. ·...· . PART II Designing Research • Chapter 5 The Introduction • Chapter 6 The Purpose Statement • Chapter 7 Research Questions and Hypotheses • Chapter 8 Quantitative Methods • Chapter 9 Qualitative Procedures • Chapter 10 Mixed Methods Procedures This section relates the three designs-quantitative, qualitative. and mixed methods-to the steps in the process of research. Each chapter addresses a separate step in this process. 95 ~CHAPTER FIVE The Introduction After having decided on a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approach and after conducting a preliminary literature review and deciding on a format for a proposal. the next step in the process is to design or plan the study. A process of organizing and writing out ideas begins, starting with designing an introduction to a proposal. This chapter discusses the composition and writing of a scholarly introduction and examines the differences in writing an introduction for these three different types of designs. Then the discussion turns to the five components of writing a good Introduction: (a) establishing the problem leading to the study, (b) reviewing the literature about the problem, (c) identifying deficiencies in the literature about the problem, (d) targeting an audience and noting the significance of the problem for this audience, and (e) identifying the purpose of the proposed study. These components comprise a social science deficiency model of writing an Introduction, because a major component of the introduction is to set forth the deficiencies in past research. To illustrate this model. a complete introduction In a published research study is presented and analyzed. THE IMPORTANCE OF INTRODUCTIONS An introduction is the first passage in a journal article, dissertation, or scholarly research study. It sets the stage for the entire study. As Wilkinson (1991) mentions, The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information for the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it is related to other research. (p. 96) The introduction establishes the issue or concern leading to the research by conveying information about a problem. Because it is the initial passage 97 98 Designing Research in a study or proposal, special care must be given to writing it. The introduction needs to create reader interest in the topic, establish the problem that leads to the study, place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and reach out to a specific audience. All of this is achieved in a concise section of a few pages. Because of the messages they must convey and the limited space allowed, introductions are challenging to write and understand. A research problem is the problem or issue that leads to the need for a study. It can originate from many potential sources. It might spring from an experience researchers have had in their personal lives or workplaces. It may come from an extensive debate that has appeared in the literature. It might develop from policy debates in government or among top executives. The sources of research problems are often multiple. Identifying and stating the research problem that underlies a study is not easy: For example, to identify the issue of teenage pregnancy is to point to a problem for women and for society at large. Unfortunately, too many authors of do not clearly identify the research problem, leaving the reader to decide the importance of the issue. When the problem is not clear, it is difficult to understand the significance of the research. Furthermore, the research problem is often confused with the research questions-those questions that the investigator would like answered in order to understand or explain the problem. To this complexity is added the need for introductions to carry the weight of encouraging the reader to read farther and to see significance in the study. Fortunately, there is a model for writing a good, scholarly social science introduction. Before introducing this model, it is necessary to distinguish subtle differences between introductions for qualitative, quantitative. and mixed methods studies. QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE, AND MIXED METHODS INTRODUCTIONS A general review of all introductions shows that they follow a similar pattern: The authors announce a problem and they justify why it needs to be studied. The type of problem presented in an introduction will vary depending on the approach (see Chapter 1). In a qualitative project, the author will describe a research problem that can best be understood by exploring a concept or phenomenon. I have suggested that qualitative research is exploratory, and researchers use it to explore a topic when the variables and theory base are unknown. For example, Morse (1991) says this: Characteristics of a qualitative research problem are: (a) the concept is "immature" due to a conspicuous lack of theory and previous The Introduction 99 research; (b) a notion that the available theory may be inaccurate, inappropriate, incorrect, or biased; (c) a need exists to explore and describe the phenomena and to develop theory; or (d) the nature of the phenomenon may not be suited to quantitative measures. (p. 120) For example, urban sprawl (a problem) needs to be explored because it has not been examined in certain areas of a state. Alternatively, kids in elementary classrooms have anxiety that interferes with learning (a problem). and the best way to explore this problem is to go to schools and visit directly with teachers and students. Some qualitative researchers have a theoretical lens through which the problem will be examined (e.g., the inequality of pay among women and men or the racial attitudes involved in profiling drivers on the highways). Thomas (1993) suggests that "critical researchers begin from the premise that all cultural life is in constant tension between control and resistance" (p. 9). This theoretical orientation shapes the structure of an introduction. Beisel (1990), for example, proposed to examine how the theory of class politics explained the lack of success of an anti-vice campaign in one of three American cities. Thus, within some qualitative studies, the approach in the introduction may be less inductive while still relying on the perspective of participants, like most qualitative studies. In addition, qualitative introductions may begin with a personal statement of experiences from the author, such as those found in phenomenological studies (Moustakas, 1994). They also may be written from a personal, first-person, subjective point of view in which the researcher positions herself or himself in the narrative. Less variation is seen in quantitative introductions. In a quantitative project, the problem is best addressed by understanding what factors or variables influence an outcome. For example, in response to worker cutbacks (a problem for all employees), an investigator may seek to discover what factors influence businesses to downsize. Another researcher may need to understand the high divorce rate among married couples (a problem) and examine whether financial issues contribute to divorce. In both of these situations, the research problem is one in which understanding the factors that explain or relate to an outcome helps the investigator best understand and explain the problem. In addition, in quantitative introductions, researchers sometimes advance a theory to test, and they will incorporate substantial reviews of the literature to identify research questions that need to be answered. A quantitative introduction may be written from the impersonal point of view and in the past tense, to convey objectivity. A mixed methods study can employ either the qualitative or the quantitative approach (or some combination) to writing an introduction. In any given mixed methods study, the emphasis might tip in the direction of either quantitative or qualitative research, and the introduction will mirror that emphasis. For other mixed methods projects, the emphasis will be equal between qualitative and quantitative research. In this case, the 100 Designing Research problem may be one in which a need exists to both understand the relationship among variables in a situation and explore the topic in further depth. A mixed methods project may initially seek to explain the relationship between smoking behavior and depression among adolescents, then explore the detailed views of adolescents and display different patterns of smoking and depression. With the first phase of this project as quantitative, the introduction may emphasize a quantitative approach with inclusion of a theory that predicts this relationship and a substantive review of the literature. A MODEL FOR AN INTRODUCTION These differences among the various approaches are small, and they relate largely to the different types of problems addressed in qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies. It should be helpful to illustrate an approach to designing and writing an introduction to a research study that researchers might use regardless of their approach. Thedeficiencies model of an introduction is a general template for writing a good introduction. It is a popular approach used in the social sciences, and once its structure is elucidated, the reader will find it appearing repeatedly in many published research studies. Itconsists of five parts, and a separate paragraph can be devoted to each part, for an introduction of about two pages in length: 1. The research problem 2. Studies that have addressed the problem 3. Deficiencies in the studies 4. The significance of the study for particular audiences 5. The purpose statement An Illustration Before a review of each part, here is an excellent example from a quantitative study published by Terenzini, Cabrera, Colbeck, Bjorklund, and Parente (2001) in The journal of Higher Education and titled "Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the Classroom" (reprinted with permission). Following each major section in the introduction, I briefly highlight the component being addressed. Since passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Higher Education Act of 1965, America's colleges and universities have struggled to Increase The Introduction 101 the racial and ethnic diversity of their students and faculty members. and "affirmative action" has become the policy-of-choice to achieve that heterogeneity. (Authors state the narrative hook.) These policies, however, are now at the center of an intense national debate. The current legal foundation for affirmative action policies rests on the 1978 Regents of the University of California v. Bakke case, in which Justice William Powell argued that race could be considered among the factors on which admissions decisions were based. More recently, however. the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, in the 1996 Hopwood v. state of Texas case, found Powell's argument wanting. Court decisions turning affirmative action policies aside hove been accompanied by state referenda, legislation, and related actions banning or sharply reducing race-sensitive admissions or hiring in California, Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Puerto Rico (Healy, 1998a, 1998b. 1999). In response, educators and others hove advanced educational arguments supporting affirmative action, claiming that a diverse student body is more educationally effective than a more homogeneous one. Harvard University President Neil Rudenstine claims that the "fundamental rationale for student diversity in higher education (is) its educational value" (Rudenstine, 1999, p. 1). Lee Bollinger. Rudenstine's counterpart at the University of Michigan. has asserted, "A classroom that does not hove a significant representation from members of different races produces on impoverished discussion" (Schmidt, 1998, p. A32). These two presidents ore not alone in their beliefs. A statement published by the Association of American Universities and endorsed by the presidents of 62 research universities stated: "We speak first and foremost as educators. We believe that our students benefit significantly from education that tokes place within a diverse setting" ("On the Importance of Diversity in University Admissions," The New York Times, April24, 1997, p. A27). (Authors identify the research problem.) Studies of the impact of diversity on student educational outcomes tend to approach the ways students encounter "diversity" in any of three ways. A small group of studies treat students' contacts with "diversity" largely as a function of the numerical or proportional racial/ethnic or gender mix of students on a campus (e.g.. Chang. 1996, 1999a; Kanter, 1977; Sox, 1996) .... A second considerably larger set of studies toke some modicum of structural diversity as a given and operationalizes students' encounters with diversity using the frequency or nature of their reported Interactions with peers who ore racially/ethnically different from themselves .... A third set of studies examines insfttutionally structured and purposeful programmatic efforts to help students engage racial/ethnic and/or gender "diversity" in the form of both ideas and people. 102 Designing Research These various approaches have been used to examine the effects of diversity on a broad array of student educational outcomes. The evidence is almost uniformly consistent in indicating that students In a racial/ethnically or gender-diverse community, or engaged in a diversityrelated activity, reap a wide array of positive educational benefits. (Authors mention studies that have addressed the problem.) Only a relative handful of studies (e.g.. Chang. 1996, 1999a; Sax. 1996) have specifically examined whether the racial/ethnic or gender composition of the students on a campus, in an academic major, or in a classroom (i.e.. structural diversity) has the educational benefits claimed .... Whether the degree of racial diversity of a campus or classroom has a direct effect on learning outcomes, however, remains on open question. (Deficiencies in the studies are noted.) The scarcity of information on the educational benefits of the structural diversity on a campus or in its classrooms is regrettable because it is the sort of evidence the courts appear to be requiring if they are to support race-sensitive admissions policies. {Importance of the study for an audience mentioned.) This study attempted to contribute to the knowledge base by exploring the influence of structural diversity in the classroom on students' development of academic and intellectual skills.... This study examines both the direct effect of classroom diversity on academic/intellectual outcomes and whether any effects of classroom diversity may be moderated by the extent to which active and collaborative instructional approaches are used in the course. (Purpose of the study is identified.) (pp. 51 0-512, reprinted by permission of The Journal of Higher Education) The Research Problem In the Terenzini et a!. (2001) article, the first sentence accomplishes both primary objectives for an introduction: piquing interest in the study and conveying a distinct research problem or issue. What effect did this sentence have? Would it entice a reader to read on? Was it pitched at a level so that a wide audience could understand it? These questions are important for opening sentences, and they are called a narrative hook, a term drawn from English composition, meaning words that serve to draw, engage, or hook the reader into the study. To learn how to write good narrative hooks, study opening sentences in leading journals in different fields of study. Often, journalists provide good examples in the lead sentences of newspaper and magazine articles. Here follow a few examples of lead sentences from social science journals. The Introduction 103 • "The transsexual and ethnomethodological celebrity Agnes changed her identity nearly three years before undergoing sex reassignment surgery." (Cahill, 1989, p. 281) • "Who controls the process of chief executive succession?" (Boeker, 1992, p. 400) • "There is a large body of literature that studies the cartographic line (a recent summary article is Buttenfield 1985), and generalization of cartographic lines (McMaster 1987)." (Carstensen, 1989, p. 181) All three of these examples present information easily understood by many readers. The first two-introductions in qualitative studiesdemonstrate how reader interest can be created by reference to the single participant and by posing a question. The third example, a quantitativeexperimental study, shows how one can begin with a literature perspective. All three examples demonstrate well how the lead sentence can be written so that the reader is not taken into a detailed morass of thought. but lowered gently into the topic. I use the metaphor of the writer lowering a barrel into a well. The beginning writer plunges the barrel (the reader) into the depths of the well (the article). The reader sees only unfamiliar material. The experienced writer lowers the barrel (the reader, again) slowly, allowing the reader to acclimate to the depths (the study). This lowering of the barrel begins with a narrative hook of sufficient generality that the reader understands and can relate to the topic. Beyond this first sentence, it is important to clearly identify the issue(s) or problem(s) that leads to a need for the study. Terenzini eta!. (2001) discuss a distinct problem: the struggle to increase the racial and ethnic diversity on U.S. college and university campuses. They note that policies to increase diversity are at "the center of an intense national debate" (p. 509). In applied social science research, problems arise from issues, difficulties, and current practices. The research problem in a study begins to become clear when the researcher asks, "What is the need for this study?" or "What problem influenced the need to undertake this study?" For example, schools may not have implemented multicultural guidelines, the needs of faculty in colleges are such that they need to engage in professional development activities in their departments, minority students need better access to universities, or a community needs to better understand the contributions of its early female pioneers. These are all significant research problems that merit further study and establish a practical issue or concern that needs to be addressed. When designing the opening paragraphs of a proposal, which includes the research problem, keep in mind these research tips: 104 Designing Research 0 Write an opening sentence that will stimulate reader interest as well as convey an issue to which a broad audience can relate. 0 As a general rule, refrain from using quotations, especially long ones, in the lead sentence. Quotations raise many possibilities for interpretation and thus create unclear beginnings. However, as is evident in some qualitative studies, quotations can create reader interest. 0 Stay away from idiomatic expressions or trite phrases (e.g., "The lecture method remains a 'sacred cow' among most college and university instructors."). 0 Consider numeric information for impact (e.g., "Every year, an estimated 5 million Americans experience the death of an immediate family member."). 0 Clearly identify the research problem (i.e., dilemma, issue) leading to the study. Ask yourself, "Is there a specific sentence (or sentences) in which I convey the research problem?" 0 Indicate why the problem is important by citing numerous references that justify the need to study the problem. In perhaps a not so joking manner, I say to my students that if they do not have a dozen references cited on the first page of their proposal, they do not have a scholarly study. 0 Make sure that the problem is framed in a manner consistent with the approach to research in the study (e.g., exploratory in qualitative, examining relationships or predictors in quantitative, and either approach in mixed methods inquiry). 0 Consider and write about whether there is a single problem involved in the proposed study or multiple problems that lead to a need for the study. Often, multiple research problems are addressed in research studies. Studies Addressing the Problem After establishing the research problem in the opening paragraphs, Terenzini eta!. (2001) next justify its importance by reviewing studies that have examined the issue. I must be careful as I talk about reviewing studies here, because I do not have in mind a complete literature review for the introduction passage. It is later, in the literature review section of a proposal, that students thoroughly review the literature. Instead, in the introduction, this literature review passage should summarize large groups of studies instead of individual ones. I tell my students to reflect on their literature maps (described in Chapter 2) and look at and summarize the broad categories at the top into which they assigned their literature. Mentioning these broad categories are what I mean by reviewing studies in an introduction to a proposal. The Introduction 105 The purpose of reviewing studies in an introduction is to justify the importance of the study and to create distinctions between past studies and the proposed one. This component might be called "setting the research problem within the ongoing dialogue in the literature." Researchers do not want to conduct a study that replicates exactly what someone else has studied. New studies need to add to the literature or to extend or retest what others have examined. Marshall and Rossman (2006) refer to this brief literature review tn an introduction as a way to set the study within the context of other, related studies. The ability to frame the study in this way separates novices from more experienced researchers. The veteran has reviewed and understands what has been written about a topic or certain problem in the field. This knowledge comes from years of experience following the development of problems and their accompanying literature. The question often arises as to what type of literature to review. My best advice would be to review research studies in which authors advance research questions and report data to answer them. These studies might be quantitative. qualitative, or mixed methods studies. The important point is that the literature provides studies about the research problem being addressed in the proposal. Beginning researchers often ask, "What do I do now? No research has been conducted on my topic." Of course, in some narrowly construed studies or in new, exploratory projects, no literature exists to document the research problem. Also. it makes sense that a topic is being proposed for study precisely because little research has been conducted on it. To counter this statement, I often suggest that an investigator think about the literature, ustng an inverted triangle as an image. At the apex of the inverted triangle lies the scholarly study being proposed. This study is narrow and focused (and studies may not exist on it). If one broadens the review of the literature upward to the base of the inverted triangle, literature can be found, although it may be somewhat removed from the study at hand. For example. the narrow topic of at-risk African Americans tn primary school may not have been researched; however, more broadly speaking, the topic of at-risk students generally in the primary school or at any level in education, may have been studied. The researcher would summarize the more general literature and end with statements about a need for studies that examtne atrisk African American students at the primary school level. To review the literature related to the research problem for an introduction to a proposal, consider these research tips: • Refer to the literature by summarizing groups of studies, not individual ones (unlike the focus on single studies in the integrated review in Chapter 2). The intent should be to establish broad areas of research. e To deemphasize single studies, place the in-text references at the end of a paragraph or at the end of a summary point about several studies. 106 Designing Research 0 Review research studies that used quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods approaches. 0 Find recent literature to summarize, such as that published in the past 10 years. Cite older studies if they are valuable because they have been widely referenced by others. Deficiencies in Past Literature After advancing the problem and reviewing the literature about it, the researcher then identifies deficiencies found in this literature. Hence, I call this template a deficiencies model for writing an introduction. The nature of these deficiencies varies from study to study. Deficiencies in past literature may exist because topics not have been explored with a particular group, sample, or population; the literature may need to be replicated or repeated to see if the same findings hold, given new samples of people or new sites for study; or the voice of underrepresented groups has not been heard in published literature. In any given study, authors may mention one or more of these deficiencies. Deficiencies can often be found in the "suggestions for future research" sections of journal articles, and authors can reference these ideas and provide further justification for their proposed study. Beyond mentioning the deficiencies, proposal writers need to tell how their planned study will remedy or address these deficiencies. For example, because past studies have overlooked an important variable, a study will include it and analyze its effect: For instance, because past studies have overlooked the examination of Native Americans as a cultural group, a study will include them as the participants in the project. In the two examples that follow, the authors point out the gaps or shortcomings of the literature. Notice their use of key phrases to indicate the shortcomings: "what remains to be explored," "little empirical research," and "very few studies." Example 5.1 Deficiencies in the Literature-Needed Studies For this reason. the meaning of war and peace has been explored extensively by social scientists (Cooper. 1965; Alvik, 1968; Rosell, 1968; Svancarova & Svancarova, 1967-68; Haavedsrud, 1970). What remains to be explored, however, is how veterans of past wars react to vivid scenes of a new war. (Ziller, 1990, pp. 85-86) The Introduction I 07 Example 5.2 Deficiencies in the Literature-Few studies Despite an increased interest in micropolitics, It is surprising that so little empirical research has actually been conducted on the topic, especially from the perspectives of subordinates. Political research in educational settings Is especially scarce: Very few studies have focused on how teachers use power to interact strategically with school principals and what this means descriptively and conceptual~ (Ball. 1987; Hoyle, 1986; Pratt, 1984). (Blase, 1989, p. 381) In summary, when identifying deficiencies in the past literature, proposal developers might use the following research tips e Cite several deficiencies to make the case even stronger for a study. • Identify specifically the deficiencies of other studies (e.g., methodological flaws, variables overlooked). • Write about areas overlooked by past studies, including topics, special statistical treatments, significant implications, and so forth. • Discuss how a proposed study will remedy these deficiencies and provide a unique contribution to the scholarly literature. These deficiencies might be mentioned using a series of short paragraphs that identify three or four shortcomings of the past research or focus on one major shortcoming. as illustrated in the Terenzini et al. (2001) introduction. Significance of a Study for Audiences In dissertations, writers often include a specific section describing the significance of the studyfor select audiences. to convey the importance of the problem for different groups that may profit from reading and using the study. By including this section, the writer creates a clear rationale for the importance of the study. The more audiences that can be mentioned, the greater the importance of the study and the more it will be seen by readers to have wide application. In designing this section, one might include e Three or four reasons that the study adds to the scholarly research and literature in the field e Three or four reasons about how the study helps improve practice e And three or four reasons as to why the study will improve policy. 108 Designing Research In the example to follow, the author stated the significance of the study in the opening paragraphs of a journal article. This study by Mascarenhas (1989) examined ownership of industrial firms. He identified explicitly decision makers, organizational members. and researchers as the audience for the study. Example 5.3 Significance of the Study Stated in an Introduction to a Quantitative Study A study of an organization's ownership and its domain, defined here as markets served. product scope, customer orientation, and technology employed (Abell and Hammond. 1979; AbelL 1980; Perry and Rainey, 1988), is important for several reasons. First. understanding relationships among ownership and domain dimensions can help to reveal the underlying logic of organizations' activities and can help organization members evaluate strategies.... Second, a fundamental decision confronting all societies concerns the type of institutions to encourage or adopt for the conduct of activity.... Knowledge of the domain consequences of different ownership types can serve as input to that decision .... Third, researchers have offen studied organizations reflecting one or two ownership types, but their findings may have been implicitly over generalized to all organizations. (Mascarenhas. 1989. p. 582) Terenzini et al. (2001) end their introduction by mentioning how courts could use the information of the study to require colleges and universities to support "race-sensitive admissions policies" (p. 512). In addition, the authors might have mentioned the importance of this study for admissions offices and students seeking admission as well as the committees that review applications for admission. Finally, good introductions to research studies end with a statement of the purpose or intent of the study. Terenzini et al. (2001) ended their introduction by conveying that they planned to examine the influence of structural diversity on student skills in the classroom. SUMMARY This chapter provides advice about composing and writing an introduction to a scholarly study. The first element is to consider how the introduction incorporates the research problems associated with quantitative, qualitative, The Introduction 109 or mixed methods research. Then, a five-part introduction is suggested as a model or template to use. Called the deficiencies model, it is based on first identifying the research problem (and including a narrative hook). Then it includes briefly reviewing the literature that has addressed the problem, indicating one or more deficiencies in the past literature and suggesting how the study will remedy these deficiencies. This section is followed by specifying the audiences that will profit from research on the problem, and the introduction ends with a purpose statement that sets forth the intent of the study. Writiltj Exerd!u 1. Draft several examples of narrative hooks for the introduction to a study and share these with colleagues to determine if the hooks draw readers in, create interest in the study, and are presented at a level to which readers can relate. 2. Write the introduction to a proposed study. Include one paragraph each for the research problem, the related literature about this problem, the deficiencies in the literature, and the audiences who will potentially find the study of interest. 3. Locate several research studies published in scholarly journals in a particular field of study. Review the introductions and locate the sentence or sentences in which the authors state the research problem or issue. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bern. D.). (1987). Writing the empirical journal article. In M.P. Zanna & j. M. Darley (Eds.), The compleat academic: A practical guide for the beginning social scientist (pp. 171-201). New York: Random House. Daryl Bern emphasizes the importance of the opening statement in published research. He provides a list of rules of thumb for opening statements. stressing the need for clear. readable prose and a structure that leads the reader step by step to the problem statement. Examples are provided of both satisfactory and unsatisfactory opening statements. Bern calls for opening statements that are accessible to the nonspecialist yet not boring to the technically sophisticated reader. Maxwell, ). A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Joe Maxwell reflects on the purpose of a proposal for a qualitative dissertation. One of the fundamental aspects of aproposal is to justify the project-to help readers understand I 11 0 Designing Research not only what you plan to do but also why. He mentions the importance of identifying the issues you plan to address and indicating why they are important to study. In an example of a graduate student dissertation proposal. he shares the major issues the student has addressed to create an effective argument for the study. Wilkinson, A.M. (1991). The scientist's handbook for writing papers and dissertations. Englewood Cliffs, Nj: Prentice Hall. Antoinette Wilkinson identifies the three parts of an introduction: the derivation and statement of the problem and a discussion of its nature, the discussion of the background of the problem, and the statement of the research question. Her book offers numerous examples of these three parts, together with a discussion of how to write and structure an introduction. Emphasis is placed on ensuring that the introduction leads logically and inevitably to a statement of the research question. ~CHAPTER SIX The Purpose Statement The last section of an introduction. as mentioned in Chapter 5, is to present a purpose statement that establishes the intent of the entire research study. It is the most important statement in the entire study, and it needs to be clearly and specifically presented. From it, all other aspects of the research follow. In journal articles, researchers write the purpose statement into introductions; In dissertations and dissertation proposals, it often stands as a separate section. In this chapter devoted exclusively to the purpose statement. I address the reasons for developing it, key principles to use In its design, and examples of good models to use in crafting one for your proposal. SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING OF A PURPOSE STATEMENT According to Locke et aL (2007), the purpose statement indicates "why you want to do the study and what you intend to accomplish" (p. 9). Unfortunately, proposal-writing texts give little attention to the purpose statement. and writers on method often incorporate it into discussions about other topics. such as specifying research questions or hypotheses. Wilkinson (1991). for example. refers to it within the context of the research question and objective. Other authors frame it as an aspect of the research problem (Castetter & Heisler. 1977). Closely examining their discussions. however. indicates that they both refer to the purpose >tatement as the central. controlling idea in a study. This passage is called the purpose statement because it conveys the overall intent of a proposed study in a sentence or several sentences. In proposals. researchers need to distinguish clearly between the purpose statement. the research problem. and the research questions. The purpose statement sets forth the intent of the study, not the problem or issue leading to a need for the study (see Chapter 5). The purpose is also not the research questions. those questions that the data collection will attempt to 111 112 Designing Research answer (discussed in Chapter 7). Instead and again. the purpose state· ment sets the objectives. the intent. or the major idea of a proposal or a study. This idea builds on a need (the problem) and is refined into specific questions (the research questions). Given the importance of the purpose statement, it is helpful to set it apart from other aspects of the proposal or study and to frame it as a single sentence or paragraph that readers can identify easily. Although qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods purpose statements share similar topics. each is identified in the following paragraphs and illustrated with fill-in scripts for constructing a thorough but manageable purpose statement. A Qualitative Purpose Statement A good qualitative purpose statement contains information about the central phenomenon explored in the study, the participants in the study. and the research site. It also conveys an emerging design and uses research words drawn from the language of qualitative inquiry (Schwandt. 2007). Thus, one might consider several basic design features for writing this statement: 0 Use words such as purpose, intent, or objective to signal attention to this statement as the central controlling idea. Set the statement off as a separate sentence or paragraph, and use the language of research, such as "The purpose (or intent or objective) of this study is (was) (will be) .... " Researchers often use the present or past verb tense in journal articles and dissertations, and the future tense in proposals. because researchers are presenting a plan for a study not yet undertaken. 0 Focus on a single phenomenon (or concept or idea). Narrow the study to one idea to be explored or understood. This focus means that a purpose does not convey relating two or more variables or comparing two or more groups. as is typically fonnd in quantitative research. Instead, advance a single phenomenon. recognizing that the study may develop into an exploration of relationships or comparisons among ideas. None of these related explorations can be anticipated at the beginning. For example, a project might begin by exploring chairperson roles in enhancing faculty development (Creswell & Brown. 1992). Other qualitative studies might start by exploring teacher identity and the marginalization of this identity for a teacher in a particular school (Huber & Whelan, 1999). the meaning of baseball culture in a study of the work and talk of stadium employees (Trujillo. 1992). or how individuals cognitively represent AIDS (Anderson & Spencer, 2002). These examples all illustrate the focus on a single idea. 0 Use action verbs to convey how learning will take place. Action verbs and phrases. such as describe. understand. develop, examine the meaning of. or discover, keep the inquiry open and convey an emerging design. The Purpose Statement 113 e Use neutral words and phrases-nondirectionallanguage-such as, exploring the "experiences of individuals" rather than the "successful experiences of individuals." Other words and phrases that may be problematic include useful, positive, and informing-all words that suggest an outcome that may or may not occur. McCracken (1988) refers to the need in qualitative interviews to let the respondent describe his or her experience. Interviewers (or purpose statement writers) can easily violate the "law of nondirection" (McCracken, 1988, p. 21) in qualitative research by using words that suggest a directional orientation. e Provide a general working definition of the central phenomenon or idea, especially if the phenomenon is a term that is not typically understood by a broad audience. Consistent with the rhetoric of qualitative research, this definition is not rigid and set, but tentative and evolving throughout a study based on information from participants. Hence, a writer might use the words, ':A tentative definition at this time for __ (central phenomenon) is .... "It should also be noted that this definition is not to be confused with the detailed definition of terms section as discussed in Chapter 2 on the review of the literature. The intent here is to convey to readers at an early stage in a proposal or research study a general sense of the central phenomenon so that they can better understand information that unfolds during the study. • Include words denoting the strategy of inquiry to be used in data collection, analysis, and the process of research, such as whether the study will use an ethnographic, grounded theory, case study, phenomenological, narrative approach, or some other strategy. e Mention the participants in the study, such as whether there might be one or more individuals, a group of people, or an entire organization. e Identify the site for the research, such as homes, classrooms, organizations, programs, or events. Describe this site in enough detail so that the reader knows exactly where a study will take place. e As a final thought in the purpose statement, include some language that delimits the scope of participation or research sites in the study. For example, the study may be limited to women only, or Hispanics only. The research site may be limited to one metropolitan city or to one small geographic area. The central phenomenon may be limited to individuals in business organizations who participate in creative teams. These delimitations help to further define the parameters of the research study. Although considerable variation exists in the inclusion of these points in purpose statements, a good dissertation or thesis proposal should contain many of them. To assist you, here follows a script that should be helpful in drafting a complete statement. A script, as used in this book, contains the major 114 Designing Research words and ideas of a statement and provides space for the researcher to insert information. The purpose of this (strategy of inquiry, such as ethnography, case study, or other type) study is (was? will be?) to (understand? describe? develop? discover?) the _____ (central phenomenon being studied) for _____ (the participants, such as the individual, groups, organization) at (research site). At this stage in the research, the _____ (central phenomenon being studied) will be generally defined as (provide a general definition). The following examples may not illustrate perfectly all the elements of this script, but they represent adequate models to study and emulate. Example 6.1 A Purpose Statement in a Qualitative Phenomenology Study Lauterbach (1993) studied five women who had each lost a baby in late pregnancy and their memories and experiences of this loss. Her purpose statement was as follows: The phenomenological inquiry. as part of uncovering meaning, articulated "essences" of meaning in mothers' lived experiences when their wished-for babies died Using the lens of the feminist perspective. the focus was on mothers' memories and their "living through" experience. This perspective facilitated breaking through the silence surrounding mothers' experiences; it assisted in articulating and amplifying mothers' memories and their stories of loss. Methods of Inquiry included phenomenological reflection on data elicited by existential investigation of mothers' experiences, and investigation of the phenomenon in the creative arts. (Lauterbach, 1993, p. 134) I found Lauterbach's (1993) purpose statement in the opening section of the journal article under the heading, ':Aim of Study." Thus, the heading calls attention to this statement. "Mothers' lived experiences" would be the central phenomenon, and the author uses the action word portray to discuss the meaning (a neutral word) of these experiences. The author further defined what experiences were examined when she identifies "memories" and "lived through" experiences. Throughout this passage, it is clear that Lauterbach used the strategy of phenomenology. Also, the passage conveys that the participants were mothers, and later in the article, the reader learns that the author interviewed a convenience sample of five The Purpose Statement 115 mothers. each of whom had experienced a perinatal death of a child in her home. Example 6.2 A Purpose Statement in a Case Study Kos (1991) conducted a multiple case study of perceptions of readingdisabled middle-school students concerning factors that prevented these students from progressing in their reading development. Her purpose statement read as follows: The purpose of this study was ta explore affective. social. and educational factors that may have contributed to the development of reading disabilities in four adolescents. The study also sought explanation as to why students' reading disabilities persisted despite years of Instruction. This was not an intervention study and, although some students may have improved their reading, reading improvement was not the focus of the study. (Kos. 1991, pp. 876-877) Notice Kos's (1991) disclaimer that this study was not a quantitative study measuring the magnitude of reading changes in the students. Instead. Kos clearly placed this study within the qualitative approach by using words such as "explore." She focused attention on the central phenomenon of "factors" and provided a tentative definition by mentioning examples. such as "affective. social, and educational." She included this statement under a heading called "Purpose of the Study" to call attention to it, and she mentioned the participants. In the abstract and the methodology section, a reader finds out that the study used the inquiry strategy of case study research and that the study took place in a classroom. Example 6.3 A Purpose Statement in an Ethnography Rhoads (1997) conducted a 2-year ethnographic study exploring how the campus climate can be improved for gay and bisexual males at a large university. His purpose statement, included in the opening section, was as follows: The article contributes to the literature addressing the needs of gay and bisexual students by Identifying several areas where progress can be made in improving the campus climate for them. This paper derives from a twoyear ethnographic study of a student subculture composed of gay and bisexual males at a large research university; the focus on men reflects the fact that lesbian and bisexual women constitute a separate student subculture at the university under study. (Rhoads. 1997, p. 276) 116 Designing Research With intent to improve the campus, this qualitative study falls into the genre of advocacy research as mentioned in Chapter 1. Also, these sentences occur at the beginning of the article to signal the reader about the purpose of the study. The needs of these students become the central phenomenon under study, and the author seeks to identify areas that can improve the climate for gays and bisexual males. The author also mentioned that the strategy of inquiry will be ethnographic and that the study will involve males (participants) at a large university (site). At this point, the author does not provide additional information about the exact nature of these needs or a working definition to begin the article. However, he does refer to identity and proffers a tentative meaning for that term in the next section of the study. Example 6.4 A Purpose Statement in a Grounded Theory Study Richie et al. (1997) conducted a qualitative study to develop a theory of the career development of 18 prominent, highly achieving African American Black and White women in the United States working in different occupational fields. In the second paragraph of this study. they stated the purpose: The present article describes a qualitative study of the career development of 18 prominent, highly achieving African-American Black and White women in the United States across eight occupational fields. Our overall aim in the study was to explore critical inftuences on the career development of these women. particularly those related to their attainment of professional success. (Richie et al.. 1997. p. 133) In this statement, the central phenomenon is career development, and the reader learns that the phenomenon is defined as critical influences in the professional success of the women. In this study, success, a directional word, serves to define the sample of individuals to be studied more than to limit the inquiry about the central phenomenon. The authors plan to explore this phenomenon, and the reader learns that the participants are all women, in different occupational groups. Grounded theory as a strategy of inquiry is mentioned in the abstract and later in the procedure discussion. A Quantitative Purpose Statement Quantitative purpose statements differ considerably from the qualitative models in terms of the language and a focus on relating or comparing variables or constructs. Recall from Chapter 3 the types of major variables: independent, mediating, moderating, and dependent. The Purpose Statement 117 The design of a quantitative purpose statement includes the variables in the study and their relationship. the participants. and the research site. It also includes language associated with quantitative research and the deductive testing of relationships or theories. A quantitative purpose statement begins with identifying the proposed major variables in a study (independent, intervening. dependent). accompanied by a visual model to clearly identify this sequence, and locating and specifying how the variables will be measured or observed. Finally, the intent of using the variables quantitatively will be either to relate variables. as one typically fmds in a survey, or to compare samples or groups in terms of an outcome, as commonly found in experiments. The major components of a good quantitative purpose statement include the following: e Include words to signal the major intent of the study, such as purpose, intent. or objective. Start with "The purpose (or objective or intent) of this study is (was. will be) ..." e Identify the theory. model. or conceptual framework. At this point one does not need to describe it in detail: in Chapter 3, I suggested the possibility of writing a separate "Theoretical Perspective" section for this purpose. Mentioning it in the purpose statement provides emphasis on the importance of the theory and foreshadows its use in the study. e Identify the independent and dependent variables, as well as any mediating. moderating. or control variables used in the study. e Use words that connect the independent and dependent variables to indicate that they are related, such as "the relationship between" two or more variables. or a "comparison of" two or more groups. Most quantitative studies employ one of these two options for connecting variables in the purpose statement. A combination of comparing and relating might also exist. for example, a two-factor experiment in which the researcher has two or more treatment groups as well as a continuous independent variable. Although one typically fmds studies about comparing two or more groups in experiments, it is also possible to compare groups in a survey study. • Position or order the variables from left to right in the purpose statement. with the independent variable followed by the dependent variable. Place intervening variables between the independent and dependent variables. Many researchers also place the moderating variables between the independent and dependent variables. Alternatively. control variables might be placed immediately following the dependent variable, in a phrase such as "controlling for ..."In experiments, the independent variable will always be the manipulated variable. e Mention the specific type of strategy of inquiry (such as survey or experimental research) used in the study. By incorporating this information, 118 Designing Research the researcher anticipates the methods discussion and enables a reader to associate the relationship of variables to the inquiry approach. e Make reference to the participants (or the unit of analysis) in the study and mention the research site. e Generally define each key variable, preferably using set and accepted established defmitions found in the literature. General definitions are included at this point to help the reader best understand the purpose statement. They do not replace specific, operational definitions found later when a writer has a "Defmition of Terms" section in a proposal (details about how variables will be measured). Also delimitations that affect the scope of the study might be mentioned, such as the scope of the data collection or limited to certain individuals. Based on these points. a quantitative purpose statement script can include these ideas: The purpose of this (experiment? survey?) study is (was? will be?) to test the theory of that _____ (compares? relates?) the (independent variable) to (dependent variable). controlling for _____ (control variables) for (participants) at _____ (the research site). The independent variable(s) will be defined as (provide a definition). The dependent variable(s) will be defined as (provide a definition). and the control and intervening variable(s), . (identify the control and intervening variables) will be defined as _____ (provide a definition). The examples to follow illustrate many of the elements in these scripts. The frrst two studies are surveys: the last one is an experiment. Example 6.5 A Purpose Statement in aPublished Survey Study Kalof (2000) conducted a 2-year longitudinal study of 54 college women about their attitudes and experiences with sexual victimization,These women responded to two identical mail surveys administered 2 years ·apart, ·The • author combined the purpose statement. introduced in the opening section. with the research questions. This study is an attempt to elaborate on and clarify the link between women's sex role attitudes and experiences with sexual victimization. 1used The Purpose Statement 119 fwo years of data from 54 college women to answer these questions: (1) Do women's attitudes influence vulnerability to sexual coercion over a two-year period? (2) Are attitudes changed after experiences with sexual victimization? (3) Does prior victimization reduce or Increase the risk of later victimization? (Kalof, 2000, p. 48) Although Kalof (2000) does not mention a theory that she seeks to test, she identifies both her independent variable (sex role attitudes) and the dependent variable (sexual victimization). She positioned these variables from independent to dependent. She also discussed linking rather than relating the variables to establish a connection between them. This passage identifies the participants (women) and the research site (a college setting). Later, in the method section, she mentioned that the study was a mailed survey. Although she does not define the major variables, she provides specific measures of the variables in the research questions. Example 6.6 A Purpose Statement in a Dissertation Survey Study DeGraw (1984) completed a doctoral dissertation in the field of education on the topic of educators working in adult correctional institutions. Under a section titled "Statement of the Problem," he advanced the purpose of the study: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between personal characteristics and the job motivaffon of certified educators who taught in selected state adult correctional institutions in the United States. Personal charactenstics were dMded Into background information about the respondent Q.e., insffMional information. education level. pnor training, etc.) and informaffon about the respondents' thoughts of changing jobs. The examinaffon of background information was important to this study because it was hoped it would be possible to identify characteristics and factors contributing to significant differences in mobility and motivation. The second part of the study asked the respondents to identify those motivational factors of concern to them. Job motivation was defined by six general factors identified in the educational work components study (J'.WCS) questionnaire (Miskel & Heller. 1973). These six factors are: potential for personal challenge and development; compefftiveness; desirability and reward of success; tolerance for work pressures; conservative secunty; and willingness to seek reward in spite of uncertainly vs. avoidance. (DeGraw. 1984, pp. 4, 5) This statement included several components of a good purpose statement. It was presented in a separate section. it used the word relationship, terms were defined, and the population was mentioned. Further, from the 120 Designing Research order of the variables in the statement, one can clearly identify the independent variable and the dependent variable. Example 6.7 A Purpose Statement in an Experimental Study Booth-Kewley, Edwards, and Rosenfeld (1992) undertook a study comparing the social desirability of responding to a computer version of an attitude and personality questionnaire to the desirability of completing a pencil-and-paper version. They replicated a study completed on college students that used an inventory, calledBalanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR), composed of two scales, impression management (IM) and self-deception (SD). In the final paragraph of the introduction, they advance the purpose of the study: We designed the present study to compare the responses of Navy recruits on the 1M and SD scales. collected under three conditions-with paper-andpencil. on a computer with backtracking allowed, and on a computer with no backtracking allowed. Approximately half of the recruits answered the questionnaire anonymously and the other half identified themselves. (Baath-Kewley et al. 1992, p. 563) This statement also reflected many properties of a good purpose statement. The statement was separated from other ideas in the introduction as a separate paragraph, it mentioned that a comparison would be made, and it identified the participants in the experiment (i.e., the unit of analysis). In terms of the order of the variables, the authors advanced them with the dependent variable first, contrary to my suggestion (still, the groups are clearly identified). Although the theory base is not mentioned, the paragraphs preceding the purpose statement reviewed the findings of prior theory. The authors also do not tell us about the strategy of inquiry, but other passages, especially those related to procedures, discuss the study as an experiment. A Mixed Methods Purpose Statement A mixed methods purpose statement contains the overall intent of the study. information about both the quantitative and qualitative strands of the study, and a rationale of incorporating both strands to study the research problem. These statements need to be identified early, in the introduction, and they provide major signposts for the reader to understand the quantitative and qualitative parts of a study. Several guidelines might direct the organization and presentation of the mixed methods purpose statement: The Purpose Statement 121 e Begin with signaling words, such as "The purpose of " or "The intent of." e Indicate the overall intent of the study from a content perspective, such as "The intent is to learn about organizational effectiveness" or "The intent is to examine families with step-children." In this way, the reader has an anchor to use to understand the overall study before the researcher divides the project into quantitative and qualitative strands. e Indicate the type of mtxed methods design. such as sequential. concurrent, or transformational. that will be used. e Discuss the reasons for combining bothquantitative and qualitative data. This reason could be one of the following (see Chapter 10 for more detail): • To better understand a research problem by converging (or triangulating) broad numeric trends from quantitative research and the detail of qualitative research • To explore participant views with the intent of building on these views with quantitative research so that they can be explored with a large sample of a population • To obtain statistical. quantitative results from a sample and then follow up with a few individuals to help explain those results in more depth (see also O'Cathain, Murphy, & Nicholl, 2007) • To best convey the trends and voices of marginalized groups or individuals • Include the characteristics of a good qualitative purpose statement, such as focusing on a single phenomenon, using action words and nondirectionallanguage, mentioning the strategy of inquiry, and identifying the participants and the research site. • Include the characteristics of a good quantitative purpose statement, such as identifying a theory and the variables, relating variables or comparing groups in terms of variables. placing these variables in order from independent to dependent, mentioning the strategy of inquiry, and specifying the participants and research site for the research. e Consider adding information about the specific types of both qualitative and quantitative data collection. Based on these elements, four mixed methods purpose statement scripts follow (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). The first two are sequential studies with one type of data collection building on the other: the third is a concurrent study with both types of data collected at the same time and brought together in data analysis. The fourth example is a transformative mixed methods study script also based on a concurrent design. 122 Designing Research l. A sequential study with a second quantitative phase building on an initial first qualitative phase: The intent of this two-phase, sequential mixed methods study is to _____ (mention content objective of the study). The first phase will be a qualitative exploration of a (central phenomenon) by collecting (types of data) from (participants) at (research site). Findings from this qualitative phase will then be used to test _____ (a theory, research questions, or hypotheses) that _____ (relate, compare) (independent variable) with (dependent variable) for _____ (sample of population) at (research site). The reason for collecting qualitative data initially is that (e.g., instruments are inadequate or not available, variables are not known, there is little guiding theory or few taxonomies). 2. A sequential study with the qualitative follow-up phase building on and helping to explain the initial quantitative phase: The intent of this two-phase, sequential mixed methods study will be to (mention content objective of the study). In the first phase, quantitative research questions or hypotheses will address the relationship or comparison of _____ (independent) and (dependent) variables with (participants) at (the research site). Information from this first phase will be explored further in a second qualitative phase. In the second phase, qualitative interviews or observations will be used to probe significant _____ (quantitative results) by exploring aspects of the _____ (central phenomenon) with (a few participants) at (research site). The reason for following up with qualitative research in the second phase is to _____ (e.g., better understand and explain the quantitative results). 3. A concurrent study with the intent of gathering both quantitative and qualitative data and merging or integrating them to best understand a research problem: The intent of this concurrent mixed methods study is to _____ (content objective of the study). In the study, ______ (quantitative instruments) will be used to measure the relationship between (independent variable) and (dependent variable). At the same time, the (central phenomenon) will be explored using (qualitative interviews or observations) with The Purpose Statement 123 _____ (participants) at {the research site). The reason for combining both quantitative and qualitative data is to better understand this research problem by converging both quantitative (broad numeric trends) and qualitative (detailed views) data. 4. This final script is one that a mixed methods researcher might use with a transformative mixed methods strategy of inquiry. The script is phrased for a concurrent study, but the mixed methods project might use either a concurrent (both quantitative and qualitative data collected at the same time) or a sequential (the two types of data collected in sequence or phases) strategy of inquiry. The elements that designate this script as transformational are that the intent of the study is to address an issue central to underrepresented or marginalized groups or individuals. Also, the outcome of such a study is to advocate for the needs of these groups or individuals, and this information is included in the purpose statement. The intent of this concurrent mixed methods study is to _____ (state issue that needs to be addressed for group or individuals). In the study, (quantitative instruments) will be used to measure the relationship between _____ (independent variable) and (dependent variable). At the same time, the (central phenomenon) will be explored using (qualitative interviews or observations) with {participants) at (the research site). The reason for combining both quantitative and qualitative data is to better understand this research problem by converging both quantitative {broad numeric trends) and qualitative (detailed views) data and to advocate for change for _____ (groups or individuals). Example 6.8 A Concurrent Mixed Methods Purpose Statement Hossler and Vesper (1993) studied student and parent attitudes toward parental savings for the postsecondary education of their children. In this 3-year study, they identified the factors most strongly associated with parental savings and collected both quantitative and qualitative data. Their purpose statement was as follows: In an effort to shed light on parental saving. this article examines parental sav· lng behaviors. Using student and parent data from a longitudinal study employ· lng mu~iple surveys over a three-year period. logistic regression was used to (Continued) 124 Designing Research (Continued) lden~fy the factors most strongly associated w~h parental savings for postseconda? Research Questions and Hypotheses 141 Example 7.9 A Mixed Methods Question Written in Terms of Mixing Procedures To what extent and in what ways do qualitative interviews with students and faculty members serve to contribute to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of this predicting relationship between CEEPT scores and student academic performance. via integra~ve mixed methods analysis? (lee & Greene. 2007) This is a good example of a mixed methods question focused on the intent of mixing. to integrate the qualitative interviews and the quantitative data, the relationship of scores and student performance. This question emphasized what the integration was attempting to accomplish-a comprehensive and nuanced understanding-and at the end of the article, the authors presented evidence answering this question. SUMMARY Research questions and hypotheses narrow the purpose statement and become major signposts for readers. Qualitative researchers ask at least one central question and several subquestions. They begin the questions with words such as how or what and use exploratory verbs. such as explore or describe. They pose broad, general questions to allow the participants to explain their ideas. They also focus initially on one central phenomenon of interest. The questions may also mention the participants and the site for the research. Quantitative researchers write either research questions or hypotheses. Both forms include variables that are described, related, categorized into groups for comparison. and the independent and dependent variables are measured separately. In many quantitative proposals, writers use research questions; however, a more formal statement of research employs hypotheses. These hypotheses are predictions about the outcomes of the results, and they may be written as alternative hypotheses specifying the exact results to be expected (more or less, higher or lower of something). They also may be stated in the null form. indicating no expected difference or no relationship between groups on a dependent variable. Typically, the researcher writes the independent variable(s) first, followed by the dependent variable(s). One model for ordering the questions in a quantitative proposal is to begin with descriptive questions followed by the inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups. 142 Designing Research I encourage mixed methods researchers to construct separate mixed methods questions in their studies. This question might be written to emphasize the procedures or the content of the study, and it might be placed at different points. By writing this question, the researcher conveys the importance of integrating or combining the quantitative and qualitative elements. Several models exist for writing mixed methods questions into studies: writing only quantitative questions or hypotheses and qualitative questions, or writing both quantitative questions or hypotheses and qualitative questions followed by a mixed methods question, or writing only a mixed methods question. 1. For a qualitative study, write one or two central questions followed by five to seven subquestions. 2. For a quantitative study, write two sets of questions. The first set should be descriptive questions about the independent and dependent variables in the study. The second set should pose questions that relate (or compare) the independent variable(s) with the dependent variable(s). This follows the model presented in this chapter for combining descriptive and inferential questions. 3. Write a mixed methods research question. Write it first as a question incorporating the procedures of your mixed methods study and then rewrite it to incorporate the content. Comment on which approach works best for you. ADDITIONAL READINGS Creswell, j. W. (1999). Mixed-method research: Introduction and application. In G. j. Cizek (Ed.), Handbook of educational policy (pp. 455-472). San Diego: Academic Press. In this chapter, I discuss the nine steps in conducting a mixed methods study. These are as follows: 1. Determine if a mixed methods study is needed to study the problem; 2. Consider whether a mixed methods study is feasible; 3. Write both qualitative and quantitative research questions; Research Questions and Hypotheses 143 4. Review and decide on the types of data collection: 5. Assess the relative weight and implementation strategy for each method; 6. Present a visual model; 7. Determine how the data will be analyzed: 8. Assess the criteria for evaluating the study; and 9. Develop a plan for the study. In writing the research questions, 1 recommend developing both qualitative and quantitative types and stating within them the type of qualitative strategy or inquiry being used. Tashakkori, A., & Creswell, J. W (2007). Exploring the nature of research questions in mixed methods research. Editorial. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(3), 207-211. This editorial addresses the use and nature of research questions in mixed methods research. It highlights the importance of research questions in the process of research and discusses the need for a better understanding of the use of mixed methods questions. It asks. "How does one frame a research question in a mixed methods study?" (p. 207). Three models are presented: writing separate quantitative and qualitative questions. writing an overarching mixed methods question, or writing research questions for each phase of a study as the research evolves. Morse, J. M. (1994). Designing funded qualitative research. InN. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (F.ds.). Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 22Q-235). Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage. janice Morse. a nursing researcher, identifies and describes the major design issues involved in planning a qualitative project. She compares several strategies of inquiry and maps the type of research questions used in each strategy. For phenomenology and ethnography. the research calls for meaning and descriptive questions. For grounded theory. the questions need to address process, whereas in ethnomcthodology and discourse analysis. the questions relate to verbal interaction and dialogue. She indicates that the wording of the research question determines the focus and scope of the study. Tuckman, B. W (1999). Conducting educational research (5th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace. Bruce Tuckman provides an entire chapter on constructing hypotheses. He identifies the origin of hypotheses in deductive theoretical positions and in inductive observations. He further defines and illustrates both alternative and null hypotheses and takes the reader through the hypothesis testing procedure.