~CHAPTER NINE
Qualitative Procedures
Q ualitative procedures demonstrate a different approach
to scholarly inquiry than methods of quantitative research.
Qualitative inquiry employs different philosophical assumptions;
strategies of inquiry; and methods of data collection. analysis. and
interpretation. Although the processes are similar. qualitative procedures
rely on text and image data, have unique steps in data analysis.
and draw on diverse strategies of inquiry.
In fact. the strategies of inquiry chosen in a qualitative project have a
dramatic influence on the procedures, which, even within strategies. are
anything but uniform. Looking over the landscape of qualitative procedures
shows diverse perspectives ranging from social justice thinking
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). to ideological perspectives (Lather, 1991), to
philosophical stances (Schwandt. 2000). to systematic procedural guidelines
(Creswell. 2007; Corbin & Strauss. 2007). All perspectives vie for center
stage in this unfolding model of inquiry called qualitative research.
This chapter attempts to combine many perspectives. provide
general procedures. and use examples liberally to illustrate variations in
strategies. This discussion draws on thoughts provided by several authors
writing about qualitative proposal design (e.g.. see Berg. 2001: Marshall
& Rossman, 2006; Maxwell, 2005: Rossman & Rallis, 1998). The topics in a
proposal section on procedures are characteristics of qualitative
research, the research strategy, the role of the researcher, steps in data
collection and analysis. strategies for validity, the accuracy of findings.
and narrative structure. Table 9.1 shows a checklist of questions for
designing qualitative procedures.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
For many years. proposal writers had to discuss the characteristics of qualitative
research and convince faculty and audiences as to their legitimacy.
Now these discussions are less frequently found in the literature and there
is some consensus as to what constitutes qualitative inquiry. Thus, my suggestions
about this section of a proposal are as follows:
173
174 Designing Research
Table 9.1 A Checklist of Questions for Des1gn1ng a Quoiitat1ve Procedure
Are the basic characteristics of qualita~ve studies mentioned?
Is the specific type of qualitative strategy of inquiry to be used
in the study mentioned? Is the history of, a definition of. and
applications for the strategy mentioned?
Does the reader gain an understanding of the researcher's role in
the study (past historical, social, cultural experiences, personal
connections to sites and people, steps in gaining entry, and
sensitive ethical issues)?
Is the purposeful sampling strategy for sites and individuals identified?
Are the specific forms of data collection mentioned and a
rationale given for their use?
Are the procedures for recording informafton during the data
collection procedure mentioned (such as protocols)?
Are the data analysis steps identified?
Is there evidence that the researcher has organized the data for
analysis?
Has the researcher reviewed the data generally to obtain a sense
of the informaffon?
Has coding been used with the data?
Have the codes been developed to form a description or to
identify themes?
Are the themes interrelated to show a higher level of analysis and
abstraction?
Are the ways that the data will be represented mentioned-such as
in tables, graphs, and figures?
Have the bases for interpreting the analysis been specified
(personal experiences, the literature, questions, action agenda)?
Has the researcher mentioned the outcome of the study
(developed a theory, provided a complex picture of themes)?
Have multiple strategies been cited for validating the findings?
e Review the needs of potential audiences for the proposaL Decide
whether audience members are knowledgeable enough about the characteristics
of qualitative research that this section is not necessary.
e If there is some question about their knowledge, present the basic characteristics
of qualitative research in the proposal and possibly discuss a
Qualitative Procedures 175
recent qualitative research journal article (or study) to use as an example
to illustrate the characteristics.
• Several lists of characteristics might be used (e.g.. Bogdan & Biklen.
1992; Eisner. 1991; Hatch. 2002; LeCompte & Schensul. 1999;
Marshall & Rossman. 2006). but I will rely on a composite analysis of
several of these writers that I incorporated into my book on qualitative
inquiry (Creswell, 2007). My list captures both traditional perspectives
and the newer advocacy, participatory, and self-reflexive perspectives of
qualitative inquiry. Here are the characteristics of qualitative research,
presented in no specific order of importance:
• Natural setting-Qualitative researchers tend to collect data in the field
at the site where participants experience the issue or problem under
study. They do not bring individuals into a lab (a contrived situation),
nor do they typically send out instruments for individuals to complete.
This up close information gathered by actually talking directly to people
and seeing them behave and act within their context is a major characteristic
of qualitative research. In the natural setting, the researchers
have face-to-face interaction over time.
• Researcher as key instrument-Qualitative researchers collect data
themselves through examining documents, observing behavior, or
interviewing participants. They may use a protocol-an instrument
for collecting data-but the researchers are the ones who actually
gather the information. They do not tend to use or rely on questionnaires
or instruments developed by other researchers.
• Multiple sources of data-Qualitative researchers typically gather
multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents,
rather than rely on a single data source. Then the researchers
review all of the data, make sense of it, and organize it into categories
or themes that cut across all of the data sources.
• Inductive data analysis---Qualitative researchers build their patterns,
categories, and themes from the bottom up, by organizing the data into
increasingly more abstract units of information. This inductive process
illustrates working back and forth between the themes and the database
until the researchers have established a comprehensive set of themes. It
may also involve collaborating with the participants interactively, so that
participants have a chance to shape the themes or abstractions that
emerge from the process.
• Participants' meanings-In the entire qualitative research process, the
researcher keeps a focus on learning the meaning that the participants
hold about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the researchers
bring to the research or writers express in the literature.
• Emergent design-The research process for qualitative researchers is
emergent. This means that the initial plan for research cannot be
176 Designing Research
tightly prescribed, and all phases of the process may change or
shift after the researcher enters the field and begins to collect
data. For example, the questions may change, the forms of data
collection may shift, and the individuals studied and the sites visited
may be modified. The key idea behind qualitative research is
to learn about the problem or issue from participants and to
address the research to obtain that information.
• Theoretical lens--()ualitative researchers often use lens to view
their studies, such as the concept of culture, central to ethnography,
or gendered, racial, or class differences from the theoretical
orientations discussed in Chapter 3. Sometimes the study may be
organized around identifying the social, political, or historical context
of the problem under study.
• lnterpretive--()ualitative research is a form of interpretive inquiry
in which researchers make an interpretation of what they see,
hear, and understand. Their interpretations cannot be separated
from their own backgrounds, history, contexts, and prior understandings.
After a research report is issued, the readers make an
interpretation as well as the participants, offering yet other interpretations
of the study. With the readers, the participants, and the
researchers all making interpretations, it is apparent how multiple
views of the problem can emerge.
• Holistic account-Qualitative researchers try to develop a complex
picture of the problem or issue under study. This involves reporting
multiple perspectives, identifying the many factors involved in a situation,
and generally sketching the larger picture that emerges. A
visual model of many facets of a process or a central phenomenon
aid in establishing this holistic picture (see, for example, Creswell &
Brown, 1992).
STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY
Beyond these general characteristics are more specific strategies of inquiry.
These strategies focus on data collection, analysis, and writing, but they
originate out of disciplines and flow throughout the process of research
(e.g., types of problems, ethical issues of importance: Creswell, 2007b).
Many strategies exist, such as the 28 approaches identified by Tesch (1990).
the 19 types in Wolcott's (2001) tree, and the 5 approaches to qualitative
inquiry by Creswell (2007). As discussed in Chapter 1, I recommend that
qualitative researchers choose from among the possibilities, such as narrative,
phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. I
selected these five because they are popular across the social and health sciences
today. Others exist that have been addressed adequately in qualitative
books, such as participatory action research (Kemmis & Wilkinson, 1998) or
Qualitative Procedures 177
discourse analysis (Cheek, 2004). For the five approaches, researchers
might study individuals (narrative, phenomenology); explore processes,
activities, and events (case study, grounded theory); or learn about broad
culture-sharing behavior of individuals or groups (ethnography).
In writing a procedure for a qualitative proposal, consider the following
research tips:
• Identify the specific approach to inquiry that you will be using.
e Provide some background information about the strategy, such. as
its discipline origin, the applications of it, and a brief definition of it (see
Chapter 1 for the five strategies of inquiry).
• Discuss why it is an appropriate strategy to use in the proposed study.
• Identify how the use of the strategy will shape the types of questions
asked (see Morse, 1994, for questions that relate to strategies), the form of
data collection, the steps of data analysis, and the final narrative.
THE RESEARCHER'S ROLE
As mentioned in the list of characteristics, qualitative research is interpretative
research, with the inquirer typically involved in a sustained and
intensive experience with participants. This introduces a range of strategic,
ethical, and personal issues into the qualitative research process (Locke
et al., 2007). With these concerns in mind, inquirers explicitly identify
reflexively their biases, values, and personal background, such as gender,
history, culture, and socioeconomic status, that may shape their interpretations
formed during a study. In addition, gaining entry to a research site and
the ethical issues that might arise are also elements of the researcher's role.
• Include statements about past experiences that provide background
data through which the audience can better understand the topic, the setting,
or the participants and the researcher's interpretation of the phenomenon.
e Comment on connections between the researcher and the participants
and on the research sites. "Backyard" research (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992)
involves studying the researcher's own organization, or friends, or immediate
work setting. This often leads to compromises in the researcher's ability
to disclose information and raises difficult power issues. Although data collection
may be convenient and easy, the problems of reporting data that are
biased, incomplete, or compromised are legion. If studying the backyard is
necessary, employ multiple strategies of validity (as discussed later) to create
reader confidence in the accuracy of the findings.
e Indicate steps taken to obtain permission from the Institutional
Review Board (see Chapter 4) to protect the rights of human participants.
Attach, as an appendix, the approval letter from the IRB and discuss the
process involved in securing permission.
178 Designing Research
o Discuss steps taken to gain entry to the setting and to secure permission
to study the participants or situation (Marshall & Rossman, 2006). It is
important to gain access to research or archival sites by seeking the approval
of gatekeepers, individuals at the research site that provide access to the
site and allow or permit the research to be done. Abrief proposal might need
to be developed and submitted for review by gatekeepers. Bogdan and Biklen
(1992) advance topics that could be addressed in such a proposal:
• Why was the site chosen for study?
• What activities will occur at the site during the research study?
• Will the study be disruptive?
• How will the results be reported?
• What will the gatekeeper gain from the study?
0 Comment about sensitive ethical issues that may arise (see Chapter 3,
and Berg, 2001). For each issue raised, discuss how the research study will
address it. For example, when studying a sensitive topic, it is necessary to
mask names of people, places, and activities. In this situation, the process
for masking information requires discussion in the proposal.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
Comments about the role of the researcher set the stage for discussion of
issues involved in collecting data. The data collection steps include setting
the boundaries for the study, collecting information through unstructured
or semistructured observations and interviews, documents, and visual
materials, as well as establishing the protocol for recording information.
0 Identify the purposefully selected sites or individuals for the proposed
study. The idea behind qualitative research is to purposefully select participants
or sites (or documents or visual material) that will best help the
researcher understand the problem and the research question. This does
not necessarily suggest random sampling or selection of a large number of
participants and sites, as typically found in quantitative research. A discussion
about participants and site might include four aspects identified by
Miles and Huberman (1994): the setting (where the research will take
place), the actors (who will be observed or interviewed), the events (what
the actors will be observed or interviewed doing), and the process (the
evolving nature of events undertaken by the actors within the setting).
0 Indicate the type or types of data to be collected. In many qualitative
studies, inquirers collect multiple forms of data and spend a considerable
time in the natural setting gathering information. The collection procedures
in qualitative research involve four basic types, as shown in Table 9.2.
Qualitative Procedures 179
Table 9.2 Qualitative Data Collection Types. Opt1ons. Advantages. and L1m1tat10ns
Data Collection Options Within Advantages of Limitations of
Types Types the Type the Type
Observations • Complete • Researcher has • Researcher
participant- a first-hand may be seen
researcher experience with as Intrusive.
conceals role participant. • Private
• Observer as • Researcher Information
participant-role can record maybe
of researcher is information as observed that
known it occurs. researcher
• Participant as • Unusual aspects cannot report.
observer- can be noticed • Researcher
observation role during may not
secondary to observation. have good
participant role • Useful in exploring attending and
• Complete topics that observing skills.
observer- maybe • Certain
researcher uncomfortable participants
observes without for participants (e.g., children)
participating to discuss. may present
special
problems
in gaining
rapport.
Interviews • Face-to-face- • Useful when • Provides
one-on-one, In- participants indirect
person interview cannot be Information
• Telephone- directly observed. filtered through
researcher • Participants can the views of
Interviews by provide historical Interviewees.
phone information. • Provides
• Focus group- • Allows researcher information in
researcher control over a designated
Interviews the line of place rather
participants questioning. than the
in a group natural field
• E-mail internet setting.
Interview • Researcher's
presence
may bias
responses.
• Not all people
are equally
articulate and
perceptive.
(Continued)
180 Designing Research
Table 9.2 (Continued)
Data Collec~on Options Within Advantages of Limitations of
Types Types the Type the Type
Documents • Public • Enables a • Not all people
documents. such researcher to are equally
as minutes of obtain the articulate and
meetings. or language perceptive.
newspapers and words of • May be
• Private participants. protected
documents. such • Can be accessed information
as journals. at a time unavailable
diaries, or letters convenient to to public
researcher-an or private
unobtrusive access.
source of • Requires the
information. researcher to
• Represents data search out
which are the information
thoughtful in that in hard-to-find
participants have places.
given attention to • Requires
compiling them. transcribing
• As written or optically
evidence, it saves scanning for
a researcher the computer
time and expense entry.
of transcribing. • Materials may
be incomplete.
• The
documents
may not be
authentic
or accurate.
Audio-Visual • Photographs • May be an • May be
Materials • Videotapes unobtrusive difficult to
• Art objects method of Interpret.
• Computer collecting data. • May not be
software • Provides an accessible
• Film opportunity for publicly or
participants to privately.
directly share • The presence
their reality. of an observer
• It is creative in (e.g.,
that it captures photographer)
attention visually. maybe
disruptive
and affect
responses.
NOTE: This table Includes material taken from Merriam (1998), Bogdan & Biklen (1992). and Creswell
(2007).
Qualitative Procedures 181
• Qualitative observations are those in which the researcher takes
field notes on the behavior and activities of individuals at the
research site. In these field notes, the researcher records, in an
unstructured or semistructured way (using some prior questions
that the inquirer wants to know), activities at the research site.
Qualitative observers may also engage in roles varying from a nonparticipant
to a complete participant.
• In qualitative interviews, the researcher conducts face-to-face
interviews with participants, interviews participants by telephone,
or engages in focus group interviews, with six to eight
interviewees in each group. These interviews involve unstructured
and generally open-ended questions that are few in number
and intended to elicit views and opinions from the participants.
• During the process of research, the investigator may collect qualitative
documents. These may be public documents (e.g., newspapers,
minutes of meetings. official reports) or private documents
(e.g., personal journals and diaries, letters, e-mails).
• A final category of qualitative data consists of qualitative audio
and visual materials. This data may take the form of photographs,
art objects, videotapes, or any forms of sound.
• In a discussion about data collection forms, be specific about the
types and include arguments concerning the strengths and weaknesses of
each type. as discussed in Table 9.2.
• Include data collection types that go beyond typical observations
and interviews. These unusual forms create reader interest in a proposal
and can capture useful information that observations and interviews may
miss. For example, examine the compendium of types of data in Table 9.3
that can be used, to stretch the imagination about possibilities, such as
gathering sounds or tastes, or using cherished items to elicit comments
during an interview.
DATA RECORDING PROCEDURES
Before entering the field. qualitative researchers plan their approach to
data recording. The proposal should identify what data the researcher will
record and the procedures for recording data.
e Use a protocol for recording observational data. Researchers often
engage in multiple observations during the course of a qualitative study
and use an observational protocol for recording information while
observing. This may be a single page with a dividing line down the middle
to separate descriptive notes (portraits of the participants, a reconstruction
of dialogue, a description of the physical setting, accounts of particular
182 Designing Research
Table 9 3 A List of Qualrtotrve Dolo Collecllon Approaches
Observations
, Gather field notes by conducting an observation as a participant.
, Gather field notes by conducting an observation as an observer.
, Gather field notes by spending more time as a participant than as an observer.
, Gather field notes by spending more time as an observer than as a participant.
, Gather field notes first by observing as an outsider and then moving into the
setting and observing as an Insider.
Interviews
, Conduct an unstructured, open-ended Interview and take interview notes.
, Conduct an unstructured, open-ended interview, audiotape the interview, and
transcribe it.
, Conduct a semistructured interview, audiotape the interview.. and transcribe the
interview.
• Conduct a focus group interview, audiotape the interview, and transcribe lt.
• Conduct different types of interviews: email. face-to-face, focus group, online
focus group. telephone interviews
Documents
• Keep a journal during the research study.
• Have a participant keep a journal or diary during the research study.
• Collect personal letters from participants.
• Analyze public documents (e.g., official memos, minutes. records, archival
material).
• Examine autobiographies and biographies.
• Have participants take photographs or videotapes (i.e., photo elicitation).
• Chart audits
• Medical records
Audio-visual Materials
• Examine physical trace evidence (e.g.. footprints in the snow).
• Videotape or film a social situation or an individual or group.
• Examine photographs or videotapes.
• Collect sounds (e.g., musical sounds, a child's laughter, car horns honking).
• Collect e-mail messages.
• Collect cell phone text messages.
• Examine possessions or ritual objects.
• Collect sounds, smells, tastes, or any stimuli of the senses.
SOURCE: Adapted from Creswell (2007).
events, or activities) from reflective notes (the researcher's personal
thoughts, such as "speculation, feelings, problems, ideas, hunches,
impressions, and prejudices" Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, p. 121). Also written
on this form might be demographic information about the time, place, and
date of the field setting where the observation takes place.
Qualitative Procedures 183
e Use an interview protocol for asking questions and recording
answers during a qualitative interview. This protocol includes the following
components:
• A heading (date, place, interviewer, interviewee)
• Instructions for the interviewer to follow so that standard procedures
are used from one interview to another
• The questions (typically an ice-breaker question at the beginning
followed by 4-5 questions that are often the subquestions in a
qualitative research plan, followed by some concluding statement
or a question, such as, "Who should I visit with to learn more
about my questions?"
• Probes for the 4-5 questions, to follow up and ask individuals to
explain their ideas in more detail or to elaborate on what they
have said
• Space between the questions to record responses
• A final thank-you statement to acknowledge the time the interviewee
spent during the interview (see Creswell, 2007)
e Researchers record information from interviews by making handwritten
notes, by audiotaping, or by videotaping. Even if an interview is
taped, I recommend that researchers take notes, in the event that recording
equipment fails. If audiotaping is used, researchers need.to plan in
advance for the transcription of the tape.
e The recording of documents and visual materials can be based on
the researcher's structure for taking notes. Typically, notes reflect information
about the document or other material as well as key ideas in the
documents. It is helpful to note whether the information represents primary
material (i.e., information directly from the people or situation under
study) or secondary material (i.e., secondhand accounts of the people or
situation written by others). It is also helpful to comment on the reliability
and value of the data source.
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Discussion of the plan for analyzing the data might have several components.
The process of data analysis involves making sense out of text and
image data. It involves preparing the data for analysis, conducting different
analyses, moving deeper and deeper into understanding the data
(some qualitative researchers like to think of this as peeling back the layers
of an onion), representing the data, and making an interpretation of
the larger meaning of the data. Several generic processes might be stated
184 Designing Research
in the proposal that convey a sense of the overall activities of qualitative
data analysis, such as the following drawn from my own thoughts
(Creswell, 2007) and those of Rossman and Rallis (1998):
e It is an ongoing process involving continual reflection about
the data, asking analytic questions, and writing memos throughout the
study. I say that qualitative data analysis is conducted concurrently with
gathering data, making interpretations, and writing reports. While interviews
are going on, for example, the researcher may be analyzing an
interview collected earlier, writing memos that may ultimately be
included as a narrative in the final report, and organizing the structure of
the final report.
e Data analysis involves collecting open-ended data, based on asking
general questions and developing an analysis from the information supplied
by participants.
e Often we see qualitative data analysis reported in journal articles and
books that is a generic form of analysis. In this approach, the researcher
collects qualitative data, analyzes it for themes or perspectives, and reports
4-5 themes. I consider this approach to be basic qualitative analysis; today
many qualitative researchers go beyond this generic analysis to add a procedure
within one of the qualitative strategies of inquiry. For example,
grounded theory has systematic steps (Corbin & Strauss, 2007; Strauss &
Corbin, 1990, 1998). These involve generating categories of information
(open coding), selecting one of the categories and positioning it within a
theoretical model (axial coding), and then explicating a story from the
interconnection of these categories (selective coding). Case study and ethnographic
research involve a detailed description of the setting or individuals,
followed by analysis of the data for themes or issues (see Stake, 1995;
Wolcott, 1994). Phenomenological research uses the analysis of significant
statements, the generation of meaning units, and the development of
what Moustakas (1994) calls an essence description. Narrative research
employs restorying the participants' stories using structural devices, such
as plot. setting, activities, climax, and denouement (Clandinin & Connelly,
2000). As these examples illustrate, the processes as well as the terms differ
from one analytic strategy to another.
e Despite these analytic differences depending on the type of strategy
used, qualitative inquirers often use a general procedure and convey in the
proposal the steps in data analysis. An ideal situation is to blend the
general steps with the specific research strategy steps. An overview of
the data analysis process is seen in Figure 9.1. As a research tip, I urge
researchers to look at qualitative data analysis as following steps from the
specific to the general and as involving multiple levels of analysis.
Qualitative Procedures 185
- InterPreting the Meaning of
I.Themes/Descriptions
i
Interrelating Themes/Description
(e.g., grounded theory, ·case·study)
i i
Themes
I I
Desc~iption
i iValidating the
Coding the Data
Accuracy of the -
Information
(hand or computer)
i
R~ading Through All Data
I
i
Organizing and Preparing
Data for Analysis
i
Raw Data (transcripts,
fieldnotes, images, etc.)
Figure 9.1 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
This figure suggests a linear. hierarchical approach building from the
bottom to the top, but I see it as more interactive in practice; the various
stages are interrelated and not always visited in the order presented. These
levels are emphasized in the following steps;
Step l. Organize and prepare the data for analysis. This involves transcribing
interviews. optically scanning material. typing up field notes, or
sorting and arranging the data into different types depending on the
sources of information.
Step 2. Read through all the data. A first step is to obtain a general sense
of the information and to reflect on its overall meaning. What general
ideas are participants saying? What is the tone of the ideas? What is the
impression of the overall depth, credibility. and use of the information?
Sometimes qualitative researchers write notes in margins or start recording
general thoughts about the data at this stage.
186 Designing Research
Step 3. Begin detailed analysis with a coding process. Coding is the
process of organizing the material into chunks or segments of text before
bringing meaning to information (Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p. 171). It
involves taking text data or pictures gathered during data collection, segmenting
sentences (or paragraphs) or images into categories, and labeling
those categories with a term, often a term based in the actual language of
the participant (called an in vivo term).
Before proceeding to Step 4, consider some remarks that will provide
detailed guidance for the coding process. Tesch (1990, pp. 142-145) provides
a useful analysis of the process in eight steps:
l. Get a sense of the whole. Read all the transcriptions carefully.
Perhaps jot down some ideas as they come to mind.
2. Pick one document (i.e., one interview)-the most interesting one,
the shortest, the one on the top of the pile. Go through it, asking
yourself, "What is this about?" Do not think about the substance of
the information but its underlying meaning. Write thoughts in the
margin.
3. When you have completed this task for several participants, make a
list of all topics. Cluster together similar topics. Form these topics
into columns, perhaps arrayed as major topics, unique topics, and
leftovers.
4. Now take this list and go back to your data. Abbreviate the topics as
codes and write the codes next to the appropriate segments of the
text. Try this preliminary organizing scheme to see if new categories
and codes emerge.
5. Find the most descriptive wording for your topics and turn them into
categories. Look for ways of reducing your total list of categories by
grouping topics that relate to each other. Perhaps draw lines between
your categories to show interrelationships.
6. Make a final decision on the abbreviation for each category and
alphabetize these codes.
7. Assemble the data material belonging to each category in one place
and perform a preliminary analysis.
8. If necessary, recode your existing data.
These eight steps engage a researcher in a systematic process of analyzing
textual data. Variations exist in this process. As a research tip,
I encourage qualitative researchers to analyze their data for material that
can address the following:
e Codes on topics that readers would expect to find, based on the past
literature and common sense
Qualitative Procedures 187
• Codes that are surprising and that were not anticipated at the beginning
of the study
• Codes that are unusual, and that are, in and of themselves, of conceptual
interest to readers (e.g.. in Asmussen and Creswell, 1995, we identified
retriggering as one of the codes/themes in the analysis that suggested
a new dimension for us to a gunman incident on campus and that seemed
to connect with experiences of others on campus)
• Codes that address a larger theoretical perspective in the research
As an alternative conceptualization, consider the list by Bogdan and
Bilden (1992, pp. 166-172) of the types of codes that they look for in a
qualitative database:
e Setting and context codes
e Perspectives held by subjects
• Subjects' ways of thinking about people and objects
e Process codes
e Activity codes
e Strategy codes
e Relationship and social structure codes
• Preassigned coding schemes
One further issue about coding is whether the researcher should
(a) develop codes only on the basis of the emerging information collected
from participants, (b) use predetermined codes and then fit the data to
them, or (c) use some combination of predetermined and emerging codes.
The traditional approach in the social sciences is to allow the codes to
emerge during the data analysis. In the health sciences, a popular
approach is to use predetermined codes based on the theory being examined.
In this case, the researchers might develop a qualitative codebook.
a table or record that contains a list of predetermined codes that researchers
use for coding the data. This codebook might be composed with the names
of codes in one column, a definition of codes in another column, and then
specific instances (e.g.. line numbers) in which the code was found in the
transcripts. Having such a codebook is invaluable when multiple
researchers are coding the data from different transcripts. This codebook
can evolve and change during a study based on close analysis of the data,
even when the researcher is not starting from an emerging code perspective.
For researchers who have a distinct theory they want to test in their
projects, I would recommend that a preliminary codebook be developed for
coding the data and permit the codebook to develop and change ba~ed on
188 Designing Research
the information learned during the data analysis. The use of a codebook is
especially helpful for fields in which quantitative research dominates and a
more systematic approach to qualitative research is needed.
Returning to the general coding process, some researchers have found
it useful to hand code qualitative transcripts or information, sometimes
using color code schemes and to cut and paste text segments onto note
cards. This is a laborious and time-consuming approach. Others tend to
use qualitative computer software programs to help code, organize, and
sort information that will be useful in writing the qualitative study. Several
excellent computer software programs are available, and they have similar
features: good tutorials and demonstration CDs, ability to incorporate both
text and image (e.g., photographs) data, the feature of storing and organizing
data, the search capacity of locating all text associated with specific
codes, interrelated codes for making queries of the relationship among
codes, and the import and export of qualitative data to quantitative programs,
such as spreadsheets or data analysis programs.
The basic idea behind these programs is that using the computer is an
efficient means for storing and locating qualitative data. Although the
researcher still needs to go through each liue of text (as in transcriptions)
and assign codes, this process may be faster and more efficient than hand
coding. Also, in large databases, the researcher can quickly locate all passages
(or text segments) coded the same and determine whether participants
are responding to a code idea in similar or different ways. Beyond
this, the computer program can facilitate comparing different codes (e.g.,
How do males and females-the first code of gender-differ in terms of
their attitudes to smoking-a second code) These are just a few features of
the software programs that make them a logical choice for qualitative data
analysis over hand coding. As with any software program, qualitative
software programs require time and skill to learn and employ effectively,
although books for learning the programs are widely available (e.g.,
Weitzman & Miles, 1995).
Most of the programs are available only on the PC platform. The computer
software programs that my staff and I use in my research office are
these:
• MAXqda (http://www.maxqda.com/). This is an excellent PC-based
program from Germany that helps researchers systematically evaluate
and interpret qualitative texts. It has all of the features mentioned earlier.
• Atlas.ti (http://www.atlasti.com). This is another PC-based program
from Germany that enables a researcher to organize text. graphic,
audio, and visual data files, along with coding, memos and findings, into
a project.
• QSR NVivo (http://www.qsrinternational.com/) This program, from
Australia, features the popular software program N6 (or Nud.ist) and NVivo
concept mapping in combination. It is available only for Windows PC.
Qualitative Procedures 189
• HyperRESEARCH (http://www.researchware.com/). This is a program
available for either the MAC or PC. It is an easy-to-use qualitative
software package enabling users to code, retrieve, build theories, and conduct
analyses of the data.
Step 4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or
people as well as categories or themes for analysis. Description involves a
detailed rendering of information about people, places, or events in a setting.
Researchers can generate codes for this description. This analysis is
useful in designing detailed descriptions for case studies, ethnographies,
and narrative research projects. Then use the coding to generate a small
number of themes or categories, perhaps five to seven categories for a
research study. These themes are the ones that appear as major findings in
qualitative studies and are often used to create headings in the findings
sections of studies. They should display multiple perspectives from individuals
and be supported by diverse quotations and specific evidence.
Beyond identifying the themes during the coding process, qualitative
researchers can do much with themes to build additional layers of complex
analysis. For example, researchers interconnect themes into a story
line (as in narratives) or develop them into a theoretical model (as in
grounded theory). Themes are analyzed for each individual case and
across different cases (as in case studies) or shaped into a general description
(as in phenomenology). Sophisticated qualitative studies go beyond
description and theme identification and into complex theme connections.
Step 5. Advance how the description and themes will be represented in
the qualitative narrative. The most popular approach is to use a narrative
passage to convey the findings of the analysis. This might be a discussion
that mentions a chronology of events, the detailed discussion of several
themes (complete with subthemes, specific illustrations, multiple perspectives
from individuals, and quotations) or a discussion with interconnecting
themes. Many qualitative researchers also use visuals, figures, or tables
as adjuncts to the discussions. They present a process model (as in
grounded theory), advance a drawing of the specific research site (as in
ethnography), or convey descriptive information about each participant
in a table (as in case studies and ethnographies).
Step 6. A final step in data analysis involves making an interpretation
or meaning of the data. Asking, "What were the lessons learned?" captures
the essence of this idea (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). These lessons could
be the researcher's personal interpretation, couched in the understanding
that the inquirer brings to the study from her or his own culture, history,
and experiences. It could also be a meaning derived from a comparison of
the findings with information gleaned from the literature or theories. In this
way. authors suggest that the findings confirm past information or diverge
from it. It can also suggest new questions that need to be asked-<juestions
190 Designing Research
raised by the data and analysis that the inquirer had not foreseen earlier in
the study. One way ethnographers can end a study, says Wolcott (1994),
is to ask further questions. The questioning approach is also used in
advocacy and participatory approaches to qualitative research. Moreover,
when qualitative researchers use a theoretical lens, they can form interpretations
that call for action agendas for reform and change. Thus, interpretation
in qualitative research can take many forms, be adapted for
different types of designs, and be flexible to convey personal, researchbased,
and action meanings.
RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, AND GENERALIZABILITY
Although validation of findings occurs throughout the steps in the process
of research (as shown in Figure 9.1), this discussion focuses on it to enable
a researcher to write a passage into a proposal on the procedures for validating
the findings that will be undertaken in a study. Proposal developers
need to convey the steps they will take in their studies to check for the
accuracy and credibility of their findings.
Validity does not carry the same connotations in qualitative research as
it does in quantitative research, nor is it a companion of reliability (examining
stability or consistency of responses) or generalizability (the external
validity of applying results to new settings, people, or samples; both are discussed
in Chapter 8). Qualitative validity means that the researcher
checks for the accuracy of the findings by employing certain procedures,
while qualitative reliability indicates that the researcher's approach is
consistent across different researchers and different projects (Gibbs, 2007).
How do qualitative researchers check to determine if their approaches
are consistent or reliable? Yin (2003) suggests that qualitative researchers
need to document the procedures of their case studies and to document as
many of the steps of the procedures as possible. He also recommends setting
up a detailed case study protocol and database. Gibbs (2007) suggests
several reliability procedures:
• Check transcripts to make sure that they do not contain obvious mistakes
made during transcription.
• Make sure that there is not a drift in the definition of codes, a shift in
the meaning of the codes during the process of coding. This can be accomplished
by constantly comparing data with the codes and by writing
memos about the codes and their definitions (see the discussion on a qualitative
codebook).
• For team research, coordinate the communication among the coders
by regular documented meetings and by sharing the analysis.
• Cross-check codes developed by different researchers by comparing
results that are independently derived.
Qualitative Procedures 191
Proposal writers need to include several of these procedures as evidence
that they will have consistent results in their proposed study. I recommend
that several procedures be mentioned in a proposal and that single
researchers find another person who can cross-check their codes. for what
I call intercoder agreement (or cross-checking). Such an agreement
might be based on whether two or more coders agree on codes used for the
same passages in the text (it is not that they code the same passage of text.
but whether another coder would code it with the same or a similar code).
Statistical procedures or reliability subprograms in qualitative computer
software packages can then be used to determine the level of consistency
of coding. Miles and Huberman (1994) recommend that the consistency
of the coding be in agreement at least 80% of the time for good qualitative
reliability.
Validity. on the other hand, is one of the strengths of qualitative
research. and it is based on determining whether the findings are accurate
from the standpoint of the researcher, the participant. or the readers of an
account (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Terms abound in the qualitative literature
that speak to this idea, such as trustworthiness. authenticity, and credibility
(Creswell & Miller, 2000), and it is a much-discussed topic (Lincoln &
Guba, 2000).
A procedural perspective that I recommend for research proposals is to
identify and discuss one or more strategies available to check the accuracy
of the findings. The researcher actively incorporates validity strategies
into their proposal. I recommend the use of multiple strategies, and these
should enhance the researcher's ability to assess the accuracy of findings
as well as convince readers of that accuracy. There are eight primary
strategies. organized from those most frequently used and easy to implement
to those occasionally used and more difficult to implement:
• Triangulate different data sources of information by examining evidence
from the sources and using it to build a coherent justification for
themes. If themes are established based on converging several sources of
data or perspectives from participants, then this process can be claimed as
adding to the validity of the study.
e Use member checking to determine the accuracy of the qualitative
findings through taking the final report or specific descriptions or themes
back to participants and determining whether these participants feel that
they are accurate. This does not mean taking back the raw transcripts to
check for accuracy; instead, the researcher takes back parts of the polished
product, such as the themes, the case analysis, the grounded theory, the
cultural description, and so forth. This procedure can involve conducting
a follow-up interview with participants in the study and providing an
opportunity for them to comment on the findings.
e Use rich, thick description to convey the findings. This description may
transport readers to the setting and give the discussion an element of
192 Designing Research
shared experiences. When qualitative researchers provide detailed descriptions
of the setting, for example, or provide many perspectives about a
theme, the results become more realistic and richer. This procedure can
add to the validity of the findings.
e Clarify the bias the researcher brings to the study. This self-reflection
creates an open and honest narrative that will resonate well with readers.
Reflectivity has been mentioned as a core characteristic of qualitative
research. Good qualitative research contains comments by the researchers
about how their interpretation of the findings is shaped by their background,
such as their gender, culture, history, and socioeconomic origin.
• Also present negative or discrepant information that runs counter to
the themes. Because real life is composed of different perspectives that do
not always coalesce, discussing contrary information adds to the credibility
of an account. A researcher can accomplish this in discussing evidence
about a theme. Most evidence will build a case for the theme: researchers
can also present information that contradicts the general perspective of
the theme. By presenting this contradictory evidence, the account becomes
more realistic and hence valid.
• Spend prolonged time in the field. In this way, the researcher develops
an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study and can convey
detail about the site and the people that lends credibility to the narrative
account. The more experience that a researcher has with participants
in their actual setting, the more accurate or valid will be the findings.
• Use peer debriefing to enhance the accuracy of the account. This
process involves locating a person (a peer debriefer) who reviews and asks
questions about the qualitative study so that the account will resonate
with people other than the researcher. This strategy-involving an interpretation
beyond the researcher and invested in another person-adds
validity to an account.
e Use an external auditor to review the entire project. As distinct from a
peer debriefer, this auditor is not familiar with the researcher or the project
and can provide an objective assessment of the project throughout the
process of research or at the conclusion of the study. The role is similar to
that of a fiscal auditor, and specific questions exist that auditors might ask
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The procedure of having an independent investigator
look over many aspects of the project (e.g., accuracy of transcription,
the relationship between the research questions and the data, the
level of data analysis from the raw data through interpretation) enhances
the overall validity of a qualitative study.
Qualitative generalization is a term that is used in a limited way in
qualitative research, since the intent of this form of inquiry is not to
Qualitative Procedures 193
generalize findings to individuals, sites, or places outside of those under
study (see Gibbs, 2007, for his cautionary note about qualitative generalizability).
In fact, the value of qualitative research lies in the particular
description and themes developed in context of a specific site. Particularity
rather than generalizability (Greene & Caracelli, 1997) is the hallmark of
qualitative research. However, there are a few discussions in the qualitative
literature about generalizability, especially as applied to case study
research in which the inquirer studies several cases. Yin (2003), for example,
feels that qualitative case study results can be generalized to some
broader theory. The generalization occurs when qualitative researchers
study additional cases and generalize findings to the new cases. It is the
same as the replication logic used in experimental research. However, to
repeat a case study's fmdings in a new case setting requires good documentation
of qualitative procedures, such as a protocol for documenting
the problem in detail and the development of a thorough case study database
(Yin, 2003).
THE QUALITATIVE WRITE-UP
A plan for a qualitative procedure should end with some comments about
the narrative that emerges from the data analysis. Numerous varieties of
narratives exist, and examples from scholarly journals illustrate models. In
a plan for a study, consider advancing several points about the narrative.
The basic procedure in reporting the results of a qualitative study are to
develop descriptions and themes from the data (see Figtire 9.1), to present
these descriptions and themes that convey multiple perspectives from participants
and detailed descriptions of the setting or individuals. Using a
qualitative strategy of inquiry, these results may also provide a chronological
narrative of an individual's life (narrative research), a detailed description
of their experiences (phenomenology), a theory generated from the
data (grounded theory), a detailed portrait of a culture-sharing group
(ethnography), or an in-depth analysis of one or more cases (case study).
Given these different strategies. the findings and interpretation sections
of a plan for a study might discuss how the sections will be presented: as
objective accounts, fieldwork experiences (VanMaanen, 1988), a chronology,
a process model, an extended story, an analysis by cases or across
cases, or a detailed descriptive portrait (Creswell, 2007).
At the specific level. some writing strategies might be as follows:
• Use quotes and vary their lengthfrom short to long embedded passages.
• Script conversation and report the conversation in different languages
to reflect cultural sensitivity.
194 Designing Research
0 Present text information in tabular form (e.g., matrices, comparison
tables of different codes).
0 Use the wording from participants to form codes and theme labels.
0 Intertwine quotations with (the author's) interpretations.
0 Use indents or other special formatting of the manuscript to call
attention to quotations from participants.
0 Use the first person "I" or collective "we" in the narrative form.
0 Use metaphors and analogies (see, for example, Richardson, 1990,
who discusses some of these forms).
0 Use the narrative approach typically used within a qualitative strategy
of tnquiry (e.g., description in case studies and ethnographies, a
detailed story in narrative research).
0 Describe how the narrative outcome will be compared with theories
and the general literature on the topic. In many qualitative articles.
researchers discuss the literature at the end of the study (see the discussion
in Chapter 2).
Example 9.1 Qualitative Procedures
The following is an example of a qualitative procedure written as part of a
doctoral proposal (Miller, 1992). Miller's project was an ethnographic study
of first,year experiences of the president of a 4-year college. As I present this
discussion, I refer back to the sections addressed in this chapter and highlight
them in boldfaced type. Also, I have maintained Miller's use of the term informant,
although today, the more appropriate term, participant, should be used.
The Qualitative Research Paradigm
The qualitative research paradigm has its roots in cultural anthropology and
American sociology (Kirk & Miller, 1986). It has only recently been adopted
by educational researchers (Borg & Gall. 1989). The intent of qualitative
research is to understand a particular social situation. event. role. group. or
interaction (Locke. Spirduso. & Silverman. 1987). It is largely an investigative
process where the researcher gradually makes sense of a social phenomenon
by contras~ng. comparing. replicating, cataloguing and classifying the
object of study (Miles & Huberman. 1984). Marshall and Rossman (1989) suggest
that this entails immersion in the everyday life of the setting chosen for
the study; the researcher enters the informants' world and through ongoing
interaction. seeks the Informants' perspectives and meanings. (Qualitative
assumptions are mentioned.)
Qualitative Procedures 195
Scholars contend that qualitative research can be distinguished from quantitative
methodology by numerous unique characteristics that are inherent
in the design. The following Is a synthesis of commonly articulated assumpftons
regarding characteristics presented by various researchers.
1. Qualitative research occurs in natural settings. where human behavior
and events occur.
2. Qualitative research is based on assumptions that are very different from
quantitative designs. Theory or hypotheses are not established a priori.
3. The researcher is the primary instrument in data collection rather than
some inanimate mechanism (Eisner, 1991; Frankel & Wallen. 1990; Lincoln
& Guba. 1985; Merriam. 1988).
4. The data that emerge from a qualitative study are descriptive. That is,
data are reported in words (primarily the participant's words) or pictures,
rather than in numbers (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990; Locke et al.,
1987; Marshall & Rossman, 1989; Merriam, 1988).
5. The focus of qualitative research is on participants' perceptions and
experiences, and the way they make sense of their lives (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 1990; Locke et al.. 1987; Merriam, 1988). The attempt is therefore
to understand not one, but multiple realities (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
6. Qualitative research focuses on the process that Is occurring as well as
the productor outcome. Researchers are particularly interested In understanding
how things occur (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990; Merriam, 1988).
7. Idiographic interpretation is utilized. In other words, attention is paid to
particulars; and data is interpreted in regard to the particulars of a
case rather than generalizations.
8. Qualitative research is an emergent design in its negotiated outcomes.
Meanings and interpretations are negotiated with human
data sources because It is the subjects' realities that the researcher
attempts to reconstruct (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988).
9. This research tradition relies on the utilizafton of tacit knowledge (intuitive
and felt knowledge) because often the nuances of the multiple realities
can be appreciated most in this way (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Therefore,
data are not quantifiable in the traditional sense of the word.
(Continued)
196 Designing Research
(Continued)
10. Objecffvlty and truthfulness are critical to both research traditions.
However. the criteria for judging a qualitative study differ from quantitative
research. First and foremost the researcher seeks believability,
based on coherence, insight and instrumental utility (Eisner. 1991)
and trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) through a process of verification
rather than through traditional validity and reliability measures.
(Qualitative characteristics are mentioned.)
The Ethnographic Research Design
This study will utilize the ethnographic research tradition. This design
emerged from the field of anthropology, primarily from the contributions of
Bronislaw Malinowski, Robert Park and Franz Boas (Jacob, 1987; Kirk & Miller,
1986). The intent of ethnographic research Is to obtain a holistic picture of
the subject of study with emphasis on portraying the everyday experiences
of individuals by observing and interviewing them and relevant others
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). The ethnographic study includes In-depth Interviewing
and continual and ongoing participant observation of a situation
(Jacob, 1987) and in attempting to capture the whole picture reveals how
people describe and structure their world (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). (The
author used the ethnographic approach.)
The Researcher's Role
Particularly in qualitatve research, the role of the researcher as the primary
data collection instrument necessitates the identification of personal values,
assumptions and biases at the outset of the study. The investigator's contribution
to the research setting can be useful and positive rather than detrimental
(Locke et al.. 1987). My perceptions of higher education and the college presidency
have been shaped by my personal experiences. From August 1980 to
May 1990 I served as a college administrator on private campuses of 600 to
5,000. Most recently (1987-1990), Iserved as the Dean for Student Lite at a small
college in the Midwest. As a member of the President's cabinet Iwas involved
with all fop level administrative cabinet activities and decisions and worked
closely with the faculty, cabinet officers, president and board of trustees. In
addition to reporting to the president, I worked with him through his first year
in office. I believe this understanding of the context and role enhances my
awareness, knowledge and sensitivity to many of the challenge~ decisions and
issues encountered as a first year president and will assist me In working with the
informant in this study. I bring knowledge of both the structure of higher education
and of the role the college presidency. Particular attention will be paid
to the role of the new president in initiating change, relationship building, decision
making, and providing leadership and vision.
Qualitative Procedures 197
Due to previous experiences working closely with a new college president. I
bring certain biases to this study. Although every effort will be made to ensure
objectivity, these biases may shape the way I view and understand the data
I collect and the way I Interpret my experiences. I commence this study with
the perspective that the college presidency is a diverse and often difficult
position. Though expectations are immense, I question how much power the
president has to initiate change and provide leadership and vision. I view the
first year as critical; fllled with adjustments, frustrations, unanticipated surprises
and challenges. (Author reflected on her role in the study.)
Bounding the Study
Setting
This study will be conducted on the campus of a state college In the Midwest.
The college is situated in a rural Midwestern community. The institution's 1,700
students nearly triple the town·spopulation of 1.000 when classes are in session.
The institution awards associate, bachelor and master's degrees in 51 majors.
Actors
The Informant in this study is the new President of a state college in the Midwest.
The primary informant in this study Is the President. However. I will be obseNing
him in the context of administrative cabinet meetings. The president's cabinet
includes three Vice Presidents (Academic Affairs, Administration. Student
Affairs) and two Deans (Graduate Studies and Continuing Education).
Events
Using ethnographic research methodology, the focus of this study will be
the everyday experiences and events of the new college president. and the
perceptions and meaning attached to those experiences as expressed by
the informant. This includes the assimilation of surprising events or information,
and making sense of critical events and issues that arise.
Processes
Particular attention will be paid to the role of the new president in initiating
change. relationship building, decision making, and providing leadership
and vision. (Author mentioned data collection boundanes.)
Ethical Considerations
Most authors who discuss qualitative research design address the importance
of ethical considerations (Locke et al.. 1982; Marshall & Rossman,
1989; Merriam. 1988; Spradley, 1980). First and foremost. the researcher has
(Continued)
198 Designing Research
(Continued)
an obligation to respect the rights. needs. values. and desires of the informant(s).
To an extent. ethnographic research is always obtrusive. Participant
observation invades the life of the informant (Spradley. 1980) and sensinve
information is frequently revealed. This Is of particular concern in this study
where the informant's position and institution are highly visible. The following
safeguards will be employed to protect the informant's rights: 1) the
research objectives will be articulated verbally and in writing so that they are
clearly understood by the informant (Including a description of how data will
be used), 2) written permission to proceed with the study as articulated will
be received from the Informant. 3) a research exemption form will be filed
with the Institutional Review Board (Appendixes 81 and 82), 4) the informant
will be informed of all data collection devices and activities. 5) verbatim
transcriptions and written interpretations and reports will be made available
to the informant. 6) the informant's rights. interests and wishes will be considered
first when choices are made regarding reporting the data. and
7) the final decision regarding informant anonymity will rest with the Informant.
(Author addressed ethical issues and IRB review.)
Data Collection Strategies
Data will be collected from February through May. 1992. This will Include a
minimum of bi-monthly, 45 minute recorded interviews with the informant
(initial Interview questions. Appendix C), bimonthly two hour observations of
administrative cabinet meetings, bi-monthly two hour observations of daily
activities and bi-monthly analysis of the president's calendar and documents
(meeting minutes. memos. publications). In addition. the informant
has agreed to record impressions of his experiences, thoughts and feelings
In a taped diary (guidelines for recorded reflection. Appendix D). Two followup
Interviews will be scheduled for the end of May 1992 (See Appendix Etor
proposed timeline and activity schedule). (The author proposed to use faceto-face
inteNiews. participate as observer, and obtain private documents.)
To assist in the data collection phase I will utilize a field log. providing a
detailed account of ways I plan to spend my time when I am on-site, and in
the transcription and analysis phase (also comparing this record to how time
is actually spent). I intend to record details related to my observations in a
field notebook and keep a field diary to chronicle my own thinking. feeling,
experiences and perceptions throughout the research process. (The author
recorded descriptive and reflective information.)
Data Analysis Procedures
Merriam (1988) and Marshall and Rossman (1989) contend that data collection
and data analysis must be a simultaneous process In qualitative
Qualitative Procedures 199
research. Schatzman and Strauss (1973) claim that qualitative data analysis
primarily entails classifying things. persons. and events and the properties
which characterize them. Typically throughout the data analysis process
ethnographers index or code their data using as many categories as possible
(Jacob, 1987). They seek to identify and describe patterns and themes
frorn the perspective of the partlcipant(s). then attempt to understand and
explain these patterns and themes (Agar, 1980). During data analysis the
data will be organized categorically and chronologically, reviewed repeatedly,
and continually coded. A list of major ideas that surface will be chronIcled
(as suggested by Merriam, 1988). Taped interviews and the
participant's taped diary will be transcribed verbatim. Field notes and diary
entries will be regularly reviewed. (Author described steps In data analysis.)
In addition, the data analysis process will be aided by the use of a qualitative
data analysis computer program called HyperQual. Raymond Padilla
(Arizona State University) designed HyperQual in 1987 for use with the
Macintosh computer. HyperQual utilizes HyperCard software and facilitates
the recording and analysis of textual and graphic data. Special stacks are
designated to hold and organize data. Using HyperQual the researcher can
directly "enter field data. including interview data. observations, researcher's
memos. and illustrations...(and) tag (or code) all or part of the source data
so that chunks of data con be pulled out and then be reassembled in a new
and illuminating configura~on" (Padilla. 1989, pp. 69-70). Meaningful data
chunks can be idennfied, retrieved. isolated. grouped and regrouped for
analysis. Categories or code names can be entered Initially or at a later date.
Codes can be added. changed or deleted with HyperQual editor and text
can be searched for key categories. themes. words or phrases. (Author menNons
the proposed use of computer software for data analysis.)
Verification
In ensuring internal validity, the following strategies will be employed:
1. Triangulation of data-Data will be collected through multiple sources
to include interviews. observations and document analysis;
2. Member checking-The informant will serve as a check throughout the
analysis process. An ongoing dialogue regarding my Interpretations of the
informant's reality and meanings will ensure the truth value of the data;
3. Long terms and repeated observations at the research site-Regular
and repeated observations of similar phenomena and settings will
occur on-site over a four month period of time;
(Continued)
200 Designing Research
(Continued)
4. Peer examination-a doctoral student and graduate assistant in the
Educational Psychology Department will serve as a peer examiner;
5. Participatory modes of research-The informant will be involved in
most phases of this study, from the design of the project to checking
interpretations and conclusions; and
6. Clarification of researcher bias-At the outset of this study researcher
bios will be articulated In wri~ng In the dissertation proposal under the
heading, "The Researcher's Role."
The primary strategy utilized in this project to ensure external validity will be
the provision of rich, fuick, detailed descriptions so that anyone interested in
transferability will hove a solid framework for comparison (Merriam, 1988).
Three techniques to ensure reliability will be employed in this study. First, the
researcher will provide a detailed account of the focus of the study, the
researcher's role, the informant's position and basis for selection, and
the context from which data will be gathered (LeCompte & Goetz, 1984).
Second, triangulation or multiple methods of data collection and analysis
will be used, which strengthens reliability as well as internal validity (Merriam.
1988). Finally, data collection and analysis strategies will be reported in detail
in order to provide a clear and accurate picture of the methods used in this
study. All phases of this project will be subject to scrutiny by an external auditor
who is experienced in qualitative research methods. (Author identified
strategies of validity to be used in the study.)
Reporting the Findings
Lofland (1974) suggests that although data collection and analysis strategies
ore similar across qualitative methods, the way the findings ore reported Is
diverse. Miles and Huberman (1984) address the importance of creating a
data display and suggest that narrative text has been the most frequent
form of display for qualitative data. This is a naturalistic study. Therefore, the
results will be presented in descriptive, narrative form rather than as a scientific
report. Thick description will be the vehicle for communicating a holistic
picture of the experiences of a new college president. The final project will
be a construction of the Informant's experiences and the meanings he
attaches to them. This will allow readers to vicariously experience the challenges
he encounters and provide a lens through which readers con view
the subject's world. (Outcomes of the study were mentioned.)
Qualitative Procedures 201
SUMMARY
This chapter explored the steps that go into developing and writing a
qualitative procedure. Recognizing the variation that exists in qualitative
studies. the chapter advances a general guideline for procedures. This
guideline includes a discussion about the general characteristics of qualitative
research if audiences are not familiar with this approach to
research. These characteristics are that the research takes place in the
natural setting. relies on the researcher as the instrument for data collection.
employs multiple methods of data collection. is inductive. is based
on participants' meanings. is emergent. often involves the use of a theoretical
lens, is interpretive, and is holistic. The guideline recommends
mentioning a strategy of inquiry. such as the study of individuals (narrative.
phenomenology). the exploration of processes. activities and events
(case study. grounded theory). or the examination of broad culture-sharing
behavior of individuals or groups (ethnography). The choice of strategy
needs to be presented and defended. Further, the proposal needs to
address the role of the researcher: past experiences. personal connections
to the site. steps to gain entry. and sensitive ethical issues. Discussion of
data collection should include the purposeful sampling approach and the
forms of data to be collected (i.e.. observations. interviews. documents.
audiovisual materials). It is useful to also indicate the types of data
recording protocols that will be used. Data analysis is an ongoing process
during research. It involves analyzing participant information. and
researchers typically employ general analysis steps as well as those steps
found within a specific strategy of inquiry. More general steps include
organizing and preparing the data. an initial reading through the information.
coding the data, developing from the codes a description and thematic
analysis, using computer programs, representing the findings in
tables. graphs. and figures, and interpreting the findings. These interpretations
involve stating lessons learned. comparing the findings with past
literature and theory. raising questions. and/or advancing an agenda for
reform. The proposal should also contain a section on the expected outcomes
for the study. Finally. an additional important step in planning a
proposal is to mention the strategies that will be used to validate the accuracy
of the findings. demonstrate the reliability of procedures, and discuss
the role of generalizability.
202 Designing Research
1. Write a plan for the procedure to be used in your qualitative
study. After writing the plan, use Table 9.1 as a checklist to determine
the comprehensiveness of your plan.
2. Develop a table that lists. in a column on the left. the steps you
plan to take to analyze your data. In a column on the right, indicate
the steps as they apply directly to your project. the research strategy
you plan to use, and data that you have collected.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Marshall, C.. & Rossman. G. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research (4th ed.).
Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage.
Catherine Marshall and Gretchen Rossman introduce the procedures for designing
a qualitative study and a qualitative proposal. The topics covered are comprehensive.
They include building a conceptual framework around a study; the logic and assumptions
of the overall design and methods; methods of data collection and procedures for
managing, recording, and analyzing qualitative data; and the resources needed for a
study, such as time, personnel, and funding. This is a comprehensive and insightful text
from which both beginners and more experienced qualitative researchers can learn.
Flick, U. (Ed.). (2007). The Sage Qualitative Research Kit. London: Sage.
This is an eight-volume kit edited by Uwe Flick that is authored by different worldclass
qualitative researchers and was created to collectively address the core issues that
arise when researchers actually do qualitative research. It addresses how to plan and
design a qualitative study, the collection and production of qualitative data, the analysis
of qualitative data (e.g., visual data, discourse analysis), and the issues of quality in
qualitative research. Overall, it presents a recent, up-to-date window into the field of
qualitative research.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage.
Sometimes those who write about qualitative research take a philosophical stance
toward the topic and readers are left without an understanding of the procedures and
practices actually used in designing and conducting a qualitative study. My book takes
five approaches to qualitative inquiry-narrative research, phenomenology, grounded
theory, ethnography. and case study-and discusses how the procedures for conducting
these forms of inquiry are both similar and different. In the end, readers can more
easily choose which of the five would best suit their research problems as well as their
personal styles of research.