf. COMRIE & SMITH's (1977:32) term "general temporal location",
which is less specific but would also be appropriate).
Simultaneous location is generally marked by the most grammaticalized
locative markers, as is the case in English (in, on, at, Ø). In addition, some
European languages have a preposition corresponding to English during
(French pendant, Italian durante, German während), which emphasizes the
duration of the reference time. During indicates simultaneity with the reference
time like in, on, and at, but it is only appropriate if the reference time has a
certain duration. Thus, it is possible to say I fell asleep during the speech of our
president, but *I had lunch during noon is completely impossible. It is tempting to
distinguish a special semantic function "simultaneous-durative" for during and
its equivalents, perhaps analogous to the posterior-durative ('until') and
anterior-durative ('since') functions. However, this would not be correct: In
contrast to 'until' and 'since', the preposition during does not require that the
located situation be durative.5 Thus, we can say Irene died during the war,
whereas *She died until 1945/since Monday is unacceptable. Conversely, during
cannot be used in all cases in which the reference time is a time span. For
instance, with calendar unit names (??during Monday, ??during December) it is
quite odd. In other cases, the semantic distinction between during and the more
grammaticalized location markers is quite subtle, as the contrasts in E21-22
show.
E21. a. during the vacation b. in the vacation
E22. a. during the 1980s/that year b. in the 1980s/that year
5 As was mentioned in the previous section, I use the term durative for stative, atelic dynamic,
and habitual situations. Thus, durative is not the same as 'having a certain duration' (as in the
terminology of QUIRK et al. (1985:201)). However, my use of durative seems to be close to its
traditional sense.
2.2. Simultaneous location 31
This contrast is not only difficult to describe, it is also difficult to find an
analog of during outside of Standard Average European (i.e. Germanic,
Romance, Slavic). This is the reason why I have not distinguished a separate
semantic function for during. Its special properties can be illuminated by the
cross-linguistic point of view only to a limited extent.
Within the semantic category of simultaneous temporal location, I distinguished
seven special cases, six of which correspond to the most important
canonical time periods of Table 3: (1) hour, (2) part of day, (3) day, (4) month,
(5) season, (6) year. The seventh special case is (7) festival. These are not only
the cases for which it was easiest to get data (in the Comrie-Smith grammars,
there are sections for each of them, and all of them are represented in the New
Testament), but they are also presumably the most frequent cases,6 and are
hence the most likely to show special behavior. Thus, it is unlikely that a
language would use a special adposition or case marker for 'in the third
millennium', different from the marker used in 'in the third century'. Among
these categories, (2)-(6) are unproblematic from a semantic point of view: They
all denote cyclically recurring time spans. Many languages of course make finer
distinctions, which will be discussed when the cross-linguistic data are
presented (Ch. 7).
Somewhat special are the cases of the hour and the festival. The hour is also
a cyclically recurring time span (cf. Table 3), but when it is used for temporal
location, reference is usually made not to this time span, but to the completion
of an hour, i.e. to a point in time. Thus, it is not surprising that location at an
hour is treated in a special way in many languages (§7.3). Festivals are special in
that they typically recur cyclically within the annual cycle, like the seasons, but
they usually occupy only one day or at most a few days.
Summing up, we can represent the semantic function of simultaneous
location schematically as in Figure 8. The black blocks representing the reference
time and the located situation in this Figure are intended to neutralize
the distinction between points and spans of time.
6 The figures from FRANCIS & KUČERA (1982), a frequency dictionary of English, are as
follows: year 1661, day 1077, week 425, month 327, hour 325, minute 242, decade 80, second 57,
millennium 8.
32 2. Semantic functions
Figure 8: Schematic representation of "simultaneous location"
2.3. Sequential and sequential-durative location
In this section, I will discuss four semantic functions in which the located situation
is related to the reference time in that one is earlier and the other is
later, i.e. that they occur in a sequence (hence my general term sequential, which
was suggested to me by TRAUGOTT's (1978:379) sequencing). In the anterior and
posterior functions, nothing more is conveyed: An anterior marker locates the
situation earlier than the reference time, and a posterior marker locates the
situation later than the reference time.7 The semantic relations are thus quite
simple, and examples are shown in Figures 9-10.
Figure 9: Sri Lanka was a happy country before the war.
Figure 10: After Rabin's assassination, Netanyahu was elected prime minister.
As in the case of simultaneous location, the punctual/bounded or durative
nature of the located situation is immaterial.
But there are two related semantic functions with more specific meanings
which require that the located situation be durative: The anterior-durative
('until') and posterior-durative ('since') functions. In addition to specifying a
7 In KORTMANN (1997), the terms anteriority and posteriority are used in the opposite way:
After is said to be a conjunction of anteriority, before is a conjunction of posteriority.
KORTMANN describes the meaning of these conjunctions as follows (1997: 84-85): Anteriority:
'after p, q: p simply precedes q in time'; Posteriority: 'before p, q: p simply follows q in time'.
Thus, for KORTMANN the reference times are before ("anterior") and afterwards ("posterior"),
whereas for me the located situations are before and afterwards. My usage is not only in
conformity with the forms of the markers (in Latin, ante denotes anterior, post denotes
posterior, in my terminology), but also accords with the intuition that markers of time
adverbials serve to characterize situations in terms of reference times, not reference times in
terms of situations.
2.3. Sequential and sequential-durative location 33
relation of sequence, these indicate that the duration of the located situation
overlaps with the reference time. For instance, in E23a the located situation of
Cameron's being in Glasgow is not only characterized as being later than the
reference time February, but also as overlapping with February, i.e. the
sentence would not be true if Cameron's being in Glasgow began only in
March. By contrast, Cameron has been in Glasgow after February would also be
true in this latter case.
E23. a. Cameron has been in Glasgow since February.
b. Henriette worked until the summer.
Analogously, E23b implies that Henriette worked not only before, but also in
the summer. More precisely, it implies at least that Henriette worked at the
beginning of the summer. Whether the reference time is included or not
depends on the context. Thus, in E24a until is more likely to be inclusive, while
in E24b it is more likely to be exclusive.8
E24. a. The student went home on the day before Christmas Eve and stayed there
until New Year's Day.
b. The old regulations will remain in force until July 1st.
The two sentences in E23a-b are depicted in Figures 11-12.9
Figure 11: Cameron has been in Glasgow since February
8 In some languages, the exclusive/inclusive distinction is reflected in the use of different
prepositions. In American English, until/through show this contrast, and in Russian the corresponding
prepositions are do/po:
(i) We camped there from June till September. (inclusive or exlusive)
(ii) We camped there from June through September. (inclusive)
(iii) Ja budu rabotat' tam do sentjabrja. (inclusive or exclusive)
'I'll work there till September.'
(iv) Ja budu rabotat' tam po sentjabr'. (inclusive)
'I'll work there through September.'
9 For more discussion of the semantics of sequential-durative (especially posterior-durative),
see GIAUFRET-COLOMBANI (1989), LYSEBRAATE (1982), SNOOK (1988), MANZOTTI &
RIGAMONTI (1983).
34 2. Semantic functions
Figure 12: Henriette worked until the summer
The semantic functions anterior-durative and posterior-durative are often
characterized in terms of an end point and a beginning point,10 but as SNOOK
(1988:256) points out, the termination of the situation is only an implicature
which can be canceled, e.g. She worked until six o'clock and in fact even longer, or
Bremen has been an important town since the times of the Hanseatic League and even
earlier.
The dual semantic condition of anteriority/posteriority and overlap (i.e.
simultaneity) with the reference time means that the verb of the located situation
cannot be punctual/bounded, but must be durative, because a situation
that is thought of as having no temporal extension cannot both be simultaneous
with and prior/subsequent to a reference time.11
In the case of the posterior-durative function, many languages make an
additional meaning distinction, which relates the located situation also to the
moment of speech. For instance, English since is only appropriate if the located
situation is in the past and overlaps with the moment of speech (or a different
deictic center, as in narration), and thus it can be said to have two deictic
meaning components (past and overlap with the present). If Cameron's stay in
Glasgow extended from February to June and the moment of speech is on
September 28th, one cannot say *Cameron has been/was in Glasgow since
February. Instead, one must say Cameron was in Glasgow from February on.
Similarly, if the moment of speech precedes the located situation, since cannot
be used because it is confined to past situations, independently of whether the
located situation overlaps with the moment of speech. Thus, one cannot say
*Cameron will be in Glasgow since February if the moment of speech is in January,
10 E.g. QUIRK et al. (1985:691) ("terminal point"), BENNETT (1975:119) ("the notion 'end'"),
KORTMANN's (1997:84-85) terms terminus ad quem, terminus a quo; and the case name
terminative (Russian predel'nyj), which is employed, e.g., in Udmurt and in Hungarian gram-
mar.
11 In some languages, a secondary use of a posterior-durative marker is possible in which it
comes close to the simple posterior use (cf. TEN CATE 1989), e.g.
(i) English: Since your last encounter with her she has gotten married.
(ii) German: Seit seiner Heirat haben sie zwei Kinder bekommen.
In these examples, the usual posterior preposition (after/nach) could also have been used
(requiring a change of the tense in English). The semantic distinction in these cases is quite
subtle. I have no data on the extent to which this secondary use occurs cross-linguistically.
2.3. Sequential and sequential-durative location 35
or *Cameron will be in Glasgow since now if the moment of speech is in February.
English must use from (..onward) in these situations.
To sum up, here are the generalized representations of the anterior, posterior,
anterior-durative and posterior-durative functions:
Figure 13: Anterior Figure 14: Posterior
Figure 15: Anterior-durative Figure 16: Posterior-durative
The more specific meaning of English since (which we may call posterior-presentperfect)
can be represented as in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Since (Posterior-present-perfect)
2.4. Temporal distance
In addition to locating situations by marking them as simultaneous with, prior
to or subsequent to other situations, we can locate situations even more
accurately by indicating their temporal distance from a prior or subsequent
reference point. This of course presupposes that temporal distance can be
measured. In almost all cultures counting is used, and we have already seen
that the cyclic time units (day, month, year, etc.) can be used for quantifying
temporal extent. When measuring temporal extent, these units are used
somewhat differently compared to their use in locating situations. When year is
used to locate a situation, it denotes a period with a fixed initial point (January
1st) and a fixed terminal point, i.e. it is used calendrically. Thus, the time
adverbial last year can refer to the day before the moment of speech if spoken
36 2. Semantic functions
on January 1st. By contrast, when used to measure temporal extent, year
denotes a period of 365 days (or 360 days, in the bankers' convention) with no
fixed beginning, i.e. it is used non-calendrically or mensurally (see LEECH
(1969:113ff.) and FILLMORE (1971:31) for discussion of this distinction). Most
time units can be used both calendrically and mensurally, although the
calendric use of the smaller time units (hour, minute, second) is less likely. The
qualitative periods (seasons and parts of the day) and calendar unit names
(Wednesday, March, etc.) cannot of course be used mensurally.
Time units indicating temporal distance may be used alongside with the
regular anterior and posterior markers, as in E25-26(a-b).
E25. Croatian/English
a. A Isus prije vazma na šest dana dodje u Betaniju. (John 12.1)
and Jesus before passover by six days came in Bethany
b. Then Jesus six days before the passover came to Bethany.
E26. Russian/English
a. Čerez pjat' minut posle načala metča sud'ja zabolel.
through ten minutes after beginning match.GEN umpire fell.ill
b. Five minutes after the beginning of the game the umpire fell ill.
The situation in E26 can be represented as in Figure 18:
Figure 18: Five minutes after the beginning of the game the umpire fell ill.
Cross-linguistic variation in the marking of distance expressions in cases like
these is treated briefly in §6.3, but in general my data on this construction are
very scant. Distance expressions of this type are probably very rare in naturally
occurring speech.
But there is a type of distance marking that is much more common and for
which it is not difficult to obtain descriptions: marking of distance from the
moment of speech. Depending on whether the located situation precedes or
follows the moment of speech, I distinguish the two functions distance-past
('ago') and distance-future ('in'). They are illustrated in Figures 19-20:
2.4. Temporal distance 37
Figure 19: Vivaldi lived three centuries ago
Figure 20: The conference will take place in two weeks' time
This is thus another semantic function which crucially involves a deictic
component. It is interesting that in quite a few languages the formal marking of
distance with respect to the moment of speech should be so different from the
marking of distance with respect to an explicitly indicated point of time. The
cross-linguistic marking of the distance functions will be discussed in detail in
chapter 6.
Before leaving temporal distance, I would like to mention another semantic
sub-type, which is similar to the distance-past and distance-future functions, but
in which the deictic center is not the moment of speech. Examples are given in
E27a-b.
E27. a. Next year's elections are scheduled for September 29th. The election
campaign will begin two months before.
b. Our dog fell ill on our wedding day. Three days later she had to
undergo hysterectomy surgery.
In these examples, the distance is measured with respect to a reference point
which is different from the moment of speech. I call these semantic functions
distance-retrospective and distance-prospective, respectively. In English, the
formal marking is different from that of the distance-past/future functions.
Other languages make no such distinction, as will be discussed in greater detail
in §6.3 below.
To sum up, here are the generalized representations of the distance-past and
distance-future functions:
38 2. Semantic functions
Figure 21: distance-past ('ago')
Figure 22: distance-future ('in')
2.5. Temporal extent
Adverbials marking temporal extent are like temporal distance adverbials in
that time is measured, but unlike all the adverbials discussed so far in §2.2-4,
extent adverbials characterize a situation not by locating it in time, but by
indicating its length. This means that only durative situations can be qualified
by an extent adverbial. The most common kind of extent adverbial is the
semantic function that I call atelic extent, i.e. an adverbial that indicates the
length of an atelic situation.12 A typical example is The children watched television
for five hours. This is represented in the diagram in Figure 23:
Figure 23: The children watched television for five hours
As in the case of the anterior-durative and the posterior-durative functions,
there is no entailment that the situation began or ended at a particular time.
12 My terms atelic extent and telic extent are innovations. They have the disadvantage of
suggesting that the extent is telic or atelic, whereas in fact it is the verbal situation that is telic
or atelic. However, I know of no better pair of terms in English. I have encountered the
following terms in the literature:
atelic extent telic extent (this work)
durative adverbial frame adverbial (e.g. PUSTEJOVSKY 1991, HERWEG 1990:37)
Frist-Adverbial (NERBONNE 1985)
Zeitdauer Zeitbedarf (EKKEHARD KÖNIG, p.c.)
Duration-Measuring
Adverbial (VERKUYL 1973:583)
2.5. Temporal extent 39
The beginning and the end can be inferred by implicature, but this implicature
can be canceled, e.g. The children watched television for five hours, and in fact all day.
Another kind of extent adverbial is the semantic function that I call telic
extent, i.e. an adverbial that indicates the length of time that it takes for a telic
situation to be completed. A typical example is Tony painted the picture in five
hours. In contrast to atelic extent adverbials, telic extent adverbials always
characterize a bounded, telic situation, and it makes no sense to say *The
children watched television in three hours, or *I slept in twenty minutes. It is not
easy to specify the difference in the meanings between the two types of extent
adverbials, but the different combinatory possibilities are so salient that the
distinction between telic and atelic extent adverbials has become one of the
most important tests for telicness (VENDLER 1957, DOWTY 1979). The diagrammatic
representation of an telic extent adverbial is thus very similar to that
of atelic extent adverbials:
Figure 24: Tony painted the picture in five hours.
In Figure 24, the boundedness of the situation is indicated by the vertical lines
at both ends of the horizontal line that symbolizes the quantified situation.
Atelic extent adverbials are most often used with stative quantified situations
(e.g. They lived in Harare for five years), and since atelic extent adverbials are
completely impossible here, the two functions are easy to distinguish.
However, telic situations in which atelic-extent adverbials are impossible are
not so easy to find. Thus, in English the choice of the indefinite article makes
E28a acceptable, and in German the object preposition an atelicizes the verbal
situation (cf. E28b).
E28. a. English
Tony painted *the/a picture for five hours.
b. German
Tony malte *das Bild/an dem Bild fünf Stunden lang.
Thus, telic extent adverbials are not easy to recognize when only positive data
are available. Only ungrammatical combinations like *I slept in twenty minutes
can give us certainty that we are dealing with a telic extent adverbial, not an
atelic extent adverbial. Coupled with the lack of data on telic extent adverbials
40 2. Semantic functions
in the Comrie-Smith grammars and their rarity in the New Testament, this
means, unfortunately, that my data on telic extent adverbials are fairly
incomplete.
There is a third type of extent adverbial which I want to discuss here,
although it is actually a mixture of location, distance and extent adverbial. Some
typical examples are given in E29. I call this function distance-posterior, a choice
which will be explained below.
E29. a. (English) Stephen has lived in Hongkong for five years.
b. (German) Stephen lebt seit fünf Jahren in Hongkong.
Stephen lives since five years in Hongkong
c. (Spanish) Stephen vive en Hongkong desdehace cinco años.
Stephen lives in Hongkong since ago five years
d. (Persian) Stephen az panj sâl-e piš dar Hongkong zendegi
Stephen from five year-ATTR ago in Hongkong life
mi-kon-ad.
IMPF-do-3SG
If we just look at English, it appears that nothing special is going on – this is just
a regular atelic extent adverbial combined here with a verb in the present
perfect tense, which yields the meaning that the five-year period in question
extends into the present, i.e. that it began five years before the moment of
speech. The diagrammatic representation is shown in Figure 25:
Figure 25: Stephen has lived in Hongkong for five years.
In German, by contrast, the adverbial seit fünf Jahren looks more like a posterior-durative
adverbial, because it shares the preposition seit ('since') with the
posterior-durative function (cf. seit 1994 'since 1994'). And indeed, Figure 25 is
also basically compatible with the posterior-durative function, and more
particularly with the posterior-present-perfect meaning of English since and
German seit (cf. §2.3, Figure 17). The only difference is that the reference time is
an independently specified point or period in the posterior-durative function,
but a point identified by retrospective distance measurement in the distanceposterior
extent function. Literally E29a could be paraphrased by 'Stephen has
lived in Hongkong since five years ago'. Thus, the distance-posterior function
2.5. Temporal extent 41
can be thought of as a combination of the posterior-durative ('since') function
and the distance-past ('ago') function, which explains my choice of the name
(distance-posterior). Interestingly, there are languages such as Spanish and
Persian, where the overt marking is transparently composed of these two
markers, as shown in E29c-d (desde 'since', hace 'ago'; az 'since', piš 'ago').
One might ask whether the counterpart of the distance-posterior type exists
as well. A priori, we would certainly expect this, because precedence and
subsequence, past and future are typically fairly symmetric in languages. A
"distance-anterior" function would occur in a sentence like 'I will live in this
cheap apartment until in two years'. I know of no language that has a special
marker for this meaning. To express this meaning naturally, English would
again use the simple atelic extent marker (cf. E30a), but so would German (cf.
E30b).
E30. a. (English) I will live in this cheap apartment for two years.
b. (German) Ich werde zwei Jahre lang in dieser billigen Wohnung leben.
The overlap with the moment of speech is not expressed in these sentences, but
it would be possible to make it explicit by adding more in English (two more
years) and noch in German (noch zwei Jahre lang), with a result that would be
parallel to E29a-b for most purposes. However, I do not distinguish a special
"distance-anterior" function because I am not aware that any language deviates
from the pattern in E30a-b in an interesting way in expressing this meaning
(but see §5.5, footnote 5, for two French prepositions with a related meaning).
The three functions atelic extent, telic extent and distance-posterior are
shown in the generalized diagrams on the following page:13
13 For more discussion of the semantics of extent adverbials, see TEN CATE (1984), DEHON
(1993), LENARDUZZI (1993).
42 2. Semantic functions
Figure 26: Atelic extent Figure 27: Telic extent
Figure 28: Distance-posterior
Chapter 3
General issues
In this chapter I will discuss a few further general points: First, I will discuss the
extent to which markers of NP-based time adverbials are deictic (§3.1); second,
I will list a few semantic functions of time adverbials that have not been
included in the cross-linguistic study but that should at least be mentioned
(§3.2); finally, I will discuss a number of languages that do not employ NPbased
time adverbials for some of the semantic functions, resorting to
alternative constructions instead (§3.3).
3.1. Deixis in temporal adverbials
Temporal adverbials often include a deictic meaning component. This is evident
with adverbs like today, yesterday (contrasting with non-deictic or anaphoric on
that day, the day before), but there are non-lexical markers which signal a deictic
distinction, too. In English, the presence or absence of the definite article may
be significant, as pointed out by ALLEN & HILL (1979) (e.g. Two weeks ago Frank
promised to come the/Ø next Monday).
However, in this section I will concentrate on deictic meaning expressed by
the adverbial marker itself. In chapter 2 we saw that among the various
semantic functions of NP-based time adverbials, it is particularly the distance
functions that commonly incorporate a deictic meaning component, i.e. contain
a reference to the moment of speech (cf. ch. 6 for more details). The anterior
and posterior functions are never combined with deictic meaning, as far as I can
determine – i.e. no language has different expressions for 'after the storm'
depending on whether the storm precedes, follows or coincides with the
moment of speech. But we also saw that deixis is often present in the posteriordurative
function, where e.g. English has a contrast between since and from
(...onward), and in the distance-posterior function (cf. §2.3 and §5.4).
The function to be highlighted in this section is the simultaneous location
function and its deictic properties. As a rule, NP-based simultaneous adverbials
are non-deictic, i.e. the forms of 'at five o'clock', 'at Christmas', 'in the morning'
do not depend on the relation between the reference times and the moment of
speech. This contrasts with time adverbs, which are often deictic, e.g.
44 3. General issues
'yesterday', 'tomorrow', 'now', 'soon'. However, there are interesting
exceptions to this generalization.
Four languages of my sample have clear examples of simultaneous location
markers containing a deictic meaning component: Maori, Tagalog, Swedish and
Greenlandic Eskimo. Maori and Tagalog are both Austronesian, so conceivably
these two cases are related (although they are fairly distant from each other,
both genetically and geographically). Maori has different prepositions for past
and future location: i or noo express past simultaneous location, while a or hei
express future simultaneous location. The marker kei is used for both present
and future location. This is illustrated in E31-32.
Maori (BAUER 1993)
E31. a. I te Mane, ka haere atu raatou ki Rotorua. (p. 341)
at.PAST the Monday TNS move away they to Rotorua
'On Monday, they went to Rotorua.'
b. A te Raatapu, ka hoki ia ki te kaainga. (p. 342)
at.FUT the Sunday TNS return s/he to the home
'She will return home on Sunday.'
E32. a. Noo te marama o Mahuru ka mate ia. (p. 342)
at.PAST the month of September TNS die s/he
'She died in the month of September.'
b. Kei te tau 1990, ka tuhi ahau i teetahi pukapuka. (p. 343)
at.PRES the year 1990 TNS write I DO a.SPEC book
'In 1990, I am writing a book.'
c. Kei te haere koe ki hea a te Aranga? (p. 344)
TNS < move you to where at.FUT the Easter
'Where are you going at Easter?'
That temporal prepositions incorporate an element of temporal deixis is
unusual, but Maori has an even more surprising related feature: Its spatial
prepositions, too, have a meaning component of temporal deixis. Past spatial
location is marked by i, present location by kei, and future location is marked
by kei/hei/ko (see BAUER (1993:309-313), where further details are provided).
Clearly, the Maori deictic temporal prepositions are based on the deictic spatial
prepositions. However, this differentiation is found only in non-verbal
sentences where the prepositional phrase is the predicate:
3.1. Deixis 45
E33. a. I te kura ia. 'She was at school.'
at.PAST the school s/he
b. Kei te kura ia. 'She is at school.'
at.PRES the school s/he
c. Kei/Hei/Ko te kura ia. 'She will be at school.'
at.FUT the school s/he
In view of the restriction of this tense variation to non-verbal sentences, one
might suspect that the prepositions in E33 are really locational verbs (i 'was at',
kei 'is at', kei/hei/ko 'will be at').1 The sentences in E31-32 could then perhaps be
regarded as biclausal (E31a: 'It was on Monday, they went to Rotorua').
However, some temporal location markers lack corresponding spatial tensemarked
prepositions (e.g. noo, a). I must leave the deeper analysis of these
fascinating facts to the specialists of Maori.
In Tagalog, the usual locative marker, the preposition sa, is often restricted to
future time reference. When past time reference is intended, the preposition
noong (noon 'then' plus linker -ng) is used:
E34. Tagalog (SCHACHTER & OTANES 1972:440-42)
a. sa Lunes 'on Monday, next Monday'
noong Lunes 'on Monday, last Monday'
b. sa Enero 'in January (of next year)'
noong Enero'in January (of last year)'
c. sa makalawa 'the day after tomorrow'
noong makalawa 'the day before yesterday'
d. sa isang linggo 'next week, in one week (from now)'
noong isang linggo 'last week, one week ago'
This restriction of sa to future time contexts concerns only a sub-class of expressions
for reference times: calendar unit names, makalawa, and expressions
like E34d. With other reference times, sa can also refer to the past, e.g. E35.
E35. Tagalog (SCHACHTER & OTANES 1972:440)
Dumating kami roon sa umaga.
come we there in morning
'We arrived there in the morning.'
1 There is probably also some relation to the system of tense-aspect markers. The particle i
also occurs as a past tense marker.
46 3. General issues
The Swedish deictic component is quite restricted. With days of the week and
seasons, the preposition i 'in' (governing the old genitive in -s) refers to the
past, whereas the preposition på 'on' refers to the future:
E36. Swedish
i måndags 'last Monday' på måndag 'next Monday'
i vintras 'last winter' på vintern 'next winter'
However, with parts of the day i may also refer to the future (but within the
same day), whereas på is used more generally. (Thus, i is similar to English to in
today, tonight.)
E37. i natt 'tonight' på natten 'at night'
i kväll 'this evening' på kvällen 'in the evening'
And finally, in Greenlandic the qualitative periods (parts of the day and
seasons) are used in their base form when the reference is to the past or present
(the demonstrative manna 'this' is added in the latter case), and take the
affix -gu when the reference is to the future:
E38. Greenlandic Eskimo (FORTESCUE 1984:237-40)
a. unnuk unnuk manna unnu-gu
'(earlier) this evening' '(later) this evening' 'this (coming) evening'
b. ualiq uali-ru
'this afternoon' 'this (coming) afternoon'
c. upirnaaq upirnaaq manna upirnaa-ru
'last spring' 'this spring' 'next spring'
In addition, in clausal expressions of temporal relations, the difference between
the Causative mood and the Conditional mood also results in a deictic
distinction:
E39. Greenlandic Eskimo (FORTESCUE 1984:238)
a. ataasi-nngur-mat 'last Monday'
one-become-CAUSAT.3SG
b. marlu-nngur-pat 'on (next) Tuesday'
two-become-CONDIT.3SG
3.1. Deixis 47
These four languages are sufficient to show that temporal location markers
may be associated with a deictic meaning component, although this is not very
common. More cases from different families must be examined before any
cross-linguistic generalizations can be ventured.
3.2. Some additional semantic functions
The semantic functions that were discussed in chapter 2 are the major semantic
distinctions made in NP-based time adverbials, but there are a number of
additional semantic functions that I have not investigated systematically and
that will not play a prominent role in this work. For the sake of completeness, I
mention here some of the distinctions that I have encountered in several
languages and briefly discuss their properties.
3.2.1. Medial
Most languages seem to have a way of locating a situation between two reference
times, e.g. Tuva was an independent nation between 1921 and 1944. Two
further examples are shown in E40a-b.
E40. a. Finnish
joulu-n ja uuden vuode-n välillä
Christmas-GEN and new year between
'between Christmas and the New Year'
b. Japanese
kurisumasu to sinnen no aida-ni
Christmas and New.Year GEN between-DAT
'between Christmas and the New Year'
The spatial concept 'between' is a readily available and unproblematic model
for expressing temporal intervals. I have not come across a language that does
not use its spatial 'between' expression in the temporal sense, so I did not
consider this semantic function sufficiently interesting to warrant a detailed
study.
48 3. General issues
3.2.2. Approximative
Some languages have a special adposition marking approximate simultaneous
location in time. Particularly with times and periods of the day it is often useful
to have such a marker which corresponds to 'near' in the spatial domain.
However, the spatial 'near' is not commonly extended to a temporal sense.
Rather, the spatial concept 'toward, against' is often used in Europe (e.g.
German gegen, Italian verso, French vers, Russian k, Turkish doğru). Another
spatial source is the concept 'around' (Russian okolo, English around). A few
examples are shown in E41-42.
E41. a. German gegen zehn Uhr lit. 'toward ten o'clock'
b. Turkish akşama doğru lit. 'toward evening'
c. Italian verso mezzogiorno lit. 'toward noon'
E42. a. Russian okolo desjati časov lit. 'around ten o'clock'
b. German um die Mittagszeit lit. 'around noon'
3.2.3. Perdurative
Another meaning that is sometimes represented by a special adposition is that
of English throughout, i.e. 'during the whole duration of' (throughout the summer).
In English, the preposition throughout is clearly based on the spatial
throughout (The epidemic spread throughout the country). In Dutch, the preposition
gedurende has this function, but its source is analogous to that of English during,
Italian durante, etc. (Dutch duren 'to last'). According to VERKUYL (1973:584), its
meaning must be described by means of a universal quantifier, like English
throughout: Gedurende de vergadering zat hij te lezen 'Throughout the conference
he sat reading'. Thus, both a spatial and a non-spatial model can give rise to the
perdurative meaning.
3.2.4. Purposive extent
An example of the function that I call purposive extent is They went to Vilnius for
two years. Here the preposition combines with a noun phrase denoting a time
span, but its meaning is not entirely temporal. The sentence can be paraphrased
by 'They went to Vilnius in order to stay there for two years'. Thus, the
meaning of purpose is also a semantic component of for in this function.
Purposive extent adverbials very often occur with verbs of movement, but it is
3.2. Additional semantic functions 49
not possible to say that for x time units generally means 'in order to stay for x
time units'. For instance, E43a-b are unacceptable.
E43. a. *I bought a ticket to Vilnius for two years.
('...in order to stay there for two years')
b. *I sent a letter to Cairo for two weeks.
('in order to spend two weeks there')
I propose the following semantic description of purposive-extent for (x time
units): 'in order to preserve the effect of the action for (x time units)'. Thus, I
borrowed the book for two months means 'I borrowed the book in order to keep
it (=preserve the effect of borrowing) for two months'. In fact, while E43a-b
cannot have the paraphrases given above, they are possible on a different,
though pragmatically unlikely reading: 'I bought a ticket in order to keep it for
two years', and 'I sent a letter to Cairo to remain there for two weeks'.2
It appears to be typical of purposive extent markers that they are based on
purposive markers. This is the case in English, but also in the languages in E44.
E44. a. German
Irgendwann fahren wir für drei Tage nach Hiddensee.
'Some day we'll go to Hiddensee for three days.'
b. Abkhaz (HEWITT 1979:147)3
y˚ә̀-mčәbža ħ˚a s-aa-yt'
two-week say 1SG-come-FIN
'I came for two weeks.'
c. Basque (-rako: Destinative case)
Astebete-rako etorri naiz.
week-DEST come 1SG.ABS.AUX
'I have come for a week.'
d. Finnish (SULKALA & KARJALAINEN 1992:262; -ksi: Translative case)
Marja lähtee vuode-ksi Somalia-an.
Marja go.3SG year-TRANSL Somalia-ILL
'Marja is going to Somalia for a year.'
2 More discussion of the semantics of purposive extent (French pour) is found in
BERTHONNEAU (1991).
3 ħ˚a 'say' occurs elsewhere in purposive function.
50 3. General issues
e. Romanian
A plecat pe o lună.
has left for a month
'He left for a month.'
f. Swedish
Sandra resade bort på några dagar.
Sandra traveled away for some days
'Sandra left for a couple of days.'
g. Latvian (NICOLE NAU, p.c.)
Es uz pāris stund-ām aiz-ie-šu uz bibliotēk-u.
I for couple hour-PL.DAT away-go-FUT.1SG to library-ACC
'I'm going to the library for a couple of hours.'
3.2.5. Regular recurrence
Many languages have a special adposition or case for the canonical time periods
when they qualify a regularly recurring event, e.g. 'every day', 'every Sunday',
'every morning', etc. Some examples are shown in E45-46.
E45. a. Russian (distributive preposition po)
Po subbotam my xodim v kino.
DISTR Saturdays we go to cinema
'On Saturdays we go to the movies.'
b. Swedish (preposition om)
om lördagarna 'on Sundays'
om morgnarna 'in the mornings'
c. Polish (preposition na)
na każdy miesiąc 'every month' (vs. w miesiącu 'in the month')
na każdy sabat 'every Sabbath' (vs. w sabat 'on Sabbath')
d. Tagalog (kung lit. 'when')
kung umaga '(reg.) in the morning' (lit. 'when it's morning')
kung Linggo 'on Sundays' (lit. 'when it's Sunday')
e. Udmurt (distributive postposition byde)
minutly byde 'every minute'
nunally byde 'every day'
f. Hixkaryana (postpositions rye 'uniformly the same', yohI 'regularly')
sekunta rye ho 'on Mondays'
sekunta yohɨ 'regularly on Monday'
3.2. Additional semantic functions 51
E46. a. Turkish (special suffix -leyin)
sabah-leyin '(regularly) in the morning'
akşam-leyin '(regularly) in the evening'
b. Abkhaz (special prefix es-, or Instrumental case -la; HEWITT 1979:146)
es-k'ә̀rsa/k'ә̀rsa-la 'every Christmas'
es-yanàr/yanàr-la 'every January'
c. Greenlandic Eskimo (Prosecutive case -kkut; FORTESCUE 1984:240)
ukiu-kkut '(regularly) in the winter'
ataasinngurni-kkut 'on Mondays'
ullaa-kkut '(regularly) in the morning'
In principle, it should be possible to distinguish between a universal-distributive
meaning, e.g. 'every Sunday', and a meaning that merely involves regular
recurrence but does not require universality, e.g. 'on Sundays'. However, in
practice it is very difficult to keep these two strictly apart.4 The option of using a
universal-distributive quantifier seems to be available in most languages, so I
will not illustrate it further here (see also §7.6, E146, for further examples).
Sometimes the marker used for regular recurrence is used more generally in
the distributive function, e.g. Russian po, Udmurt byde (see HASPELMATH (1995)
for the connection between distributive adpositions and universal quantifiers).
In other cases, the plural of the time unit is sufficient to denote regular
recurrence (of course, this is possible only with calendar unit names and
qualitative periods, not with time units):
E47. a. Basque
asteazken-etan (Wednesday-PL.LOC) 'on Wednesdays'
arratsalde-etan (afternoon-PL.LOC) ' ' (reg.) in the afternoon'
azaro-etan (November-PL.LOC) '(reg.) in November'
b. Maori (BAUER 1993:345)
i ngaa ata i ngaa ahiahi
at the.PL morning at the.PL morning
'(reg.) in the morning' '(reg.) in the evening'
c. Latvian (NICOLE NAU, p.c.)
vakaros (evening.LOC.PL) '(reg.) in the evening'
pirmdienās (Monday.LOC.PL) 'on Mondays'
d. Udmurt
ǯyt-jos-y (evening-PL-ILL) '(reg.) in the evening'
subbota-os-y (Saturday-PL-ILL) 'on Saturdays'
4 In the Comrie-Smith grammars, section 2.1.1.6.2 is entitled "frequentative". The authors of
the grammars give examples glossed sometimes by 'every', sometimes by English plurals.
52 3. General issues
3.3. Alternatives to NP-based time adverbials
There is no denying that there is an ethnocentric bias in the choice of the
semantic functions for this study. Many non-industrialized cultures are not as
obsessed with time as we are, and many languages outside of Europe have
traditionally lacked the rich nomenclature for calendar units and temporal
relations that we find in European languages. Due to the European bias in my
sample, this is not sufficiently reflected in my data, and to make up for this
shortcoming I will use this section to highlight some languages spoken far
away from the centers of Western technology and capitalist economy. In most
cases, the available descriptions of such languages are simply silent about the
more complex temporal units and relations, but some of the Comrie-Smith
grammars explicitly say that certain constructions are not possible. In the
present final subsection of this chapter I will discuss languages in which some of
the core semantic functions cannot be expressed by NP-based time adverbials,
so that they have to resort to alternatives in order to render the same ideas.
I begin with simultaneous temporal location. This is probably the least
problematic temporal relation, and I know of no language that completely
lacks NP-based simultaneous adverbials. However, not all of the canonical time
periods occurring in expressions of simultaneous location are universal.
According to DERBYSHIRE (1979:120-23), Hixkaryana has traditionally lacked
words for 'hour', days of the week, months of the year, and expressions for
particular years, and the concept of specific festivals on certain days or
occasions is a new one. Similarly, speakers of Kobon (a language of Papua New
Guinea, DAVIES 1981:140-45) have not traditionally known hours and weeks,
and the lunar cycle has not been related to the solar cycle, so that months could
not be identified by their position within the year. Not surprisingly, the words
for 'hour' and 'week' are often the youngest words in a language, and were
often borrowed from a dominant culture with more concern for time (e.g.
Chechen saħt, Nkore-Kiga eshaaha, Swahili saa from Arabic saaʕ0at; English hour,
German Uhr from Latin hora, etc.). However, all of these considerations are of
less concern to linguistics than to anthropology, and there is a rich
anthropological literature on time measuring in non-Western cultures (e.g.
HALLOWELL 1939, FETTWEIS 1958, MÜLLER 1962, ALVERSON 1994). Just for
illustration, let me mention a few of the alternatives to precise time-of-day
specifications in non-Western cultures.
3.3. Alternatives to NP-based time adverbials 53
DAVIES (1981) cites a rich array of expressions in Kobon for the time of day,
e.g.
E48. Kobon (DAVIES 1981:141-43)
a. Ram jin parɨk-ab (yad warak-em au-bin)
[earth star cover-PRES.3SG] I stand-SS.1SG come-PERF.1SG
'(I got up) as the stars were disappearing' (4.30-4.00 h)
b. Ram ru-nɨg g-ab
[earth dawn-PURP do-PRES.3SG]
'just before daybreak' (about 5.30 h)
c. Ru mailö l-öp
[dawn daylight put-PERF.3SG]
'at daybreak' (about 6.00 h), etc.
Similarly, SCHAUB (1985) cites a number of expressions from Babungo
(Grassfields Bantu, northwestern Cameroon), e.g.
E49. Babungo (SCHAUB 1985:164)
a. ŋwә́ níi jwì fáŋ vә̀kì fúu bīisә̅
he PAST come.PF [when women go.out.IMPF farm]
'He came at the time when women go to the farm.' (ca. 8-9 h)
b. ŋwә́ níi jwì fáŋ yìzɔ́ kwà fɨ́ bū'tә
he PAST come.PF [when sky release.PF from noon]
'He came when the sky got away from noon.' (ca. 13 h)
c. ŋwә́ níi jwì fáŋ vә̀kì kúunә́ fƗ́ bīisә̅
he PAST come.PF [when women return.IMPF from farm]
'He came at the time when women return from the farm.' (ca. 17 h)
Thus, speakers may be fairly specific about the time of the day even if no clock
technology is available to them. However, since all these expressions are
adverbial clauses rather than NP-based adverbials, they fall outside the scope of
this study.
In Hixkaryana, even the borrowed expressions of time of the day take the
form of an adverbial clause:
E50. Hixkaryana (DERBYSHIRE 1979:122)
setxe yoras me eh-toko, ɨteko
[seven hours DENOM be-TEMP] I.went
'I went at seven o'clock.' (Lit. 'I went when it was seven o'clock.')
54 3. General issues
While NP-based simultaneous location markers are probably universal, the
same cannot be said of sequential markers. In three languages of my sample,
the usual way of saying 'before X' and 'after X' is 'before X happened', 'after X
was' and similar adverbial clauses. Examples from Nkore-Kiga and Tagalog are
given below (the third language is Babungo, SCHAUB 1985:170-71).
E51. Nkore-Kiga (TAYLOR 1985:121)
a. n-ka-ba n-di aha orw'okubanza ru-ta-ka-izire
I-REM.PAST-COP I-be here [Monday it-not-yet-come.PF]
'I was here before Monday.'
(Lit. 'I was here when Monday had not yet come.')
b. n-dya-ba n-di aha [orw'okubanza rw-a-hingwire
I-REM.FUT I-be here [Mondayit-REM.PAST-pass.PF]
'I'll be here sometime after Monday.' (Lit. 'I'll be here when Monday
passes.')
E52. Tagalog (SCHACHTER & OTANES 1972:474-76)
a. Magpasyal tayo bago mag-alauna.5
take.walk we [before VERB-one.o'clock]
'Let's take a walk before one o'clock.' (Lit. '...before it's one o'clock.')
b. Ang balak ni Herodes ay iharap siya sa bayan pagka-tapos
TOP plan GEN Herodes PT lead he.TOP at people [CONV-pass
ng pista (Acts 12.4)
GEN festival]
'Herodes intended to bring him forth to the people after passover.'
(Lit. '...when passover has gone by.')
E53. Kobon (DAVIES 1981:146)
a. Hon nöd aui mɨd-aj-un hainö Oktoba ten ar-öp.
we before here be-DUR-PAST.1PL [after October tenth go-PERF.3SG]
'We were here before the tenth of October.'
(lit. 'We were here before, October tenth came afterwards.')
b. Made lug-nɨg g-ab hon aui mɨd-ei-nab-un.
[Monday fall-PURP do-PRES.3SG] we here be-DUR-FUT-1PL
'We will be here after Monday.'
A number of languages also employ clausal adverbials for the distance-past
and distance-future functions. For Hixkaryana, DERBYSHIRE (1979) finds no way
of expressing the distance-past function, and he only gives a biclausal example
5 mag-ala-una is a verb derived from ala-una 'one o'clock' (borrowed from Spanish a la una).
3.3. Alternatives to NP-based time adverbials 55
for distance-future (E54 below). For Babungo, SCHAUB (1985:169) notes that the
two distance functions "cannot be expressed in a single phrase, only by a
separate clause or sentence".
E54. Hixkaryana (DERBYSHIRE 1979:124)
Duwas oras me exe-txhe komokyaha harha.
[two hours DENOM be-POSTR] I.come back
'I'll return in two hours.' (Lit. '...when it's two hours.')
E55. Babungo (SCHAUB 1985:169)
a. ŋwә́ táa jwì fáŋ vә̀shī vә̀bɔ̀ɔ shɔ̂ɔ
he FUT come [when days two pass.IMPF]
'He'll come in two days.' (Lit. '... when two days have passed.')
b. ŋwә́ kû. ndwә́ lùu ŋú'sә̅ bɔ̀ɔ
[he die] [now be years two]
'He died two years ago. ' (Lit. 'He died. It's now two years.')
Although these clausal circumlocutions may seem fairly exotic at first sight,
we will see in later chapters that there are in fact fairly similar constructions in
some of the familiar European languages (e.g. Italian Maria è venuta due anni fa
'Maria came two years ago', lit. '...it makes two years'). The only difference is
that in many of these languages the "biclausal constructions" show some degree
of grammaticalization, so that the resulting constructions can also be regarded
as NP-based time adverbials. The greater degree of grammaticalization in
European languages is presumably due to the greater frequency with which
such time adverbials are used in Western culture.
Chapter 4
Sequential location
The first notional domain that will be discussed from a cross-linguistic perspective
is that of the anterior and posterior functions, i.e. sequential location.
These two functions are formally parallel in many ways.
4.1. Anterior/posterior based on spatial front/back
The space-to-time hypothesis can be tested quite easily on the expressions used
for the temporal anterior and posterior functions. These two notions are
among the simplest temporal relations because neither the nature of the
reference time nor the nature of the located situation is relevant for them. The
cross-linguistic evidence overwhelmingly confirms the view that time is
conceptualized in terms of space, more particularly in terms of the frontal axis.
A large number of languages from a wide variety of families show this
association either synchronically or diachronically. In almost all cases, the front
is associated with 'before' and the back is associated with 'after'. Table 4 on the
next page lists those languages in which at least one of the 'before' and 'after'
expressions are synchronically identical to the corresponding 'in front of' and
'behind' expressions.
In addition, there are a number of cases in which 'before' and 'after' adpositions
are originally derived from spatial 'front' and 'back' expressions, but
synchronically the two adpositions are not identical for one of a number of
reasons. These cases are discussed below in §4.3. Altogether there are thirtythree
languages in my sample for which a current or earlier identity (or near
identity) of spatial and temporal sequential markers can be established,
contrasting with just seven languages in which at least one of the markers is
clearly not based on a spatial expression. (In the other languages, the original
meaning of the anterior/posterior markers is spatial but not anterior/posterior,
or it is not known.) These seven languages and their markers
are discussed in §4.4 below.
4.1. Anterior/posterior based on front/back 57
Table 4: Languages with identical spatial and temporal
anterior/posterior markers
'before' = 'in front' 'after' = 'behind'
German vor
Latin ante post
Russian pered
Polish przed
Albanian para pas
Hungarian előtt
Lithuanian prieš
Basque aurrean
Lezgian wilik q'uluqh
Hebrew lifney
Maltese wara
Hausa baayan
Japanese mae ni
Tamil munnaale pinnaale
Maori mua muri
Greenlandic siurn-a- kingurn-aChechen
ħalxa
Nanay ǯulieleni
Udmurt aźyn
The data of my study thus largely confirm HILL's (1978:524) claim that "in
most languages the lexical resources used for representing orientation along
the front/back axis in horizontal space are also used for temporal orientation".
But while the cross-linguistic data do show a clear preference for the spatial
option, it is also clear that it is not the only option. We thus cannot simply say
that humans think of sequential relations in terms of the spatial frontal axis –
we have to say that there is a strong tendency for them to do so.
4.2. The front/back orientation of the time line
In §1.8 I provided an explanation for why the time line is usually modeled on
the frontal axis of space, rather than the lateral or the vertical axis. A further
question concerns the orientation of the time line, i.e. why the temporal notion
58 4. Sequential location
'before' is systematically associated with 'in front', and 'after' is associated with
'behind'.
Before attempting an answer to this question, we have to characterize the
meaning of 'in front of' and 'behind'. When the reference object is an animate
being, this is straightforward: 'In front of' means 'near the side of the primary
organs of perception' and/or 'near the side which arrives earlier at places when
the animate being moves' (cf. FILLMORE 1971). This side is called the front side,
and the opposite side is the back side. With animates, 'in front of' simply means
'near the front side of'. In addition to animates, some inanimate objects which
are closely associated with human individuals (e.g. shoes, chairs, bicycles,
houses) also have front and back sides, defined analogously. However, these
criteria cannot be applied to inanimate objects which do not move and are not
connected closely to human individuals, e.g. trees, stones and tables. Yet it is
possible to say 'in front of the tree', 'behind the stone', 'in front of the table' in
many (perhaps most) languages. The reason is that in addition to the objectbased
use of the front/back concepts, there is also a subject-based use,1 in
which objects are treated as if they were a mirror image facing a conscious
subject. Thus, in Figure 29 person A would say that the soccer ball is in front of
the tree, whereas person B would say that the soccer ball is behind the tree,
although the tree does not have an inherent front or back side.
Figure 29.
When the reference object has an inherent front/back orientation, both the
object-based and the subject-based descriptions are possible. Thus, in Figure 30
person A could say that the ball is in front of the bike (object-based), or that the
ball is behind the bike (subject-based).
1 In these terms, "subject" and "object" have their non-technical senses. Other term pairs have
been employed for these two uses:
object-based subject-based (this work)
non-deictic deictic
field-based participant-based ALLEN & HILL (1979)
nonegocentric egocentric CLARK (1973)
in tandem mirror image VANDELOISE (1991)
coincidence situation encounter situation HERSKOVITS (1986:157)
4.2. Front/back orientation 59
Figure 30.
In order to predict how the meaning of the front/back axis is transferred to
the time line, we have to determine whether reference times (reference
situations) can be said to have inherent fronts and backs. Reference times of
course are not animates, but they are commonly thought of as moving.
It has often been observed that there are two ways in which time can be
conceptualized in terms of movement: Either time is stationary, and the observer
in the world moves through it, or the observer in the world is stationary
and time moves past him or her. These two models of conceptualization are
called moving-ego and moving-time here, following CLARK (1973:50). Both
models are attested elsewhere in the language, for instance:
E56. moving-ego
As we go through the years...
As we go further into the 1990s...
We're aproaching the end of the year.
In the weeks ahead of us...
This coming Tuesday...
Bygone events
E57. moving-time
The time will come when...
The time for action has arrived.
Noon crept up on us.
Time flew by.
Thursday rushed by.
If time is thought of as moving, then points in time or time spans can also be
thought of as having an inherent front-back orientation (CLARK 1973:50). Since
time moves in the direction of the observer (or to the observer's now), earlier
times are "in front" of later times. Thus, the two sentences in E58 are quite
parallel:
E58. a. The Christmas season is approaching, and Thanksgiving is before it.
60 4. Sequential location
b. The king's car is approaching, and the bodyguards' cars are in front of it.
Given the moving-time model, the consistent relatedness of 'before'/'front'
and 'after'/'back' is explained.
But now let us consider the other model of conceptualizing time, movingego.
In this model, the observer moves from earlier moments to later
moments and thus faces the future. In this situation, times do not have an
inherent front-back orientation, so this axis can only be used in subject-based
descriptions. Like objects in space, times and situations would be treated as
occupying a mirror-image position. With regard to future situations, this would
give the same result: If the observer "looks ahead" to a future event, say, his
death, then situations that are earlier than his death are "in front" of his death.
Thus, the use of a spatial 'in front' adposition in a sentence like She wants to see
her granddaughter before her death can be explained both by the moving-time and
by the moving-ego models. However, with regard to past situations, the
moving-ego model makes a different prediction: If the observer "looks back" to
a past event, say, his birth, then situations that are earlier than his birth are
"behind" his birth. But recall from §3.1 that anterior/posterior adpositions are
never sensitive to the deictic past/future distinction – there are no languages
that invert their 'before' and 'after' adpositions in past situations. We can
conclude that it is the moving-time model that is generally responsible for the
use of spatial front/back terms as anterior and posterior markers.
Another interesting question is whether the transfer from the spatial domain
to the temporal domain occurs equally often with anterior and posterior
markers. Table 4 suggests that there is an asymmetry. 'Before' is identical to 'in
front' in seventeen languages, but only eight languages show identity of 'after'
and 'behind'. In eleven languages, only 'before' shows this identity, while there
are only two languages where only 'behind' shows it. The data are not
sufficient to prove conclusively that there is a significant asymmetry here, but
such an asymmetry may well be motivated: According to VANDELOISE's (1991)
semantic analysis, 'behind' is not defined purely by its topological position on
the frontal axis, but additionally contains the functional meaning component
'hidden'. In the temporal domain, this meaning component has no place –
earlier times or situations do not "hide" later times or situations. Thus, if
VANDELOISE is right in his analysis of 'behind', this would provide an
explanation for the slight asymmetry observed in Table 4: Due to its meaning
component 'hidden', the spatial marker 'behind' is less suitable for transfer to
the temporal domain than its counterpart 'in front'.
4.3. Diachrony and grammaticalization 61
4.3. Diachrony and grammaticalization of sequential markers
In a number of languages, there is diachronic evidence showing that the
'before' and/or 'after' expressions were originally identical to the 'in
front'/'behind' expressions, though this is no longer synchronically the case. In
other instances the temporal expressions are only formally related to the spatial
expressions, and it is not certain that the original meaning was spatial. But in
each case the available evidence (synchronic or diachronic) is consistent with
the hypothesis that temporal expressions are based on spatial expressions,
never vice versa. The cases are shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Languages with related spatial and temporal
sequential adpositions
English before < 'in front'
after < 'behind'
Swedish före 'before' < 'in front'
efter 'after' < 'behind'
French avant < *ab-ante, e.g. Old French avant lui 'in front of
him' (GAMILLSCHEG 1957:248)
après < 'behind'
Italian dopo < *de-post, Latin post 'behind; after'
Bulgarian predi cf. pred 'in front'
Turkish önce cf. ön 'front' (-ce adverbial sufix)
Lezgian güǧüniz cf. güǧüna 'behind'
Udmurt bere cf. beryn 'behind'
Hebrew ʔaħarey cf. meʔaħorey 'behind'
Abkhaz -štax'-g'ә cf. -štax' 'behind'
Chinese qián cf. qiánbian 'in front'
hòu cf. hòubian 'behind'
These cases complement Table 4 in demonstrating the widespread occurrence
of conceptual transfer from space to time. In addition, cases such as English
before and French avant nicely illustrate another important point: In earlier
English and French, these words were used in two senses, the spatial and the
temporal sense.
62 4. Sequential location
When a new word denoting the concept 'in front' came into the language (in
English, in front through complete lexical renewal; in French, devant through
reinforcement by the prefix de-: *de-avant > devant), they came to denote the
temporal sense exclusively. This is not what one would expect under a
Gesamtbedeutung approach (BENNETT 1975). Under such an approach the
expectation would be that the new word would immediately have both the
spatial and the temporal sense. The same point can be made with the Standard
Arabic and Maltese posterior prepositions. In the more conservative Arabic,
there is a contrast between baʕda 'after' and waraaʔa 'behind'. In the more
advanced Maltese, wara (< waraaʔa) means both 'behind' and 'after' (baʕda has
been lost from the language). This is again an example of a secondary temporal
sense of a preposition.
A further observation relating to the diachronic dimension is that there is
apparently a general tendency for temporal markers to be older, or more
grammaticalized, than spatial markers. The cases of my sample are listed in
Table 6. This Table includes only languages with different spatial and temporal
markers of either the anterior or posterior function.
Table 6: Temporal markers are older than spatial markers
anterior posterior
temporal/spatial temporal/spatial
English before/in front after/in back
Swedish före/framför efter/bakom
French avant/devant après/derrière
Spanish antes de/delante de
Romanian înainte/în faţa după/în spatele
Modern Greek prin/brostá metá/opíso
Irish roimh/os comhair
Welsh cyn/o flaen
Armenian aṙaǰ/aṙǰevum
Hebrew ʔaħarey/meʔaħorey
Maltese qabel/quddiem
Chinese (yi)qián/qiánbian (guo)hòu/hòubian
In most of the pairs in Table 6, a purely phonological correlate of age can be
observed: The spatial forms are in almost all cases longer, often by a whole
syllable. The greater length of course results from the fact that the spatial
markers have been reinforced more recently than the temporal markers (e.g.
French devant < de + avant, Spanish delante < de + el + ante(s), Swedish fram +
4.3. Diachrony and grammaticalization 63
för(e), Chinese qián + bian, hòu + bian), or that they have been renewed more
recently on the basis of new roots. This can best be seen in languages like
English (in front, in back, contrasting with Indo-European fore and aft) or
Romanian (în faţa) 'in front', lit. 'in the face', în spatele lit. 'in the back', contrasting
with Latin-derived înainte and după), but "fresher" roots are also found
in Greek brostá and opíso, and in Hebrew (me-)ʔaħor(-ey). Thus, on the whole
temporal sequential location markers can be said to exhibit a greater degree of
formal grammaticalization.2 This is not surprising, because semantically, too,
temporal meanings are more abstract and therefore more grammaticalized.
CLAUDI & HEINE (1986) place time right after space on their universal schema
of their grammaticalization paths: PERSON > OBJECT > ACTIVITY > SPACE > TIME >
QUALITY (cf. also HEINE, CLAUDI & HÜNNEMEYER 1991:157). Space is more
concrete and can therefore be renewed and reinforced more easily, an insight
that goes back at least to GAMILLSCHEG (1957:246): "Gerade wegen der
Vordringlichkeit der Ortsvorstellung können für diese expressivere
Ausdrucksformen eintreten als für die entsprechende Zeitvorstellung".3
4.4. Further sources of anterior and posterior markers
In addition to the anterior and posterior markers which are based on spatial
anterior and posterior markers, several other sources give rise to temporal
sequential adpositions. These other sources are less symmetrical than the main
source, spatial anterior and posterior adpositions.
In a number of languages the temporal anterior adposition is based on the
ordinal number 'first' (or perhaps 'former'): Italian prima di (based on the
adverb prima 'at first, earlier', from primo 'first'); Punjabi páílãã (< *prathila- 'first',
a suffix variant of Old Indic prathama- 'first'); Latvian pirms 'before; earlier' (<
pirmis, an adverbial form based on pirmais 'first'); Kannada modalu 'before; first'.
I have not come across an analogous use of 'last' (or 'later') for 'after'.
Another source are markers of the anterior-durative function 'until'. Russian
do is both 'before' and 'until', and the priority of the 'until' meaning is clear
from the original spatial meaning 'to' (cf. §5.1). This polysemy is not surprising
2 However, there are three counterexamples to this trend in my sample: Russian posterior
posle/za, Latvian posterior pe̅c/aiz and anterior pirms/priekša. The first two are clearly areally
related.
3 "It is precisely because of the predominance of the spatial conceptualization that more
expressive forms can be used for these than for the corresponding temporal conceptualization."
64 4. Sequential location
because the anterior and anterior-durative meanings are fairly similar;4 what is
perhaps surprising is that it is so rare (cf. §5.1 for further discussion). Russian do
is also interesting in that it coexists with another anterior preposition, pered
'before', derived from the spatial anterior preposition. There is a clear semantic
contrast between do and pered: Do has the more general meaning, pered refers
to the location in time immediately before the reference time, e.g. do vojny
'before the war', pered vojnoj 'right before the war, on the eve of the war'. The
only other language that shows this source is Abkhaz, which has the suffix -nja
'until', and the combination -nja-g'ә 'before' (-g'ә is the focus particle 'even'). It
is not clear to me how 'before' results from 'even until'. In this respect, Abkhaz
is quite symmetrical: 'after' is -štax'-g'ә lit. 'even since' (but -štax' also means
'behind', cf. Table 5).
A further interesting source is a particle meaning 'not yet'. In Indonesian, the
preposition sebelum 'before' is derived from belum 'not yet', and in a parallel
fashion sesudah/setelah/sehabis 'after' is derived from sudah 'already, finished',
telah 'finished, already', habis 'finished'.
The posterior function is expressed by an adposition that originally means
'close to, near' in a number of languages: German nach (cf. nahe 'close', nächster
'closest; next'), French après (< AD PRESSUM, lit. 'at close'), Modern Greek metá
(in Ancient Greek also 'with'), Basque ondoan (from ondo 'ground; vicinity;
consequence'). By contrast, no anterior marker is based on a simple proximity
word, as far as I know.
A fairly common source of posterior markers are nouns meaning 'track,
trace' or similar notions. Again, these have no analog among anterior markers.
Traces are phenomena that are found behind moving entities, so this source
again seems to point to the moving-time model. Examples from my sample are
Russian posle, Croatian poslije (< Common Slavic *poslědi 'afterwards', based on
*slědŭ 'trace'), Bulgarian sled (directly from *slědŭ 'trace'), Finnish jälkeen (cf. jälki
'trace, track'), Estonian pärast (Elative of pära 'residue, rest, hind part'),
Hungarian után (locative case of 3rd person agreement form of út 'path', so
húsvét ut-á-n is literally 'Easter path-its-on', i.e. 'after Easter'), Latvian pēc
(<pēdis, Instrumental plural of pēds 'trace', i.e. 'in the traces (of)'). As these
examples show, this source forms an areal cluster in eastern Europe.
4 In English, before and until are equivalent in negative contexts (EKKEHARD KÖNIG, p.c.):
(i) I cannot be back until noon. ≡
(ii) I cannot be back before noon.
4.3. Diachrony and grammaticalization 65
A few languages have a posterior marker based on 'end, finish': Turkish
sonra (cf. son 'end'); Nanay xoǯiočiania/xoǯipia (cf. xoǯi- 'finish, end'); Indonesian
sesudah/setelah/sehabis 'after' (cf. sudah/telah/habis 'finished'). And finally, the
verb 'pass' may also yield a posterior marker, cf. Lithuanian praėjus (converb of
praėti 'pass'), French passé (e.g. passé une heure du matin 'after one o'clock in the
morning'), English past 'after' (cf. five minutes past twelve).
Chapter 5
Sequential-durative
As we saw in §2.3, the anterior/posterior-durative functions are semantically
closely related to the anterior/posterior functions, in particular as far as the
meaning component of location is concerned. From this point of view, one
might expect that this similarity would be reflected in similar markers of these
functions. However, formal similarity of these two types of functions is very
rare. Sequential-durative markers have their own characteristics, so a separate
chapter is devoted to them.
5.1. Allative and ablative sources
The most important sources of anterior-durative markers ('until') and
posterior-durative markers ('since, from') are spatial allative and ablative
markers, i.e. goal and source markers. Again the priority of space over time is
confirmed by the sources of temporal markers. The cases attested in my
sample are listed in Tables 7-8.
Table 7: Posterior-durative markers from ablative markers
German ab < 'from, off'
Romanian de 'from; since'
Latin a/ex (both:) 'from; since'
Russian s (+GEN) 'from, off; since'
Polish, Croatian od 'from; since'
Lithuanian nuo 'from; since'
Greek apó 'from; since'
Armenian ABL 'from; since'
Lezgian -laj < localization -l + elative suffix -aj
Georgian -dan 'from; since'
Maltese minn 'from; since'
Persian az 'from; since'
Punjabi tõ 'from; since'
Chinese cóng 'from; since'
Kannada -inda 'from; since'
Tamil -leruntu 'from; since'
5.1. Allative and ablative sources 67
Table 8: Anterior-durative markers from allative markers1
English till < Old Norse til 'to; until' (< til 'goal')
German bis < Middle High German bî ze ("bei zu") 'with to'
Swedish till 'to; until'
Russian
Croatian do 'to; until'
Bulgarian
Lezgian -ldi < localization -l + directive suffix -di
Arabic ʔilaa 'to; until'
Thus, when anterior/posterior-durative markers are based on simple spatial
markers, these are generally markers that indicate a spatial direction rather
than a spatial location. At first, this is surprising, because the spatial notion of a
direction does not have a clear analog in the conceptual domain of time. But
there is a straightforward explanation for the ablative and allative sources: the
concept of "abstract motion" (cf. LANGACKER 1991). Even in the spatial domain,
directional expressions are commonly used to denote location along a line
which is scanned sequentially by the mind and is thereby assimilated to a
directed path: There are wheat fields from the lake to the forest; The highway goes all
the way to the Arctic Sea; There are apple trees along many country roads. In these
spatial examples, the located entities occupy a large area of space, and it would
not be possible to characterize compact objects in this way (??There is a bike
along the bike-lane). Thus, ablative and allative sources are particularly well
suited for expressing the location of situations with a large extension, i.e.
durative situations.
It is also not difficult to explain why allative markers are associated with the
anterior-durative function, whereas ablative markers are used for the
posterior-durative function, rather than vice versa. We have here the model of
the observer moving along a temporal path from earlier to later, and when
situations are thought of as occupying a path in time, speakers scan them
sequentially from their earliest part to their latest part (i.e. from their beginning
to their end).2 The alternative model of time moving past the stationary
observer is not applicable here, because in this model it is only fixed reference
times that are thought of as moving from the future to the past, not located
1 In addition, a number of complex anterior-durative markers contain an allative component:
French jusqu'à, Italian fino a, Irish go dtí, Polish aż do.
2 With many physical objects that can be thought of as having a beginning and an end, it is
not predetermined which extremity is the beginning and which is the end (e.g. strings, roads,
peninsulas, baguettes). Due to the unidirectionality of time, this ambiguity does not arise with
entities that are located in time.
68 5. Sequential-durative
situations. The situations that are characterized by time adverbials can only be
thought of as moving in the same direction as the observer. Thus, in the case of
the anterior-durative and posterior-durative functions the question of which
model is chosen can again be answered unambiguously.
There is a slight asymmetry in Tables 7 and 8: It is apparently significant that
more languages use an ablative marker for posterior-durative than an allative
marker for anterior-durative. This latter function tends to have a separate
marker which just means 'until'. I have no explanation for this asymmetry.
Before leaving the allative/ablative sources of sequential-durative markers, I
would like to point out a further cross-linguistic generalization. The tendency
for posterior-durative and anterior-durative markers to be similar to simple
source and goal markers is even stronger when both markers are present
together, i.e. in expressions specifying both a beginning and an end of a
situation, e.g. 'from morning till evening', 'from five to eight'. In these
expressions (henceforth, beginning-to-end constructions), the order is
obligatorily iconic, i.e. the posterior-durative expression precedes the anteriordurative
expression, and the two are preferably adjacent. These two properties
are illustrated with English and German examples in E59-60. English usually has
since/from..on and until/till, but in beginning-to-end constructions from and to,
the simple ablative and allative prepositions, are sufficient.
E59. English
a. Susanne sang from 12 o'clock to 5 o'clock.
b. Susanne sang {*to/till} five o'clock.
c. *Susanne sang to 5 o'clock from 12 o'clock.
d. (?) Susanne sang till 5 o'clock from 12 o'clock on.
e. *From 12 o'clock Susanne sang to 5 o'clock.
f. (?) From 12 o'clock on Susanne sang till 5 o'clock.
E60. German
a. Susanne hat von 12 Uhr bis 5 Uhr gesungen.
b. Susanne hat von 12 Uhr {an/*Ø} gesungen.
c. *Susanne hat bis 5 Uhr von 12 Uhr gesungen.
d. (?) Susanne hat bis 5 Uhr von 12 Uhr an gesungen.
e. *Von 12 Uhr hat Susanne bis 5 Uhr gesungen.
f. (?) Von 12 Uhr an hat Susanne bis 5 Uhr gesungen.
5.1. Allative and ablative sources 69
Similarly, German usually has seit/von..an and bis, but in beginning-to-end
constructions von alone can be used (however, German does not allow the
simple allative zu instead of bis here). The most frequent case is illustrated by
the (a) sentences of E59-60. The (b) sentences show that the simpler markers
from...to and von are not possible if only the beginning or the end of the duration
are given. The difference in acceptibility between the (c) and (d) sentences
is due to the iconic order requirement, and the difference between (e)
and (f) is due to the adjacency requirement.
Before venturing an explanation of these facts, let us look at the cross-linguistic
data. Of course, I do not have data of the same level of detail for other
languages, but since quite a few other languages show the same tendency for a
less explicit form of begining-to-end constructions, it may well be that restrictions
similar to those in E59-60 also apply in other languages. Table 9 exemplifies
beginning-to-end constructions in nine languages, contrasting them
with the regular posterior-durative and anterior-durative markers.
Table 9: Simple source and goal markers
in beginning-to-end constructions
French du matin au soir vs. dès/depuis – jusqu'à
'from morning till evening'
Italian da Natale a Pasqua vs. (fino) da – fino a
'from Christmas till Easter'
Latin a mane ad vesperum vs. a –usque ad
'from morning till evening'
Latvian no sākuma līdz beigām vs. kopš – līdz
'from the beginning to the end'
Irish ó mhaidin go hoíche vs. ó – go dtí
'from morning till evening'
Welsh o fis Mehefin tan fis Madi vs. ers – tan/hyd
'from June to September'
Arabic min as-saaʕati θ-θaaniyata ʕašrata
ʔilaa s-saaʕati θ-θaaliθati vs. munðu/min – ħattaa/ʔilaa
'from the 12th to the 3rd hour'
Turkish on iki-den on beş-e dek vs. den beri/itibaren – dek
'from 12 h to 15 h'
Hungarian hétfö-töl péntek-ig vs. -tól fogva – -ig
'from Monday to Friday'
Finnish aamu-sta ilta-an vs. lähtien – asti
'from morning (ELAT) till evening (ILL)'
70 5. Sequential-durative
In all cases of Table 9, at least one of the markers in the beginning-to-end
construction is simpler than the regular sequential-duration marker and is
identical to the usual (spatial) source or goal expression in the language. The
explanation clearly lies in economic motivation: In beginning-to-end constructions,
the lexical content of the expression, together with the iconic order
and the adjacency (cf. E59-60), are by themselves so informative that simple
source and goal expressions are often sufficient where otherwise a more
explicit marker would be used. This economic aspect is particularly evident in
cases where a complex sequential-durative marker consists of a simple source
or goal marker plus an additional component (e.g. Italian fino a), and where this
additional component is omitted in beginning-to-end constructions. Such cases
are French (jusqu') à, Italian (fino) a, Latin (usque) ad, Irish go (dtí), Turkish -den
(beri/itibaren), Hungarian -tól (fogva).
5.2. 'Beginning' and 'end' as sources
In a number of languages, the words 'beginning' (or 'to begin') and 'end' (or
'finish') are the sources of the sequential-durative markers. The relevant data
are summarized in Table 10a-b. When the source of the marker is a verb, this
often takes the form of a converb (e.g. in Russian, Hungarian, Nanay), or
occurs in a serial-verb construction as a co-verb in isolating languages (e.g. in
Babungo, Chinese).
Table 10a: Posterior-durative markers based on 'begin(ning)'
French à partir de X < partir 'leave, start'
Italian a partire da X < partire 'leave, start'
Russian načinaja s X < načinat' 'begin'
Latvian sākot ar X < sākt 'begin'
Hungarian X-tól fogva < fogva lit. 'catching, taking', i.e. 'beginning'
Finnish X-sta lähtien < lähteä 'go, depart', i.e. 'begin'
Estonian (alates) X-st < algama 'begin'
Nanay X tepčiuxenǯiji < tepčiu- 'begin'
Babungo shù fƗ́ < 'start from'
Kannada X-ABL hiḍidu < hiḍ- 'begin'
5.2. ‘Beginning’ and ‘end’ 71
Table 10b: Anterior-durative markers based on 'end, finish'or
'arrive'
Italian fino a X < Latin finis 'end'
Indonesian hingga X < 'limit, end'
Babungo zí' cf. zí' 'arrive'
Chinese (zhi)dao X cf. dao 'arrive'
Indonesian sampai X cf. sampai 'reach'
That sequential-durative markers are based on 'beginning' and 'end' is surprising
in view of what we said above in §2.3 on the semantics of 'until' and
'since'. We saw there that 'since' and 'until' do not entail, but only conversationally
implicate the beginning or end of a situation. Now of course it could be
that in the languages where the lexical source is based on 'begin' or 'end', the
semantics is simply somewhat different, i.e. that E61 in Russian and E62 in
Italian are simply not acceptable, although their English equivalents are.
E61. Russian
Ja rabotaju nad ètoj stat'jej načinaja s dekabrja prošlogo goda, i na samom dele
ja nad nej rabotal i ran'še. Ja načal nad nej rabotat' v oktjabre.
'I have been working on this article since last December, and in fact I
worked on it even earlier. I began working on it in October.'
E62. Italian
Fino alle otto, Gianni ha lavorato; dopo, non so.
'Until eight, Gianni worked; after that, I don't know.'
But it is more likely that in the course of grammaticalization the original
entailment got lost and persists nowadays as an implicature.
A source of 'until' that is related to 'end, finish' is the verb 'arrive, reach',
which is employed in the anterior-durative function in a number of languages,
which are also listed in Table 10b. Again, the notion of 'arrive' is transferred
from the spatial domain to the temporal domain, and the semantic
correspondence is quite transparent: If someone travels along a path and
arrives at a place, this means that the path (which is analogous to the duration
of a situation) overlaps with this place. The meaning of 'arrive' is also similar to
72 5. Sequential-durative
that of 'until' in that the notion of someone's arrival at a place does not exclude
a continuation of the trip – one can arrive at intermediate goals, whereas one
cannot continue a trip after finishing it.
5.3. 'Since' from 'later'
In a number of Germanic languages, the 'since' word is based on an original
comparative form of an adjective meaning 'later', i.e. 'since X' comes from 'later
than X':
E63. a. English since < Old English siþþpon, sīþ þām
b. German seit < Old High German sīd
c. Swedish sedan
(< Proto-Germanic *sīþiz, cf. Latin sētius 'later')
Originally, these forms were only used as adverbs, i.e. without a reference
time. This use is still current in English (I met her last May, but I haven't seen her
since). The "transitive" use, which turned since/seit/sedan into a preposition,
appeared only later. A form that is perhaps similar is Nanay tawaNki
'afterwards; since'.
This class of forms are clear cases of temporal markers that are not based on
spatial relations. However, such expressions do not seem to be widespread in
the world's languages. Furthermore, I have not found a counterpart for 'until'
based on 'earlier'.
5.4. Deixis in the posterior-durative function:
'since' vs. 'from(..onward)'
We saw in §2.3 that English since and German seit have a deictic meaning
component in addition to the posterior-durative function. Since/seit can only be
employed if the reference time precedes the moment of speech or another
contextually given deictic center. Furthermore, since and seit impose on the
located situation the requirement that it must extend up to the moment of
speech (or the contextual deictic center). This is illustrated by German examples
in E64-66, and by analogous examples from French (depuis) in E67-69 (ROHRER
1981:159-163). If seit/depuis cannot be used, the markers von..an/à partir de are
used. If the reference time is in the future, colloquial German also allows ab.
5.4. Deixis in the posterior-durative function 73
E64. a. Seit letzten Mittwoch
*Vom letzten Mittwoch an liegt in Neustadt Schnee.
*Ab letzten Mittwoch
'Since last Wednesday there has been snow in Neustadt.'
b. Als er Freitag traf, war Robinson glücklich.
Seit seinem Schiffbruch
*Von seinem Schiffbruch an hatte er keinen Menschen mehr gesehen.
*Ab seinem Schiffbruch
'When he met Friday, Robinson was happy. Since the shipwreck, he
hadn't seen anyone.'
E65. *Seit nächste Woche
Von nächster Woche an gilt der neue Tarif.
Ab nächster Woche
'From next week the new price list will be in force.'
E66. *Seit letzten Mittwoch
Vom letzten Mittwoch an hatte ich Schluckauf, aber am
*Ab letzten Mittwoch Sonnabend war es vorbei.
'I had a hiccup from last Wednesday, but it was over on Saturday.'
E67. a. Il est 10 heures. Le conférencier parle déjà depuis 8 heures.
*à partir de 8 heures.
'It is 10 o'clock. The speaker has been speaking since eight.'
b. Jean était au bureau depuis 8 heures.
*à partir de 8 heures.
'Jean was in the office since eight o'clock.'
E68. Aujourd'hui les magasins seront ouverts *depuis 8 heures.
à partir de 8 heures.
'Today the shops are open from eight o'clock.'
E69. L'année derrière j'étais au bureau tous les jours *depuis 8 heures.
à partir de 8 heures.
'Last year I was at the office every day from eight o'clock.'
74 5. Sequential-durative
Thus, seit, since and depuis have the more specific function called "posteriorpresent-perfect"
(cf. §2.3), covering only part of the domain of the posteriordurative
function. Markers with this deictic meaning component are also attested
in quite a few other languages. I do not have the same detail of information
for other languages, but I can make a few generalizations and
suggest some hypotheses. My data are not generally sufficient to determine
whether a posterior-durative marker is analogous to German seit ("present
perfect"), von..an ("past" or "future") or ab (only "future"), and in most cases all I
can make is a past-future distinction.3
First of all, I will give a few examples of languages in which no distinction
between the past and future versions of the posterior-durative function is
made. Such languages are, for instance, Finnish, Korean, Imbabura Quechua,
Georgian, Armenian, Persian, Punjabi, Tamil, and Tagalog. The first three are
illustrated below.
E70. Finnish (JUHANI RUDANKO, p.c.)
a. Viime viiko-sta lähtien hän on ol-lut Nairobi-ssa.
last week-ELAT from he is be-PTCP Nairobi-INESS
'Since last week he has been in Nairobi.'
b. Ensi viiko-sta lähtienhän työskentelee toise-ssa yhtiö-ssä.
next week-ELAT from she works other-INESS company-INESS
'From next week on she will work in another company.'
E71. Korean (SHIN-JA HWANG, p.c.)
a. Cinan cwu-puthe ku-nun nailobi-ey iss-ta.
last week-ABL he-TOP Nairobi-DAT be-DECL
'Since last week he has been in Nairobi.'
b. Taum cwu-puthe kunye-nun talun haysa-eyse ilhal-kes-ita.
next week-ABL she-TOP other company-LOC work-FUT-DECL
'From next week on she will work in another company.'
E72. Imbabura Quechua (COLE 1985:127)
a. Lunis-manda-ka mana ima-pash susidi-rka-chu.
Monday-from-TOP not what-INDEF happen-PAST.3-NEG
'Since Monday nothing has happened.'
b. Lunis-manda-ka kay-pi ka-sha.
Monday-from-TOP this-in be-FUT.1
'I'll be here from Monday on.'
3 In the COMRIE-SMITH grammars, sections 2.1.1.6.8 and 2.1.1.6.9 distinguish between
"posterior-durative-past" and "posterior-durative-future". Note that the present seems to
pattern with the future in general (*seit jetzt/von jetzt an; *since now/from now on; *depuis
maintenant/à partir de maintenant).
5.4. Deixis in the posterior-durative function 75
Since there are quite a few languages for which my information is insufficient
(there is no relevant future context in the New Testament), I take the situation
illustrated in E70-72 as the default, and the distinction between "posteriorpresent-perfect"
markers and "posterior-durative-future" markers as the special
case. The languages for which I have found a distinction between past and
future and their markers are listed in Table 11.
Table 11: Different markers
for posterior-durative-past and posterior-durative-future
past future
English since from..on/as of
German seit von..an
Swedish sedan från
French depuis à partir de
Italian (fino) da a partire da/da..in poi
Modern Greek apó apó..kj épita
Latvian kopš sākot ar
Irish ó ó..amach
Hungarian óta X-ABL fogva
Abkhaz aa+xә̀s à-štax', a-này˚s, na+xә̀s, yәnark'nә̀
Hausa tun dàgà
Chinese cóng cóng..qǐ
Maori mai i X raa mai a X
Japanese irai kara [also past]
In some languages the past marker is clearly the more specific one because the
other marker is not restricted to future contexts. This is the case in Japanese, for
instance.
E73. Japanese (KAORU HORIE, p.c.)
a. Kare-ga sensyuu kara/irai Nairobi-ni iru.
he-NOM last.week from/since Nairobi-in be
'He has been in Nairobi since last week.'
b. Kanozyo-ga raisyuu kara/*irai betuno kaisya-de hataraku.
she-NOM next.week from/since other company-in work
'From next week on she'll work for another company.'
76 5. Sequential-durative
To some extent, this is also true of German von..an and English from..on,
although these are in complementary distribution with seit and since. But as
shown above in E66, they are not restricted to future contexts.
However, there is also evidence that the past context is the more typical
context for posterior-durative markers, because the future marker is sometimes
transparently derived from the past marker. Thus, a number of languages
have a structure like 'from X forward' in future contexts: Italian (in poi,
lit. 'in then', i.e. 'later'), Modern Greek (kj épita 'and then'), Irish (amach 'away,
out'), Chinese (qǐ 'up, rise'). Of course, the English and German pattern is
similar to these, although on/an is not added to the past marker since/seit, but to
the general source marker from/von.
But the reverse pattern also occurs, with the past marker being a more
specific version of the general posterior-durative marker. This is the case, in
particular, in languages that incorporate the element 'hither' in their past
posterior-durative marker. Due to the presence of this element, we can be
confident that these expressions are semantically much like since, i.e. posteriorpresent-perfect.
Examples are given in E74-76.
E74. Lezgian (HASPELMATH 1993:100; 219) (iniqh 'hither')
a. Ha i jiqa-laj xüpüqhwi-jr-i čpi-n xürünwida-l
that day-SUPEREL Xüpüqian-PL-ERG selves-GEN covillager-SUPERESS
c'iji t'war ecig-na.
new name put-AOR
'From that day on the people of Xüpüq called their co-villager by a
different name.'
b. A č'awa-laj iniqh 20 jis alat-nawa.
that time-SUPEREL hither 20 year pass-PERF
'Since that time 20 years have gone by.'
E75. Kannada (īcege 'on this side')
a. sōmavārad-inda 'from Monday on, since Monday'
Monday-ABL
b. beḷigge-yinda īcege 'since the morning'
morning-ABL hither
E76. Basque
a. astelehen-ez gero-z-tik
Monday-MOD after-MOD-ABL
'from Monday on'
b. joanden aste-tik hona
past week-ABL hither
'since last week'
5.4. Deixis in the posterior-durative function 77
By calling the function of since "posterior-present-perfect", I have already
alluded to the well-known fact that English since always combines with the
present perfect tense. We may now ask how widespread this phenomenon is,
and the answer is that it is fairly uncommon. The only other languages in which
I have found it are the Circum-Baltic languages Swedish, Finnish and Estonian.
An example from Finnish was already given in E70a; Swedish and Estonian are
illustrated below.
E77. Swedish
Alltsedan världens skapelse har hans osynliga egenskaper...kunnat
since world's creation has his invisible properties been.able
uppfattas i hans verk (Rom 1.20)
be.perceived in his work
'Since the creation of the world his invisible properties have been
clearly perceivable in his actions.'
E78. Estonian (URMAS SUTROP, p.c.)
Alates eelmise-st nädala-st on ta ol-nud Nairobi-s.
beginning last-ELAT week-ELAT is he be-PTCP Nairobi-INESS
'Since last week he has been in Nairobi.'
In all other languages, the present tense is used in these contexts. This may
seem surprising, given that many other languages have a perfect tense-aspect
form that is not unlike the English, Swedish and Baltic Finnic perfect in other
respects. We must conclude that this use of the perfect in these languages is
highly marked.
Finally, let us ask whether a contrast similar to the one between 'since' and
'from..on' could be found in the anterior-durative function. A priori, there is no
reason why it should not be possible. There could be a language that
distinguishes between 'until1' for a situation like Figure 31a, and 'until2' for a
situation as depicted in Figure 31b.
Figure 31a: 'Until1' Figure 31b: 'Until2'
(=anterior-durative-future) (=anterior-durative-past)
78 5. Sequential-durative
This distinction would be completely analogous to the distinction between
'since' and 'from...on', see Figure 16-17 in §2.3. However, such a distinction is
unattested, and there are good reasons to think that it does not exist. Not only
has no such distinction been noted for any of the well-documented European
languages; even the Comrie-Smith grammars, which do include two separate
sections for "anterior-duration-past" (2.1.1.6.6) and "anterior-duration-future"
(2.1.1.6.7), do not record such a contrast, which was clearly anticipated by the
authors of the questionnaire.
5.5. Anterior-durative and anterior-limitative
In this final subsection of this chapter I will introduce a semantic function that is
related to the anterior-durative function and is expressed by the same marker
in a number of languages. Two examples from English and Italian are given in
E79.
E79. a. Bob has to finish the paper by March 30th.
b. Il presidente dell'assamblea generale vuole un risultato entro giugno.
'The president of the general assembly wants a result by June.'
The temporal adverbials in these sentences can roughly be paraphrased as 'on
March 30th or earlier' and 'in June or earlier'. I call this function anteriorlimitative.4
I have not investigated this function systematically, but I have data
for a number of languages. In some languages, this meaning is rendered by the
anterior-durative marker, e.g. in German, Latvian, and Korean:
E80. a. German
Bob muss die Arbeit bis zum 30. März fertigstellen.
'Bob has to finnish the paper by March 30th.'
b. Latvian (NICOLE NAU, p.c.)
Es to pabeig-šu līdz pirmdien-ai.
I that.ACC finish-FUT.1SG until Monday-DAT
'I'll finish that by Monday.'
c. Korean (SHIN-JA HWANG, p.c.)
Ku chayk-ul phalwel-kkaci kkunnal-kes-ita.
he book-ACC August-until finish-FUT-DECL
'He will finish the book by August.'
4 NICOLE NAU (p.c.) proposes the alternative term "ultimative/cumulative".
5.5. Anterior-durative and anterior-limitative 79
The anterior-durative and anterior-limitative functions are similar in that they
say something both about the reference time and about the period before it.
While anterior-limitative has the paraphrase 'at RefT or earlier', anteriordurative
can be paraphrased as 'at RefT and (at all points) earlier'; thus, the
difference boils down to the conjunction/disjunction in the paraphrase (see
KÖNIG (1974) for a logical-semantic analysis of this distinction in terms of the
duality of existential and universal quantification).
Table 12: Examples of special anterior-limitative markers
Japanese hatigatu made-ni sanzi made
'by August' 'until three o'clock'
Finnish elokunkun mennessä kello kolmeen asti
'by August' 'until three o'clock'
Estonian augusti-ks esmaspäeva-ni
'by August' (-ks Translative) 'until Monday'
Russian k avgustu do trëx časov
'by August' (k 'to(ward)') 'until three o'clock'
Basque eguerdi-rako astelehen arte
'by noon' (purposive case) 'until Monday'
Welsh erbyn hanner awr wedi saith hyd ddiwedd
'by half past seven' (erbyn 'against') 'until the end'
Hungarian kedd-re vég-ig
'by Thursday' (-re Sublative 'onto') 'until the end'
These are not enough cases for definitive generalizations, but it seems that
there is a tendency for anterior-limitative markers to be based on directional
spatial markers with meanings like 'toward, against, onto'. In this respect, too,
the anterior-limitative function resembles the anterior-durative function.5
5 A related semantic function which I have only encountered in French so far is illustrated in
(i) (cf. the discussion in BERTHONNEAU 1993a).
(i) Il me faut une réponse avant deux jours.
sous
'I need an answer within the next two days.'
Here the anterior-limitative function is combined with the distance-future function. Literally
avant deux jours/sous deux jours could be translated as 'by in two days' time'. This combination
is analogous to the one in the distance-posterior function (which combines posterior-durative
and distance-past, cf. §2.5 and §8.3).
Chapter 6
Temporal distance
6.1. Distance markers based on sequential markers
The two semantic functions of temporal distance, distance-past and distancefuture,
are appropriately discussed right after the semantic functions of sequential
location because they also involve temporal location in which the
located situation and the reference time are in a sequential relationship. This
semantic affinity is reflected in formal identity or similarity between the
distance-past and the anterior functions, and between the distance-future and
the posterior functions. Indeed, this similarity is much greater than that
between the anterior/posterior functions and their durative counterparts,
which a priori would seem to be more closely related semantically.
As in the other cases, there are a small number of different semantic sources
for distance-past and distance-future markers. However, the majority type is
clearly the formal identity between distance-past markers and anterior markers
on the one hand, and distance-future and posterior markers, on the other hand.
The twenty-five languages of the sample in which this occurs and their markers
are listed in Table 13 on the next page.
What is the explanation for the frequent formal identity of the sequential
and distance functions? First of all, we have to distinguish carefully between
two sub-types of markers in Table 13. The first sub-type, exemplified by
German vor (vor Dezember, vor drei Minuten), shows both morphological and
syntactic identity. In the second sub-type, only the form, but not the syntax, of
the two markers is identical.
Let us examine the case of Turkish önce 'before; ago', which belongs to the
second type. In the sense 'before', this is a postposition governing the Ablative
case (-dAn), as shown in E81a. However, in the distance-past function, önce does
not govern the Ablative, but the Nominative case, as seen in E81b.
E81. Turkish
a. harp-tan önce 'before the war'
war-ABL before
b. bir süre önce 'a while ago'
one while(NOM) before
6.1. Distance markers based on sequential markers 81
Table 13: Languages with identical anterior/distance-past
and/or posterior/distance-future markers.
'ago' = 'before' 'in' = 'after'
German vor
Polish przed po
Serbian/Croatian prije
Bulgarian predi sled
Lithuanian prieš
Latvian pirms pēc
Modern Greek prin apó
Albanian para pas
Hungarian előtt
Estonian pärast
Udmurt bere
Armenian aṙaǰ heto
Turkish önce sonra
Lezgian wilik
Chechen ħalxa
Abkhaz -àpx'a1
Georgian c'in1
Hebrew lifney
Hausa baayan
Swahili baada ya
Persian piš
Punjabi páílãã
Chinese (yi)qián
Japanese mae ni go ni
Korean cen-ey hwu-ey, twi-ey2
Postpositions do not normally govern the Nominative case in Turkish, so at
first sight this behavior seems surprising. But everything falls into place once
we realize that önce is best glossed as 'previously, earlier'. The Ablative case in
E81a can now be understood as analogous to the Ablative that marks the
1 Abkhaz -àpx’a is listed only as meaning ‘in front of’ in HEWITT (1979:130), and Georgian
c’in only means ‘in front of’. I have included these in Table 13 because they must have
acquired the distance-past sense via the sense ‘before’.
2 twi-ey only means ‘behind’ according to my data, but it must have acquired the distancefuture
sense via a temporal posterior sense.
82 6. Temporal distance
standard of comparison (Ali'den daha akıllı 'more intelligent than Ali'): harptan
önce is literally 'earlier than the war'. The NP bir süre does not stand in the same
semantic-syntactic relation to önce: It does not designate a standard, but an
amount measuring the difference, analogous to the extent phrase in 10 cm taller
than Ali. Thus, bir süre önce is literally 'a while earlier', and the standard is
implicitly understood as the moment of speech: 'a while earlier than now', i.e. 'a
while ago'. In fact, this implicit standard may be made explicit, as in E82.
E82. Turkish
bun-dan on dört yıl önce (2 Cor 12.2) 'fourteen years ago'
this-ABL ten four year before (lit. 'fourteen years before this')
This example makes it even more evident that we are dealing with the same
lexical item önce in E81a-b, used in exactly the same sense. The different overall
meaning, anterior vs. distance-past, results from the different syntactic
environment and from contextual properties.
A fairly similar pattern for expressing the sequential and distance functions is
found in the typologically similar languages Lezgian, Punjabi, Udmurt,
Armenian and Hungarian (but note that Udmurt uses two slightly different
forms of 'earlier, before', aźym and aźlo, so that Udmurt is not listed in Table 13):
E83. Lezgian (HASPELMATH 1993:216;305)
a. däwedi-laj wilik 'before the war'
war-SUPEREL before
b. dümdüz 250 jis ida-laj wilik 'exactly 250 years ago'
exactly 250 year this-SUPEREL before (lit. 'exactly 250 years before now')
E84. Punjabi (BHATIA 1993:206ff.)
a. maŋgalvaar tõ páílãã
Tuesday from before
'before Tuesday'
b. do saal páílãã asĩĩ Multaan gae
two year before we Multaan went
'Two years ago we went to Multaan.'
E85. Udmurt
a. aran aźyn 'before the harvest'
harvest before
b. odig ar ta-leś aźlo 'a year ago'
one year this-ABL before
6.1. Distance markers based on sequential markers 83
E86. Armenian
a. kṙv-ic' aṙaǰ 'before the war'
war-ABL before
b. erku žam aṙaǰ 'two hours ago'
two hour before
In languages with different word-order patterns, the syntax of the two items
may differ even more markedly, e.g. in Persian, which has prepositions rather
than postpositions (E87a). Since extent phrases precede the modified adverb,
the word order of piš 'before, ago' differs depending on the construction:
E87. Persian
a. piš az ǰang 'before the war'
before from war
b. do sâ'at-e piš 'two hours ago'
two hour-ATTR before
But there are some languages in which the identity of the 'before' and 'ago'
expressions cannot be explained in this way. These languages represent the first
sub-type mentioned above, displaying both morphological and syntactic
identity. Examples are the prepositions vor in German and prin apó in Modern
Greek. The complement of the preposition cannot be an extent phrase in these
languages (yielding the meaning 'ago'), because extent phrases usually precede
rather than follow their head (e.g. German zwei Stunden zuvor 'two hours
before', contrasting with vor zwei Stunden 'two hours ago'). In addition, extent
phrases are usually in the Accusative case in German (e.g. ein-en Monat zuvor 'a
month before'), whereas the complement of vor must be in the Dative case (vor
ein-em Monat). Thus, adverbs like zuvor are syntactically quite different from
prepositions, and yet vor means both 'before' and 'ago'. That the German-type
construction cannot be reduced to the Turkish-type construction can be seen
particularly well in Hungarian, which has both constructions:
E88. Hungarian
a. tél előtt 'before the winter'
winter before
b. két év-vel ez-előtt 'two years ago'
two year-INSTR this-before
c. három hét előtt 'three weeks ago'
three week before
84 6. Temporal distance
In E88b, the distance phrase is in the Instrumental case and the argument of the
postposition is spelled jointly with the postposition – this is analogous to
Turkish E82. The other construction in E88c shows the reference time (három hét
'three weeks') in the Nominative case, just like the reference time in the
sequential construction E88a – it is thus analogous to German vor.
Thus, a different explanation has to be found for the formal identity between
'before' and 'ago' in languages such as German, Modern Greek,
Bulgarian, Hebrew, and E88c in Hungarian. My proposal is the following: In
expressions such as
E89. a. Bulgarian
sled dva dni 'after two days, i.e. in two days',
b. Hebrew
lifney šloša yamim 'before three days, i.e. three days ago',
the reference time must be taken as a period one of whose end points coincides
with the moment of speech. Thus, here again a deictic interpretation is imposed
but remains implicit. We can thus translate Bulgarian sled dva dni literally as
'after a two-day period beginning now', and Hebrew lifney šloša yamim as
'before a three-day period ending now'. The possible alternative interpretations
'after a two-day period ending now' and 'before a three-day period beginning
now' are presumably excluded pragmatically because they are not informative
enough, coinciding more or less with 'after now'/'before now'. But the
interpretation of these expressions is enriched even beyond the introduction of
the moment of speech as an implicit end point: Bulgarian E89a in fact means
'immediately after a two-day period beginning now', and Hebrew E89b means
'immediately before a two-day period ending now'. Again, these pragmatic
strengthenings are entirely expected from a Gricean point of view. As KÖNIG
(1974: 560-61) observes, "[w]henever we place a certain event on a time scale
we try to do this as precisely as possible. Thus, a sentence of the form 'S after t'
will normally be taken to imply that S occurred in the environment of t ... [O]n
hearing a sentence of the type 'S after t1' we will assume – unless we are
explicitly told not to do so – that the speaker has been maximally informative,
that he has placed the event 'S' as precisely as possible on the time continuum
and that the event occurred near t1." KÖNIG only tries to explain why a
politician who promises 'We shall start working on this problem after Easter'
will be justly criticized if nothing happens until December, but the same
principle also explains why E89a means 'two days after now', not just 'anytime
after a two-day period beginning now'. But note that in the case of 'before' and
6.1. Distance markers based on sequential markers 85
'after', the interpretative enrichment can be canceled and thus has the status of
an implicature. The politician could theoretically say 'We shall start working on
this problem after Easter, in fact eight months after Easter, that is in December'.
By contrast, in the languages that are like Hebrew and Bulgarian (cf. E89) this
additional meaning component cannot be canceled. Thus, a German sentence
such as E90 would be incoherent.
E90 (spoken in 1997:) *Das Tiananmen-Massaker war vor fünf Jahren,
genauer gesagt schon 1989.
'The Tiananmen Square massacre was five years ago, more precisely as
early as 1989.'
This shows that the original implicature has become part of the regular
meaning of such distance markers.
My analysis of the frequent formal identity of 'before'/'ago' and 'after'/'in'
thus involves interpretative enrichment or pragmatic strengthening plus the
implicit restriction to time spans one of whose end points coincides with the
moment of speech. This latter restriction is sometimes made explicit in a way
not unlike the use of 'this' in E82-83, E85 and E88b. For instance, Latin and
Greek use the proximal demonstratives hic/hoũtos in their distance expressions,
as illustrated in E91-92.
E91. Latin (KÜHNER & STEGMANN 1912:356-57)
a. Me hoc biduo aut triduo exspecta (Cic. Fam. 7.4)
me.ACC this.ABL 2day.period.ABL or 3day.period expect.IMP
'Expect me in two or three days.' (lit. '...in these two or three days')
(Lit. 'Expect me in this two-day or three-day period.')
b. Ergo his annis quadrigentis Romae rex erat? (Cic. Rp. 1.58)
so these years.ABL 400.ABL Rome.LOC king was
'So he was king in Rome four hundred years ago?'
(lit. '...in these four hundred years')
E92. Hellenistic Greek
Humeĩs dè en pneúmati baptisthḗ́́sesthe hagíōi ou metà pollàs
you.PL but in spirit.DAT baptize.PASS.FUT.2PL holy.DAT not after many.ACC
taútas hēméras (NT, Acts 1.5)
these.ACC days.ACC
'You will be baptized in the Holy Spirit in not many days' time.'
86 6. Temporal distance
6.2. Other sources of distance markers
In the distance markers discussed in the previous section, we saw that distancepast
and distance-future markers behave in a relatively symmetrical way,
except that there are more distance-past markers based on 'before' than
distance-future markers based on 'after' (possibly this is related to the analogous
asymmetry observed in §4.2 with regard to Table 4, but it is not clear to
me how). When we now look at the other sources of distance markers, we
notice that there is mostly a surprising lack of symmetry. Very different kinds
of source notions are made use of for expressing the semantic functions
'distance-past' and 'distance-future'.
6.2.1. 'Pass'/'exist'
In a number of languages, the source of a distance expression is the verb 'pass',
or the more general verb 'exist, be'. The simplest way in which this can serve to
express distance is by occurring in a temporal adverbial clause with the distance
phrase as its subject, e.g. 'When five years have passed/When it's five years'
for 'in five years' time'. This strategy is used, for instance, in Lithuanian and
Hungarian. In these languages, the converbal form of the verb 'pass' is used.
Since I do not have much evidence that these verb forms have become
grammaticalized along the grammaticalization path from converbs to
adpositions (cf. KORTMANN & KÖNIG 1992 for this general development), these
cases are perhaps not NP-based time adverbials at all and therefore belong
more properly in §3.3.
E93. Hungarian
három hét múl-va 'in three weeks' time'
three week pass-CONV
E94. Lithuanian
dvie-m dieno-m praslink-us 'in two days' time'
two-DAT days-DAT pass-CONV
In Nanay, the verb bi- 'be' is used in this way:
E95. Nanay
ǯuer ajŋani-doa bi-pi 'in two years' time'
two year-DAT be-CONV
6.2. Other sources 87
Quite a few other languages use 'pass', 'exist' or a similar verb for the distance-past
function. Interestingly, I have not found a language in which both
distance-future and distance-past are expressed by the verbs 'pass' or 'exist'.
This is perhaps not surprising because these verbs must be employed in a very
different manner to yield the distance-past meaning. While 'past'/ 'exist' occurs
in a temporal adverbial clause in the distance-future meaning, it should occur in
the main clause to yield the distance-past meaning, with the located situation in
a subordinate clause: 'Five years have passed since she returned', or 'It has
been five years since she returned', for 'She returned five years ago'.
In some languages, this main-clause strategy is still commonly employed in
contexts requiring the distance-past meaning. Some examples are given in E96-
97 below.
E96. 'there exists, there is'
a. French (il y a, lit. 'it here has', i.e. 'there is')
Il y a une semaine que je suis venu.
'I came a week ago.'
b. Basque (duela 'it has')
Duela bi ordu hemen zen.
it.has two hour here he.was
'He was here two hours ago.'
c. Lezgian (HASPELMATH 1993:305)
Am fe-na wad jarz ja.
[she.ABS go-AOR.CONV] five month is
'It's been five years since she went, i.e. She went five years ago.'
d. Haitian Creole (gin 'have, exist')
Sa pa gin lontan, you nonm yo rélé Tédas... (Acts 5.36)
it not has longtime one man they call Theudas
'Not long ago, a man called Theudas...'
E97. 'it makes'
a. Haitian Creole
Jodi-a fè kat jou, mouin té lakay mouin. (Acts 10.30)
today make four day I PAST house my
'Four days ago I was in my house.'
b. Spanish
Hace cuatro días que a esta hora yo estaba en ayunas. (Acts 10.30)
'Four days ago I was fasting until this hour.'
88 6. Temporal distance
However, as part of a process of grammaticalization the erstwhile main clause
may be turned into an adverbial phrase, while the erstwhile subordinate clause
becomes the main clause. Such grammaticalization processes are not
uncommon, cf. HEINE & REH (1984), HASPELMATH (1997:§6.2) for further examples.
The verb 'exist'/'pass' becomes an adposition in this way, often with
quite peculiar synchronic properties. For instance, Italian now has a postposition
fa (lit. 'it makes'), which is unique among all the prepositions. Examples
from Romance languages are given in E98.
E98. a. French
Je suis venue il y a une semaine. 'I came a week ago.'
b. Spanish
He venido hace una semana. 'I came a week ago.'
c. Italian
Sono venuta una settimana fa. 'I came a week ago.'
Sono venuta due settimane or sono. 'I came two weeks ago.'
The originally verbal character of French il y a can still be seen in the fact that it
may be put in the past and future tense (cf. E99a-b)3 and may even be negated
(cf. E99c). (This is not possible, for instance, in Italian, where there is no *faceva
corresponding to il y avait in E99a.)
E99. French (HENRY 1966:208-212)
a. Le Ministre des Affaires étrangères de Finlande l'avait proclamé,
il y avait quelques jours de ça... (Aragon)
'The Finnish foreign minister had declared it several days earlier...'
b. Au mois de juin de l'année dernière, il y aura un an dans quelques jours,
vous vous teniez face à lui,... (Duras)
'Last June, it will be a year ago in a few days, ...'
c. Ceci s'est passé il n'y a pas trois siècles. (Hugo)
'This happened not three centuries ago.'
At the same time, it is clear that French il y a introduces a dependent phrase,
and is not an independent juxtaposed clause, because il y a phrases may be
3 This is also true of Spanish hace (past hacía), which makes it very unlikely that ELERICK’s
(1989) etymology of Spanish hace is correct. He derives hace not from the 3rd person singular
present form of hacer ‘make’, but from Latin *abhince ‘hence’. Or at least, if this is the historical
orgin, it is clear that at some stage hace was identified with the form of hacer.
6.2. Other sources 89
focused (cf. E100a) and be the object of the preposition jusque (cf. E100b)
(HENRY 1966:211-12, 1968; see also GROSS 1986, BERTHONNEAU 1993b).
E100. a. C'est il y a six ans que j'ai dû quitter le lycée...
'It was six years ago that I had to leave high school...'
b. Jusqu'il y a cinq minutes, je croyais que ça te serait égal. (Malraux)
'Until five minutes ago I believed that it would be the same to you.'
English ago (from Middle English agon 'to pass') must also have arisen in this
way.
Finally, I have found two cases of languages where the verb 'pass' is used in
a relative clause modifying the distance phrase. This phrase itself is marked by
a general adposition ('in' in E101) or not at all (cf. E102).
E101. Hausa
Daanaa yaa daawoo cikin awàa biyun dà sukà wucèe.
my.son 3SG.PAST return in hour two [REL 3SG.PAST pass]
'My son returned two hours ago.'
E102. Indonesian
Empat belas tahun yang lalu orang itu...
four ten year [which pass] man this
'Fourteen years ago, this man...'
Thus, in these cases the distance-past meaning 'two hours ago' results from a
source which means 'at the time of the past two hours', i.e. 'at the beginning of
the past two hours'. A period of time is used here to refer to an extreme point
of this period. This is not so unusual, as we will see in the next subsection.
6.2.2. 'Within'
There are quite a few languages that are like English in that they use a marker
which also does duty for the spatial inclusion relation, i.e. 'in', to denote the
distance-future function. It is here that we see the asymmetry between
distance-past and distance-future most clearly, because the distance-past
meaning is almost never expressed in this way. Some examples of 'in' in this
function are:
90 6. Temporal distance
E103. a. French
Je partirai dans quinze jours.
'I will leave in fifteen days.'
b. Spanish
Dentro de dos días se celebra la pascua. (Mt 26.2)
'Easter will be celebrated in two days.'
c. Modern Greek
Tha jiríz-o se tris óres.
FUT return-1SG in three hours
'I will return in three hours.'
d. Finnish
Palaa-n kahde-ssa tunni-ssa.
return-1SG two-INESS hours-INESS
'I will return in two hours.'
e. Georgian
Or saat-ši da-v-brundebi
three hour-LOC PREV-1SG-return
'I'll return in three hours.'
f. Punjabi
do kàṇṭe vicc/ do kàṇṭe de andar
two hours in two hours of inside
'in two hours'
g. Kannada (SRIDHAR 1990:199)
aidu nimiṣad-alli
five minute-LOC
'in five minutes'
h. Imbabura Quechua (COLE 1985:126)
Ishkay uras-pi tigramu-sha.
two hours-in return-FUT.1SG
'I will return in two hours.'
These examples from languages in three continents are sufficient to demonstrate
beyond doubt that the use of in in English and German is not an accident.
This is underlined additionally by the fact that a number of languages use their
emphatic, less grammaticalized variant of 'in', i.e. an adposition meaning
'inside, within' (Spanish dentro de, rather than en; French dans rather than en;
Punjabi andar in addition to vicc; in Finnish kuluessa 'in the course of' is an
alternative to the Inessive case). We thus need to establish a semantic
connection between 'inside, within, in' and the notion of distance-future.
6.2. Other sources 91
My proposed explanation takes the following form. I start from the observation
that within in English (and analogous adpositions in other languages,
e.g. innerhalb in German) can be used to denote the telic-extent meaning when
used with accomplishment predicates. In contrast to in, the more emphatic
within/innerhalb highlights the fact that the completion of an event does not
exceed certain temporal boundaries.
E104. English/German
They tore down the house within five hours.
Sie haben das Haus innerhalb von fünf Stunden abgerissen.
When used with a future tense, within/innerhalb is already fairly similar semantically
to the distance-future function:
E105. English/German
Bob will make 77 cookies within one hour.
Bob wird innerhalb einer Stunde 77 Plätzchen backen.
Under the assumption that Bob will start making the cookies now (again, the
moment of speech can be left implicit as a default), the event will be completed
one hour from now. The next step is the crucial one: the extension to verbs
with different aspectual properties that cannot normally cooccur with telicextent
time adverbials, e.g. momentary verbs ('explode', 'criticize') and
durative atelic verbs ('dance', 'work'). These do not combine happily with
within/innerhalb, but if they cooccur with within/innerhalb, the resulting interpretation
is even more similar to the distance-future meaning.
English/German
E106. The bomb will explode within an hour.
Die Bombe wird innerhalb einer Stunde explodieren.
E107. We will work within a month.
Wir werden innerhalb eines Monats arbeiten.
E106 is compatible with a distance-future reading, although it is also felicitous if
the event takes place at any time that is less than an hour away from the
moment of speech. The same is true for E107, which is felicitous only if the
activity predicate is used with a perfective, i.e. inceptive interpretation. The final
step in the semantic development has been taken once the location is
92 6. Temporal distance
understood more specifically as the end of the time period, and the beginning
of the time period is fixed as the moment of speech.
Now that I have proposed a possible scenario for the semantic development
from 'within' to distance-future, we can also explain the asymmetry with
respect to the distance-past function, i.e. why E108 is a common development,
while E109 is unattested.
E108. a. 'You will receive the letter within three days.' >
b. 'You will receive the letter in three days.'
E109. a. 'I received the letter within a month.' >
b. 'I received the letter a month ago.'
The oddity of the development in E109 is derived from the oddity of sentence
E109a itself. 'Within' would be used with past situations only if multiple events
are involved, e.g. 'I received sixty-nine letters within a month'. With single past
events, the precise location is usually known, so that the specification 'within X'
makes the sentence less precise than necessary.4
6.2.3. 'Back'
In a number of languages, the spatial directional adverb 'back' is used for the
distance-past function. A few examples are given below.
E110. Russian
My poznakomilis' pjat' let tomu nazad.
we got.acquainted five years to.this back
'We met five years ago.'
E111. Nanay
ǯuer ajŋani-wa xamasi
two year-ACC back
'two years ago'
4 Within is felicitous with hypothetical past events, as in the following example: She must have
been bitten by a mosquito within a month. However, here too, within the past month would be
more usual.
6.2. Other sources 93
E112. Estonian (URMAS SUTROP, p.c.)
Minu poeg naases kaks tundi tagasi.
my son returned two hour.PRTV back
'My son returned two hours ago.'
E113. Welsh (KING 1993; ôl 'footprint, trace, rear, back'; yn ôl 'in the back')
Wedes i 'r un peth wrtho ddwy flynedd yn ôl.
told I the same thing two years in back
'I told him the same thing two years ago.'
These cases are explained in a way very similar to the cases in E81-87 above
from Turkish and other languages. The spatial directional adverb 'back' is
interpreted temporally to mean 'earlier', and the reference time is expressed as
an extent phrase, so that it precedes the adverb even in head-initial languages
like Russian and Welsh, giving rise to quasi-postpositions. The relevance of the
moment of speech as end point of the time span is usually made explicit in
Russian by means of the proximal demonstrative tomu 'this.DAT'.
The most interesting point about this use of 'back' is that it contrasts
strikingly with the use of 'before' or 'in front' for expressing the same semantic
function. Clearly, in this case the image of the observer moving forward in
stationary time is predominant, whereas in cases like Turkish önce 'before, ago'
the image of time moving toward the observer is predominant. It is perhaps
not an accident that the instances of 'back' in E99-102 all seem fairly young,
whereas the cases of 'front' for the analogous function in Table 13 above are in
part much older. In general, the image of moving time appears to be expressed
by less surprising, less figurative, more abstract language, whereas the image
of the moving ego is expressed by more figurative language.
6.2.4. 'Over'
In a number of languages, a spatial marker that means 'over, across' also
serves as a temporal marker of the distance-future function. The following four
examples illustrate this. (Note that Dutch is not in my sample.)
94 6. Temporal distance
E114. Dutch5
a. over de straat 'across the street'
b. over twee uur 'in two hours'
E115. Russian
a. My pošli čerez most. 'We went across the bridge.'
we went over bridge
b. My pojdem čerez dva časa. 'We'll go in two hours.'
we will.go over two year
E116. Romanian
a. peste zid 'over the wall'
b. peste o lună 'in a month'
over a month
E117. Lezgian (Superelative case)
a. müqwe-laj 'across the bridge'
bridge-SUPEREL
b. q'we wacra-laj 'in two months'
two month-SUPEREL
This usage, too, can be understood on the basis of the movement metaphor for
time. But in contrast to the use of the verb 'pass', where it is time that moves,
the use of 'over' for distance-future is based on the moving ego. 'Over two
hours' is short for 'when we have passed the mark of two hours', just like 'over
the bridge' is short for 'when the subject has passed the bridge'.
6.2.5. 'Yet'
In two languages I have found a marker of the distance-future function that has
no relation to space: the additive phasal time adverb 'yet, still' (German noch)
(see VAN DER AUWERA (1997b) for a thorough cross-linguistic study of this and
related adverbs). The two languages are Hebrew and Indonesian:
5 Some varieties of German have an anlogous use of über, cf. (i) from a well-known folk song:
(i) Übers Jahr, übers Jahr, wenn mer Träubele schneidt,
so soll die Hochzeit sein.
‘In a year, in a year, when we reap the grapes, then will be the wedding.’
6.2. Other sources 95
E118. Hebrew
a. ʕod nemala aħat
yet ant one
'one more ant, yet an(other) ant'
b. ʕod yom-ayim ha-pesaħ ba/ bә-ʕod yamim lo rabim
yet day-DU the-Passover coming in-yet days not many
'Passover will be in two days'/ 'in not many days'
E119. Indonesian
a. Saya minta dua lagi.
I want two yet
'I want two more' (German: 'Ich möchte noch zwei.')
b. Dua hari lagi aku berangkat.
two day yet I leave
'I will leave in two days.'
The origin of this construction is probably a sequence of two main clauses,
somewhat like the construction discussed in §6.2.1 (French il y a). This is best
illustrated by using German examples with noch, because neither yet nor still
are good equivalents of Hebrew ʕod, Indonesian lagi. A hypothetical change
along the lines of E120 seems quite plausible, and is completely analogous to
the change discussed in §6.2.1.
E120. [Es sind] noch zwei Tage, ich werde [dann] wegfahren.
> Ich werde noch zwei Tage wegfahren.
'[It's] still two days, [then] I will leave. > I will leave still two days.'
The phasal meaning of noch (ʕod, lagi) yields the future meaning of the distancefuture
function. Somewhat similar is the use of digar 'other' in Persian (e.g. se
sâle digar bar migardam [three year other back I.come] 'I'll return in three (more)
years).
The converse of 'yet, noch' is 'already', so we might expect that some languages
use their 'already' word for the distance-past function. I have not found
an example of this, but this may be an accidental gap in my data, because
'already' is widely attested in the distance-posterior function (cf. §8.3.2), which
is closely related to the distance-past function and is commonly expressed by
similar formal means.
96 6. Temporal distance
6.3. Deictic and non-deictic distance expressions
So far we have been exclusively concerned with deictic distance expressions, i.e.
temporal adverbials locating a situation at a certain temporal distance from the
moment of speech. But we saw already in §2.4 that distance expressions can
locate situations also with respect to other time locations. First, let me say a few
words about distance expressions like a year after the Kobe earthquake, which
measure the distance between the located situation and an explicitly given
reference situation. I assume that all languages use their regular anterior and
posterior markers in combination with some means of specifying the distance. I
have not systematically investigated the grammar of distance phrases, because
they are not peculiar to temporal adverbials. In prepositional languages, the
distance phrase typically precedes the anterior/posterior preposition and is
unmarked, or marked with the accusative (or other minimal) case. Some
examples are given in E121, most of which are from a New Testament passage
(John 12.1).
E121. a. German
einen Monat vor der Geburt des Kindes
'a month before the baby's birth'
b. Bulgarian
šest dni predi pasxa-ta
six days before Easter-ART
'six days before Easter'
c. French
un an après l'élection de Chirac
'a year after Chirac's election'
d. Indonesian
enam hari sebelum Paskah
six day before Easter
'six days before Easter'
e. Italian
un' ora prima della mia partenza
'an hour before my departure'
f. Spanish
seis días antes de la pascua
'six days before Easter'
g. Swedish
sex dagar före påsken
six days before Easter
'six days before Easter'
6.3. Deixis in distance expressions 97
I have two examples of prepositional languages with postposed distance
phrases, marked by specific prepositions:6
E122. a. Arabic
qabla l-fiṣħi bi-sittati ʔayyaamin
before the-Passover with-six days
'six days before Passover'
b. Croatian
prije vazma na šest dana
before Easter by six day
'six days before Easter'
I have only two examples from postpositional languages. In Turkish, the
distance phrase is unmarked and precedes the postposition immediately. In
Hungarian, it precedes the object of the postposition and is in the Instrumental
case.
E123. a. Turkish (cf. also E82)
Cumhuriyet Bayramın-dan bir gün önce
Republic Festival-ABL one day before
'one day before the Republic Festival'
b. Hungarian (cf. also E88b)
hat nap-pal a húsvét előtt
six day-INSTR the Easter before
'six days before Easter'
In the present context of deictic distance expressions, somewhat more interesting
is the question to what extent the distance markers described in §6.1-2
can also be used when the distance is measured not from an explicitly given
reference point, but from a reference point that is implicit in the context (hence,
KUČERA & TRNKA (1975:38) and KLEIN (1994:156) call such expressions
'anaphoric'). In many languages, a different marker must be used when the
6 A very peculiar example from New Testament Greek is (i). (This sentence, incidentally, is
the source of many of the examples in E121-123.)
(i) Ho oũn Iēsoũs prò hèx hēmerõn toũ páskha ẽlthen eis Bēthanían
ART PT Jesus before six days ART.GEN Passover came to Bethany
'Six days before Passover Jesus came to Bethany.' (John 12.1)
Since Greek pró is also used in the distance-past function, this non-deictic use seems to be
based on the deictic one, and literal translation might be 'Six days ago from Passover, i.e. six
days before Passover'.
98 6. Temporal distance
reference point is not the moment of speech. In §2.4 I introduced the terms
distance-retrospective and distance-prospective for these cases. The difference
between retrospective and past distance expressions, and between prospective
and future distance expressions is illustrated by English in E124-125 (see also
E27a-b in chapter 2).
E124. a. (past) Our son returned from the army two weeks ago.
b. (retrospective) Do you remember when your brother paid us an
unexpected visit, coming all the way from Chile? Fortunately, all of us were
at home. Our son had returned from the army two weeks earlier (/*ago).
E125. a. (future) Will Switzerland exist in fifty years' time?
b. (prospective) Tito died in 1980. Ten years later (/*in ten years)
Yugoslavia began to crumble.
I did not investigate the expressions for the distance-retrospective and distanceprospective
functions systematically for the sample languages, but I do have
limited data on the distance-prospective function in 27 languages. My data stem
mostly from the New Testament, where translations of sentences like E125b
are easy to find. In 13 of these 27 languages, the distance-prospective marker is
identical to the distance-future marker. Thus, the deictic/nondeictic distinction
is made by a substantial proportion of the languages, as in English, but there
are also many languages in which this distinction is lacking. The data are
summarized in Table 14 on the next page. In addition to the distance-future and
distance-prospective markers of the 27 languages for which data are available, I
have included the posterior markers in Table 14, because these are also often
formally identical or related (marked by "=", "(=)", or "≈" between the distanceprospective
and posterior columns).
A number of observations can be made on the basis of Table 14. First, within
Europe, there is a clear areal patterning in the distribution of the deictic/nondeictic
distinction: Western and northern European languages tend to make this
distinction, whereas eastern European languages tend to lack it. Interestingly,
Latin and Ancient Greek (which is not in the sample but is included in Table 14)
pattern with the eastern European languages, not with Romance and Modern
Greek.
6.3. Deixis in distance expressions 99
Table 14: Deixis distinctions in the expression of temporal
distance
distance-future distance-prospective posterior
(= deictic) (= non-deictic)
A. Languages showing the deictic/non-deictic distinction
English in X later, after X = after X
German in X später, nach X = nach X
Swedish om X senare, efter X = efter X
French dans X plus tard après
Spanish dentro de X después ≈ después de X
Haitian Creole nan apré X = apré X
Russian čerez spustja posle
Croatian do poslije = poslije
Modern Greek se ístera apó metá
Irish i gcionn X X ina dhiaidh sin roimh
Finnish -ssa (INESSIVE) X myöhemmin X jälkeen
Maltese fi X wara ≈ wara X
Indonesian lagi kumudian sebelum
B. Languages lacking the deictic/non-deictic distinction
Latin post/ABLATIVE post = post
Ancient Greek metá metá = metá
Albanian pas pas = pas
Bulgarian sled sled = sled
Lithuanian po/praslinkus po/už/praslinkus7 = praslinkus/po
Latvian pēc pēc = pēc
Hungarian múlva múlva után
Estonian X pärast X pärast ≈ pärast X
Lezgian SUPERELATIVE SUPERELATIVE güǧüniz/q'uluqh
Chechen -älča -älča t'äħa
Arabic baʕda baʕda = baʕda
Japanese go ni go ni = go ni
Chinese yǐhòu yǐhòu (=) (guo)hòu
Turkish X sonra X sonra/geçince (=) X-den sonra
7 There is dialectal variation between po and už (see URBANAVIČIŪTĖ-MARKEVIČIENĖ &
GRINAVECKIS 1995 for detailed discussion).
100 6. Temporal distance
This is of course a familiar pattern in the areal typology of Europe, and it
suggests that the existence of the deictic/non-deictic distinction should be
included in the list of features identifying Standard Average European (cf. VAN
DER AUWERA (1997a) for some recent discussion of this Sprachbund).
Second, the data in Table 14 suggest the following implicational generalization:
If in a language the posterior and the distance-future markers are
identical, then the distance-prospective marker also takes the same form. This
gives us some additional insight into the identity of these two markers, which
was already discussed in §6.1 above. It is clear that in languages where all three
markers are formally identical (e.g. Ancient Greek, Bulgarian, Arabic,
Japanese), the distance markers are derived from the posterior marker, and the
distance-future function is treated as just a special case of the distanceprospective
function.
Among the languages that distinguish the distance-future from the distanceprospective
function, those that show the 'within' type of distance-future
marker (discussed in §6.2.2) are particularly prominent. 'Within' markers never
express both distance-future and distance-prospective, they are always purely
deictic. It is not clear to me why this should be so.
Another observation is that when the posterior and distance-prospective
markers are not identical, then the distance marker tends to be an adverb
which combines with a (mostly preceding) distance phrase. The adverb can be a
comparative of the adjective 'late' (as in English, German, Swedish, French,
Modern Greek, Finnish, Indonesian), or based on a spatial adverbial ('behind, in
back, afterward'; Spanish, Maltese, Estonian).
Before concluding this chapter, I would like to discuss briefly expressions
such as E126a-b (cf. also E99b from French, which is similar).
E126. a. English
three years ago today
b. German
morgen in einer Woche 'a week from tomorrow'
These show an apparent non-deictic use of the otherwise exclusively deictic
adpositions ago and in, being synonymous with the unidiomatic phrases three
years before today, and eine Woche nach morgen, respectively. In their discussion of
ago, KORTMANN & KÖNIG (1992:678) go as far as to claim that English ago can
generally be used non-deictically, like before, and that the deictic interpretation
6.3. Deixis in distance expressions 101
results only when no other reference point is given explicitly.8 But both in
English and in German, this construction is severely restricted. While any time
unit expression can be inserted as the distance phrase, only a few expressions
are possible as explicit reference points. In German, my judgments are as
shown in E127.
E127. a. heute 'today'
morgen 'tomorrow'
übermorgen 'day after tomorrow'
gestern 'yesterday' vor einem Jahr 'a year ago'
vorgestern 'day before yesterday' in einem Jahr 'in a year'
?*letzte/nächste Woche 'last/next week'
*letzten/nächsten Monat 'last next month'
*in zwei Tagen 'in two days'
*vor zwei Tagen 'two days ago'
b. *jetzt vor zehn Stunden 'two hours ago now'
c. *heuer in einem Jahrhundert 'in three years this year'
Thus, the only possible explicit reference points are heute, morgen and gestern,
plus compounds derived from the two latter words.9 While I have no explanation
for the nature of this restriction, I feel that these cases are not sufficient
to question the basically deictic meaning of ago, in, etc. These expressions
contradict my analysis somewhat, but they should be analyzed as idiomatic,
analogous to completely idiosyncratic and non-compositional phrases like
tomorrow week 'a week from tomorrow'.
8 KORTMANN & KÖNIG also claim that ago, like before (and like from in their distanceprospective
example three years from now), is a preposition which in three years ago today takes
today as its argument, often allows an unexpressed argument (resulting in a deictic
interpretation), and requires an obligatory "specifier" (i.e. preposed distance phrase). This
analysis, though ingenious, is implausible because of the marginal status of the "argument"
following ago (see E127). Its main virtue is that it identifies the somewhat unclear syntactic
status of today with the well-understood status of being an argument of a preposition. But this
analysis of English ago does not extend to German E126b, where morgen intuitively has the
same function as English today in E126a. (To be consistent, KORTMANN & KÖNIG would have
to analyze German in as a postposition followed by a Dative-marked distance phrase, which I
doubt they would be prepared to do.)
9 Incidentally, I find überüberüberübermorgen vor einem Jahr much better than the synonymous
*in fünf Tagen vor einem Jahr ‘a year ago in five days’, although the former is almost
unprocessable. This shows that the constraint is lexical rather than semantic.
Chapter 7
Simultaneous temporal location
7.1. Introduction
At first glance, simultaneous temporal location looks semantically quite simple:
The located situation is simultaneous with the reference time, which is either a
point in time (e.g. five o'clock, our arrival at the summit) or a time span (e.g. the
summer, the federal budget negotiations). Spatial models for simultaneous location
are readily available: For reference time points, the one-dimensional spatial
meaning 'at (a point in space)' is available, and for reference time spans, the
two-dimensional spatial 'on (a surface)' or the three-dimensional spatial 'in (a
container)' can be used. And indeed, this is the option that languages
overwhelmingly choose: They transfer their simplest spatial markers to
temporal noun phrases to denote simultaneous temporal location. Thus, the
English expressions at five o'clock, on Thursday, in January are very typical.
There are only three languages in my sample, Lithuanian, Swahili and Abkhaz,
which do not use spatial markers in any of the simultaneous functions. But
even these languages make only limited use of non-spatial markers: Swahili
and Abkhaz mostly show zero marking, and Lithuanian mostly has accusative
case marking. Thus, they are fairly weak exceptions to the general rule.
Languages commonly restrict the application of their spatial markers to NPs
headed by specialized temporal nouns, i.e. nouns denoting canonical time
periods (plus a few others, such as 'time', 'beginning', 'end'). Thus, we can say
in the winter, in the morning, at Easter, but not *in the federal budget negotiations,
*in the soccer game (at least not in the temporal sense).1 I have not made a
systematic study of this restriction, but it appears that most languages require
auxiliary nouns like 'time' when expressing simultaneity with an event denoted
by a normal action noun, e.g. in Russian vo vremja peregovorov 'at the.time
of.the.negotiations' (contrasting with *v peregovory 'in the negotiations').
Several European languages have a special preposition for this purpose
1 These expressions are possible in a non-temporal sense, where involvement in the action is
implied. The contexts provided in (i)-(ii) show that only during is possible in English when a
purely temporal sense is intended.
(i) *In/During the federal budget negotiations, Clinton's popularity was rising and rising.
(ii) *In/During the final game of the soccer world championship, many cases of burglary
were committed.
7.1. Introduction 103
(English during, French pendant, Italian durante, German während), but I have
not found a similar special marker in most other languages, so I did not
distinguish a separate semantic function for them.
Thus, the only simultaneous temporal adverbials investigated in this study
are those that are based on the canonical time periods, i.e. time units (hours,
days, months, years), calendar unit names (April, Thursday), and the qualitative
periods of the day (morning, evening, etc.) and the year (spring, summer, etc.),
as listed in Table 3 in §2.1. Semantically, all of these denote time spans, except
for hours, which are commonly used to denote points in time, e.g. at five o'clock
(contrasting with location in time spans such as in the morning, in 1962). On the
basis of this consideration, we might expect that many languages will express
clock time by one marker (e.g. a one-dimensional spatial marker such as
English at), and all the other types of simultaneous temporal location by
another marker.
However, this is almost never the case. In some languages, all types of
reference time nouns are marked in the same way, e.g. in Latin (Ablative case),
Latvian (Locative case), Abkhaz (postposition –zә), Hebrew (preposition be-),
Swahili (zero-marking). In many other languages, different types of reference
time nouns require different markers, but hours are not very often treated in a
special way (cf. §7.3 for details). The situation in English, where three different
markers are used (at, on, in) is not untypical for this class of languages. It is not
immediately clear why languages should use different markers in these cases,
because semantically there are no apparent differences (but cf. WIERZBICKA
1993). Examples of other languages that show several different markers are
given in E128-131.
E128. French (three markers: Ø, à, en)
a. hour: à 5 heures 'at five o'clock'
b. day part: au/Ø le matin 'in the morning'
c. day: Ø mardi/Ø le premier 'on Tuesday/on the first'
d. month: en juin 'in June'
e. season: en hiver 'in the winter'
f. year: en 1789 'in 1789'
g. festival: à Pâques 'at Easter'
104 7. Simultaneous temporal location
E129. Japanese (two markers: Ø und -ni)
a. hour: go-zi-ni 'at five o'clock'
b. day part: asa(-ni) 'in the morning'
c. day: getuyoobi(-ni) 'on Monday'
d. month: nigatu-ni 'in February'
e. season: natu-ni 'in the summer'
f. year: 1990 nen-ni 'in 1990'
g. festival: Kurisumasu-ni 'at Christmas'
E130. Hungarian (five markers: -kor/Ø/-en/-Cal/-ban)
a. hour: hat-kor 'at six o'clock'
b. day part: este Ø 'in the evening'
c. day: kedd-en 'on Tuesday'
d. month: január-ban 'in January'
e. season: tavas-szal 'in the spring'
f. year: ez év-ben 'this year'
g. festival: karácsony-kor 'at Christmas'
E131. Hausa (four markers: dà/Ø/à/gà)
a. hour: dà k'arfèe bìyar 'at five o'clock'
b. day part: dà màrìicee 'in the evening'
c. day: Ø ran lìttìnîn 'on Monday'
d. month: (à) watàn Maayù 'in May'
e. season: dà dàamunaa 'in the rainy season'
f. year: à shèekaràr 1990 'in 1990'
g. festival: gà sallàr Kiristìmeetì 'at Christmas'
The enormous variation shown by these four languages and English is sufficient
to make one skeptical of the approach advocated in WIERZBICKA (1993).
She argues that a common meaning can be found for at in at five o'clock, at noon,
at the beginning, at night, at the beginning, and for on in on Thursday, on the first
night. This kind of in-depth semantic analysis of a single language can certainly
be insightful, but it does not throw much light on the cross-linguistic variation.
In particular, it would lead us to expect that the English pattern of simultaneous
markers should repeat itself in other languages (which is not the case). Of
course, it is possible that different languages conceive of different time periods
in different ways, but it is equally possible that a lot of these markings are fairly
arbitrary conventions.
7.1. Introduction 105
The goal of this chapter will be to discover a few cross-linguistic regularities
in these diverse patterns. I have looked systematically at the expression of
simultaneous location with reference time nouns of the seven types shown in
the examples above.
7.2. An implicational map for simultaneous location markers
In order to capture some regularities in the distribution of various markers
(adpositions and cases) over different types of time unit nouns, I propose to
make use of the methodology of implicational maps that has been pioneered
by L. ANDERSON (1982) and used and further developed in KEMMER (1993),
HASPELMATH (1997: Ch. 4) and KORTMANN (1997: Ch. 7). An implicational map
(also called "semantic map", cognitive map") shows a geometric arrangement of
several (semantically or otherwise) distinguishable functions or uses that a
grammatical element may have. A grammatical marker in a given language
may express a range of different functions, but these functions must always be
adjacent to each other on the map, i.e. a marker must cover a contiguous area.
Thus, an implicational map makes the prediction that only a subset of the
logically possible patterns of polysemy actually occur in languages, i.e. it
expresses the universal constraints on polysemy or polyfunctionality of
grammatical markers. An implicational map can be seen as an abbreviatory
statement of a number of implicational universals (HASPELMATH 1997). At the
same time it shows the patterns of relatedness among different functions,
because adjacency on the map is always due to functional closeness.
The fewer connections exist among the functions on an implicational map,
the greater the constraints on polyfunctionality. In the case of time period
nouns functioning in simultaneous adverbials, the implicational map that I
propose shows nine connections among six functions, which is not optimal (the
most restrictive map would show just five connections), but it does capture
some restrictions (the most permissive map, which allows any combination of
functions in a marker, would have fifteen connections). The map I propose for
the six time period types hour, day part, day, month, season, year is shown in
Figure 32. (For the seventh simultaneous type, festival, see §7.5.)
106 7. Simultaneous temporal location
Figure 32: The implicational map for simultaneous location markers
Crucially, adjacency on the map is defined by the connecting lines, not by
distance. Thus, function (1) (hour) is adjacent to (6) (year), but not to (5)
(season). In order to show adjacency purely in terms of distance, one would
have to use a three-dimensional representation, as sketched in Figure 33.
Figure 33: A three-dimensional representation of the implicational map
For expository convenience, I will only use the two-dimensional version of
Figure 30, omitting the connecting lines. To show how the map works in
practice, let us look at the distribution of the simultaneous markers in several
languages over the map. The maps for English, French, Japanese, Hungarian
and Hausa are shown in Figures 34-38.
Figure 34: English
7.2. An implicational map 107
Figure 35: French
Figure 36: Japanese
Figure 37: Hungarian
Figure 38: Hausa
Thus, languages vary widely in their marking of simultaneous location with
different types of time units. Apart from the five languages of my sample that
do not differentiate the six types at all, there are hardly any pairs of languages
that show the same distributional pattern. But in general they conform to the
overall pattern defined by Figure 32.
108 7. Simultaneous temporal location
Unfortunately, however, this implicational map is not without exceptions. The
clearest violation of the map is found in Nkore-Kiga, which according to
TAYLOR (1985) shows the preposition aha for the functions (1), (3) and (5), and
the preposition omu for the functions (2), (4), and (6).
Nkore-Kiga
E132. a. (1) aha shaaha ikumi 'at ten o'clock'
b. (3) aha rwakana 'on Thursday'
c. (5) aha kyanda 'in summer'
E133. a. (2) omu mwabazyo 'in the afternoon'
b. (4) omu kwezi kwa Januwari 'in January'
c. (6) omu mwaka gwa 1985 'in 1985'
Perhaps omu can also be used with days (cf. TAYLOR 1985:118), which would
remove the anomaly in the distribution of this preposition, but aha still violates
the implicational map. In Finnish, the Essive case (-na) is used with days and
years (vuon-na 1990 'in 1990'), but not normally with any of the other time units
(however, it is used with other time units when these have a preceding
modifier, cf. E144 below). Finally, in Italian the preposition a is only used with
hours (alle due 'at two o'clock'), day parts (alla mattina 'in the morning'), and
months (a maggio 'in may').
Thus, the implicational map does not represent an absolute universal, but
only a tendency. Nevertheless, as such it retains its usefulness. In the following
sections, I will try to explain why the time unit types are arranged on the map
the way they are, and I will make further comments on the individual markers,
to the extent that generalizations emerge from the data.
7.3. Location in hours
As I mentioned above, the hour is the only time unit that is often (indeed,
usually) employed to indicate temporal location at a point rather than in a time
span. We can say 'in the seventh hour', but we are much more likely to say
'after six o'clock' or 'between six and seven', using non-simultaneous markers.
This is apparently true for most languages. The hours are used with
simultaneous location markers mainly when a point in time, or at least a more
specific temporal location is intended, e.g. 'at seven o'clock'.
On the basis of this semantic difference, one might think that hours tend to
be marked with one-dimensional spatial markers, whereas the other time units
7.3. Location in hours 109
take other spatial markers (cf. WIERZBICKA 1993). However, there is not much
evidence bearing out such an expectation. Besides English (at), only the
Romance languages could be cited, which use their preposition a/à, contrasting
with en/in for most other time units (cf. MEYER-LÜBKE 1899:492).
In about half of the languages of my 53-language sample, the marker used
for simultaneous location of hours is the same as that used for several other or
the majority of time unit types. In about ten languages, a marker that is more
specific than the other markers is used for hours. A few examples of this are
shown in E134.
E134. a. Welsh (am 'for; about; around'; KING 1993:271)
Ddo i 'n ôl am saith.
come I in back around seven
'I'll come back at seven.'
b. Chechen
c'erpošt süjranna itt saħt dälča dʕajödu
train evening ten hour at leaves
'The train leaves at ten o'clock in the evening.'
c. Haitian Creole (vè from French vers 'around')
vè toua zè
'at three o'clock'
d. Finnish (Ablative case; SULKALA & KARJALAINEN 1992:256)
(kello) kolme-lta
clock three-ABL
'at three o'clock'
e. Hungarian (-kor, special temporal case suffix, from kor 'period')
kilenc óra-kor
nine hour-TEMP
'at nine o'clock'
Other cases are German um ('around'), Polish w + Accusative ('into'),
Greenlandic Eskimo Allative case (-nut). Perhaps the recurrent use of 'around'
in hour expressions is due to the fact that while clock time strictly speaking
denotes a precise point in time, speakers are more likely to locate a situation
more loosely in real life.
A handful of languages employ a marker that is less specific than the other
markers, e.g. the Dative case in Tamil (eeẓu maṇi-kki 'at seven o'clock') and
Kannada (ombattu gaṇṭe-ge 'at nine o'clock'), contrasting with the Locative case;
the Nominative case in Estonian (kell viis 'clock.NOM three.NOM') and
alternatively in Finnish; zero in Swedish (klockan åtta 'at eight o'clock'), the
110 7. Simultaneous temporal location
Oblique case in Punjabi. Maybe the use of Romance a/à also belongs to this
group, because à/a is a more general, more grammaticalized adposition than
en/in.
That 'hour' occurs adjacent to 'day part' and 'day' on the implicational map is
not surprising, because these are the two next shortest time unit types. That
'hour' is also adjacent to 'year' is more surprising. This is motivated in
particular by three languages: Tagalog, where the preposition nang is only used
for these two functions (nang alas-otro 'at eight o'clock'; nang 1950 'in 1950');
Babungo, where máa is restricted to hour, year and festival (máa fâyf 'at five'; máa
ŋù' yɔ́̄ in that year'); and Albanian, where më is restricted to hour and year (më
dy 'at two'; më 1912 'in 1912'). This special relationship between hours and years
may be due to the fact that both hours and years are usually named by
numbers (days of the week and months are also numbered in some languages,
but this is much rarer).
7.4. Location in day parts and seasons
The parts or periods of the day, called "day parts" here for short, are of course
more heterogeneous than the hours. While there is a tendency for the different
day parts to behave in a parallel fashion (in the morning, in the afternoon, in the
evening; Russian Instrumental case in utr-om 'in the morning', dn-em 'during
the day', večer-om 'in the evening'), there are numerous instances in which
different day parts are marked in different ways. Thus, Irish has ar maidin 'in
the morning', san oíche 'at night', um tráthnóna 'in the evening'; Italian has
all'alba 'at dawn', di mattina 'in the morning', nel pomeriggio 'in the afternoon';
Lezgian has ekünaqʰ 'in the morning (Superessive case), jifiz 'at night' (Dative
case), näniz/näniqʰ 'in the evening', nisiniz/nisiniqʰ 'at noon (Dative or
Superessive case). It is not possible here to mention all these differences, and it
would be very difficult to generalize over them.
There are two reasons for the variation that we observe in day part nouns:
First, day parts are generally very frequent in discourse, and due to their high
frequency, their combinations with grammatical markers tend to be lexicalized.
Thus, there is not as much analogical pressure on day part adverbials as there is
on hour adverbials. And second, different day parts may have different
semantic properties (cf. WIERZBICKA 1993): While the morning and the evening
are semantically quite parallel, the night is a much longer period and has a very
different function for people. And dawn, dusk and noon are probably thought
of as points in time rather than time spans.
7.5. Location in days, months, years, and festivals 111
In particular this latter hypothesis is confirmed in quite a few languages:
Words for 'noon', 'midnight', 'dawn', etc. tend to differ from the prototypical
day parts 'morning' and 'evening' and to resemble hours in their marking. A
few examples of this are given in E135.
E135. a. Kobon
sidaŋ Ø = ten kilok Ø ≠ sib halö
noon ten o'clock darkness with
'at midday' 'at ten o'clock' 'early in the morning'
b. Italian
all' alba = all' una ≠ di sera/ Ø la sera
at.the dawn at.the one of evening the evening
'at dawn' 'at one o'clock' 'in the evening'
c. Hungarian
éjfél-kor = hat-kor ≠ reggel Ø
midnight-TEMP six-TEMP morning
'at midnight' 'at six o'clock' 'in the morning'
d. Greenlandic Eskimo
ullu-qiqqa-nut = tallima-nut ≠ ullaaq Ø
day-mid-ALL five-ALL morning.ABS
'at midday' 'at five o'clock' 'in the morning'
e. Bulgarian
v srednošt = v 10 časa ≠ Ø sutrin(-ta)
in midnight in 10 hour morning(-ART)
'at midnight' 'at ten o'clock' 'in the morning'
The formal marking of day parts in simultaneous location adverbs is in
several ways similar to that of the seasons, which is not too surprising in view
of their semantic similarity. Both day parts and seasons are not successive time
units, but rather periods that are qualitatively different from each other. Names
of months and of days of the week are not more than names for time units
defined by their position in the calendar, whereas day parts and seasons are
defined by their qualitative characteristics much more than by their calendar
position.
112 7. Simultaneous temporal location
The first shared formal property is that they tend to be lexicalized in their
adverbial form. Several languages have adverbial forms for day parts and
seasons that are not used in other syntactic functions besides simultaneous
adverbials. In my sample, Chechen and Udmurt have this property:
adverbial form nominal form
E136. Chechen
a. day parts dijnaħ de 'day'
busa büjsa 'night'
ʕüjranna ʕüjre 'morning'
saraħ süjre 'evening'
b. seasons guraħ güjre 'fall'
ʕaj ʕa 'winter'
bʕästa bʕäste 'spring'
äxka äxke 'summer'
E137. Udmurt
a. day parts čukna čuk 'morning'
nunaźe nunal 'day'
ǯytaźe ǯyt 'evening'
uin uj 'night'
b. seasons tolalte tol(alte) 'winter'
tulys tulys 'spring'
gužem gužem 'summer'
Both Udmurt and Chechen have a fairly rich case system, and they could easily
use a locative case for the simultaneous location in day parts or seasons. But the
adverbial forms in E136-137 are quite irregular. And even in Russian, whose
Instrumental case of day parts (utr-om 'in the morning') and seasons (let-om 'in
the summer') is quite regular from a formal point of view, a widespread view
of these forms is that they are fixed adverbials rather than case forms (cf.
KUČERA 1966 for some discussion).
Hungarian nicely shows how an oblique case form of such a noun may
become fixed as the base form of the noun. In this language, reggel means
'morning' or 'in the morning', and éjjel means 'night' or 'at night'. These forms
are evidently old Instrumental case forms (-Al plus gemination of the preceding
consonant) of the roots reg- and éj-,2 which have been reinterpreted as base
2 The Instrumental case is also used with the seasons, e.g. összel 'in the fall', tavasszal 'in the
spring'. The old form éj is preserved in compounds such as éj-szaka ('night period') and in fixed
phrases such as jó éjt 'good night'.
7.5. Location in days, months, years, and festivals 113
forms because of their high frequency.3 The result is that the adverbial form of
these nouns is now zero-marked. A similar process may also account for zero
marking in Nanay, which is otherwise a highly inflecting language:
E138. Nanay
a. day parts čimii '(in the) morning'
ini '(during the) day'
śikse '(in the) evening'
dolbo '(at) night'
b. seasons neŋne '(in the) spring'
ǯoa '(in the) summer'
bolo '(in the) fall'
tue '(in the) winter'
Two other languages that use the base or zero form only with day part nouns
and season nouns are Romanian and Greenlandic Eskimo, and in Bulgarian,
day part nouns are the only ones to be unmarked in the simultaneous location
function. Finally, Finnish and Italian have non-zero simultaneous markers that
are only used with the qualitative periods. In Finnish, this is the Adessive case
(illa-lla 'in the evening', keskipäivä-llä 'at noon'; kesä-llä 'in the summer', kevää-llä
'in the spring'), and in Italian it is the preposition di (di mattina 'in the morning',
di sera 'in the evening', di notte 'at night'; d'inverno 'in the winter', d'estate 'in the
summer', d'autunno 'in the fall'). Thus, the link between day parts and seasons
on the implicational map is well-motivated.
To conclude this sub-section, let me say a few words on the seasons. The
four seasons of European culture (spring, summer, fall, winter) are of course
not universal – languages spoken near the equator generally have very different
kinds of seasons, e.g. Hausa raanii 'dry season', dàamunaa 'rainy season';
Hixkaryana txemnyehɨ 'rainy season'; Babungo ndɔ̂ŋ 'dry season'; Indonesian
musim hujan 'rainy season', musim kering 'dry season'. But these differences do
not affect the expression of temporal relations.
A few languages treat different seasons differently:
3 See KOCH (1995) for a discussion of this process, with many further examples from
languages around the world.
114 7. Simultaneous temporal location
E139. a. Italian
winter/summer: di ('of') d'inverno/d'estate
spring/fall: in ('in') in primavera/in autunno4
b. Hungarian
winter/summer: Locative tél-en/nyár-on
spring/fall: Instrumental tavas-szal/ös-szel
c. Polish
winter/summer: w ('in') w zimie/w lecie
spring/fall: na ('onto') na wiosnę/na jesien⁄
d. Georgian
winter/summer: Locative zamtar-ši/zapxul-ši
spring/fall Superessive gazapxul-ze/šemodgoma-zec.
These examples seem to show that there is a tendency for winter and summer
to pattern together, contrasting with spring and fall. Moreover, Hungarian,
Polish and Georgian are surprisingly similar in that they seem to treat summer
and winter more like containers (perhaps because they are the prototypical
seasons), whereas spring and fall are treated differently (like surfaces?)
(perhaps because they are conceived of as transitional between summer and
winter).
7.5. Location in days, months, years, and festivals
Days, months and years are the prototypical time units, and it is here that we
find the most typical simultaneous markers. One general observation is that as
a rule simultaneous location in time periods is expressed by fairly abstract
spatial markers, often the most grammaticalized spatial markers. Even in
languages with only a moderately rich case system, it is often case markers
rather than adpositions that are used for simultaneous location. Not uncommonly,
even abstract non-spatial cases are used for this function, e.g. the
accusative in Lithuanian, Modern Greek and Imbabura Quechua, the Dative in
Lezgian, the Essive in Finnish, the Ablative in Latin. But in many other cases a
4 However, d'autunno is also possible. (The French contrast between en hiver, en été, en
automne, but au printemps can be explained diachronically: en + le was originally contracted to
au, just like à + le (MEYER-LÜBKE 1899:493). Modern French has preserved quite a few cases of
au alternating with en in this way.)
7.5. Location in days, months, years, and festivals 115
more specific spatial marker is used, and this generally points in the same
direction: interior spatial markers ('in'), as used for three-dimensional inclusion.
Since the time line is one-dimensional, the a priori expectation would be that
temporal location tends to be expressed by means of an 'on' marker. This is
indeed occasionally the case (English on (Friday), Hungarian Superessive case,
Swedish på), but 'in' markers clearly predominate.
The position of the time unit 'day' on the implicational map is not surprising
– it is adjacent to the next smaller time unit (hour), to the next larger time unit
(month), and on the other hand, to the qualitative periods of the day. Similarly,
the time unit 'month' is located, as expected, between the day and the year on
the map. Otherwise there is not much more that can be said about location in
days and months. Complications may arise from the different treatment of
different kinds of day/month expressions. Thus, in Italian names of the month
can take the prepositions in or a (in maggio/a maggio 'in May'), whereas the word
mese 'month' only takes in (nel/*al mese di maggio). This variation is even more
widespread with days. Irish has zero marking with names of days of the week
(tiocfaidh sé Ø Dé Luain 'he is coming on Monday'), the preposition ar with dates
(ar an dara lá déag de Lúnasa 'on the twelfth of August'), and the preposition i
with plural day words (sna laethanta sin 'in those days'). When there is variation,
I have generally chosen the marking of the days of the week for the data set
listed in the Appendix.
While the expression of temporal location in years exhibits no peculiarities
worth commenting on further, the marking of festivals is special in many
languages. This function has not been included in the implicational map of
Figure 32 in §7.2 because I have not found any restrictions in the polysemy of
markers expressing location at a festival.
There are a number of languages which employ an adposition that is restricted
to the marking of festivals: German zu (zu Pfingsten 'at Pentecost'),
Russian na (na pasxu 'at Easter'), Polish na (na wiekanoc 'at Easter'), Punjabi te
(visaakhii te 'at Vaisakhi'), Tagalog kung (kung Pasko 'at Christmastime'), Haitian
Creole pou (pou fèt Pak la 'at Easter'), Hausa gà (gà sallàr Kiristìmeetì 'at
Christmas').
116 7. Simultaneous temporal location
7.6. Zero or minimal marking with certain modifiers
Zero marking of temporal location is not uncommon across languages. We saw
individual examples of this in previous sections, and there are languages that
have zero marking in all or almost all simultaneous functions, e.g. Swahili and
Kobon. Particularly day parts, days of the week and seasons tend to be zeromarked
in my data.
However, in addition to these individual cases, there is a class of expressions
that systematically exhibit zero marking in a substantial number of languages.
This class consists of various time periods combined with modifiers, especially
demonstratives, the adjectives 'last' and 'next', and the universal determiner
'every'. These conditions for zero-marking can be illustrated with English data:
E140. a. in the morning (*in) this morning
b. on Friday (*on) last Friday
c. in February (*in) every February
d. in the summer (*in) this summer
e. in the second year (*in) next year
Surprisingly, zero-marking or minimal marking is found in quite a few further
languages under similar conditions.5 Examples are given in E141-43.
E141. a. German am Montag diesen Montag
on.the Monday this.ACC Monday
b. Spanish a la mañana esta mañana
at the morning this morning
c. Maltese fi-l-għodu da-l-għodu
in-the-morning this-the-morning
E142. a. German in der ersten Woche nächste Woche
in the first week next week
b. Romanian în martie luna viitoare
in March month.the coming
c. Spanish en (el año) 1962 el año que viene
in the year 1962 the year that comes
5 The exact nature of the conditions needs to be determined for each individual language. For
instance, modifiers other than demonstratives, ordinals and quantifiers may also be relevant,
as is suggested by the following sclae of acceptability in German (pointed out by Nicole Nau):
(i) Vorigen Sommer last summer.
(ii) ??Sommer 1985 haben wir uns kennengelernt. 'We met in the summer of 1985.
(iii) *Sommer in the summer.
Such variation is beyond the scope of a broad cross-linguistic study.
7.6. Zero or minimal marking 117
d. Armenian p'etrvar-in anc'yal amis
February-DAT last month(-Ø)
e. Georgian janvar-ši bolo tve-s
January-LOC last month-ACC
f. Persian dar mâhe bahman (*dar) mâhe gozašte
in month February in month last
d. Japanese nigatu-ni sen-getu(*-ni)
February-LOC last-month(-LOC)
E143. a. French en septembre chaque mois
in September every month
b. Russian na ètoj nedele každuju nedelju
on this week every.ACC week.ACC
c. Croatian u subotu svake subote
in Saturday every Saturday
d. Finnish vuon-na 1990 joka vuosi
year-ESS 1990 every year.NOM
e. Abkhaz yanàr a-zә es-yanàr (a-zә)
January 3SG-on every-January (3SG-on)
f. Arabic fii l-yawmi l-ʔawwali kulla yawmin
in the-day.GEN the-first.GEN every.ACC day.GEN
g. Chinese (zài) xingqiyi (*zài) mei ge xingqiyi
(at) Monday (at) every CL Monday
h. I. Quechua lunis-pi kada lunis
Monday-LOC every Monday
i. Tagalog sa Linggo tuwing Linggo
at Sunday every Sunday
Thus, the phenomenon is extremely widespread and is by no means restricted
to European languages. How can we account for these contrasts?
MCCAWLEY (1988) discusses the English data of E140 and proposes that they
should be analyzed as prepositional phrases with a zero preposition.6
6 MCCAWLEY's article is a reply to LARSON's (1985) article, which proposes that nouns such as
those in E140 have lexical entries containing a feature that allows them to assign Case to NPs
of which they are the head. As MCCAWLEY notes, this does not permit one to account for
contrasts such as those in E140, where morning, Friday, summer etc. occur with or without a
preposition, depending on its modifier. MCCAWLEY gives two empirical arguments for his
"zero preposition" proposal which are supposed to show that these phrases behave like
adverbials which are prepositional phrases, not like adverbials in general (cf., e.g., the word
order possibilities in Smith may have *that day/*on a subsequent day/subsequently withdrawn his
lawsuit). I find it more straightforward to say that both that day and on a subsequent day are NPbased
time adverbials, contrasting with the adjective-based time adverbial subsequently. But
whatever conceptual choice one makes in describing the alternations noted in this section, the
real challenge is to explain why certain modifiers should allow time unit nouns to dispense
with an adposition or case that they normally require when used in simultaneous location
adverbials. To my knowledge so far nobody has even asked this question, let alone proposed
an answer.
118 7. Simultaneous temporal location
However, it can be shown that this proposal fails to account for languages in
which the contrast does not reduce to the presence or absence of a preposition.
First, note that the Indo-European and Semitic languages with a well-developed
case system and a nominative-accusative contrast tend to show the
accusative here (in the above examples, German, Russian, Croatian and Arabic,
as well as Georgian), even if the preposition in the non-modified form does not
govern the accusative case. Thus, the contrast is not just due to the omission of
the preposition. Second, in some other languages with a rich case system which
includes a locative or other concrete case (e.g. Japanese -ni, Quechua -pi, Finnish
-na), this case suffix may be dropped and the NP may occur in its base form.
Again, while it is obvious that the contrast is completely analogous to the one
in English, it cannot be described as a contrast between noun phrases and
prepositional phrases.
The direction in which I would speculate toward an explanation of this
phenomenon is that it is due to some kind of economy, at present ill-understood.
When certain frequent modifiers are present in the temporal NP, this
appears to give the NP more weight and allows it to be marked less explicitly.
In some languages, this means that an adposition is dropped or an oblique
form is replaced by the base form. But economy is also served if the case
marking is minimal, e.g. accusative in Indo-European, Arabic and Georgian.
Apparently the nominative case is not suitable for this purpose in these
languages, perhaps because it is not morphologically less marked than the
accusative case in these languages. The accusative is as unmarked (and hence as
economical) as the nominative, and as it is the case that is in general more
versatile semantically, it is chosen over the nominative.
This tentative explanation would perhaps also cover the cases of Finnish and
Georgian. In Finnish, the Nominative case is used with joka 'every' (cf. E143d),
but with the other modifiers, the Adessive case is replaced by the Essive case:
E144. Finnish
a. aamu-lla 'in the morning' tä-nä aamu-na 'this morning'
morning-ADESS this-ADESS morning-ADESS
b. illa-lla 'in the evening' maanantai ilta-na 'Mond. evening'
evening-ADESS Monday evening-ESS
c. kevä-llä 'in the spring' viime kevää-nä 'last spring'
spring-ADESS last spring-ESS
The dependence of the case marking of the NP on the modifier seems quite
puzzling, but perhaps it can be argued that the Essive case is less marked than
the Adessive case: Formally it is shorter in that it lacks gemination, and
7.6. Zero or minimal marking 119
semantically it is at least as general in that it occurs with years, days and
festivals, whereas the Adessive occurs only with day parts and seasons.
Similarly, the Georgian Accusative/Dative in -s is less marked formally and
semantically than the Locative in -ši.
I cannot claim that I have explained the phenomenon described here, but in
any case the cross-linguistic data cited here for the first time permit us to
recognize the surprising generality of the phenomenon, which must ultimately
be explained in universal term.
Chapter 8
Temporal extent
8.1. Atelic extent
8.1.1. Zero or minimal case marking
The most striking tendency observed in the expression of atelic-extent adverbials
is the cross-linguistic tendency for zero expression or expression by
means of a "minimal case". English is not so typical in this respect, because it
very often employs the preposition for in such adverbials (e.g. I waited for two
hours). More typical are the examples in E145-46 from Arabic,
Serbian/Croatian, Babungo and Turkish.
E145. a. Arabic
Ṣaama ʔarbaʕiina nahaar-an wa-ʔarbaʕiina laylat-an (Mt 4.2)
fasted forty day-ACC and-forty night-ACC
'He fasted for forty days and forty nights.'
b. Croatian
kao što je Jona bio u trbuhu kitovom tri dana
like that AUX Jonas been in belly whale's three.ACC days
i tri noči (Mt 12.40)
and three.ACC nights
'As Jonas was in the whale's belly for three days and three nights...'
E146. a. Babungo
ŋwә́ nә̀̀ tò' vә́shī vә̀bɔ̀̀ɔ
he PAST walk day two
'He walked for two days.'
b. Turkish
Benim-le birlikte bir saat olsun uyanık dur-amı-yor-sunuz? (Mt 26.40)
I-with together one hour even awake stay-ABIL.NEG-IMPF-2PL
'Can't you stay awake together with me even for an hour?'
In languages that have a well-developed case system, including grammatical
cases such as nominative and accusative, atelic extent adverbials tend to be
marked by the accusative case, as illustrated in E145. In languages lacking a case
system or at least a nominative-accusative opposition, atelic extent adverbials
8.1. Atelic extent 121
are in the basic form, i.e. they show zero expression. Table 15 lists those
languages which either pattern like Arabic and Croatian, or like Babungo and
Turkish.
Table 15: Atelic-extent adverbials
expressed by a minimal case or zero
minimal case: zero:
German ACC (~ lang) Spanish Ø (~ por)
Russian ACC Bulgarian Ø
Polish ACC (~ przez) Hebrew Ø
Croatian ACC Maltese Ø (~ għal)
Modern Greek ACC (~ ja) Hausa Ø
Albanian ACC Swahili Ø
Estonian PRTV Babungo Ø
Finnish NOM Nkore-Kiga Ø
Turkish NOM (~ boyunca) Chinese Ø
Arabic ACC Japanese (-kan) Ø
Georgian NOM Persian Ø
Armenian NOM/ACC Indonesian Ø (~ selama)
Greenlandic ABS Tamil Ø (~ -aa)
Imb. Quechua ACC
From the point of view of our guiding question, Why are the semantic functions
of temporal NPs marked the way they are?, the frequent expression of
atelic extent by zero or accusative case appears puzzling. I do not have a
completely satisfactory explanation for this fact, but since this formal type is so
widespread in languages of different families and continents, there must be
some universal motivating factor. I will speculate briefly in two directions.
First, let me point out that unlike the markers of temporal location, the
markers of temporal extent do not have an obvious model in the spatial
domain. Of course, spatial extent also exists, and in many languages it is
marked in much the same way as temporal extent, i.e. by zero or a minimal
case. A few examples are shown in E147.
E147. a. German
Die Kinder sind einen Kilometer gelaufen.
'The children walked a kilometer.'
122 8. Temporal extent
b. French
Les enfants ont marché un kilomètre.
'The children walked a kilometer.'
c. Greenlandic Eskimo (FORTESCUE 1984:223)
miitiri-t qassit tingi-vit?
meter-PL.ABS how.many jump-2SG.INTER
'How many meters did you jump (on skis)?'
d. Nkore-Kiga (TAYLOR 1985:107)
tw-a-gyenda nka mahiro ishatu
1PL-HOD.PAST-go about mile three
'We went three miles.'
However, in this case it is much less clear than in the case of temporal location
that a conceptual transfer from the spatial to the temporal domain has taken
place. In contrast to spatial markers like 'within', 'in front', 'in back', which are
often ultimately based on body-part terms or spatial landmarks (SVOROU 1994),
the accusative case or zero has nothing inherently spatial about it.
Furthermore, spatial extent adverbials such as the examples in E147 are not
particularly frequent in discourse, probably less frequent than temporal-extent
adverbials. Thus, the hypothesis of a transfer from the spatial domain does not
explain much.
One might speculate that zero marking is chosen in these languages simply
as a kind of default – NPs with a noun denoting a time unit inherently denote a
temporal extent, and no additional marking is necessary. All other time
adverbials based on time unit expressions are more specific, e.g. distance
expressions ('two days ago', 'four weeks from now') and telic extent adverbials
(e.g. '(finish a job) in three hours'). This would account for the widespread zero
expression of atelic extent adverbials, and the accusative marking in languages
with a clear nominative-accusative apposition might be due to the fact that the
nominative is reserved for the subject, whereas the accusative is the minimal,
i.e. least specific non-subject case that is available for adverbial use.1 The
default-case hypothesis receives additional support from the fact that the
accusative case is also widely used in a certain class of simultaneous locational
adverbial NPs, as we saw in §7.6. Semantically, locational adverbials like diesen
Monat (this.ACC month) and extent adverbials like einen Monat (one.ACC
1 Quite generally, the direct object differs from the subject semantically in that it allows a
much wider range of semantic roles. One might object that in Greenlandic Eskimo, an
ergative language, the Absolutive case is used, which is a subject case in intransitive clauses.
However, intransitive subjects generally share with direct objects the property of allowing
arguments of a wide range of semantic roles.
8.1. Atelic extent 123
month) have little or nothing in common, but in both cases it can be argued
that the temporal relation is relatively predictable, so a default marking is
sufficient.
A second possibility is that the accusative case is motivated in a positive
rather than in a purely negative way. One might propose that the atelic-extent
function is often expressed by the accusative case because speakers assimilate it
in some way to the direct object of their language. This hypothesis (the "directobject
hypothesis") would not only be compatible with the data from those
languages in Table 15 that show accusative case marking, but also with almost
all those languages that show zero-marking – these languages also have zeromarked
direct objects.2 Some of the zero-marking languages show differential
object marking, i.e. non-zero marking with definite and/or animate direct
objects, e.g. Spanish, Hebrew, Maltese, Turkish, and Persian. But this is not a
problem because atelic-extent NPs are always inanimate and overwhelmingly
indefinite, so they would generally be zero-marked if they were treated as
direct objects. And in fact, Persian shows a kind of "differential adverbial
marking" with atelic-extent adverbials. Direct objects in Persian are generally
marked with the postposition or case suffix -râ when they are definite, as
illustrated in E148a, but are unmarked otherwise (cf. 148b).
E148. Persian
a. In habbe-râ xor-am. b. Yek habbe xor-am.
this pill-ACC eat.PAST-1SG one pill eat.PAST-1SG
'I have taken this pill' 'I have taken one pill.'
The same contrast is found with atelic-extent adverbials. The most common
case is that shown in E149a, where the adverbial is indefinite, but in those
infrequent cases where it is definite, as in E149b, the adverbial has the case
marker -râ.
E149. a. Do sâ'at dar bâxče kâr mi-kard-am.
two hour in garden work IMPF-do.PAST-1SG
'I worked in the garden for two hours.'
b. Do sâ'at-e gozašte-râ dar bâxče kâr mi-kard-am.
two hour-ATTR past-ACC in garden work IMPF-do.PAST-1SG
'I worked in the garden for the last two hours.'
2 A problem for the direct-object hypothesis is Japanese, which consistently marks direct
objects with the postposed particle o, but zero-marks atelic-extent adverbials. However, the
direct-object marker o may be omitted in certain styles.
124 8. Temporal extent
The direct-object hypothesis receives further support from the fact that
atelic-extent adverbials sometimes behave like a direct object in other respects
besides case marking. Thus, in Mandarin Chinese atelic-extent adverbials can
only come in the position after the verb, not in the pre-subject position or in the
position between the subject and the verb. Locational time adverbials have all
three possibilities, although the two preverbal positions are clearly preferred:
Chinese (JIN YUE YEH, p.c.)
E150. a. Shèngdànjié guòhòu wŏ yào qù Táiwān.
Christmas after I FUT go Taiwan
'I'll go to Taiwan after Christmas.'
b. Wŏ shèngdànjié guòhòu yào qù Táiwān.
c. Wŏ yào qù Táiwān shèngdànjié guòhòu.
E151. a. Wǔ diǎn wŏ-de mǔqīn yùjiàn tā-de zhàngfū.
five o'clock I-GEN mother meet she-GEN husband
'My mother met her husband at five o'clock.'
b. Wŏde mǔqīn wǔ diǎn yùjiàn tāde zhàngfū.
c. ?*Wŏde mǔqīn yùjiàn tāde zhàngfū wǔ diǎn. .
However, atelic-extent adverbials have only the option of postverbal position,
like direct objects:
E152. a. Wŏ zài huāyuán gōngzuò liǎng xiǎoshí.
I at garden work two hour
'I worked in the garden for two hours.'
b. *Liǎng xiǎoshí wŏ zài huāyuán gōngzuò.
c. *Wŏ liǎng xiǎoshí zài huāyuán gōngzuò.
Another behavioral parallel is the accusative-genitive or accusative-partitive
alternation of direct objects in Balto-Slavic languages such as Lithuanian and
Russian, and in Baltic Finnic languages such as Finnish. Examples of this
alternation with direct objects are given in E153-154.
E153. Russian
a. Včera ja pročital odnu stat'ju.
yesterday I read one.ACC article.ACC
'Yesterday I read one article.'
8.1. Atelic extent 125
b. Včera ja ne pročital ni odnoj stat'ji.
yesterday I not read not.even one.GEN article.GEN
'Yesterday I didn't read a single article.'
E154. Finnish
a. Minä juon kahvi-n.
I drink.1SG coffee-ACC
'I am drinking the coffee.'
b. Minä en juo kahvi-a.
I NEG.1SG drink coffee-PRTV
'I am not drinking the coffee.'
The same alternation can be observed with telic-extent adverbials, as is shown
in the examples in E155-157.3
E155. Russian
a. Včera ja rabotala dva časa.
yesterday I worked two.ACC hours
'Yesterday I worked for two hours.'
b. Včera ja ne rabotala i dvux časov.
yesterday I not worked even two.GEN hours.GEN
'Yesterday I didn't work even for two hours.'
E156. Lithuanian
a. Šitie paskutinieji tedirbo vieną valandą (Mt 20.12)
these last worked one.ACC hour.ACC
'These last ones worked just one hour.'
b. Taip jūs neistengėte nė vienos valandos pabudėti su manimi?
thus you cannot not.even one.GEN hour. GEN wake withme
'So you cannot stay awake with me even for an hour?'
E157. Finnish (JUHANI RUDANKO, p.c.)
a. Työskentel-i-n kaksi tuntia puutarha-ssa.
work-PAST-1SG two.ACC hours.PRTV garden-INESS
'I worked in the garden for two hours.'
b. En työskennel-lyt kahta tuntia puutarha-ssa.
NEG.1SG work-PTCP.PAST two.PRTV hours.PRTV garden-INESS
'I didn't work in the garden for two hours.'
3 In Arabic, Accusative temporal NPs may even be converted to the Nominative in passive
clauses. RECKENDORF (1977:94) only cites an example with a locational adverbial:
(i) Siira yawm-u l-ǧumʕati
travel.PASS day-NOM ART-Friday-GEN
'There was traveling on Friday' (lit. 'Friday was traveled.')
126 8. Temporal extent
But why should extent adverbials be modeled on direct objects? Here we
should note that atelic-extent adverbials and spatial-extent adverbials as in E147
are not the only cases of direct-object-like extent phrases. The "direct objects" of
verbs like 'weigh', 'cost', 'last' are also extent expressions from a semantic point
of view. The common semantic denominator of extent phrases and direct
objects can perhaps be found in their bounding function. In some languages,
e.g. in Russian, the boundedness of a verbal situation can easily be tested
because only bounded situations may occur in the perfective aspect. Thus, the
atelic verbs in E158 do not have perfective counterparts.
E158. Russian
a. Kolja paxal. (*Kolja vs-paxal.)
Kolya plowed (Kolya PFV-plowed)
b. Olja rabotala. (*Olja pro-rabotala.)
Olya worked (Olya PFV-worked)
However, when the same verb occurs in a syntactic-semantic context in which
the situation is bounded, e.g. when there is a direct object or an atelic-extent
phrase, the verb may also be perfective, e.g.
E159. Russian
a. Kolja paxal/ vs-paxal pole.
Kolya plowed PFV-plowed field
'Kolya was plowing/plowed the field.'
b. Olja rabotala/ pro-rabotala vosem' časov.
Olya worked PFV-worked eight hours
'Olya worked for eight hours.'
I hope to have shown that the use of the accusative case in the languages in
Table 15 is not completely mysterious. Both the default-case hypothesis and the
direct-object hypothesis help us understand partially what is going on here. A
deeper understanding of the connections must be left to future research.
Perhaps it will ultimately turn out that the two hypotheses are not incompatible
with each other.
8.1.2. 'For' in atelic-extent adverbials
The next most common type of atelic-extent marker is no less surprising than
the type of marker discussed in the preceding sub-section. No less than eight
languages of my sample employ an adposition that otherwise means
8.1. Atelic extent 127
(benefactive) 'for' as a marker of atelic extent. These languages are concentrated
in Europe: English (for), Italian (per), Spanish (por), Modern Greek (ja),
Maltese (għal), Welsh (am); but 'for' in this function is also attested in Punjabi
(laii) and Maori (moo). A few examples follow.
E160. Italian
a. Questo libro è per te.
'This book si for you.'
b. Maria abitava a Friburgo per sette anni.
'Maria lived in Freiburg for seven years.'
E161. Modern Greek
a. Aftó to vivlío íne ja séna.
this the book is for you
'This book is for you.'
b. I María ékrive ton eaftó tis ja pende mínes.
the Mary hid the self her for five months
'Mary hid herself for five months.' (Lk 1.24)
E162. Welsh (KING 1993:271)
a. Dales i bedair punt am y rhain.
paid I four pound for the these
'I paid £4 for these.'
b. Fuon nhw yng Ngogledd yr Eidal am fis.
were they in North the Italy for month
'They were in Northern Italy for a month.'
In the case of Maori, which does not have many monolingual speakers
anymore, one may suspect influence from English:
E163. Maori (BAUER 1993:347)
a. Moo Hone te hooiho raa.
for John the key DIST
'This key is for John.'
b. moo te rua tau
for the two year
'for two years'
128 8. Temporal extent
But influence from a European language is much less likely in the case of
Punjabi. Still, Punjabi shows the same polysemy of its marker laii:
E164. Punjabi
a. É pañjaabii axbaar Sikkhãã laii e.
this Punjabi paper Sikhs for is
'This Punjabi newspaper is for Sikhs.'
b. Gafuur ótthe do saal laii ríaa.
Gafur there two year for lived
'Gafur lived there for two years.'
Again, a semantic connection between the central benefactive sense of 'for' and
atelic extent is not immediately obvious. But recall that there is a semantic
function 'purposive extent', which is commonly expressed by a benefactivepurposive
marker similar to English for (§3.3.4). Purposive extent resembles
atelic extent in that in both cases a time span is indicated by time units, and the
situation whose length is evaluated is atelic. In purposive-extent constructions,
the verbal event is not atelic, but the adverbial measures the length of the state
resulting from this event. The similarity is best seen in sentence pairs such as
E165, represented schematically in Figures 39-40.
E165. a. Sibylle went to Paris for five years.
b. Sibylle was in Paris for five years.
Figure 39: Sibylle went to Paris for five years.
Figure 40: Sibylle was in Paris for five years.
In Figure 39, the broken line symbolizes the intended duration of the result of
the verbal event. Thus, E165b differs from E165a first in that the measured
situation denotes a real situation rather than an intended situation existing only
in a person's plans, and second that the verbal situation denotes a state
8.1. Atelic extent 129
resulting from an event as in E165a. Verb forms denoting an event may undergo
semantic change to denote the state resulting from this event (e.g. perfect
to resultative, cf. English they are gone, from 'they have gone'), so a change
from purposive-extent 'for' to atelic-extent 'for' is also well-motivated.
8.1.3. Other sources of atelic-extent markers
The other sources each occur in a handful of languages, and they will be
mentioned only briefly. Five languages use markers that also occur in temporal
locational functions and in spatial functions. These cases are Swedish
(preposition i), Latin (Ablative case), Lezgian (Inessive case), Basque (Modal or
Locative case), Tagalog (preposition nang). This expression type is not so
surprising, given that time units can always be conceptualized as time spans
"within" which a situation is located.
Two languages use a preposition that also means 'through, over': Polish
(przez) and Lithuanian (per). Again, this is not surprising because the atelicextent
function is similar to the perdurative function of §3.3.3 ('throughout'),
and this function is also sometimes marked by 'through'. Two other sources of
atelic-extent markers are close to the perdurative function: German lang (lit.
'long'), and French pendant/durant (cf. Dutch gedurende, which has the
perdurative function).
An interesting case is Hungarian, where the atelic-extent function is marked
by the terminative case (suffix -ig), which also marks the anterior-durative
function:
E166. a. öt hónap-ig 'for five months'
five month-TERM
b. edd-ig a nap-ig 'until this day'
this-TERM the day-TERM
This polysemy is well-known in the case of adverbial conjunctions (cf.
KORTMANN 1997:183), where many languages have a single subordinator
marking both anterior-durative clauses and the 'as long as' relation. An example
is Russian poka:
E167. a. Nado pogovorit' s nim, poka on tam.
'We have to talk to him as long as he is there.'
b. Podoždi, poka ja pridu.
'Wait until I come.'
130 8. Temporal extent
In fact, even English has two prepositions that exhibit this kind of polysemy:
pending (e.g. pending negotiations 'during the negotiations'; pending funding 'until
funding (is obtained)') and through (through the night ≈ 'during the night';
through Monday ≈ 'until Monday').
I have nothing further to say about the remaining atelic-extent markers:
Turkish boyunca (from boy 'size'); Abkhaz ħ˚a (lit. 'saying'); Kannada kaala 'time'
and Tamil neeram 'time'; the adverbial suffix -aa in Tamil; and the markers of
Indonesian (selama), Udmurt (čože), and Korean (tongan), about which I have no
further information.
8.2. Telic extent
The telic-extent function is marked in a remarkably uniform way in the languages
of my sample for which information is available. The overwhelming
majority of languages, 30 out of the 38 languages for which I have the relevant
data, use a spatial interior marker ('in, inside, within'), often a fairly young and
emphatic one, for this function. These languages are listed in Table 16.
Table 16: Telic-extent markers based on spatial 'in, within'
English in Basque barru
German in 'in' Lezgian q̃ene 'inside'
Swedish inom 'within' Chechen čoħ 'in'
French en 'in' Hebrew be- 'in'
Italian in 'in' Arabic fii 'in'
Spanish en 'in' Maltese fi 'in'
Haitian C. nan 'in' Swahili katika 'in'
Latin in/ABL 'in' Chinese (zhe)nei 'inside'
Latvian LOC Japanese de 'in'
M. Greek (mésa) se 'in(side)' Indonesian dalam 'in'
Irish i 'in' Tagalog sa loob ng 'inside'
Finnish -ssa INESS Nanay DAT/doolani 'in; inside'
Turkish (için)-de 'in(side)' Greenlandic -ni LOC
Udmurt kuspyn 'between' Persian dar 'in'
Armenian -um LOC Georgian -ši LOC
8.2. Telic extent 131
A few example sentences follow below:
E168. Tagalog (SCHACHTER & OTANES 1972)
Tinapos niya ang trabaho sa loob ng apat na taon.
finished he.GEN TOP job at inside GEN four LK year
'He finished the job in four years.'
E169. Japanese (KAORU HORIE, p.c.)
Hatake-o hi-zi-kan de tagayasi-ta.
field-ACC two-hour-interval in plow-PAST
'I plowed the field in two hours.'
E170. Irish
Leagaigi an teampall seo agus i dtrí lá tógfaidh mé suas aris é.
destroy the temple this and in three days rebuild I up again it
'Destroy this temple, and in three days I will rebuild it.' (John 2.19)
E171. Hausa (MAHAMANE L. ABDOULAYE, p.c.)
Naa shanyè roomoo (à) cikin mintìi goomà.
I.PERF drink.up soup at inside minute ten
'I ate the soup in ten minutes.'
The very widespread spatial metaphor ('inside') for the telic-extent function
is not difficult to explain: This function is employed to specify the boundaries
within which a telic, i.e. bounded, event falls, and the spatial interior function
happens to be the closest spatial analog of this notion in that it also specifies the
outer boundaries of the located object.
The other eight languages use miscellaneous other markers, about which it
is difficult to say much more. All four Slavic languages in my sample (Russian,
Polish, Serbian/Croatian, Bulgarian) use the preposition za, whose original
spatial sense is 'behind', but which has acquired various transferred senses in
the modern Slavic languages. Hungarian has alatt ('under'), Lithuanian has per
('through, over'), Albanian has për ('for, about, because of'), Latvian has laikā
(Locative of laik- 'time'), Estonian has the Comitative case (-ga 'with'), and
Swedish also uses the preposition på ('on').
132 8. Temporal extent
8.3. Distance-posterior
As I noted in §2.5, the distance-posterior function can be thought of as a
combination of the distance-past function ('ago') with the posterior-durative
function ('since') (or more specifically its posterior-present-perfect subtype) or
the atelic-extent function ('for'). Recall that the sentence Jenny has been in
Freiburg for two days can be paraphrased literally as 'Jenny has been in Freiburg
since two days ago'. I have not come across many cases of an overt reflection
of this semantic composition in languages; the construction of Spanish and
Persian (cf. E29c-d above) seems to be uncommon. However, the semantic
structure of the distance-posterior function is reflected in the fact that some
languages express it in a way similar to the posterior-durative function, others
assimilate it to the atelic-extent function, and yet others to the distance-past
function. In addition, there are also expression types that are unique to the
distance-posterior function.
8.3.1. Distance-posterior is modeled on posterior-durative
Let us first look at the expression in terms of a posterior-durative marker. This
is found in a number of European languages (German seit, French depuis,
Italian da, Romanian de, Latin a/ex, Polish od, Bulgarian ot, Albanian prej,
Hungarian óta, Welsh ers), but also in Arabic (munðu) and Swahili (tangu). A few
examples are given in E172-174. In these examples, the (a) sentence shows the
posterior-durative function, and the (b) sentence shows the distance-posterior
function.
E172. Polish
a. Tego-m wszystkiego przestrzegał od młodośći mojej.
that-1SG all observed from youth my
'I have observed all this since my youth.' (Mk 10.20)
b. Żyjemy w Warszawie od wielu lat.
we.live in Warsaw from many years
'We have lived in Warsaw for many years.'
E173. Romanian
a. Nu l-am văzut de săptămîna trecută.
not him-I.have seen from week past
'I haven't seen him since last week.'
b. Sînt aici de trei ani.
I.am herefrom three years
'I've been here for three years.'
8.3. Distance-posterior 133
E174. Swahili
a. tangu siku za Yohana (Mt 11.12)
since days of John
'since John's days'
b. tangu siku nyingi
since days many
'for many days'
The explanation for this polysemy must evidently be sought in the extension of
the posterior-durative marker to the distance-posterior sense. To be strictly
compositional, the above expressions would have to contain the distance-past
marker (e.g. English *since...ago, German *seit vor, French *depuis il y a, Polish
*od przed), but this is omitted because there is no risk of misunderstanding. A
combination such as "since three years" could not be interpreted literally with
the posterior-durative sense, because the reference time ('three years') is not a
location in time, but a time span. The nearest non-literal, extended sense is the
distance-posterior interpretation, so this is a possible reading in several
languages.
8.3.2. Distance-posterior is modeled on atelic extent
Another way of rendering the distance-posterior meaning is by assimilating it
to the atelic-extent function. This is probably the most common expression
type, and it is of course exemplified by English, where for fulfills both functions.
A few examples from other languages are cited in E175-178, where the (a)
sentence shows the atelic-extent function, and the (b) sentence shows the
distance-posterior function.
E175. Swedish
a. De reser i en timme.
they travel for one hour
'They will be traveling for an hour.'
b. Han har bott där i ett år.
he has lived there for one year
'He has lived there for a year.'
E176. Modern Greek
a. erghástikan mía óra
work.PAST.3PL one hour.ACC
'they worked for an hour'
134 8. Temporal extent
b. tría xrónia tóra érxome s' aftí
three years.ACC now come.PRES.1SG to it
'I have come to it for three years.'
E177. Chinese
a. Tā shuì-le sān-ge zhōngtóu.
he sleep-PFV three-CL hour
'He slept for three hours.'
b. Wŏ zài Xianggang zhù-le qī nián.
I in Hongkong live-PFV seven year
'I have lived in Hongkong for seven years.'
E178. Tamil (ASHER 1982:132-133)
a. Avaru naalu maṇi neeram-aa kaattiruntaaru.
he four hour time-ADV wait.PAST.3SG.H
'He waited for four hours.'
b. Naan iŋke aaru maacam-aa irukkareen.
I here six month-ADV be.PRES.1SG
'I've been here for six months.'
Other languages which simply use their atelic-extent marking are Latvian,
Finnish, Estonian, Basque, Hausa, and Japanese. The use of atelic-extent
marking for the distance-posterior function is easy to explain: Particularly in
those languages that use the present perfect tense (English, Swedish (cf. E175b),
Finnish, Estonian, i.e. the same set of languages that use it with posteriordurative
adverbials, cf. §5.4, E77-78), the distance-posterior meaning arises
automatically: In the sentence He has lived there for a year, the use of the present
perfect ensures that the situation is understood as beginning in the past and
continuing into the present, so that the beginning of the measured time span
must be a year before the moment of speech. In languages that do not use the
present perfect, but the present tense in this situation, the distance-posterior
reading apparently results from a conversational implicature. Thus, E178b from
Tamil is literally 'I am here for six months', and 'for six months' is interpreted as
referring to the period immediately preceding and including the moment of
speech. The implicature here probably arises from the fact that the present
tense refers to the moment of speech, which is just a point in time and cannot
easily be modified by an atelic-extent adverbial. It would be odd to say I am here
8.3. Distance-posterior 135
for six months if the speaker arrived three months earlier and will stay for
another three months.4
In order to make explicit the present perfect sense of the present tense, i.e.
the fact that the time span measured by the extent adverbial ends in the present,
several languages employ aspectual adverbs such as 'already' or 'now'.
Some examples are given in E179 (the Greek adverb tóra in 176b fulfills a similar
function). The grammatical status of these adverbials is somewhat ambiguous.
On the one hand, they are more or less obligatory for co-signaling the distanceposterior
sense, but on the other hand, they should probably not be considered
as markers of NP-based adverbials.
E179. a. Russian
Ona boleet uže šest' mesjacev.
she is.sick already six months
'She has been sick for six months.'
b. Croatian/Serbian
čovjek..., koji već osam godina ležaše na odru (Acts 9.33)
man who already eight years lay on bed
'a man who had been lying in his bed for eight years'
c. Lithuanian
...kad tu jau daugelį metų esi šitos tautos teisėjas (Acts 24.10)
that you already many years are this people's judge
'that you have been a judge unto this nation for many years'
d. Indonesian (sudah 'finished, already')
Sudah dua tahun saya tinggal di sini.
already two year I live in here
'I have lived here for two years.'
e. Armenian
Ays k'aɣak-um arden yot' tari em apṙum.
this town-LOC already seven year I.am living
'I have lived in this town for seven years.'
4 However, such an interpretation does not seem completely excluded. In German, sentence
(i) can be used by a construction site tourist after the first week of his two-week stay in the
Berlin of the mid-90s:
(i) Ich bin jetzt zwei Wochen in Berlin und besichtige jeden Tag eine andere Baustelle.
'I am now in Berlin for two weeks, and I visit a different construction site every day.'
However, (i) is still slightly odd, and I have the feeling that zwei Wochen is not used in its most
literal sense (atelic extent), but rather in a kind of purposive-extent sense ('I'm in Berlin to
spend two weeks here'). If I am not mistaken, (i) deteriorates if the postposition lang is added.
136 8. Temporal extent
SCHIPPOREIT (1971), discussing distance-posterior expressions in German,
observes that schon/bereits 'already' and erst commonly occur in such phrases,
both when they are modeled on the posterior-durative preposition seit, and
when they are modeled on atelic-extent phrases (i.e. time units in the
Accusative case).
E180. a. Dein Vater liegt schon seit acht Tagen unter der Erde.
'Your father has been lying below the earth for eight days (already).'
b. Ich warte schon eine Stunde.
'I have been waiting for an hour already.'
SCHIPPOREIT notes that schon has the untertone 'longer than you think', and
conversely, erst implies 'not as long as you think' (e.g. Ich warte erst eine Stunde
'I have been waiting for only one hour') (cf. LÖBNER 1989, KÖNIG 1991:161 on
the semantic analysis of schon and erst).
8.3.3. Distance-posterior based on 'exist'
The third major expression type is based on a biclausal pattern like 'It has been
three years that I have lived in this city'. Insofar as a similar pattern is often
used for the distance-past function (cf. §6.2.1), this sub-type reflects the
semantic similarity of distance-past and distance-posterior.
In the Romance languages, the verbs 'have' and 'make' are used in this
construction:
E181. a. French
Il y a une heure que je t'attends.
'I have been waiting for you for an hour.'
Ça fait donc douze ans que tu ne fais plus rien de sérieux.
'You have not done anything serious for twelve years.'
b. Spanish
Ya hace tres dias que están conmigo. (Mk 8.2)
'They have been with me for three days.'
c. Haitian Creole
Sa fè toua zan dépi map vi-n chaché fig nan pié fig sa-a.
it make three year since I.IMPF come seek fig in tree fig this-ART
'I have come to look for figs on this fig tree for three years.' (Lk 13.7)
8.3. Distance-posterior 137
In Imbabura Quechua, the verb is tuku- 'become' (cf. COLE 1985:126 for a discussion
of this construction).
E182. Ishkay uras tuku-n ñuka kay-pi ka-y-ka.
two hour become-3 [I this-in be-NOM-TOP]
'I have been here for two hours.'
(Lit. 'My being here has become two hours.')
In Turkish, Persian, and Georgian, the copula (a suffix -dIr in Turkish and -a in
Georgian) is regularly used to signal the distance-posterior function:
E183. a. Turkish
Beş sene-dir on-u gör-mü-yor-um.
five year-COP he-ACC see-NEG-IMPF-1SG
'I haven't seen him for five years.' (Lit. 'It's five years, I don't see him.')
b. Persian (MITRA SHARIFI, p.c.)
Noh sâl ast ke dar Bamberg zendegi mi-kon-am.
nine year COP that in Bamberg living IMPF-do-1SG
'I have been living in Bamberg for nine years.'
c. Georgian
Ori tve-a Bamberg-ši var.
two month-COP Bamberg-LOC I.am
'I have been in Bamberg for two months.'
In Hebrew, the demonstrative ze ('that; it') can be used similarly:
E184. Hu mešutaq ve-šoxev b-a-mita ze šmone šanim. (Acts 9.33)
he lame and-lying in-the-bed that eight years
'He has been lying in bed for eight years.'
Maltese has a special preposed marker, il-, which represents one of the few
cases of a marker that is only used in the distance-posterior function. Il- has the
unusual property of agreeing with the subject of the sentence in person and
number (cf. FABRI 1992 for some discussion of the syntactic structure):
E185. a. raġel, li kien il-u tmien xhur mixħut fuq friex
man who was since-3SG eight months lying on bed
'a man who had been lying in bed for eight months'
b. Il-hom tlitt ijiem imqabbdin miegħi
since-3PL three days surrounding with.me
'They have been with me for three days.'
138 8. Temporal extent
According to SUTCLIFFE (1936), the construction "il-X Y" goes back to "ħin l-X Y",
lit. 'the time to X is Y', i.e. 'X has the time of Y'. In this construction ħin l- was
transformed phonologically into ħill-, ħil-, hil- and finally il-. Thus, while being
quite unusual as a synchronic marker of distance-posterior, Maltese il- has a
diachronic origin that fits well into the group discussed in this sub-section.
A related phenomenon is the use of a presentative particle ('behold', French
voilà) which introduces the noun phrase denoting the time span. This
construction is found in several of the languages of my sample, e.g. Russian
(vot), Lithuanian (štai), French (voilà, voici), Hebrew (hine), and also in New
Testament Greek (idoú). The construction can either be overtly biclausal, as in
E186a, E187-188, or monoclausal.
E186. Russian
a. Vot uže pjat' let kak ja živu v Pariže.
lo already five years that I live in Paris
b. Ja živu v Pariže vot uže pjat' let.
I live in Paris lo already five years
'I have lived in Paris for five years.'
E187. Lithuanian
Stai jau treji metai, kaip aš ateinu...
lo already thre years that I come
'I have come for three years...' (Lk 13.7)
E188. French
Voilà deux ans qu'il ne m'a pas vue.
'He hasn't seen me for two years.'
E189. New Testament Greek
a. Idoù tosaũta étē douleúō soi. (Lk 15.29)
lo so.many years I.work for.you
'Lo, these many years do I serve thee.' (='I have been working for
you for so many years.')
b. Idoù tría étē érkhomai zētõn karpòn en tẽi sukẽi taútēi
lo three years I.come seeking fruit in the figtree this
'I have come to seek fruit in this fig tree for three years.' (Lk 13.7)
It has been claimed that this usage of New Testament Greek idoú 'lo' is due to
Semitic (i.e. Aramaic, or possibly Hebrew) influence, but this is not a necessary
assumption. Of course, loan translations are widespread in biblical texts (cf. the
8.3. Distance-posterior 139
English Authorized Version in E189a, which uses lo), and the Lithuanian
example in E187 might also be influenced by the original text. However, the
construction is clearly not limited to Semitic. The productive use of vot in
modern Russian and voici/voilà in modern French cannot be due to the influence
of the biblical language, because the construction is not sufficiently frequent in
the Bible. Rather, the same universal motivating factor must be responsible in
all these cases: The presentative particle emphatically asserts the existence of
the time span (perhaps stressing its length – in Russian E186a is only felicitous if
the time span of five years is perceived as unusually long) and thus fulfills a
very similar function as the verbal existence expressions mentioned earlier in
this subsection.
Thus, the large majority of languages for which I have data fit into one of
the three categories established in this section. The only exception is Irish,
which uses the preposition le ('with'):
E190. Irish
Táim anseo le trí lá.
be.PRES.1SG here with three day
'I have been here for three days.'
Another unusual case is Swedish, which has different markers in affirmative
and negative contexts. In affirmative contexts, the atelic-extent preposition i
('in') is used (cf. E175b), but in negative contexts, the proposition på is used. This
preposition also fulfills the telic-extent function in Swedish, but I cannot see a
connection between the negative distance-posterior function and either telic
extent or spatial 'on'. Examples:
E191. Swedish
a. Han har väntad i ett år.
he has waited in one year
'He has been waiting for a year.'
b. Jag har inte varit hemma på tio år.
I have not been home on ten years
'I have not been at home for ten years.'
Chapter 9
Conclusions
It is now time to step back and recall the major discoveries of this book. After
all the detail of the individual languages, what can we say in general about the
marking of noun phrases as time adverbials in the world's languages, with
particular regard to the transfer from space to time?
9.1. The metaphor from space to time
We saw in almost all of the semantic functions investigated here that the large
majority of languages employ an originally spatial adposition (or case) to signal
a temporal relationship. The systematic cross-linguistic study has thus
confirmed earlier impressionistic statements concerning the ubiquity of
conceptual transfer from space to time. There are no languages that depart
from this general trend, and in this sense it is truly universal. However, in each
of the individual semantic functions, there are a few languages that have a nonspatial
source for their marker of the function. In this sense the space-to-time
transfer is not universal, but only a strong tendency.
But is the ubiquitous close relationship between temporal and spatial
markers really due to metaphor? TRAUGOTT (1978:371) explicitly denies this:
"spatial expressions for time are not metaphorical ... at least not
those of the sort discussed here; there are metaphors of time, such as
'going round a corner in time', but they are distinguishable from
basic spatio-temporal expressions ..."
However, Traugott's view is clearly based on a narrow understanding of
metaphor. If we adopt a broader view of metaphor, where metaphor is defined
as conceptualization of a target domain in terms of a source domain, keeping
the profile constant (LAKOFF & JOHNSON 1980, CROFT 1993), there is no reason
not to regard the shift from space to time as metaphorical. For instance, when
we want to express the concept 'before August', we may conceptualize the
temporal domain in terms of the spatial domain, transferring the spatial
concept 'in front of' to another domain without changing its designation (or
profile, in LANGACKER's (1987-91) terminology), thus giving expressions like
German vor August (cf. vor dem Haus 'before the house').
9.1. From space to time 141
But independently of the terminology that one wishes to employ in this area,
the crucial aspect is the secondary nature of temporal markers with respect to
spatial markers. Whether one describes this as metaphor, as "image-schematic
transformation", or as "imaginative extension" (cf. KUTEVA & SINHA 1994), it is
clear that spatial meaning is primary and temporal meaning is secondary. This
fact is not explained on JACKENDOFF's theory (cited already in §1.7) that both
spatial structure and temporal structure are instantiations of "an abstract organization
that can be applied with suitable specialization to any field". If this were
the case, then we would expect that transfer from time to space should be as
common as transfer from space to time. But in fact the former is virtually
unattested.
Of course, there is one type of transfer from time to space that is not at all
uncommon, illustrated in E192a-b.
E192. a. The road leads from Minsk to Smolensk.
b. The poplar is after the oak.
This is based on the phenomenon of abstract motion (mentioned already in
§5.1), the construal of spatial configurations in terms of movement (cf.
LANGACKER 1991). Spatial configurations may be scanned sequentially and
thereby assimilated mentally to sequences of events in time. In E192a, the
observer mentally travels the road and is thus "led" by it to the destination,
although there is no physical movement. In §5.1 we saw that this explains why
directional adpositions may be used for temporal notions. In E192b (cf.
VANDELOISE 1991, BERTHONNEAU 1993a), abstract motion explains how a
temporal adposition seemingly comes to have a spatial use. But in fact, after in
E192b is not really spatial, because the sentence is only possible if the observer
encounters the poplar later than the oak on a mental path (for instance, if both
stand beside a road that would be taken to locate the poplar). Thus, it is rather
misleading to call after/before 'spatial adpositions (cf. VANDELOISE's (1991) book
title). In a different terminology, one could say that E192b metonymically
stands for 'The encounter with the poplar is after the encounter with the oak'. It
seems that this special quasi-spatial use of 'after' and 'before' is never
conventionalized and turned into a really spatial use.
So what would be a real counterexample to the claim that the transfer from
space to time is unidirectional? HEINE et al. (1991:51) point out a possible case
from Solomons Pijin, as described by KEESING (1991:335): Solomons Pijin uses
the temporal adverb fastaem 'first' (from English first time) as a temporal
preposition (much like the languages cited in §4.4), e.g. fastaem long faet 'before
142 9. Conclusions
the fight'. This is then extended to the spatial meaning 'in front', e.g. fastaem long
haos 'in front of the house'. However, this extension was modeled closely on
the substrate languages, cf., e.g., Kwaio na'o-na omea 'before the mortuary
feast', na'o-na 'ifi 'in front of the house'. Thus, the Solomons Pijin example is not
a real counterexample at all, because it arose in a situation of intensive language
contact, perhaps better described as relexification.
A better example of transfer from time to space is French depuis, which
originally must have meant 'after' (cf. Spanish después), but now means 'since'.
In addition, depuis has now acquired a spatial sense, as in depuis la fenêtre 'from
the window'. However, such examples are apparently extremely rare.
9.2. Types of temporal expressions
In this book my main concern has been with grammatical markers of temporal
NP relations, and I found that these are largely based on spatial markers. But
what about other kinds of temporal expressions?
Let us first consider nouns that directly mean 'time'. ANSTATT (1996) has
studied 'time' words in a fair number of (mostly Slavic) languages, concluding
that these are not as a rule based on a spatial metaphor. This contrast between
temporal relation markers and time nouns can be explained on the basis of
CROFT's (1993) observations on metaphor ("domain mapping") and metonymy
("domain highlighting"). CROFT points out that as a rule domain mapping
(metaphor) is induced in relational expressions by autonomous expressions, as
in E193a-c, where the verb, the preposition and the noun are relational and are
interpreted metaphorically because they are combined with autonomous
expressions from a different cognitive domain that require domain mapping
for the sentence to make sense.
E193. a. He fell into a depression.
b. She's in love.
c. mouth of a bottle
9.2. Types of temporal expressions 143
Here, fall into cannot be interpreted in its basic spatial sense because of its nonspatial
complement depression and requires mapping to an abstract domain,
and similarly for the other two cases. By contrast, domain highlighting
(metonymy) is induced in autonomous expressions by relational expressions,
as in E194a-c.
E194. a. La Repubblica hasn't arrived at the press conference yet.
b. She likes to read Kundera.
c. She swore foully/loudly.
Here the nouns and the verb are autonomous and are interpreted
metonymically because they are combined with relational expressions that
require domain highlighting. For instance, in E194a the noun La Repubblica (a
newspaper) can only be interpreted in combination with 'arrive at the press
conference' if its designation in the domain of newspaper authors (i.e.
journalists) is highlighted. Since 'time' nouns are autonomous in this sense, not
relational like mouth in E193c, we would not expect them to show the effects of
metaphorical domain mapping.
Next, let us look at the grammatical expressions for temporal relations on
verbs, i.e. tenses. Again, we find much less evidence for spatial expressions in
this area than in temporal NP markers. This is probably simply due to the fact
that tense markers are usually strongly grammaticalized elements that show
few synchronic traces of their origins. However, tense markers typically go
back to aspectual constructions (BYBEE et al. 1994), and these are very often
based on space (e.g. She is going to sell her house, German Er ist am Kochen 'He
is (lit. at) cooking', French Elle vient de publier un article important 'She has just
(lit. comes from) published an important article'). In this way, spatial markers
can find their way into the tense-aspect system of a language.
Impressionistically, however, there are many more non-spatial sources for
verbal and temporal categories than for adverbial time markers (e.g. expressions
of volition and obligation for future tense, participial periphrases for
perfect tenses, etc.). As a result, again we find few spatial-temporal metaphors
in tense-aspect expressions.
144 9. Conclusions
9.3. A summary of the spatial sources of temporal markers
As we saw in §4.2, there are two different ways in which the time line can be
mapped onto the front-back axis: the moving-time model, where earlier events
are in front and later events are behind, and the moving-ego model, where
earlier events are behind and later events are in front.
The moving-time models is the basis for the majority pattern of anterior and
posterior markers (§4.1-2): 'before' is modeled on 'in front', 'after' is modeled
on 'behind' (this is also true for the cases of 'after' from 'trace, track', cf. §4.4).
Furthermore, the majority type of distance marker is based on anterior and
posterior markers (§6.1), and thus often indirectly on spatial markers.
The moving-ego model is the basis for the majority pattern of anteriordurative
and posterior-durative markers (§5.1), for 'arrive, reach' as an anterior-durative
marker (§5.2), and for 'back' and 'over' as distance markers
(§6.2.3-4).
Spatial location is also overwhelmingly the model for simultaneous location
and one type of temporal extent. In simultaneous location, it is mostly spatial
interior markers denoting inclusion in three-dimensional space that are used,
but two-dimensional spatial markers such as 'on' and 'at' are also found (ch. 7).
Among the extent functions, only telic extent is largely expressed by a spatial
source, 'within' (ch. 8), whereas atelic extent markers are quite rarely spatial.
9.4. Grammaticalization in temporal markers
Markers of different semantic functions are systematically correlated with
different formal properties, i.e. they show different degrees of (synchronic)
formal grammaticalization (see LEHMANN (1995) for the approach to grammaticalization
assumed here). The most grammaticalized functions are the
atelic-extent function, which is very often expressed by a grammatical case or
zero, and the seven sub-types of simultanous location. These are also commonly
expressed by zero or grammatical cases, and otherwise by semantic
cases (in languages with rich inflectional morphology) or monosyllabic ad-
positions.
The next highest degree of formal grammaticalization is found in anteriordurative
and posterior-durative markers. There are a number of languages that
have case markers for these functions (terminative case, ablative case), and
9.4. Grammaticalization 145
monosyllabic adpositions are still fairly widespread. In this respect the telicextent
function is quite similar.
Finally, the lowest degree of formal grammaticalization is shown by anterior
and posterior markers and by distance markers. These are almost never
expressed by case inflection, but typically by fairly bulky, often disyllabic ad-
positions.
According to the principles of grammaticalization theory, the degree of
formal grammaticalization should correlate with the degree of semantic
grammaticalization, i.e. semantic generality. The semantic parameter is more
difficult to evaluate independently, but it is probably not controversial that the
simultaneous function is more general than the distance functions, so on the
whole the predictions of grammaticalization theory are borne out once again.
However, it is not clear to me in what sense we could say that anterior-durative
is more general semantically than anterior (and analogously for posteriordurative
and posterior). If anything, the a priori expectation would be that the
relation is the reverse (this is also reflected in my choice of terms, which make
the sequential-durative function more specific). This is an interesting theoretical
issue that should be addressed by future research.
Finally, I have found some limited evidence that temporal markers tend to
be more strongly grammaticalized formally than spatial ones, cf. §4.3. This
observed asymmetry is not very strong, but the data bear out the general
predictions of grammaticalization theory.
9.5. Universals of time in language
This study has thus documented the massive cross-linguistic regularities in the
expression of NP-based time adverbials. As I remarked in the introductory
chapter, there are not very many typological correlations to be observed in this
area: I have found no way to predict, for instance, whether a language will
model its expression of the distance-posterior function on the posteriordurative
marker, on the atelic-extent marker, or base it on 'exist' or similar
source constructions. This seems to be typical of semantically-based typologies
like the one investigated here: Language typology seems to constrain the
forms of grammar more than the semantic sources of grammatical markers.
Typology predicts, for instance, whether a language uses a case inflection, a
preposition or a postposition for expressing the simultaneous function with
seasons, but the language is "free" to choose an interior, adessive, or
instrumental marking. Since many of the questions I asked in this study
146 9. Conclusions
concerned the semantics of the sources of temporal markers, I was bound to
find more universals than typological divisions.
This study also has a bearing on the question to what extent the conceptualization
of time is universal or culture-bound. For a long time, linguists and
especially anthropologists have emphasized the relativity of time concepts in
different cultures (cf. ALVERSON 1994:1-7). This study shows exactly the
opposite: The expression of time in one important domain of grammar, at least,
is amazingly uniform across languages. Thus, my results fully agree with
ALVERSON's (1994:6) thesis that "the human experience called "time" (or
alternatively, "temporality", "duration"), like most of human experience in
general, is built upon and arises from a panhuman Bauplan... [A]ll linguistic/cultural
manifestations of temporal experience exhibit clearly the
properties and effects of an underlying universal structure of embodied, enculturated
mental experience".
Appendix: The data
In this appendix, examples of the sixteen functions for the fifty-three languages of
my sample are listed.
Abbreviations of languages and sources of data:
ENG English QUIRK et al. (1985)
GER German (native speaker knowledge)
SWE Swedish NT, Kersti Börjars (p.c.)
FRE French various
ITA Italian NT, Davide Ricca (p.c.)
SPA Spanish NT
ROM Romanian MALLINSON (1986), TENCHEA (1985), NT
LAT Latin KÜHNER & STEGMANN (1914), NT
HAI Haitian Creole NT
RUS Russian various
POL Polish NT, Thomas Bak (p.c.)
SCR Serbian/Croatian NT
BLG Bulgarian NT, Tania Kuteva (p.c.)
LIT Lithuanian NT
LTV Latvian Nicole Nau (p.c.)
MGR Modern Greek JOSEPH & PHILIPPAKI-WARBURTON (1987), NT
ALB Albanian BUCHHOLZ & FIEDLER (1993)
IRI Irish NT
WEL Welsh KING (1993)
BSQ Basque SALTARELLI (1988)
HNG Hungarian NT
FIN Finnish Juhani Rudanko (p.c.), SULKALA & KARJALAINEN (1992)
EST Estonian Urmas Sutrop (p.c.)
UDM Udmurt Russko-udmurtskij slovar’
TRK Turkish NT
LZG Lezgian HASPELMATH (1993)
CHE Chechen NT, KARASAEV & MACIEV (1978)
ABK Abkhaz HEWITT (1979)
GEO Georgian Mixail Xuskivadze (p.c.)
148 Appendix
ARM Armenian Stella Gevorkian (p.c.)
HEB Hebrew NT
ARB Arabic NT
MLT Maltese NT
HAU Hausa Mahamane L. Abdoulaye (p.c.)
BAB Babungo SCHAUB (1985)
SWA Swahili NT
NKK Nkore-Kiga TAYLOR (1985)
PER Persian Mitra Sharifi (p.c.)
PUN Punjabi BHATIA (1993)
KAN Kannada SRIDHAR (1990)
TAM Tamil ASHER (1982)
CHI Chinese Jin Yue Yeh (p.c.), LI & THOMPSON (1981)
JAP Japanese Kaoru Horie (p.c.), HINDS (1986)
KOR Korean Shin Ja Hwang (p.c.)
NAN Nanay ONENKO 1980, ONENKO 1986
IND Indonesian NT
TAG Tagalog SCHACHTER & OTANES (1972), NT
MAO Maori BAUER (1993)
KOB Kobon DAVIES (1981)
ESK Greenl. Eskimo FORTESCUE (1984)
HOP Hopi MALOTKI (1983)
HIX Hixkaryana DERBYSHIRE (1979)
QUE Quechua COLE (1985)
The data 149
A.1. Anterior
FORM EXAMPLE SPATIAL ‘INFRONT’
ENG before: before Christmas in front (of)
GER vor: vor Weihnachten 'before Christmas' vor
SWE före: före vintern 'before the winter' framför
FRE avant: avant le lever du soleil 'before sunrise' devant
ITA prima (di): prima delle nove 'before nine' davanti (a)
SPA antes de: antes del diluvio ‘before the flood’ delante de
ROM înainte de: înainte de ora cinci ‘before five o’clock’ în faţa (+GEN)
LAT ante: ante diluvium ‘before the flood’ ante
HAI anvan: anvan gro inondasion ‘before the flood’ dévan
RUS do/pered: do načala ‘before the beginning’/
pered načalom ‘just before the beginning’ pered
POL przed: przed potopem ‘before the flood’ przed
SCR pred/prije: pred potopem ‘before the flood’/prije objeda ‘bef. lunch’ pred
BLG predi: predi otpâtuvaneto ‘before the departure’ pred
LIT prieš: prieš žiemą ‘before the winter’ prieš
LTV pirms: pirms saules lēkta ‘before sunrise’ priekšā
MGR prin apó: prin apó to kataklizmó ‘before the flood’ brostá (se)
ALB para: para çlirimit 'before the liberation' (për)para
IRI roimh: roimh an díle ‘before the flood’ os comhair
WEL cyn: cyn y Rhyfel ‘before the War’ o flaen
BSQ aurrean: eguerdi aurrean 'before noon' aurrean
HNG elött: tél elött ‘before the winter’ elött
FIN ennen: ennen sotaa ‘before the war’ edessä
EST enne: enne sõda 'before the war' ees
UDM aźyn: aran aźyn ‘before the harvest’ aźyn
TRK önce: harp-tan önce ‘before the war’ X-in önünde
LZG wilik: däwedilaj wilik ‘before the war’ (GEN+) wilik
CHE ħalxa: Pasxin ħalxa ‘before Easter’ ħalxa
ABK -nja-g’ә: a-š˚ax’à-nja-g’ә ‘before Monday’ a-ç’+àpx’a
GEO -amde: om-amde ‘before the war’ c’in
ARM aṙaǰ: kṙvic‘ aṙaǰ ‘before the war’ aṙǰevum
HEB lifney: lifney ha-seʕuda ‘before the meal’ lifney
ARB qabla: qabla l-ɣadaaʔi ‘before the meal’ quddaam
MLT qabel: qabel id-diluvju ‘before the flood’ quddiem
HAU kàafħn: kàafħn àzahàr̃ 'before noon' (à) gàban
SWA kabla ya: kabla ya gharika ‘before the flood’ mbele (ya)
150 Appendix
PER qabl/piš: qabl az jang/piš az jang ‘before the war’ ǰelou-ye
PUN páílãã: maŋgalvaar de/tõ páílãã ‘before Tuesday’ X de saamṇe
KAN modalu: monne-g-inta modal-ē ‘before the day before yesterday’ munde
TAM munnaale: tiŋkakkeẓamekki munnaale ‘before Monday’ munnaale
CHI zài .. yǐqián: zài hūnlǐ yǐqián ‘before the wedding’ qiánmian
JAP mae-ni: sensoo mae-ni ‘before the war’ mae-ni
KOR cen-ey: cencayng cen-ey ‘before the war’ aph-ey
NAN ǯulieleni: anjaa ǯulieleni ‘before the holiday’ ǯulieleni
IND sebelum: sebelum makan ‘before the meal’ ?
MAO mua: i mua atu i te Mane raa ‘before Monday’ i mua (o)
ESK siurna-: unnuaqiqqata siurn-a-gut ‘before midnight’ siurniq
HOP -pyeve: a-pyeve ‘before him’
HIX ywaho: sekunta ywaho ‘before Monday’ ?
QUE -manda: lunis-punda-manda ‘before Monday’ chimbaA.2.
Posterior
FORM EXAMPLE SPATIAL ‘BEHIND’
ENG after: after all these successes behind
GER nach: nach der Schule ‘after school’ hinter
SWE efter: efter påsken ‘after Easter’ bakom
FRE après: après la révolution ‘after the revolution’ derrière
ITA dopo: dopo le nove ‘after nine’ dietro
SPA después de: después de mi partida ‘after my departure’ detrás de
ROM după: după ora cinci ‘after five o’clock’ în spatele (+GEN)
LAT post: post discessionem meam ‘after my departure’ post
HAI apré: apré fèt Pak ‘after Easter’ dèyè
RUS posle: posle obeda ‘after lunch’ za
POL po: po zmartwaychwstaniu jego ‘after his resurrection’ za
SCR po(slije): po vazmu ‘after Easter’ za
BLG sled: sled predstavlenieto ‘after the performance’ zad
LIT po: po pietų ‘after lunch’ už
LTV pēc: pēc kara ‘after the war’ aiz
MGR metá: metá tin anástasi tu ‘after his resurrection’ píso apó
ALB pas: pas shfaqjes 'after the performance' pas
IRI tar éis: tar éis na Cásca ‘after Easter’ laistiar
WEL ar ôl: ar ôl pedwar ‘after four’ tu ôl
BSQ ondoan: afal ondoan 'after dinner' atzean
The data 151
HNG után: husvét után ‘after Easter’ mögött
FIN jälkeen: sodan jälkeen ‘after the war’ takana
EST pärast: pärast sõda 'after the war' taga
UDM bere: užam bere ‘after work’ beryn
TRK sonra: harp-tan sonra ‘after the war’ X-in arkasında
LZG q’uluqh: zalzaldilaj q’uluqh/güǧüniz ‘after the earthquake’ q’uluqh
CHE t’äħa: doɣanel t’äħa ‘after the rains’ t’ēħā
ABK -štax’-g’ә: a-š˚ax’à à-štax’-g’ә ‘after Monday’ à-štax’
GEO šemdeg: omis šemdeg ‘after the war’ uk’an
ARM heto: kṙvic‘ heto ‘after the war’ ?
HEB aħarey: aħarey ha-ħoref ‘after the winter’ meʔaħorey
ARB baʕda: baʕda s-sabyi ‘after the exile’ waraaʔa
MLT wara: wara l-Għid ‘after Easter’ wara
HAU baayan: baayan ajìi 'after class' à baayan
SWA baada: baada ya ule uhamisho ‘after the exile’ nyuma (ya)
PER ba’d: ba’d az jang ‘after the war’ pošt-e
PUN baad: viirvaar de baad ‘after Thursday’ X de picche
KAN nantaradinda: cunaavaṇeya nantaradinda ‘after the election’ hinde
TAM pinnaale/appuram: botaŋkeẓamekk-appuram ‘after Wednesday’ pinnaale
CHI zài .. (guo)hòu: zài zhànzhēng guohòu ‘after the war’ hòumian
JAP go-ni: sensoo go-ni ‘after the war’ ushiro-ni
KOR hwu-ey: cencayng hwu-ey ‘after the war’ twi-ey
NAN xoǯipia: ǯobomi xoǯipia ‘after work’ čialani
IND sehabis/ sehabis makan ‘after the meal’ di belakang
sesudah: sesudah pembuagan ke babel ‘after the Babylonian exile’
MAO muri: a muri i te waenganui poo nei ‘after midnight’ i muri (o)
ESK kingurna-: marlunngurnirup kingurn-a(-gut) ‘after Tuesday’ kingurniq
HOP -ngk: amu-ngk ‘after them’ ?
HIX mkaye: sekunta mkaye ‘after Monday’ mkaye
QUE ? washa
152 Appendix
A.3. Simultaneous location
FORM EXAMPLE
ENG 1. at at twelve o’clock
2. in in the evening
3. on on Friday
4. in in October
5. in in the spring
6. in in 1996
7. at at Christmas
GER 1. um um 3.15 h ‘at 3.15’
2. an am Abend ‘in the evening’
3. an am Sonnabend ‘on Saturday’
4. in im März ‘in March’
5. in im Frühling ‘in spring’
6. in/Ø im ersten Jahr ‘in the first year’/
Ø 1994
7. zu zu Ostern ‘at Easter’
SWE 1. Ø klockan åtta ‘at eight o’clock’
2. på på kvällen ‘in the evening’
3. på på söndag ‘on Sunday’
4. i i maj ‘in May’
5. på på hösten ‘in the fall’
6. under under femtonde året
‘in the 15th year’
7. vid vid jultiden ‘at Christmas’
FRE 1. à à huit heures ‘at eight o’clock’
2. Ø/à le/au matin ‘in the morning’
3. Ø le mardi ‘on Tuesday’
4. en en mai ‘in May’
5. en en été ‘in the summer’
6. en en 1789 ‘in 1789’
7. à à Noël ‘at Christmas’
ITA 1. a all’una ‘at one o’clock’
2. a/di/Ø di/la notte ‘at night’
3. Ø (il) mercoledì ‘on Wednesday’
4. in/a in dicembre/a maggio
5. di/in d’inverno ‘in the winter’/
in primavera ‘in the spring’
6. in nel 1975 ‘in 1975’
7. a a Pasqua ‘at Easter’
SPA 1. a a las cinco ‘at five o’clock’
2. a/por por la mañana ‘in the morning’/
al anochecer ‘at dusk’
3. Ø el primer día de la semana
‘on the first day of the week’
4. en en mayo ‘in May’
5. en en verano ‘in the summer’
6. en en 1996 ‘in 1996’
7. en en Navidades ‘at Christmas’
ROM 1. la la ora cinci ‘at five o’clock’
2. Ø seara ‘in the evening’
3. Ø/la luni ‘on Monday’/ la 23 August
‘on the 23rd of August’
4. în în martie ‘in March’
5. Ø toamna ‘in the fall’
6. în în (anul) 1985 ‘in 1985’
7. la la crăciun ‘at Christmas’
LAT 1. ABL hora nona ‘at the ninth hour’
2. ABL vespere ‘in the evening’
3. ABL die septima ‘on the seventh day’
4. ABL mense septembri ‘in September’
5. ABL hieme ‘in the winter’
6. ABL Anno Domini ‘in the year of the
Lord’
7. ABL feriis Latinis ‘at the Latin festival’
The data 153
HAI 1. vè vè toua zè ‘at three o’clock’
2. nan nan matin ‘in the morning’
3. Ø gro saba ‘on the Sabbath’
4. sou sou sizièm moua ‘in the sixth
month’
7. pou pou fèt Pak la ‘at Easter’
RUS 1. v (+ACC) v dva časa ‘at two o’clock’
2. INSTR utr-om ‘in the morning’
3. v (+ACC) v ponedel’nik ‘on Monday’
4. v (+LOC) v marte ‘in March’
5. INSTR let-om ‘in the summer’
6. v (+LOC) v 1962 godu ‘in 1962’
7. na na Novyj god ‘on New Year’s Day’
POL 1. o o dziewiątej godzinie ‘at 9 h’
2. INSTR wieczor-em ‘in the evening’
3. w (+acc) we wtorek ‘on Tuesday’
4. w (+loc) w miesiącu szóstym ‘in the sixth
month’
5. w/na w zimie ‘in the winter’/
na wiosnę ‘in the spring’
7. na na wielkanoc ‘at Easter’
SCR 1. u u koji čas ‘at what time?
2. u u jutru ‘in the morning’
3. u u subotu ‘on Sabbath’
4. u u šesti mjesec ‘in the sixth m.’
5. u u 15oj godini ‘in the 15th year’
6. u u zimu ‘in the winter’
7. na na vazam ‘at Easter’
BLG 1. v v 10 časa ‘at ten o’clock’
2. Ø sutrin(ta) ‘in the morning’
3. v v sâbota ‘on the Sabbath’
4. v v šestija mesec ‘in the 6th m.’
5. prez prez tova ljato ‘in that summer’
6. v v petnadesetata godina
‘in the fifteenth year’
LIT 1. ACC septintą valandą ‘at 7 o’clock’
2. ACC vakarą ‘in the evening’
3. ACC sabatą ‘on Saturday’
4. ACC rugsėjo mėnesį ‘in September’
5. ACC pavasarį ‘in the spring’
6. INSTR penkioliktaisiais metais
‘in the 15th year’
7. INSTR Velykų šventėmis ‘at Easter’
LTV 1. LOC deviņos ‘at nine o’clock’
2. LOC vakarā ‘in the evening’
3. LOC pirmdienā ‘on Monday’
4. LOC šajā mēnesī ‘this month’
5. LOC vasarā ‘in the summer’
7. LOC ziemsvetkos ‘at Christmas’
MGR 1. se s tis eftá ‘at seven’
2. ACC to proí ‘in the morning’
3. ACC tin dheftéra ‘on Monday’
4. ACC ton iúnio ‘in June’
5. ACC tin ániksi ‘in the spring’
6. ACC to 1986 ‘in 1986’
7. ACC ta xristújena ‘at Christmas’
ALB 1. më/në: më dy ‘at 2 h’, në orën dy
2. në: në mbrëmje ‘in the evening’
3. ACC: të Dielën ‘on Sunday’
4. në: në mars ‘in March’
5. në: në pranverë ‘in the spring’
6. më/në: më 1912 ‘in 1912’, në vitin 1912
7. në: në Krishlindje ‘at Christmas’
IRI 1. ar ar a cúig a chlog ‘at 5 o’clock’
2. ar/i/um san oíche ‘at night’
3. Ø Dé Luain ‘on Monday’
4. i/faoi faoi Bhealtaine ‘in May’
5. i sa bhfómhar ‘in the fall’
6. i i mbliana ‘this year’
7. um/faoi um Cháisc ‘at Easter’
154 Appendix
WEL 1. am am saith ‘at seven’
2. yn yn y nos ‘in the evening’
3. Ø ddydd Mawrth ‘on Tuesday’
4. yn yn lonawr ‘in January’
6. yn ym 1907 ‘in 1907’
BSQ 1. LOC lau-retan ‘at four o’clock’
2. LOC goiz-ean ‘in the morning’
3. LOC astelehen-ean ‘on Monday’
4. LOC abendu-an ‘in December’
5. LOC udaberri-an ‘in spring’
6. LOC 1976-an ‘in 1976’
7. LOC gabon-etan ‘at Christmas’
HNG 1. TEMP hat-kor ‘at six’
2. Ø este ‘in the evening’
3. SUPERESS egy hetföi nap-on ‘on a Monday’
4. INESS augusztus-ban ‘in August’
5. SUPERESS/INSTR nyár-on ‘in the summer’
6. INESS ez év-ben ‘this year’
7. TEMP karácsony-kor ‘at Christmas’
FIN 1. ABL viide-ltä ‘at five’
2. ADESS aamu-lla ‘in the morning’
3. ESS lauantai-na ‘on Saturday’
4. INESS helmikuu-ssa ‘in February’
5. ADESS kesä-llä ‘in the summer’
6. ESS vuon-na 1990 ‘in 1990’
7. ESS juhannukse-na ‘at Midsummer’
EST 1. NOM kell viis 'clock.NOM five.NOM'
2. ADESS hommiku-l 'in the morning'
3. ADESS 23. veebruari-l 'on February 233rd'
4. INESS veebruari-s 'in February'
5. ADESS kevade-l 'in spring'
6. ADESS järgmise-l aasta-l 'next year'
7. ADESS jõulude aja-l 'at Christmas time'
UDM 1. ILL/LOC kuiń ćas-yn ‘at three o’clock’
2. (ADV) uin ‘at night’
3. ILL arnja nunal-e ‘on Sunday’
4. ILL janvar’ toleź-e ‘in January’
5. Ø/ADV siźyl ‘in the fall’
6. ILL vuono ar-e ‘next year’
TRK 1. LOC saat on beş-te ‘at 15 h’
2. Ø bu akşam ‘tonight’
3. Ø o gün ‘on that day’
4. Ø altıncı ay ‘in the sixth month’
5. -In yaz-ın ‘in the summer’
6. LOC on beşinci yılın-da ‘in the 15th y.’
7. LOC Passah’-ta ‘at Easter’
LZG 2. DAT jifi-z ‘at night’, nisini-z ‘at noon’
3. DAT 22-martdi-z ‘on the 22 of March’
5. DAT gatfari-z ‘in the spring’
6. DAT alataj jisu-z ‘last year’
CHE 1. dälča ši saħt dälča ‘at two o’clock’
2. (ADV) busa ‘at night’
3. -ħ šotdijnaħ ‘on Saturday’
5. (ADV) äxka ‘in the summer’
6. -ħ t’edoɣuču šaraħ ‘next year’
ABK 1. -zә bәž+bà rә-zә̀ ‘at seven o’clock’
2. Ø/-zә à-šәž (a-zә̀̀) ‘in the morning’
3. Ø/-zә a-š˚ax’à (-zә) ‘on Monday’
4. -zә yanàr a-zә ‘in January’
5. Ø/-zә à-pxәn (a-zә̀) ‘in the summer’
6. -zә 1976 şәk˚sa-zә̀̀ ‘in 1976’
7. -zә k’ә̀̀rsa-zә ’at Christmas’
The data 155
GEO 1. -ze xut saat-ze ‘at five o’clock’
2. -s dila-s ‘in the morning’
3. -s oršabat-s ‘on Monday’
4. -ši janvar-ši ‘in January’
5. -ši/-ze zamtar-ši ‘in the spring’
6. -ši 1990-ši ‘in 1990’
7. -ze/sa-X-od šoba-ze/sa-šoba-od
‘at Christmas’
ARM 1. DAT žamә hing-in ‘at five o’clock’
2. DAT kesor-in ‘at noon’
3. NOM šabat‘ orә ‘on Saturday’
4. DAT p‘etrvar-in ‘in February’
5. NOM/DAT garn-anә ‘in spring’
6. DAT 1990 t‘vakan-in ‘in 1990’
7. DAT zatik-in ‘at Easter’
HEB 2. be- b-a-ʕerev ‘in the evening’
3. be- be-šabat ‘on the Sabbath’
4. be- b-a-ħodeš ha-šiši
‘in the sixth month’
5. be- b-a-ħoref ‘in the winter’
6. be- bi-šnat ... ‘in the year...’
7. be- be-ħag ha-pesaħ ‘at Passover’
ARB 1. fii fii s-saaʕati θ-θaaliθati ‘at 3 h’
2. ACC: masaaʔan ‘in the evening’
3. fii fii s-sabti ‘on the Sabbath’
4. fii fii šahrikaa s-saadisi
‘in her sixth month’
5. fii fii šitaaʔin ‘in the winter’
6. fii fii s-sanati ‘in the year’
7. fii fii ʕiidi l-fiṣħi ‘at Passover’
MLT 1. fi fid-disa’ siegħa ‘at nine’
2. fi fil-għodu ‘in the morning’
3. Ø nhar ta’ Sibt ‘on the Sabbath’
4. fi fis-sitt xahar ‘in the sixth month’
5. fi fix-xitwa ‘in the winter’
6. fi fis-sena ħmistax ‘in the 15th year’
7. fi fil-Għid ‘at Easter’
HAU 1. dà dà k'arfèe shidà 'at six o'clock'
2. dà dà yâmma 'in the evening'
3. Ø Ø ran àsabàr 'on Saturday'
4. cikin/à/Ø cikin watàn Maayù 'in May'/
(à) watàn feeburuwè 'in Feb.'
5. dà dà dàamunaa 'in the rainy season'
6. à à shèekaràr 1990 'in 1990'
7. gà gà sallàr Kiristìmeetì 'at Xmas'
BAB 1. máa máa vә̀̀shíshwì têe ‘at 5 o’clock’
2. táa/Ø (táa) nshía-ndŏo-mbìsɨ
‘in the morning’
3. Ø ŋwә́́ jwì ŋkúusә ‘he came on Nkuuse’
4. táa ŋwә́́ jwì táa ŋúu Lü’
‘he came in the month of Lu’ ’
5. táa táa ndɔ̂ŋ ‘in the dry season’
6. máa máa 1981 ‘in 1981’
7. máa máa yìshēe tә́́fûŋ
‘in the time of celebrating tombs’
SWA 2. Ø asubuhi ‘in the morning’
3. Ø siku yasabato ‘on the Sabbath’
4. Ø mwezi wa sita ‘in the 6th month’
5. Ø wakati wa baridi ‘in the winter’
6. Ø mwaka wa 15 ‘in the 15th year’
7. Ø sikukuu ya Pasaka ‘at Easter’
156 Appendix
NKK 1. aha aha shaaha ikumi ‘at ten o’clock’
2. omu omu kasheeshe ‘in the morning’
3. aha aha rwakana ‘on Thursday’
4. omu omu kwezi kwa Januwari
5. aha aha kyanda ‘in the summer’
6. omu omu mwaka gwa 1985 ‘in 1985’
7. aha aha Sikuukuru ‘at Christmas’
PER 1. Ø sâ’at-e panj ‘at five o’clock’
2. Ø šab ‘in the evening’
3. Ø došanbe ‘on Monday’
4. dar dar mâh-e bahman ‘in February’
5. dar/Ø (dar) tâbestân ‘in the summer’
6. dar/Ø (dar) sâl-e 1990 ‘in 1990’
7. Ø nourûz ‘on New Year’s day’
PUN 1. Ø che vaje ‘at sic o’clock’
2. nũũ shaam nũũ ‘in the evening’
3. nũũ somvaar nũũ ‘on Monday’
4. vicc pó de vicc ‘in Pó’
5. vicc basant de mosam vicc
‘in the spring’
6. vicc hizrii 1970 vicc
7. te visaakhi te ‘at Vaisakhi’
KAN 1. DAT (-ge) ombattu gaṇṭe-ge ‘at 9 o’clock’
2. Ø sanje ‘in the evening’
3. Ø bhaanuvaara ‘on Sunday’
4. LOC (-alli) caitrad-alli ‘in Caitra (month)’
5. LOC (-alli) beesige kaalad-alli ‘in the summer’
6. LOC (-alli) 1981-alli ‘in 1981’
7. DAT (-ge) ugaadi-ge ‘for Ugadi’
TAM 1. DAT (-kki) eeẓu maṇi-kki ‘at seven’
2. LOC/Ø raattri(-yile) ‘at night’
3. Ø botaŋkeẓame ‘on Wednesday’
4. LOC/Ø juun maacam/maacattle ‘in June’
5. LOC kooṭakaalattle ‘in the hot season’
6. LOC 1978-le ‘in 1978’
CHI 1. Ø wǔ diǎn ‘at five o’clock’
2. Ø zǎoshang ‘in the morning’
3. zài zài xīngqī yī ‘on Monday’
4. zài zài èryuè ‘in February’
5. zài zài xiàtiān ‘in the summer’
6. zài zài bāshísān ‘in 83’
7. zài zài shèngdànjié ‘at Christmas’
JAP 1. -ni gozi-ni ‘at five o’clock’
2. -ni asa(-ni) ‘in the morning’
3. -ni getuyoobi(-ni) ‘on Monday’
4. -ni itigatu-ni ‘in January’
5. -ni natu-ni ‘in the summer’
6. -ni senkyuuhyaku kyuuzyuu nen-ni
‘in 1990’
7. -ni iisutaa-ni ‘at Easter’
KOR 1. -ey tases si-ey ‘at five o’clock’
2. -ey cenyek-ey ‘in the evening’
3. -ey thoyoil-ey ‘on Saturday’
4. -ey i wel(tal)-ey ‘in February’
5. -ey pom-ey ‘in the spring’
6. -ey 1990 nyen-ey ‘in 1990’
7. -ey puhwalcel-ey ‘at Easter’
NAN 1. LOC (-la) ǯuer časa-la ‘at two o’clock’
2. Ø čimii ‘in the morning’
3. DAT (-du)/LOC subbota-du ‘on Saturday’/
sreda-la ‘on Wednesday’
4. DAT maj bia-du ‘in May’
5. Ø bolo ‘in the fall’
6. DAT ej ajŋani-du ‘this year’
7. DAT Sikūn ajŋani-du ‘on New Year’
The data 157
IND 1. pada pada jam lima ‘at five o’clock’
2. Ø pagi hari ‘in the morning’
3. pada pada hari Sabat ‘on the Sabbath’
4. Ø bulan depan ‘next month’
5. pada pada musim dingin ‘in the winter’
6. pada pada tahun 1980 ‘in 1980’
7. pada pada Paskah ‘at Easter’
TAG 1. nang nang ala-una ‘at one o’clock’
2. sa sa umaga ‘in the morning’
3. sa/noong sa Lunes ‘(next) Monday’
4. sa/noong sa Enero ‘(next) January’
5. sa sa tag-ulan ‘in the rainy season’
6. nang nang 1950 ‘in 1950’
7. kung kung Pasko ‘at Christmastime’
MAO 1. i/noo/a noo te waru ‘at eight o’clock’
2. i/noo/a a te ata ‘in the morning’
3. i/noo/a i te Mane ‘on Monday’
4. i/noo/a a Hakihea ‘in December’
5. i/noo/a i te ngahuru ‘in the fall’
6. i/noo/a noo te tau 1950 ‘in 1950’
7. i/noo/a a te Kirihimete ‘at Christmas’
KOB 1. Ø ten kilok ‘at ten o’clock’
2. halö/Ø sib halö ‘early in the morning’/
sidaŋ ‘at noon’
3. Ø wañignöbö ‘on Monday’
4. Ø rakön agɨp ‘in November’
6. Ø naintinsepentisikis ‘in 1976’
ESK 1. ALL (-nut) quliqiqqa-nut ‘at 8.30 h’
2. ABS ualiq ‘this afternoon’
4. LOC (-mi) juuni-mi ‘in June’
5. ABS aasaq ‘last summer’
6. LOC (-mi) 1982-mi ‘in 1982’
7. LOC (-mi) juulli-mi ‘at Christmas’
HOP 3. ep santi-t ep ‘on Sunday’
4. ep i-t muuyawu-y hapi ep
‘in this month’
5. -va tuho’os-va ‘in the fall’
6. ep i-t yàasangwu-y ep ‘this year’
7. ep patsavu-t ep ‘at Patsavu’
HIX 3. ho sekunta ho ‘on Monday’
4. wawo xaneru wawo ‘in January’
5. wawo txemnyeh wawo
‘in the rainy season’
6. wawo 1968 wawo ‘in 1968’
7. ho Kryestu yonuruthurunhuru
yawasɨn ho ‘at Christmas’
QUE 1. LOC/ACC las siti-pi/-ta ‘at seven’
3. LOC/ACC lunis-pi/-ta ‘on Monday’
4. LOC/ACC iniru-pi/-ta ‘in January’
5. LOC/ACC tamya timpu-pi/-ta
‘in the rainy season’
6. LOC 1980-pi (*-ta) ‘in 1980’
7. LOC/ACC
158 Appendix
A.4. Anterior-durative
FORM EXAMPLE OTHER MEANINGS
ENG until/till until August
GER bis: bis bald ‘till soon’ bis ‘up to’
SWE till: till denna dag ‘until that day’ till ‘to’
FRE jusqu’à: jusqu’à demain ‘till tomorrow’ jusqu’à ‘up to’
ITA fino a: fino alle dieci ‘until ten’ fino a ‘up to’
SPA hasta: hasta el tercer día ‘until the third day’
ROM pînă: pînă la opt ‘until eight o’clock’ pînă ‘up to’
LAT usque: usque in diem tertium ‘until the third day’
HAI jouk: jouk asouè ‘until the evening’
RUS do: do dekabrja ‘until December’ do ‘up to’
POL aż do: aż do dziewiątej godziny ‘until the ninth hour’ aż do
SCR do: do trečega dana ‘until the third day’
BLG do: do včera ‘until yesterday’
LIT iki: iki šiandien ‘until today’
LTV līdz: līdz beigām ‘until the end’ līdz ‘up to’
MGR éos: éos símera ‘until today’
ALB deri: deri të martën 'until Tuesday' deri në 'up to'
IRI go dtí: go dtí an treas lá ‘until the third day’ go dtí ‘till comes’
WEL hyd: hyd ddiwedd mis Mehefin ‘until the end of June’ hyd ‘length’
BSQ arte: astelehen arte 'until Monday' arte 'among'
HNG TERM: edd-ig a nap-ig ‘until this day’ London-ig ‘up to’
FIN asti: maanantaikin asti ‘until Monday’
EST (kuni) -ni: (kuni) espaspäeva-ni 'till Monday' ku- 'where, when'
until Monday-TERM
UDM TERM (-oź) tolalte-oź ‘until the winter’ -oź ‘up to’
TRK değin: sabaha değin ‘until the morning’
LZG SUPERDIR: 1937-lahaj jisa-ldi ‘until 1937’ instrumental
CHE -alc: sarr-alc ‘until the evening’ cf. qaččalc ‘up to’
ABK -nja: a-š˚ax’à-nja ‘until Monday’ -nja ‘up to’
GEO -amde: oršabat-amde ‘until Monday’ -amde ‘before’
ARM minč‘ev: minč‘ev erkušabt‘i ‘until Monday’
HEB ʕad: ʕad ha-yom ha-šliši ‘until the 3rd day’
ARB ʔilaa: ʔilaa l-yawmi θ-θaaliθi ‘until the third day’ ʔilaa ‘to’
MLT sa: sal-lum ‘until today’
HAU sai/har: sai gòobe 'until tomorrow'/har lìtìnîn 'till Monday' har < Arabic
BAB zì’: zì’ tɨ⁄ vә̀̀shíshwì têe ‘until five o’clock’ zì’ ‘until’
The data 159
SWA hata: hata siku ya tatu ‘until the third day’ hata < Arabic
NKK okuhitsya: okuhitsya omwaka gwa 1984 ‘until 1984’
PER tâ: tâ došanbe ‘until Monday’
PUN tikkaṇ: somvaar tikkaṇ ‘until Monday’ tikkaṇ ‘up to’
KAN tanaka/varege: eṇṭu gaṇṭeya tanaka/varege ‘until eight o’clock’
TAM varekkum: tiŋkakkeẓame varekkum ‘till Monday’ varekkum ‘up to’
CHI dào: dào wǔ diǎn ‘until five o’clock’ dào ‘reach, arrive’
JAP made sanzi made ‘until three o’clock’
KOR -kkaci: sey si-kkaci ‘until three o’clock’ cf. -kkaci ‘even’
NAN -gudele: śikse-gudele ‘until the evening’
IND sampai/hingga: sampai jam tiga ‘until 3 h’, hingga besok ‘till tomorrow’
TAG hanggang: hanggang alas dos ‘until two o’clock’
MAO raa anoo: noo te Mane raa anoo ‘until Monday’
ESK tunga-a-nut: sapaatip tunga-a-nut ‘until Sunday’ tungi ‘direction’
HOP aqw: pakwt navay sìikya-y’-ta-qa-t aqw ‘until the 16th day’
QUE -kaman: lunis-kaman ‘until Monday’ -kaman ‘up to’
A.5. Posterior-durative
FORM EXAMPLE OTHER MEANINGS
ENG since/ since last Friday
from (..on) from next week on(ward)
GER seit/von..an seit letzten Freitag ‘since last Friday’/ von ‘from’
von nächster Woche an ‘from next week on(ward)’
SWE sedan: sedan Johannes döparens dagar ‘since John the Baptist’s sedan ‘then, later’
days’
FRE depuis: depuis hier ‘since yesterday’ cf. puis ‘then’
ITA (fino) da: (fino) dalle due ‘since two o’clock’ da ‘from, at’
SPA desde: desde la creación del mundo ‘since the world’s creation’
ROM de: de săptămîna trecută ‘since last week’ de ‘from’
LAT a: a creatura mundi ‘since the world’s creation’ a ‘from’
HAI dépi: dépi jou sa-a ‘since that days’
RUS s (+GEN): s ponedel’nika ‘since Monday’ s ‘off’
POL od: od stworzenia świata ‘since the world’s creation’ od ‘from’
SCR od: od toga dana ‘from that day’ od ‘from’
BLG ot: ot ponedelnik ‘since Monday’ ot ‘from’
LIT nuo: nuo pasaulio sukūrimo ‘since the world’s creation’ nuo ‘from’
LTV kopš: kopš kara ‘since the war’
MGR apó: apó ti dheftéra ‘since Monday’ apó ‘from’
160 Appendix
ALB nga/prej: nga kohët më të vjetra 'seit uralten Zeiten' nga 'from'
IRI ó: ó m’ óige ‘since my youth’ ó ‘from’
WEL ers: ers hynny ‘since then’ < er ys
BSQ geroztik/: astelehen-ez geroztik 'since Monday' gero '?'
hona/: joanden aste-tik hona 'since last week' hona 'hither'
aurrera: astelehen-etik aurrera 'from Monday on (FUT)' aurrera 'forward'
HNG óta: tegnap óta ‘since yesterday’
FIN lähtien: viime viikosta lähtien ‘since last week’ lähteä ‘go, depart’
EST ELAT: (alates) eelmise-st nädala-st/ alat- 'begin'
beginning last-ELAT week-ELAT
eelmise-st nädala-st peale/ saadik pea 'head'
last-ELAT week-ELAT head.all since saat- 'follow'
UDM -yśen: ujšor-yśen ‘since midnight’ -yśen ‘from’
TRK -den beri: o gün-den beri ‘since that day’
LZG SUPEREL: a č’awalaj (iniqh) ‘from (since) that day’ iniqh ‘hither’
CHE düjna: stoxka düjna ‘since last year’
ABK -štax’: a-š˚ax’à à-štax’ ‘since Monday’ -štax’ ‘behind’
GEO -dan: janvri-dan ‘since January, from January on’ ‘from’
ARM ABL: šabat‘van-ic‘ ‘since Saturday’ ‘from’
HEB meʔaz: meʔaz beriʔat ha-ʕolam ‘since the world’s creation’
ARB munðu: munðu l-xalqi l-ʕaalami ‘since the world’s creation’
MLT minn: minn żmien Gwanni ‘since John’s days’ minn ‘from’
HAU tun/ tun lookàcîn nan 'since that time'/
dàgà: dàgà saatii màizuwàa 'from next week on' dàgà 'from'
BAB shù: shù mbìsɨ ‘from tomorrow on’ shù ‘begin’
SWA tangu: tangu siku za Yohana ‘since John’s days’
NKK okwiha: okwiha rw’okubanza ‘from Monday on’
PER az: az hafte-ye gozašze ‘since last week’ az ‘from’
PUN tõ: somvaar tõ ‘since Monday’ tõ ‘from’
KAN ABL (-inda) beḷigge-yinda ‘since the morning’ ABL ‘from’
TAM ABL (-leruntu) janavariyi-leruntu ‘since January’ ABL ‘from’
CHI cóng: cóng shang ge xīngqī ‘since last week’ cóng ‘from’
JAP kara/irai: sensyuu kara/irai ‘since last week’ kara ‘from’
KOR -puthe: cinan cwu-puthe ‘since last week’
NAN tepčiupi: čimii tepčiupi ‘since the morning’ tepčiu- ‘begin’
IND sejak: sejak hari itu ‘since the day’ < semenjak
TAG buhat/mula: buhat noong isang buwan ‘since last month’ buhat ‘from’
MAO mai i..raa: mai i te Kirihimete raa ‘since Christmas’ mai ‘hither’
ESK ABL (-miit) aasa-miit ‘since the summer’
HOP angqw: nalöstalat angqw ‘from the 4th day on’
The data 161
HIX mkaye: sekunta mkaye ‘since Monday’ = posterior
QUE -manda: lunis-manda ‘since Monday, from Monday on’ -manda ‘from’
A.6. Atelic extent
FORM EXAMPLE OTHER MEANINGS
ENG for: for three years benefactive
GER ACC (lang): drei Jahre (lang) ‘for three years’ lang ‘long’
SWE i: i fyrtiosex år ‘for forty-six years’ i ‘in’
FRE pendant: pendant dix ans ‘for ten years’ pendant ‘during’
ITA per: per due settimane ‘for two weeks’ per ‘for’
SPA por/Ø: (por) cinco meses ‘for five months’ por ‘through’
ROM timp de: timp de trei ani ‘for three years’ timp ‘time’
LAT ABL: una hora ‘for one hour’
HAI pandan: pandan dis jou ‘for ten days’
RUS ACC: odnu minutu ‘one minute’
POL przez: przez pięć miesięcy ‘for five months’ przez ‘through’
SCR ACC: jedan sahat ‘for one hour’
BLG Ø: tri dni i tri nošti ‘three days and three nights’
LIT ACC: vieną valandą ‘one hour’
LTV ACC: trīs gadus ‘for three years’
MGR ACC/ja: (ja) pénde mínes ‘for five months’ ja ‘for’
IRI ACC: trí lá agus trí oíche ‘for three days and three nights’
WEL am: am ddeng munud ‘for ten minutes’ am ‘for; about’
BSQ MOD/LOC: bi urt-ean (two year-LOC) 'for two years'/
bost egun-ez eta gau-ez 'for five days and nights'
five day-MOD and night-MOD
HNG TERM: egy órá-ig ‘for one hour’
FIN ACC: kaksi tuntia ‘for two hours’
EST PRTV: Ma töötasin kaks tundi aia-s.
I worked two hours.PRTV garden-INESS
'I worked for two hours in the garden.'
UDM čože: kyk nunal čože ‘for two days’ cf. čož ‘up to’
TRK Ø: beş ay ‘for five months’
LZG INESS: pud sätda ‘for three hours’
CHE -ħ: battaħ ‘for a month’
ABK ħ˚a: y˚ә-şәk˚sa ħ˚a ‘for two years’ ħ˚a ‘say’
GEO NOM: ori saati ‘for two hours’
ARM NOM/ACC: erku žam ‘for two hours’
162 Appendix
HEB Ø: šaʕa aħat ‘for one hour’
ARB ACC: saaʕat-an waaħidat-an ‘for one hour’
MLT Ø/għal: (għal) ħames xhur ‘for five months’ għal ‘for’
HAU Ø: awàa biyu 'for two hours' DO: Ø
BAB Ø: vә́́shī vә̀bɔ̀ɔ ‘for two days’
SWA Ø: miezi mitatu ‘for three months’
NKK Ø: esaabiiti emwe ‘for one week’
PER Ø: šeš mâh ‘for six months’
PUN laii: do saal laii ‘for two years’ laii ‘for’
KAN kaala/Ø: muuru dinagaḷa (kaala) ‘for three days’ kaala ‘time’
TAM neeram(-aa): naalu maṇi neeram(-aa) ‘for four hours’ neeram ‘time’
CHI Ø: sān-ge zhōngtóu ‘for three hours’
JAP (-kan): ni-nen-kan ‘for two years’/ni-zi-kan ‘for two hours’ kan ‘period’
KOR tongan: twu sikan tongan ‘for two hours’
IND Ø/selama: selama lima bulan ‘for five months’, satu jam ‘for 1 hour’
TAG nang: nang dalawang oras ‘for two hours’ nag ‘in’
MAO moo: moo te rua tau ‘for two years’ moo ‘for’
KOB Ø: ñin möhau ‘for three days’
ESK ABS: minutsit pingasut ‘for three minutes’
QUE ACC: ishkay wata-ta ‘for two years’
A.7. Telic extent
FORM EXAMPLE OTHER MEANINGS
ENG in: I ate the French fries in seven minutes.
GER in: in fünf Sekunden ‘in five seconds’
SWE på: på en timme ‘in an hour’ på ‘on’
FRE en: en 10 ans ‘in ten years’ en ‘in’
ITA in: in tre ore ‘in three hours’ in ‘in’
SPA en: en una semana ‘in a week’ en ‘in’
ROM în: în trei zile ‘in three days’ în ‘in’
LAT in: in tribus diebus ‘in three days’ in ‘in’
HAI nan: nan toua jou ‘in three days’ nan ‘in’
RUS za: za odin mesjac ‘in one month’ za ‘behind’
POL za: za trzy dni ‘in three days’ za ‘behind’
SCR za: za tri dana ‘in three days’ za ‘behind’
BLG za: za tri dni ‘in three days’
LIT per: per tris dienas ‘in three days’ per ‘over’
LTV LOC: trīs gados ‘in three years’
The data 163
MGR se: se tris méres ‘in three days’ se ‘in’
ALB për: për tri javë 'in three weeks' për 'to, for, about'
IRI i: i dtrí huaire an chloig ‘in three hours’ i ‘in’
HNG alatt: öt nap alatt ‘in five days’ alatt ‘under’
FIN INESS: kymmene-ssä minuuti-ssa ‘in ten minutes’
EST COM: Ma sõin supi kümne minuti-ga (ära).
I ate soup ten minute-COM (up)
'I ate the soup in ten minutes.'
UDM kuspyn: arnja kuspyn ‘in a week’ kuspyn ‘between’
TRK (için)-de: üç gün (için)-de ‘in three days’ için-de ‘inside’
LZG qene: 7 jiqan qene ‘in seven days’ qene ‘inside’
CHE čoħ: k’iran čoħ ‘in a week’ čoħ ‘inside’
GEO -ši: at c’ut-ši ‘in ten minutes’ ‘in’
ARM -um: tas rope-um ‘in ten minutes’ ‘in’
HEB be- bi-šloša yamim ‘in three days’ be- ‘in’
ARB fii: fii θalaaθati ʔayyaamin ‘in three days’ fii ‘in’
MLT fi: fi tlitt ijiem ‘in three days’ fi ‘in’
HAU (à) cikin: (à) cikin mintìi 'in ten minutes' cikin 'in(side)'
PER dar: dar (arze) dah daqiqe ‘in ten minutes’ dar ‘in’
SWA katika: katika siku tatu ‘in three days’ katika ‘in’
CHI zhī nèi: liǎng-ge xiǎoshí (zhī) nèi ‘in two hours’ nèi ‘within’
JAP -kan de ni-zi-kan de ‘in two hours’ de ‘in’
KOR -(m)an-ey twu sikan-(m)an-ey ‘in two hours’
NAN DAT: dūin ajŋani-du ‘in four years’
IND dalam: dalam tiga hari ‘in three days’ dalam ‘inside’
TAG sa loob ng: sa loob ng isang linggo ‘in one week’ sa loob ng ‘inside’
ESK akunnir-: nalunaaquttap akunnir-i-ni marlun-ni ‘in two hours’ akunnir- ‘between’
A.8. Distance-future
FORM EXAMPLE OTHER MEANINGS
ENG in X('s time): in two weeks(' time)
GER in: in zwei Stunden ‘in two hours’ time’ in ‘in’
SWE om: om två dagar ‘in two days’
FRE dans: dans huit jours ‘in eight days’ dans ‘in’
ITA tra/fra: tra un anno ritorno ‘I’ll be back in a year’ fra ‘between, among’
SPA dentro de: dentro de ocho días ‘in eight days’ dentro de ‘inside’
ROM peste: peste o lună ‘in a month’s time’ peste ‘over’
164 Appendix
LAT ABL/post: hoc biennio ‘in 2 years’/post biduum ‘in 2 days’ post ‘after’
HAI nan: nan kèk jou ankò ‘a few days from now’ nan ‘in’
RUS čerez: čerez mesjac ‘in a month’ čerez ‘across’
POL za: za tydzień ‘in a week’ za ‘behind’
SCR do: do dva dana ‘in two days’ do ‘to’
BLG sled: sled edna sedmica ‘in a week’ = posterior
LIT už/po: po kelių minučių ‘in a few minutes’ = posterior
LTV pēc: pēc divām stundām ‘in two hours’ = posterior
MGR se/metá apó: se trís óres/metá apó tris óres ‘in three hours’ = posterior; se ‘in’
ALB pas: pas një jave 'in a week's time' = posterior
IRI i gcionn: i gcionn trí lá ‘in three days’ ceann ‘head, end’
WEL ymhen: ymhen mis ‘in a month’s time’
BSQ barru/: lau ordu barru 'in four hours'/ barruan 'inside'
buruan: lau orduren buruan 'in four hours'
HNG múlva: három hét múlva ‘in three weeks’ múlva ‘passing’
FIN INESS: kahde-ssa tunni-ssa ‘in two hours’
EST X pärast: kahe tunni pärast ≈ posterior
two.GEN hour.GEN after
UDM bere: odig ćas bere ‘in one hour’ = posterior
TRK sonra: iki gün sonra ‘in two days’ = posterior
LZG SUPEREL: q’we wacra-laj ‘in two months’ SUPEREL ‘across’
CHE dälča: ill minot jälča ‘in ten minutes’
ABK INSTR (-la): y˚ә-sàat-k’ rә̀-la ‘in two hours’
GEO -ši: or saat-ši ‘in two hours’ -ši ‘in’
ARM ABL (+ heto) erku taru-c‘ (heto) ‘in two years’ time’ heto ‘after’
HEB ʕod: ʕod yomayim ‘in two days’ ʕod ‘yet, still’
ARB baʕda: baʕda yawmayni ‘in two days’ = posterior
MLT fi: fi ftit minuti ‘in a few minutes’ fi ‘in’
HAU baayan/: cikin awàa biyu 'in two hours'/ cikin 'inside'
cikin baayan shèekaràa ukkù 'in three years' = posterior
SWA baada: baada ya siku mbili ‘in two days’ = posterior
PER digar: (tâ) se sâl-e digar ‘in three years’ tâ ‘until’, digar ‘other’
PUN vicc/andar: do kàṇṭe vicc/de andar ‘in two hours’ vicc/andar ‘in’
KAN LOC (-alli): aidu nimiṣad-alli ‘in five minutes’ LOC ‘in’
TAM neerattle: raṇṭu maṇi neerattle ‘in two hours’ neerattle ‘in time’
CHI yǐhòu: liǎng-ge zhŏngtóu yǐhòu ‘in two hours’ ≈ posterior
JAP de/go-ni: ni-zi-kan de/ni-zi-kan go-ni ‘in two hours’ de ‘in’; = posterior
KOR hwu-ey/: twu sikan hwu-ey ‘in two hours’/ hwu-ey ‘after’
twi-ey sam nyen twi-ey ‘in three years’ twi-ey ‘behind’
NAN bipie: ǯuer ajŋani-du bipie ‘in two years’ bi- ‘be’
The data 165
IND lagi: dua hari lagi ‘in two days’ lagi ‘yet, noch’
MAO a/i: a te rua haora ‘in two hours’ a/i ‘in, at’
HOP ang: hikis taala-t ang ‘in a few days’
QUE LOC: ishkay uras-pi ‘in two hours’ LOC ‘in’
A.9. Distance-past
FORM EXAMPLE OTHER MEANINGS
ENG ago: a fortnight ago
GER vor: vor vierzehn Tagen ‘a fortnight ago’ = anterior
SWE för..sedan: för fjorton år sedan ‘fourteen years ago’ sedan ‘later, since’
FRE il y a: il y a longtemps ‘a long time ago’ il y a ‘it has here’
ITA fa: due anni fa ‘two years ago’ fa ‘it makes’
SPA hace: hace catorce años ‘fourteen years ago’ hace ‘it makes’
ROM acum: acum paisprezece ani ‘fourteen years ago’ acum ‘now’
LAT ABL/ante: paucis his diebus ‘a few days ago’/ ante annos 14 ante ‘before’
HAI fè: jodi-a fè kat jou ‘four days ago today’ fè ‘makes’
RUS nazad: dva goda tomu nazad ‘two years ago’ nazad ‘back’
POL temu: sześć miesięcy temu ‘six months ago’ temu ‘to this’
SCR prije: prije četrnaest godina ‘14 years ago’ = anterior
BLG predi: predi edna sedmica ‘a week ago’ = anterior
LIT prieš: prieš tris dienas ‘three days ago’ = anterior
LTV pirms: pirms gada ‘a year ago’ pirms ‘before’
MGR prin apó: prin apó dhió óres ‘two hours ago’ = anterior
ALB ka/para: ka dy vjet 'two years ago'/para disa ditësh 'a few days ago' 'has'/=anterior
IRI ó shin: bliain ó shin ‘a year ago’ ó shin ‘from this’
WEL yn ôl: ddwy flynedd yn ôl ‘two years ago’ yn ôl ‘back’
BSQ duela: duela bi ordu hemen zen 'he was here two hours ago' duela 'it has'
it.has two hours here was
HNG elött: három hét elött ‘three weeks ago’ = anterior
FIN sitten: kolme vuotta sitten ‘three years ago’ sitten ‘later’
EST tagasi/eest: kaks tundi tagasi/ kahe tunni eest tagasi 'back'
two hour.PRTV back two hour past eest 'past'
UDM aźlo: odig ar taleś aźlo ‘one year ago’ (lit. ‘1 year before this’) cf. aźyn ‘before’
TRK önce: iki yıl önce ‘two years ago’ = anterior
LZG wilik: 250 jis idalaj wilik ‘250 years ago’ (lit. 250 years before this) = anterior
CHE ħalxa: pxi šo ħalxa ‘five years ago’ = anterior
ABK -àpx’a: y˚ә-sàat-k’ r-àpx’a ‘two hours ago’ = anterior
GEO c’in: or saatis c’in ‘two hours ago’ = anterior
166 Appendix
ARM aṙaǰ: erku žam aṙaǰ ‘two hours ago’ = anterior
HEB lifney: lifney šloša yamim ‘three days ago’ = anterior
ARB munðu: munðu ʔarbaʕati ʔayyaamin ‘four days ago’ munðu ‘since’
MLT il-: erbat ijiem ilu ‘four days ago’
HAU cikin: cikin awàa biyun dà sukà wucèe
in hour two that 3PL pass
‘two hours ago’
PER piš/qabl: do sâ’at-e piš/do sâ’at-e qabl ‘two hours ago’ = anterior
PUN páílãã: do saal páílãã ‘two years ago’ = anterior
KAN hinde: ardha gaṇṭeya hinde ‘half an hour ago’ hinde ‘behind’
TAM munnaale: muuṇu maṇi-kki munnaale ‘three hours ago’ = anterior
CHI yǐqián: liǎng-ge zhŏngtóu yǐqián ‘two hours ago’ ≈ anterior
JAP mae-ni: ni-zi-kan mae-ni ‘two hours ago’ = anterior
KOR cen-ey: twu sikan cen-ey ‘two hours ago’ cen-ey ‘before’
NAN xamasi: ǯuer ajŋaniwa xamasi ‘two years back’ xamasi ‘back’
IND yang lalu: empat hari yang lalu ‘four days ago’ lalu ‘pass’
TAG nakaraan: pitong taong nakaraan ‘seven years ago’ nakaraan ‘past’
MAO noa atu raa: rua haora noa atu raa ‘two hours ago’ ‘extend away there’
ESK siurnagut: nalunaaquttap akunniri pingasut matuma siurnagut =anterior
clock between three this before
‘three hours before this = three hours ago’
A.10. Distance-posterior
FORM EXAMPLE OTHER MEANINGS
ENG for (+PERF): Bill has been in Manchester for three years.
GER seit: Ich wohne hier seit Jahren ‘I’ve lived here for years’ seit ‘since’
SWE i (+PERF): Han har bott där i ett år ‘He has lived there for a year’ i ‘in, for’
FRE il y a/ Il y a une heure que j’attends ‘I’ve been waiting for an h.’ il y a ‘it here has’
depuis: = J’attends depuis une heure. depuis ‘since’
ITA da: sto aspettando da un’ora ‘I’ve been waiting for an hour’ da ‘from, since’
SPA desde hace: desde hace una hora ‘for one hour’ = ‘since ..ago’
ROM de: Sînt aici de trei ani ‘I’ve been here for three years’ de ‘from, since’
LAT ab/ex: ab annis octo ‘for 8 years’/ex multo tempore ‘long’ ab/ex ‘from’
HAI fè: Sa fè toua jou dépi yo la avè-m ‘They have been with
me for three days’ fè ‘makes’
RUS ACC/uže: (uže) odnu minutu ‘for one minute’ uže ‘already’
POL od: od wielu lat ‘for many years’ od ‘since’
SCR već: već osam godina ‘for eight years’ već ‘already’
BLG ot: ot mnogo godini ‘for many years’ ot ‘since’
The data 167
LIT jau: jau daugelį metų ‘for many years’ jau ‘already’
LTV ACC: trīs gadus ‘for three years/seit drei Jahren’
MGR edhó ke: edhó ke tris mínes ‘for three months (already)’ edhó ke ‘here and’
ALB prej prej vitesh 'for years/seit Jahren' prej 'from'
IRI le: le trí bliana ‘for three days’ le ‘with’
WEL ers: ers wythnos ‘for a week’ ers ‘since’
HNG óta: három nap óta ‘for three days’ óta ‘since’
FIN ACC: kaksi päivää ‘for two days’
EST PRTV: Ma olen selles linna-s seitse aastat ela-nud
I be.1SG this town-INESS seven years.PRTV live-PTCP.PAST
TRK -dIr: üç gün-dür yanımdalar ‘they have been with me for 3 days’ -dIr ‘be’
LZG ‘exist’: [wun za-z t-akwa-z] sa šumud jis ja.
you.ABS I-DAT NEG-see-CONV one few years exist
‘It’s been a couple of years that I haven’t seen you.’
ABK Ø: y˚ә-şәk˚sa abrà sә-n-xò-yt’
two-year here 1SG-?-live-FIN
‘I have been living here for two years.’
GEO ‘be’: ori tve-a Bambergši var ‘I’ve been in B. for 2 months’ (E183c)
ARM arden: arden yot‘ tari ‘already seven years’ (E179e) ‘already’
HEB ze: ze šanim rabot ani ʕoved eclexa ze ‘that, it (is)’
‘I’ve been working for you for many years’
ARB munðu: munðu sanawaatin ʕadiidatin ‘for many years’
MLT il-: ilni tliet snin ‘for three years I...’
HAU Ø: kwaanaa uku 'for three days'
SWA tangu: tangu siku nyingi ‘for many days’ tangu ‘since’
PER ‘be’/az..piš: noh sâl ast ke ‘for nine years’ (E183b)/az noh sâl-e piš (E29d)
TAM -aa: aaru maacam-aa ‘for six months’ -aa ‘ADV’
CHI Ø: qī nián ‘for seven years’
JAP kan: nana-nen-kan ‘for seven years’
KOR tongan: Na-nun i tosi-eyse chil nyen tongan salatta cf. tongan ‘for’
I-TOP this city-LOC seven year for live
‘I have lived in this city for seven years.’
IND sudah/telah: sudah dua jam dia di sini
already two hour he in here
‘He has been here for two hours:’
TAG Ø: tatlong araw ‘for three days’
HOP ang: pàykomu-y santi-t ang ‘for three weeks’
QUE tuku- cf. §8.3.3, E182
Index of Languages 1
References
ALLEN, ROBERT L. & HILL, CLIFFORD ALDEN (1979), “Contrast between Ø and
the in spatial and temporal predication”, Lingua 48: 123-146.
ALVERSON, HOYT (1994), Semantics and experience: universal metaphors of time in
English, Mandarin, Hindi, and Sesotho, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins
University Press.
ANDERSON, JOHN M. (1973), An essay concerning aspect: some consideration of a
general character arising from the Abbé Darrigol’s analysis of the Basque verb,
[Janua Linguarum, Series Minor, 167.] The Hague: Mouton.
ANDERSON, LLOYD (1982), “The ‘Perfect’ as a universal and as a language
particular category”, in: HOPPER, PAUL (ed.), Tense and aspect: between
semantics and pragmatics, [Typological Studies in Language, 1] Amsterdam:
Benjamins, 227-264.
ANSCOMBRE, JEAN-CLAUDE (1993), “Sur/sous: de la localisation spatiale à la
localisation temporelle” Lexique 11: 111-145.
ANSTATT, TANJA (1996), ‘Zeit’: Motivierungen und Strukturen der Bedeutungen
von Zeitbezeichnungen in slavischen und anderen Sprachen, München: Sagner.
ASHER, R.E. (1982), Tamil, [Lingua Descriptive Studies] Amsterdam: North
Holland.
BARNETOVÁ, VILMA et al. (1979), Russkaja grammatika, 2 vols. Praga: Academia.
BÄUERLE, RAINER (1979), Temporale Deixis, temporale Frage: Zum propositionalen
Gehalt deklarativer und interrogativer Sätze, Tübingen: Narr.
BAUER, WINIFRED (1993), Maori, [Routledge Descriptive Grammars] London:
Routledge.
BENNETT, DAVID C. (1975), Spatial and temporal uses of English prepositions: An
essay in stratificational semantics, London: Longman.
BERTHONNEAU, ANNE-MARIE (1991), “Pendant et pour, variations sur la durée et
donation de la référence”, Langue française, 91: 102-124.
— (1993a), “Avant/après: de l’espace au temps”, in: BERTHONNEAU & CADIOT
(1993), 41-110.
— (1993b), “Depuis vs il y a que, référence temporelle vs cohésion discursive, ou:
A quoi sert que dans il y a que?” in: VETTERS, CARL (ed.), Le temps, de la phrase
au texte, Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille, 9-83.
BERTHONNEAU, ANNE-MARIE & CADIOT, PIERRE (eds.) (1993), Les prépositions:
méthodes d’analyse, [Lexique 11.] Lille: Presses universitaires de Lille.
2 Index of Languages
BHATIA, TEJ K. (1993), Punjabi, [Routledge Descriptive Grammars] London:
Routledge.
BICKEL, BALTHASAR (1994), Spatial operations in deixis, cognition, and culture:
where to orient oneself in Belhare, [Working Paper, 28.] Nijmegen: Cognitive
Anthropology Research Group, Max-Planck-Institute for Psycholinguistics.
BUCHHOLZ, ODA & FIEDLER, WILFRIED (1987), Albanische Grammatik, Leipzig:
Enzyklopädie.
BYBEE, JOAN L. & PERKINS, REVERE D. & PAGLIUCA, WILLIAM (1994), The
evolution of grammar: Tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world,
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
CLARK, HERBERT H. (1973), “Space, time, semantics, and the child”, in: MOORE,
TIMOTHY E. (ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language, New
York: Academic Press, 27-63.
CLAUDI, ULRIKE & HEINE, BERND (1986), “On the metaphorical base of
grammar”, Studies in Language 10: 297-335.
COLE, PETER (1985), Imbabura Quechua, [Croom Helm Descriptive Grammars]
London: Croom Helm.
COMRIE, BERNARD (1985), Tense, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
— & SMITH, NORVAL (1977), “Lingua Decriptive Studies: Questionnaire”, Lingua
42.1: 3-71.
CROFT, WILLIAM (1993), “The role of domains in the interpretation of
metaphors and metonymies”, Cognitive Linguistics 4.4: 335-370.
DAHL, ÖSTEN (1985), Tense and aspect systems, Oxford: Blackwell.
DAVIES, JOHN (1981), Kobon, [Lingua Descriptive Studies] Amsterdam: North
Holland.
DEHON, GENEVIÈVE (1993), “Les adverbiaux de durée introduits par pendant et
en dans la théorie aspectuelle de Verkuyl: De l’interprétation itérative à la
catégorie achèvement”, Revue Romane 28.1: 3-24.
DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. (1979), Hixkaryana, [Lingua Descriptive Studies, 1.]
Amsterdam: North Holland.
DOWTY, DAVID R. (1979), Word meaning and Montague grammar, Dordrecht:
Reidel.
ELERICK, CHARLES (1989), “Latin *abhince annos (cum): Spanish hace años (que)”
Hispanic Linguistics 3.1-2: 89-98.
FABRI, RAY (1992), Kongruenz und die Grammatik des Maltesischen, Tübingen:
Niemeyer.
FETTWEIS, E. (1958), “Orientierung und Messung in Raum und Zeit bei
Naturvölkern”, Studium Generale 11: 1-12.
Index of Languages 3
FILLMORE, CHARLES (1971), Santa Cruz lectures on deixis, Bloomington: Indiana
University Linguistics Club.
FORTESCUE, MICHAEL (1984), West Greenlandic, [Croom Helm Descriptive
Grammars] London: Croom Helm.
FRANCIS, W. NELSON & KUCERA, HENRY (1982), Frequency analysis of English
usage, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
GAMILLSCHEG, ERNST (1957), Historische französische Syntax, Tübingen:
Niemeyer.
GEERAERTS, DIRK (1993), “Vagueness’s puzzles, polysemy’s vagaries”, Cognitive
Linguistics 4:223-272.
GIAUFRET-COLOMBANI, HÉLÈNE (1989), “Candide au pays des disctionnaires et
des grammaires, ou dans le labyrinthe: A propos des locutions de temps
construites avec depuis et dès, da et fin da”, Studi italiani di linguistica teorica ed
applicata 18.1-2: 163-172.
GODDARD, CLIFF & WIERZBICKA, ANNA (1994), Semantic and lexical universals:
theory and empirical findings, [Studies in Language Companion Series, 25]
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
GROSS, MAURICE (1986), “Lexique-grammaire et adverbes: deux exemples”,
Revue Québécoise de Linguistique 15.2: 299-311.
HAIMAN, JOHN (1974), “Concessives, conditionals and verbs of volition”,
Foundations of Language 11: 341-359.
HALLOWELL, A. IRVING (1939), “Temporal orientation in Western civilization
and in a preliterate society”, American Anthropologist 39: 647-70.
HASPELMATH, MARTIN (1993), A grammar of Lezgian, [Mouton Grammar
Library, 9.] Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
— (1995), “Diachronic sources of ‘all’ and ‘every’”, in: BACH, EMMON & JELINEK,
ELOISE & KRATZER, ANGELIKA & PARTEE, BARBARA (eds.), Quantification in
natural languages, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 363-382.
— (1987), Indefinite pronouns, [Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic
Theory] Oxford: Oxford University Press.
HEINE, BERND & CLAUDI, ULRIKE & HÜNNEMEYER, FRIEDERIKE (1991),
Grammaticalization: A conceptual framework, Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
HEINE, BERND & REH, MECHTHILD (1984), Grammaticalization and reanalysis in
African languages, Hamburg: Buske.
HENGEVELD, KEES (1997), “The internal structure of adverbial clauses”, in: VAN
DER AUWERA, JOHAN (ed.) Adverbial constructions in the languages of Europe,
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
4 Index of Languages
HENRY, ALBERT (1966), “Il y a préposition?”, in: Mélanges de grammaire française
offerts à Maurice Grévisse, Gembloux: Duculot, 207-213.
— (1968), C’était il y a des lunes, étude de syntaxe française, Paris: Klincksieck.
HERSKOVITS, ANNETTE (1986), Language and spatial cognition: An interdisciplinary
study of the prepositions of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
HERWEG, MICHAEL (1990), Zeitaspekte: Die Bedeutung von Tempus, Aspekt und
temporalen Konjunktionen, Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag.
HEWITT, B. GEORGE (with Z. K. KHIBA) (1979), Abkhaz, [Lingua Descriptive
Studies] Amsterdam: North Holland.
HILL, CLIFFORD ALDEN (1978), “Linguistic representation of spatial and temporal
orientation”, Berkeley Linguistics Society 4: 524-538.
HINDS, JOHN (1986), Japanese, [Routledge Descriptive Grammars] London:
Routledge.
HJELMSLEV, LOUIS (1935) La catégorie des cas: Étude de grammaire générale. Aarhus:
Universitetsforlaget.
JACKENDOFF, RAY (1983), Semantics and cognition, Cambridge/MA: MIT Press.
JESPERSEN, OTTO (1924), The philospohy of grammar, London: Allen and Unwin.
JOSEPH, BRIAN & PHILIPPAKI-WARBURTON, IRENE (1987), Modern Greek,
[Routledge Descriptive Grammars] London: Routledge.
KARASAEV, A. T. & MACIEV, A. G. (1978), Russko-čečenskij slovar’, Moskva:
Russkij jazyk.
KEESING, ROGER M. (1991), “Substrates, calquing and grammaticalization in
Melanesian Pidgin”, in: TRAUGOTT, ELIZABETH C. & HEINE, BERND (eds.)
Approaches to grammaticalization, vol. 1. [Typological Studies in Language, 19.]
Amsterdam: Benjamins, 315-342.
KEMMER, SUZANNE (1993), The middle voice, [Typological Studies in Language,
23.] Amsterdam: Benjamins.
KING, GARETH (1993), Modern Welsh: A comprehensive grammar, London:
Routledge.
KLEIN, WOLFGANG (1994), Time in language, London: Routledge.
KOCH, HAROLD (1995), “The creation of morphological zeroes”, in: BOOIJ,
GEERT & VAN MARLE, JAAP (eds.), Yearbook of Morphology 1994, Dordrecht:
Kluwer, 31-71.
KÖNIG, EKKEHARD (1974), “The semantic structure of time prepositions in
English”, Foundations of Language 11: 551-563.
— (1991), The meaning of focus particles: a comparative perspective, London:
Routledge.
Index of Languages 5
KORTMANN, BERND (1997), Adverbial subordination: A typology and history of
adverbial subordinators based on European languages, [Empirical Approaches to
Language Typology, 18.] Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
— & KÖNIG, EKKEHARD (1992), “Categorial reanalysis: the case of deverbal
prepositions”, Linguistics 30: 671-697.
KUČERA, HENRY & TRNKA, KARLA (1975), Time in language: Temporal adverbial
constructions in Czech, Russian and English, [Michigan Slavic Materials, 11.]
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
KUČERA, VLADIMIR (1966), “K adverbializacii russkogo tvoritel’nogo vreme-ni”
Ceskoslovenská Rusistika 11: 97-102.
KÜHNER, RAPHAEL & STEGMANN, CARL (1912), Ausführliche Grammatik der
lateinischen Sprache: Satzlehre, Hannover: Hahn.
KUTEVA, TANIA & SINHA, CHRIS (1994), “Spatial and non-spatial uses of
prepositions: conceptual integrity across semantic domains”, in: SCHWARZ,
MONIKA (ed.), Kognitive Semantik/Cognitive semantics: Ergebnisse, Probleme,
Perspektiven, Tübingen: Narr, 215-237.
LAKOFF, GEORGE & JOHNSON, MARK (1980), Metaphors we live by, Chicago:
Chicago University Press.
LANGACKER, RONALD (1987-91), Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, vol. 1 (1987),
vol. 2 (1991), Stanford: Stanford University Press.
— (1991), “Abstract motion”, in: LANGACKER, RONALD, Concept, image and
symbol, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 149-163.
LARSON, RICHARD K. (1985), “Bare-NP adverbs”, Linguistic Inquiry 16: 595-621.
LEECH, GEOFFREY (1969), Towards a semantic description of English, London:
Longman.
LEHMANN, CHRISTIAN (1995), Thoughts on grammaticalization, [Lincom Studies in
Theoretical Linguistics, 1.] Munich: Lincom Europa.
LENARDUZZI, RENÉ (1993), “Las preposiciones por y durante en los circunstanciales
de tiempo durativo”, Rassegna Iberistica 46: 33-55.
LI, CHALES N. & THOMPSON, SANDRA A. (1981), Mandarin Chinese: A functional
reference grammar, Berkeley: University of California Press.
LÖBNER, SEBASTIAN (1989), “Schon – erst – noch: An integrated analysis”,
Linguistics and Philosophy 12: 167-212.
LYONS, JOHN (1977), Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
LYSEBRAATE, HANNEMOR (1982), “Les constructions en depuis en français
moderne”, Revue Romane 17.1: 62-73.
MALLINSON, GRAHAM (1986), Rumanian, [Routledge Descriptive Grammars]
London: Routledge.
6 Index of Languages
MALOTKI, EKKEHART (1983), Hopi time: A linguistic analysis of the temporal concepts
in the Hopi language, [Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs, 20.]
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
MANZOTTI, E. & RIGAMONTI, A. (1983), “Dalle due alle tre: indicazioni di durata”,
in: SCHWARZE, CHRISTOPH (ed.), Bausteine für eine italienische Grammatik, Band
I, Tübingen: Narr, 171-207.
MCCAWLEY, JAMES D. (1988), “Adverbial NPs: Bare or clad in see-through
garb?” Language 64.3: 583-590.
MEYER-LÜBKE, WILHELM (1899), Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen. 3. Band:
Syntax, Leipzig: Reisland.
MICHAELIS, SUSANNE (1997), “Antikausativ als Brücke zum Passiv: Zur
Grammatikalisierung von venire im Italienischen”, in: WINKELMANN, OTTO et
al. (eds.), Syntax in der Romania: Romanistisches Kolloquium XI, [Tübinger
Beiträge zur Linguistik] Tübingen: Narr.
MÜLLER, WERNER (1962), “Raum und Zeit in Sprachen und Kalendern
Nordamerikas und Alteuropas”, Anthropos 57: 568-90.
NERBONNE, JOHN (1985), German temporal semantics: Three-dimensional tense logic
and a GPSG fragment, New York: Garland.
ONENKO, SULUNGU N. (1980), Nanajsko-russkij slovar’, Moskva: Russkij jazyk.
— (1986), Russko-nanajskij slovar’, Moskva: Russkij jazyk.
PUSTEJOVSKY, JAMES (1991), “The syntax of event structure”, in: LEVIN, BETH &
PINKER, STEVEN (eds.), Lexical and conceptual semantics, Cambridge/MA:
Blackwell, 47-81.
QUIRK, RANDOLPH & GREENBAUM, SIDNEY & LEECH, GEOFFREY & SVARTVIK,
JAN (1985), A comprehensive grammar of the English language, London:
Longman.
RECKENDORF, HERMANN (1977), Arabische Syntax, 2. Auflage. Heidelberg:
Winter.
ROHRER, CHRISTIAN (1981), “Quelques remarques sur les différences entre à
partir de/depuis et dans une heure/une heure plus tard”, in: SCHWARZE,
CHRISTOPH (ed.), Analyse des prépositions, [Linguistische Arbeiten, 110.]
Tübingen: Niemeyer, .
SALTARELLI, MARIO (1988), Basque, [Routledge Descriptive Grammars] London:
Routledge.
SCHACHTER, PAUL & OTANES, FE T. (1972), Tagalog reference grammar, Berkeley:
University of California Press.
SCHAUB, WILLI (1985), Babungo, [Croom Helm Descriptive Grammars] London:
Croom Helm.
Index of Languages 7
SCHIPPOREIT, LUISE (1971), Tenses and time phrases in Modern German, Munich:
Hueber.
SNOOK, ROGER L. (1988), “A reductive analysis of some temporal relators in
English, German and Netherlandish”, in: KLEGRAF, J. & NEHLS, D. (eds.),
Essays on the English language and applied linguistics on the occasion of Gerhard
Nickel’s 60th birthday, Heidelberg: Gross, 250-275.
SRIDHAR, S. N. (1990), Kannada, [Routledge Descriptive Grammars] London:
Routledge.
SULKALA, HELENA & KARJALAINEN, MARJA (1992), Finnish, [Routledge
Descriptive Grammars] London: Routledge.
SUTCLIFFE, EDMUND F. (1936), A grammar of the Maltese language, Valletta:
Progress Press.
SVOROU, SOTERIA (1994), The grammar of space, [Typogical Studies in Language,
25.] Amsterdam: Benjamins.
TALMY, LEONARD (1988), “The relation of grammar to cognition”, in: RUDZKAOSTYN,
BRYGIDA (ed.), Topics in cognitive linguistics, Amsterdam: Benjamins,
165-205.
TAYLOR, CHARLES (1985), Nkore-Kiga, [Croom Helm Descriptive Grammars]
London: Croom Helm.
TEN CATE, ABRAHAM P. (1984), “Aspektdiskriminierung durch Daueradverbien”,
in: KRENN, HERWIG (ed.), Akten des 18. Linguistischen
Kolloquiums, Linz, Bd. 1, Tübingen: Niemeyer, 12-22.
— (1989), “Seit: Temporal-aspektuelle Implikationen von Zeitbestim-mungen
mit der Präposition ‘seit’”, in: REITER, NORBERT (ed.), Sprechen und Hören:
Akten des 23. Linguistischen Kolloquiums, Berlin 1988, Tübingen: Niemeyer,
223-233.
TENCHEA, MARIA (1985), “Le système des prépositions temporelles en français
et en roumain”, in: BOUVIER, JEAN-CLAUDE (ed.), Linguistique comparée et
typologie des langues romanes: Actes du XVIIème Congrès International de
Linguistique et Philologie Romanes, vol. 2, Aix-en-Provence: Université de
Provence, 515-527.
THOMPSON, SANDRA A. & LONGACRE, ROBERT E. (1985), “Adverbial clauses”, in:
SHOPEN, TIMOTHY (ed.) Language typology amd syntactic description, vol. III:
Complex constructions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 171-234.
TRAUGOTT, ELIZABETH C. (1974), “Explorations in linguistic elaboration: language
change, language acquisition and the genesis of spatio-temporal
terms”, in: ANDERSON, JOHN M. & JONES, CHARLES (eds.), Historical
linguistics, Dordrecht: North Holland, 263-314.
8 Index of Languages
— (1975), “Spatial expressions of tense and temporal sequencing: A contribution
to the study of semantic fields” Semiotica 15.3: 207-30.
— (1978), “On the expression of spatio-temporal relations in language”, in:
GREENBERG, JOSEPH & FERGUSON, CHARLES A. & MORAVCSIK, EDITH A.
(eds.), Universals of human language, vol 3: Word structure, Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 369-400.
URBANAVIČIŪTĖ-MARKEVIČIENĖ, ZANETA & GRINAVECKIS, VLADAS (1995),
“Zum Gebrauch der Präpositionen po und už zum Ausdruck der temporalen
Verhältnisse in den litauischen Mundarten”, Historische Sprach-forschung
108.2: 290-307.
VAN DER AUWERA, JOHAN (1997a), “Conclusion”, in: VAN DER AUWERA, JOHAN
(ed.), Adverbial constructions in the languages of Europe, Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter.
— (1997b), “Phasal adverbials”, in: VAN DER AUWERA, JOHAN (ed.), Adverbial
constructions in the languages of Europe, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
VANDELOISE, CLAUDE (1991), Spatial prepositions: A case study from French,
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
VENDLER, ZENO (1957), “Verbs and times”, The Philosophical Review 66: 143-160.
VERKUYL, H. J. (1973), “Temporal prepositions as quantifiers”, in: KIEFER,
FERENC & RUWET, NICHOLAS (eds.), Generative grammar in Europe, Dordrecht:
Reidel, 582-615.
VET, CO (1980), Temps, aspects et adverbes de temps en français contemporain: essai
de sémantique formelle, [Publications romanes et françaises, 154.] Genève:
Droz.
WHORF, BENJAMIN LEE (1956), Language, thought and reality: Selected writings of
Benjamin Lee Whorf, ed. by JOHN B. CARROLL, Cambridge: MIT Press.
WIERZBICKA, ANNA (1973), “In search of a semantic model of time and space”,
in: KIEFER, FERENC & RUWET, NICOLAS (eds.), Generative grammar in Europe,
Dordrecht: Reidel, 616-628.
— (1993), “Why do we say in April, on Thursday, at 10 o’clock? In search of an
explanation”, Studies in Language 17.2: 437-454.
WUNDERLICH, DIETER (1985), “Raum, Zeit und das Lexikon”, in: SCHWEIZER,
HARRO (ed.), Sprache und Raum, Stuttgart: Metzler, 66-89
176 Index of Languages
Index of Languages
Abkhaz 14, 16, 51, 61, 64, 75, 81, 102-3, 117,
130
Albanian 14, 16, 57, 81, 99, 110, 121, 131-2
Arabic 14, 16-7, 52, 62, 67, 69, 97, 99-100,
117-8, 120-1, 125, 130
Aramaic 138
Armenian 14, 16, 62, 66, 74, 81, 83, 117, 121,
130, 135
Babungo 15-16, 53-5, 70-1, 110, 113, 120-1
Basque 14, 16-17, 51, 57, 64, 76, 79, 87, 129-
30, 134
Belhare 22
Bulgarian 14, 16-17, 61, 64, 67, 81, 84-5, 96,
99, 100, 111, 113, 121, 131-2
Chechen14, 17, 52, 57, 81, 99, 109, 112, 130
Chinese 15-16, 22, 61-3, 66, 71, 75-6, 81, 99,
117, 121, 124, 130, 134
Croatian/Serbian 14, 17, 36, 64, 66-7, 81, 97,
99, 117-8, 120-1, 131, 135
Czech 4
Dutch 48, 94, 129
English2-4, 12-14, 16, 33, 36, 52, 61-3, 65, 67-
8, 72, 75-6, 78, 89-91, 98-9, 103, 106, 115-
16, 120, 127-8, 130, 133, 143
Eskimo –> Greenlandic
Estonian 14, 16, 64, 70, 77, 79, 81, 93, 99, 110,
121, 131, 134
Finnish 13-14, 47, 64, 69-70, 74, 77, 79, 90, 99,
108-10, 113-14, 117-19, 121, 125, 130, 134
French 14, 22, 48, 61-2, 64-5, 67, 69-70, 72-3,
75, 87-8, 90, 96, 99, 103, 107, 114, 117, 122,
129, 130, 132,136, 138-9, 142-3
Georgian 14, 16, 66, 74, 81, 90, 114, 117-19,
121, 130, 137
German 2, 11-12, 16, 48, 52, 57, 64, 66-9, 72-3,
75-6, 78, 81, 83-5, 90-1, 94-6, 99, 103, 109,
115-16, 118, 121, 129-30, 132, 135, 143
Greek, Ancient 64, 85, 97-100, 138
Greek, Modern 14, 16-17, 62-4, 66, 75-6, 81,
83-4, 90, 98-9, 114, 121, 127, 130, 133
Greenlandic Eskimo 15-16, 46, 51, 57, 109,
11, 113, 121-2, 130
Haitian Creole 14, 17, 87, 99, 109, 115, 130,
136
Hausa 14, 16, 57, 75, 81, 89, 104, 107, 113,
115, 121, 131, 134
Hebrew 14, 17, 57, 61-3, 81, 84-5, 94, 103, 121,
123, 130, 137-8
Hixkaryana 15-16, 50, 52-5, 113
Hopi 2, 15, 16
Hungarian 8, 14, 17, 57, 64, 69-70, 75, 79, 81,
83-4, 86, 97, 99, 104, 107, 109, 111-15, 131-
2
Indonesian 15, 17, 64-5, 71, 89, 95-6, 99, 121,
130, 135
Irish 14, 17, 62, 67, 69-70, 75-6, 99, 110, 115,
130-1, 139
Italian 3, 14, 16, 48, 55, 61, 63, 67, 69-71, 75-6,
78, 88, 96, 103, 108, 110-11, 113-15, 127,
130, 132
Japanese 15-16, 47, 57, 75, 79, 81, 99-100, 104,
107, 117-8, 121, 123, 130-1, 134
Kannada 15-16, 63, 66, 70, 76, 90, 109, 130
Kobon 15-16, 52-54, 111, 116
Korean 8, 15-16, 74, 78, 81, 130
Kwaio 142
Latin 6, 14, 16-17, 57, 66, 69-70, 85, 98-9, 103,
114, 129-30, 132
Latvian 14, 50-1, 63-5, 69-70, 75, 78, 81, 99,
103, 130-31, 134
Index of Languages 177
Lezgian 14, 16, 57, 61, 66-7, 76, 81-2, 87, 94,
99, 110, 114, 129-30
Lithuanian 14, 17, 57, 65-6, 81, 86, 99, 102,
114, 124-5, 129, 131, 135, 138-9
Maltese 14, 17, 57, 62, 66, 99, 116, 121, 123,
127, 130, 137
Maori 15-16, 44, 51, 57, 75, 127
Nanay 15, 17, 57, 65, 70, 72, 86, 92, 113, 130
Nkore-Kiga 15-16, 52, 54, 108, 121-2
Old Norse 67
Persian 14, 16, 66, 74, 81, 83, 95, 117, 121,
123, 130, 132, 137
Polish 14, 17, 50, 57, 66-7, 81, 109, 114-5, 121,
129, 131-2
Punjabi 14, 16, 63, 66, 74, 81-2, 90, 110, 115,
127-8
Quechua 15-16, 74, 90, 114, 117-18, 121, 137
Romanian 14, 16, 50, 62-3, 66, 94, 113, 116,
132
Russian 2, 4, 11-12, 14, 16, 36, 48, 50-1, 57, 63-
4, 66-7, 70-1, 79, 92-4, 99, 102, 110, 112,
115, 117-18, 121, 124-6, 129, 131, 135, 138-
9
Serbian –> Croatian/Serbian
Solomons Pijin 141-42
Spanish 14, 17, 62, 87-8, 90, 96, 99, 116, 121,
123, 127, 130, 132, 136, 142
Swahili 15, 17, 52, 81, 102-3, 116, 121, 130,
133
Swedish 14, 17, 46, 50, 61-3, 67, 72, 75, 77, 96,
99, 110, 115, 129-31, 133-4, 139
Tagalog 15-16, 44-45, 50, 54, 74, 110, 115,
117, 129, 130-1
Tamil 15-16, 57, 66, 74, 109, 121, 130, 134
Turkish 14, 17, 48, 51, 61, 65, 69-70, 80-2, 97,
99, 120-1, 123, 130, 137
Udmurt 14, 17, 50-1, 57, 61, 81-2, 112, 130
Welsh 14, 16, 62, 69, 79, 93, 109, 127, 132
178 Index of Authors
Index of Authors
Abdoulaye, Mahamane L. v, 131, 148
Allen, Robert L. 43, 58
Alverson, Hoyt 52, 146
Anderson, John M. 2
Anderson, Lloyd 105
Anscombre, Jean-Claude 22
Anstatt, Tanja 142
Asher, R.E. 134, 148
Barnetová, Vilma 28
Bäuerle, Rainer 23
Bauer, Winifred 44, 127, 148
Bennett, David C. 34, 75
Berthonneau, Anne-Marie 49, 79, 89, 141
Bhatia, Tej K. 148
Bickel, Balthasar 22
Börjars, Kersti 147
Buchholz, Oda 16, 147
Bybee, Joan L. 2, 4, 143
Clark, Herbert H. 18-19, 21-2, 58-9
Claudi, Ulrike 1, 63, 141
Cole, Peter 137, 148
Comrie, Bernard 6, 9, 11, 16, 30
Cristofaro, Sonia v
Croft, William v, 140, 142-3
Dahl, Östen 2, 4
Davies, John 52-4, 148
Dehon, Geneviève 41
Derbyshire, Desmond C. 52-5, 148
Dowty, David R. 39
Elerick, Charles 88
Fabri, Ray 137
Fettweis, E. 52
Fiedler, Wilfried –> Buchholz, Oda
Fillmore, Charles 22, 26-7, 36, 58
Fortescue, Michael 46, 122, 148
Francis, W. Nelson 31
Gamillscheg, Ernst 18-19, 63
Geeraerts, Dirk 12
Giaufret-Colombani, Hélène 33
Goddard, Cliff 20
Greenbaum, Sidney –> Quirk, Randolph
Gross, Maurice 89
Haiman, John 13
Hallowell, A. Irving 52
Haspelmath, Martin 16, 51, 76, 88, 105, 147
Heine, Bernd 1, 63, 88, 141
Hengeveld, Kees 4
Henry, Albert 88-9
Herskovits, Annette 28, 58
Herweg, Michael 23, 38
Hewitt, B. George 49, 81, 147
Hill, Clifford Alden 43, 57-8
Hinds, John 148
Hjelmslev, Louis 1
Horie, Kaoru v, 131, 148
Hünnemeyer, Friederike 63, 141
Hwang, Shin-Ja v, 78
Jackendoff, Ray 18-20, 141
Jespersen, Otto 7
Joseph, Brian 147
Karasaev, A. T. & Maciev, A. G. 147
Keesing, Roger M. 141
Kemmer, Suzanne 105
King, Gareth 16, 109, 127, 147
Koch, Harold 113
Koch, Peter v
König, Ekkehard v, 12, 38, 74, 84, 86, 100-
101, 136
Kortmann, Bernd 4, 7, 32, 34, 86, 100-101,
105, 129
Kuc&era, Henry 4, 31, 97
Kuc&era, Vladimír 112
Index of Authors 179
Kühner, Raphael & Stegmann, Carl 16, 147
Kulikov, Leonid v
Kuteva, Tania v, 141
Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark 1, 140
Langacker, Ronald 18-19, 67, 140-1
Larson, Richard K. 117
Leech, Geoffrey 16, 26, 30, 36
Lehmann, Christian 144
Lenarduzzi, René 41
Li, Chales N. 148
Löbner, Sebastian 136
Longacre, Robert E. 4
Lyons, John 18-19, 22
Lysebraate, Hannemor 33
Mallinson, Graham 147
Malotki, Ekkehart 10, 16, 148
Manzotti, E. & Rigamonti, A. 33
McCawley, James D. 117
Meyer-Lübke, Wilhelm 18-19, 109, 114
Michaelis, Susanne v, 21
Müller, Werner 52
Nau, Nicole v, 50, 78, 147
Nerbonne, John 38
Onenko, Sulungu N. 148
Pagliuca, William –> Bybee, Joan
Perkins, Revere D. –> Bybee, Joan
Philippaki-Warburton, Irene –> Joseph, Brian
Plungian, Vladimir v
Pustejovsky, James 38
Quirk, Randolph 16, 30, 34, 147
Reckendorf, Hermann 125
Reh, Mechthild 88
Ricca, Davide v, 147
Rohrer, Christian 72-3
Rudanko, Juhani v, 147
Saltarelli, Mario 147
Schachter, Paul & Otanes, Fe T. 16, 45, 54, 131,
148
Schaub, Willi 53-5, 148
Schipporeit, Luise 136
Sharifi, Mitra v, 148
Sinha, Chris 141
Smith, Norval 9, 16, 30
Snook, Roger L. 28
Sridhar, S. N. 148
Sulkala, Helena & Karjalainen, Marja 49, 109,
147
Sutcliffe, Edmund F. 138
Sutrop, Urmas v, 147
Svartvik, Jan –> Quirk, Randolph
Svorou, Soteria 4, 122
Talmy, Leonard 9
Taylor, Charles 54, 108, 122, 148
ten Cate, Abraham P. 34, 41
Tenchea, Maria 147
Thompson, Sandra A. 4, 148
Traugott, Elizabeth C. 2, 140
Trnka, Karla 4, 97
Urbanavic&iu@te%-Markevic&iene%,
Zaneta & Grinaveckis, Vladas 99
van der Auwera, Johan 94, 100
Vandeloise, Claude 58, 60, 141
Vendler, Zeno 39
Verkuyl, H. J. 38, 48
Vet, Co 23
Whorf, Benjamin Lee 2, 10
Wierzbicka, Anna 18-21, 103, 109, 111
Wunderlich, Dieter 18
180 Index of Subjects
Index of Subjects
abbreviations vi
ablative 66-8
abstract motion 67, 141
accusative case 120-1
acknowledgments v
action noun 25
adpositional phrase 7
adverb 7
adverbial clause 4, 6, 25, 86
allative 66-8
alternatives to NP-based time adverbials 52-
5
analogical pressure 110
anaphoric temporal adverbs 98
anterior 11, 32, 35, 43, 56-65
anterior-durative 32-35, 66-79
anterior-limitative 78-9
approximative 48
areal feature 65, 77, 98
article 43
aspect 2, 4
atelic 28
atelic extent 38, 42, 120-30, 133-6
“based-on” relation 19-20, 61
beginning-to-end construction 68-70
benefactive 127
biclausal circumstantial marking 45, 55, 86-
7, 136, 138
calendar unit names 26-7, 45
calendric use 35
canonical time periods 25, 27, 31, 52, 103
Causative mood 46
characterized situation 27
cognitive map –> implicational map
Comrie-Smith grammars 9, 16, 30, 52, 78
Conditional mood 46
converb 70, 86
day 31, 114-15
day parts 26, 31, 110-13
default case 122
definition 5
deixis 24, 27, 34-35, 37, 43-47, 58, 72-78, 96-
101
diachrony 13, 20, 61-3
dictionary 16
differential object marking 123
direct-object hypothesis 123-6
distance, temporal ch. 6, 35-38, 43
distance phrases 96-7
distance-future 36, 80-6, 89-92, 93-5
distance-past 11, 36, 41, 80-5, 87-9, 92-3, 136
distance-posterior 40, 42, 132-9
distance-prospective 37, 91
distance-retrospective 37, 91
durative situation 28-30, 34
economic motivation 70
egocentric use 58
ethnocentrism 52
exclusive/inclusive ‘until’ 33
extent, temporal ch. 8, 38-42
festival 31, 115
fieldwork 9, 16
formalization 23
frequentative 51
frequency 31, 55, 110
front-back axis 21-22, 56-61
future tense 1, 75
genetic diversity 15
genitive object 124
grammaticalization 6, 8, 30, 55, 61-3, 88, 90,
144-5
habitual 28
Index of Subjects 181
homonymy 12, 13
hour 31, 103, 108-10
iconic order 69
implicational map 105-8
implicational universals 10
implicature 34, 38, 134
indefinte pronoun 20
interior location 29, 89, 130
lexical typology 7
lexicalization 110, 112
localism 1
located situation 28
logical semantics 23
map –> implicational map
medial temporal location 47
mensural use 36
metaphor 1, 140-3
metonymy 142-3
months 13, 26, 31, 114-15
movement 21-22
moving ego/moving time 59-60, 67, 93, 144
negation 139
New Testament 16-17, 40, 75, 96-8
NP-based time adverbials 3
object-based use 58
oblique case 8
ordinal number 63
partial typology 4
partitive object 125
passive 125
perdurative 48, 129
perfect 77
plural 51
polysemy 12, 13, 64, 105, 133
posterior 32, 35, 43, 56-65
posterior-durative 32-35, 40-41, 68-78, 132-3
posterior-present-perfect 35, 40, 75-7
pragmatic strengthening 84
punctual situation 29, 34
purposive extent 48-50, 128-9
qualitative periods 26-27
quantified situation 28
quantitative statements 16
questionnaire 9, 16
reference time 27
regular recurrence 50-1
right-left axis 21-22
sample 5, 14-16
seasons 13, 26, 31, 110-4
semantic function 8, 10
semantic map –> implicational map
sequential-durative ch. 5, 32-35
sequential location ch. 4, 32, 80-5
simultaneous location ch. 7, 29-32
situation 5, 24
spatial adverbials 4, 44-5
Standard Average European 10, 31, 100
subject-based use 58
subordinator, adverbial 7
Table of Contents iii-v
telic extent 38-39, 42, 130-1
tense 2, 4, 6, 24, 45
terminological grid 9
time line 23
time measurement 24-25, 35
time units 26-27
typological generalization 10
universal-distributive meaning 51, 117
universals 10, 145-6
up-down axis 21-22
vagueness 12
word order typology 10, 82-5
year 26, 31, 114-5
zero/minimal marking 116-9, 120-6