SOCIAL HISTORY OF JAPANESE POPULAR CULTURE THE CULTURE OF EDO (1600–1868) (THE PRECURSOR OF EDO: CLASSICAL JAPANESE CULTURE) • Aristocratic culture of Nara (710–794) and Heian (794–1185) • Feudal culture of Kamakura (1185–1333) and Muromachi (1333–1573) • Buddhist culture (sculpture, painting) at its height during Heian and Kamakura • Poetry, ink painting, tea ceremony, ceramics, gardens • Chronicles, books, diaries (Kojiki, Genji Monogatari, Makura no Sōshi) • These texts circulated only among the aristocracy (i.e. the were not “popular” yet) • Contemplative texts based on suggestion, simplicity, perishability, and asymmetry • New aesthetical concepts are introduced (e.g. yūgen, aware, sabi) • Heian art often reflects the atmosphere of collapse and catastrophe • The first mentions of kawaii (Heian); the first manga (12ct.),“zoomorphism” popular The first manga (12ct.) THE CULTURE OF EDO (1600-1868) GENERAL BACKGROUND • The beginning of this period (1600s) was symbolized by • Battle at Sekigahara, which ended the “warring states” mayhem (sengoku jidai) • Political unification of Japan and military rule the Tokugawa shogunate • Brand new forms of popular culture emerged, making Edo/Kyoto the “consumer/producer capital” • Firmly established commercial culture industry, fully conceptualized notion of “popular culture”, and its further massification • The townsman culture (chōnin bunka), peaking during the “golden age” of Edo culture, i.e. the Genroku period (1688-1704) • Japan’s isolationist policy toward the outside world (sakoku) created a culturally locked state (cf. the Galapagos syndrome), but Japanese culture did not develop in complete isolation • The ending of this period (1850s to 1860s) was symbolized by: • Meiji Restoration of the Emperor’s power and rapid modernization of the Empire • Commodore Perry’s black ships (kurofune) arriving at Uraga Channel (Tokyo Bay) • The ē janaika movement: spontaneous, carnivalesque eruption of the peasants Period illustration of the ē janaika movement (1867–1868) TOWNS, CITIES, DISTRICTS • The local lords (daimyō) laid the foundations necessary for the development of popular culture by establishing and nurturing “castle towns” (jōkamachi) (e.g. Nagoya, Kagoshima) • Some towns grew into “cities”, forming commercial and cultural centres (Kyoto, Osaka, Edo) • Around 1650 Edo was already a cultural center of Japan, rivalling the old center, Kyoto: • Kyoto: production of cultural artefacts and transmission of artistic techniques • Edo: the consumer capital and the center of the hegemonic culture of the period • Kyoto to Edo: rapid flow of high-quality goods (kudarimono) from the Kamigata area • Large shipments from Kyoto to Edo (rice, oil, sake, soy sauce) improved the transport network • New quarters located near temples and shrines (monzenmachi) • “flower towns” with noble geishas (hanamachi) • Edo divided into “uptown” (yamanote) and “downtown” (shitamachi) • Edo reaches population of one million in 1721 THE POPULATION OF EDO (picture: color photochrome of Edo in 1865) WARRIORS • The warrior population (bushi), its manners and culture contributed to the uniqueness of Edo • Worshipping warrior-style variations of the ancient customs (mostly from the Kamakura period) • Warriors in the city stimulated emergence of a unique economy, making Edo a consumer capital TOWNSMEN • The townsman culture (chōnin bunka) peaking during the golden age of Genroku period (1688-1704) • This culture became an “antidote” to classical/folk culture • Obsessed with spectacle and sex; bearing sentiments of anti-establishment and resistance • Edokko as the “prototypical townspeople”, and a new social stratum with own style and language • Edo townspeople forged ties between the artists (i.e. those necessary for cultural production), and the craftsmen (i.e. those who had the skills to realize such production) OTHERS • Masterless samurai (rōnin), “street knights” (kyōkaku), chivalrous rowdies (otokodate), hoodlums (kabukimono) and other gangsters roaming the city and looking for fight • Wandering priests, monks, exorcisers (sekizoro) • Master-courtesans (tayū) and female geisha, versus average “red light district” prostitutes RED LIGHT DISTRICTS • establishing brothels and red light districts (yūkaku) • Edo’s Yoshiwara (1617), Osaka’s Shinmachi (1623), Kyoto’s Shimabara (1640) • Artistic geishas move to more sophisticated “flower towns” (hanamachi) • They frequent countless ochaya and ryōriya (e.g., Kyoto’s Gion, or Edo’s Shinbashi) • The oversight of sexual commerce as important governmental function even today • Yoshiwara became the center of Edo social and cultural life • At the same time, it reflected lewdness and moral depravity of the townsman culture • Eventually, townspeople replaced the warriors as the main clients of Yoshiwara • Pleasure quarters were spaces where the Japanese popular culture was flourishing • Yoshiwara as a favorite setting of ukiyoe: Hokusai’s ukiyoe depicting the red light district of Yoshiwara (1811) Digital reconstruction of Yoshiwara UKIYOE • Printing culture became technological basis for the townsman culture (chōnin bunka) • Woodblock prints: illustrated books (ehon), colored images (ninshikie), and most importantly ukiyoe: • The term “floating world” (ukiyo) was coined by the townsmen for the pleasure districts • It is adapted from Buddhism to signify the ephemeral and illusory nature of existence • Mass production of ukiyoe during the Kyōhō period (1716-1736) • ukiyoe (same as the famous Edo craftsmanship) emerged from the shitamachi areas around Nihonbashi, where the “cultured men” of the downtown have lived • Originally cheap products in Japan, ukiyoe heavily inspired the West: Japonaiserie (Japanese-themed or influenced arts), the Impressionist movement (Manet, Dega, Van Gogh) • The main content of ukiyoe: • interest in nature and female beauty (bijinga) • Interest in supernatural fantasies and ghosts (yōkai, bakemono, oni) • Interest in grotesquery, sociopolitical commentary and satire • Ukiyoe as a form of popular culture that made the step from (mass) CULTURE to (high) ART Kiyonaga (1785), Hokusai (1800) Hiroshige (1852) Monsters and shape-shifters (obakemono) Ghosts (yūrei) Folk/mythical creatures “Eye Monsters” Ukiyoe as reflection of the West Ukiyoe as satire (the dog shogun Tsunayoshi) Tsunayoshi in Japan pop today: KABUKI • The “mother” of kabuki: Izumo no Okuni (1574-1640) • Originally a shrine maiden (miko), a prostitute, and the first Japanese “celebrity-entertainer” • Okuni modified folk/sacred dances and added sex-appeal (cf. today’s aidoru) • While being cross-dressed, she “behaved oddly” (kabuku) • Okuni performs at the imperial palace (1612), but invites contempt and regulations: • only males allowed to perform • separation of kabuki from prostitution • theatres must follow the principle of kanzen chōaku (reward virtue, punish vice) • In the past, kabuki was often portrayed as pointless and low-brow form of theater • Travelling theater troupes performed kabuki for small rural towns and villages • Kabuki and the “cult of celebrity” reigns supreme from mid-18th ct • Yotsuya Kaidan one of the most popular kabuki plays since 1825 (a tale of revenge and haunting) • The new rulers of Meiji since 1868 saw kabuki as a pedagogical tool • Kabuki was proudly presented to the West in 1879 • Same as ukiyoe: transformation of kabuki from (urban) CULTURE to (global) ART Kabuki The transformations of Okuni The “legacy” of Okuni OTHER POPULAR PERFORMING ARTS • Reflected by the townspeople’s passion for theatrical arts and music • The golden age of popular performing arts: the Kaisei period (1804-1830) • Theater as escape from life (genjitsu tōhi) and possibility to break with reality • Chikamatsu Monzaemon: • love suicide plays (shinjūmono), based on the conflict of giri-ninjō • puppet theater (jōruri, bunraku) with its impeccable movement of the puppets • contemporary stories (sewamono) versus historical stories (jidaimono) • gidayū narrators and shamisen musicians • The Nō theatre • origins in medieval “monkey music” (sarugaku) in 11ct; founders: Kan’ami/Zeami Motokio (14-15ct) • Wealthy peasants and merchants as the most conspicuous consumers of Nō • Popularization of the Nō-theatre during the Edo period • Outside Performers • During festivals and fairs in popular quarters (Asakusa, Ueno, Ryōgoku) • Performances were the soul of middle and lower classes • 19th century: rise of “variety halls” (yose) in Edo (Kanda, Nihonbashi, Azabu, Akasaka, Yotsuya) • Variety halls include performance of comic monologues (rakugo), music with narration, magic shows OTHER POP-CULTURAL GENRES • Popular literature • Fiction published by Tsutaya and Tsuruya sold like hotcakes • Martial arts literature (e.g. Miyamoto Musashi’s “Book of five rings”) • Writers and humourists (e.g. Jippensha Ikku, Hiraga Gennai) • “yellow-covered books” (kibyōshi) as illustrated satirical fiction • “vernacular stories” (kanazōshi) – classical poetry, fiction, diaries for the masses • “Tales of Cooking” (Ryōri Monogatari, 164) as the first published Japanese cookbook • Erotic works • “floating world books” (ukiyozōshi) and Ihara Saikaku • “smart books” (sharebon) about the licensed quarters • “the joys of boys” and homo-eroticism among elite ranks (e.g. Chigo Monogatari) • “spring pictures” (shunga) and popular erotic prints in Japan (e.g. Hishikawa Moronobu) • “pillow books” (makura ehon) as love manuals (e.g. Katsukawa Shunchō) Shunga by Hishikawa Moronobu (1618–1694) Makura ehon by Katsukawa Shunchō (1785) HIGH ARTS VERSUS LEISURE ACTIVITIES • Shrines: Tokugawa Ieyasu’s shrine and mausoleum in Nikkō • Gardens: built in opulent imperial manner (shinden-zukuri) • Court ceremonies (gagaku/bugaku) played at Shinto rites • Art schools: reading, calligraphy, painting, ikebana • Handicraft: craftsman culture (around Nihonbashi area) • Martial arts (bugei): swordsmanship now as martial art • Leisure pursuits (yūgei) • Popularization of high art (ikebana, chadō, poetry writing) • Pilgrimages (to Mt. Kumano or the Ise shrine) – at times transgressive • Culinary tea rooms, shitamachi pubs (Yaozen), sushi becomes popular • Travelling boom and travelogues • Fireworks (hanabi) HANABI • Fireworks as “peaceful application of military means” (i.e. gunpowder) • Spherical chrysanthemum shells as the representative fireworks of Japan HANABI: social background • Decreased need for gunpowder • Decline of samurai class • Increased demand for entertainment • Rise of townsmen culture • 1733: first public display at River Sumida in Ryōgoku • further commodification of fireworks (object of ukiyoe) HANABI Symbolism • Associated with transience of life, nostalgia for lost times, peak of one’s vitality • Symbolic flower connotations (influenced by the classical art of the Heian period) • Fireworks as seasonal rites of passage (hanami – hanabi – momijigari – yukimi) • Hanabi popularized and incorporated into various festivals (matsuri) • Hanabi remains an indispensable ritual of summer in contemporary Japan • The Edo culture still significantly influences Japanese daily life and popular culture FOREIGN INFLUENCES • Despite the sakoku policy, Japanese popular culture did not develop in complete isolation • The impact of Korean embassies on Japanese visual performance culture (c.f., today’s Korean Wave in Japan (hallyu), or the success of K-pop (PSY) • Chinese culture was highly venerated; the “Selected Tang-Dynasty Poetry” (Tōshisen, 1724) was the number one bestseller of the entire Edo period • Dutch learning (rangaku) highly important during Edo, same as the Portuguese, Spanish, and English via their technological, medical and gastronomical knowledge • Simultaneously, the West was fascinated and affected by many things Japanese • Japanese performers go on a first international tour in the West (1866) • Introducing foreign capital modified the development of traditional arts • The issue of cultural origins undermines the nature of a “genuine” popular culture