Signalling nouns in discourse
John Flowerdew*
Department of English, City University of Hong Kong, 83, Tat Chee, Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Abstract
This paper presents a description of a major class of vocabulary, signalling nouns, which
have important discourse functions in establishing links across and within clauses. This class
of noun is particularly prevalent in academic discourse. The description is based on a reading
of the literature and, more importantly, the author’s own corpus data. The synthesis represents
the first attempt to bring this diverse work together under one umbrella. The description
provides a framework which is likely to be of value to materials writers and teachers and
learners in English for Academic and Specific Purposes.
# 2003 The American University. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
One of the first steps in the analysis of any discourse must be the identification
of the lexical signalling present in it. Lexical signals are the author’s/speaker’s
explicit signalling of the intended organisation and are therefore obviously of
primary importance; it is probable that they are one of the main means whereby
a reader/listener ‘decodes’ a discourse correctly. (Hoey, 1983, p. 63)
It is evident that we have only just begun the proper description of signalling in
discourse. (Hoey, 1993, p. 82)
1. Introduction
This paper seeks to develop a pedagogically appropriate description of an important
word class, referred to here as ‘‘signalling nouns’’, the study of which has been
going on for many years now, but for which there exists, to date, no comprehensive
account, either linguistic or pedagogic. A signalling noun is potentially any abstract
noun, the meaning of which can only be made specific by reference to its context.
Examples of signalling nouns are attitude, assistance, difficulty, endurance, process,
English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
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reason, result, etc. Various aspects of this type of vocabulary have been referred to
in the literature as general nouns (Halliday & Hasan, 1976), type 3 vocabulary
(Winter, 1977), anaphoric nouns (Francis, 1986), advance labels (Tadros, 1985), carrier
nouns (Ivanic, 1991), and metalanguage nouns (Winter, 1992). Each of these is a
sub-category of the larger class of abstract nouns, all of which potentially have this
signalling function. There has been no comprehensive treatment of this larger class,
however. The goal of the proposed research is therefore to occupy this research niche
and develop an integrated treatment of this larger class of abstract nouns (signalling
nouns).1
Each of the following citations (1) and (2) contains an example of the sort of lexis
which fulfils the signalling function with which this paper is concerned.2
In both
examples the word fact signals a relation with its adjoining clauses; in the first
example fact refers forward (cataphorically) to the series of clauses which follow
it; in the second it refers back (anaphorically) to the two clauses which precede
it:
1. This theory leaves a number of facts unexplained. For example, starch is absent
from the guard cells of certain plants; some guard cells lack chloroplasts but still
open and close; and the stomatal movements of some plants may not necessarily
be related to the time of day;. . .
2. Electricity is used to drive the motor of an electric train, but inevitably some
of the energy is lost as heat. This unavoidable fact is of great importance in
biology.
In addition to relating across clauses, signalling nouns can also be realised within
the clause (see later) and exophorically.
Signalling nouns are likely to be problematic for non-native, as well as native,
speakers, for a number of reasons; these reasons relate to questions of cognitive
complexity, on the one hand, and pedagogic practicality, on the other:
Reasons for cognitive complexity:
a. Signalling nouns refer to abstract entities and are thus removed from the
concrete world of reality.
b. The realisation of signalling nouns must be sought out both within and outside
the clause in which they occur, as well as through mutual background
knowledge.
c. Signalling nouns introduce additional propositional density to a text.
1
Since acceptance of this article for publication a book has been published which does attempt a
comprehensive treatment: Schmid (2000).
2
These examples are from the corpora described under ‘‘Method’’.
330 J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
Reasons for pedagogic practicality:
a. Signalling nouns are pervasive in academic language (Cullip, 2000; Nation,
1990; Thurstun & Candlin, 1998). As an initial indication of how frequently
signalling nouns occur in academic writing, for example, out of 281 lexical
items with the initial letter ‘‘a’’ in the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000),
70 are used as signalling nouns in the Brown Corpus.3
The data presented in
the empirical part of this paper will also highlight the pervasiveness of signalling
nouns.
b. There is no comprehensive pedagogically useful description of the form and
function of signalling nouns in English on which to base teaching and learning.
c. As a result, little attempt is made to deal with lexical signalling nouns in
pedagogy.4
As an indication of some of the problems with signalling nouns for non-native
speakers, in a small-scale empirical study, Francis (1988), found that Singaporean
students tended to use signalling nouns (referred by her as advance and retrospective
labels, respectively) less frequently than native speakers, to use a smaller range of
items, and to use less modification. In addition, she found examples of inappropriate
use. For example ‘‘this human factor’’ was used to encapsulate a foregoing complaint
about overcrowded canteen conditions. Furthermore, she found evidence of
inappropriate collocation between lexical signal and modifier, for example, ‘‘this
intolerable phenomenon’’.
2. Method
The research is based upon two corpora. The first of these consists of transcribed
recordings of an undergraduate lecture course in biology (92,939 words) given at
Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) by native speaker lecturers to non-native (Arab)
audiences. The second corpus was made up of the relevant sections of the prescribed
textbook for the lecture course (Roberts, 1986) upon which the lectures were based
(90,482 words). Both corpora, therefore, covered the same subject matter. The range
of lecturers (12) contributing to the lecture corpus ensured that there was no problem
with the features analysed being peculiarities of individual speakers’ idiolect. To
guard against this possibility with the book, a subsidiary corpus made up of five
1000-word samples was used to cross-check features identified in the main book
corpus. The subsidiary book corpus was taken from Green, Stout and Taylor
3
Information from the Academic Word List (AWL) (available on line from www.vlc.polyu.edu.hk).
The Academic Word List consists of 570 words that are reasonably frequent in a wide range of academic
texts, but not so common in other texts (Coxhead, 2000). The Brown Corpus consists of 75% ‘‘factual
writing’’ and 25% fiction.
4
The limited ESL texts to specifically focus upon signalling nouns—which are presented as ‘‘general
nouns’’ and ‘‘abstract nouns’’—to the knowledge of this author are McCarthy, MacLean, and O’Malley
(1985); McCarthy, O’Dell, and Shaw (1997). However, even here there is no focus on their cohesive
function.
J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346 331
(1984), which, like Roberts, covers the British A-level syllabus. Text samples covering
the same topics as the main book and lectures corpus were selected.
Halliday (1988, 1993) and others (Martin, 1991, 1992; Wignell, Martin, & Eggins,
1987) claim that much abstract written English, especially science, is characterised
by high levels of nominalisation. It was hypothesised, therefore, that the written
corpus chosen for the present study would be likely to yield a heavy usage of signalling
nouns. While the emphasis of Halliday and others has been on the high frequency
of nominalisation in written text, it was felt that the investigation of a
spoken corpus, dealing with the same subject matter as the written text, would be
interesting from the point of view of to what extent this phenomenon applies also to
the spoken mode.
Winter (1977) and Tadros (1985) make it clear that nouns are not the only word
class to fulfill a signalling role in discourse; verbs, adjectives and adverbs may also
have such a function. Only nouns are dealt with in this study, however, because,
following Halliday and others, nouns are likely to be particularly prevalent in the
chosen corpora and for the practical reason of limiting the scope of the study to
reasonable bounds. Any pedagogic treatment of lexical cohesion, of which signalling
nouns are a part, should nevertheless ideally take into account the cohesive functions
of all word classes, not just nouns.
Signalling items for the corpora were identified in a number of stages. First, lists
of all the different words occurring in each corpus were created by means of a
computerised word frequency programme. Then, all lexical items were concordanced
by means of the Oxford-WordSmith Tools programme (Scott, 1999), and
the concordance outputs were examined to establish if a given item functioned as a
lexical signal. The WordSmith Tools, as with other concordancers, initially presents
each concordanced item within a single line of context; but it has the advantage of
an additional on-screen function which then allows the analyst to view any selected
item within the wider context of the whole text—important for evaluating the
potential cross-clause relational function of signalling lexis.
Due to the fact that potential lexical signalling items can have more than one
function, the next stage was to sort the concordances by hand, eliminating non-signalling
items, i.e. homographs, and to divide the remaining items into those which
were realised across clauses, those that were realised within the clause, and those
which were exophoric. The WordSmith Concord allows this editing to be carried out
on screen and the results then saved as text files.
The following examples from the corpora show the four categories for the item way:5
Homograph
3. While the amniotic cavity is being formed, a further cavity develops. This
arises as an outgrowth from the hindgut which pushes its way into the
extraembryonic coelon.
5
Throughout the paper examples from the book have traditional punctuation, whereas those from the
lectures are ‘‘punctuated’’ with forward slashes (/) to indicate tone groups. In this way, any example can
immediately be recognised as coming from either the book or lecture corpus.
332 J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
meaning realised within the clause
4. The quickest way of doing this in the case described above is to set up a
group of enucleated Amoebae, perhaps fifty in the entire experimental
group. . .
meaning realised across clauses, anaphoric
5. In the case illustrated in Fig. 3.1. the secretion is released from the free surface
of the cells. Mucus is secreted this way, as is sweat from the sweat glands
in the skin.
exophoric: there is nothing earlier or later in the text to realise a specific meaning of ‘‘way’’
6. / now this is paramecium stained in a different way / not to show what’s
inside in cytomplasm/ but to show the cilia on the pellicle /
3. Results
3.1. Discourse functions
In terms of cognitive processing, signalling nouns stimulate a cognitive process
whereby the meaning of a given signal must be sought either earlier in the text (in a
previous clause or clauses or as premodification within the signal’s noun group), or
later in the text (in a following clause or clauses or as post-modification within the
noun group), or outside the text, as assumed background knowledge (exophoric
reference).
3.1.1. Across clauses
Most researchers, have focussed on the cross-clause pattern, emphasising either
cataphoric or anaphoric signalling. [Winter’s, 1977 paper, for example, was subtitled
‘‘A study of some predictive lexical items in written discourse’’; Tadros’s
monograph was entitled ‘‘Prediction in Economics Text’’, while Francis’s monograph
was titled Anaphoric Nouns’’ (emphasis added)]. On the basis of the evidence
from the biology corpora, both cataphoric and anaphoric signalling are important
[although the anaphoric function is more frequent (see later)] and seem to be closely
inter-related. The cataphoric function is exemplified in the following example from
the lecture corpus:
7. /. . ./ there is a very big change in concentration / the angle is steep like a steep
hill here / it is shallow and from the same distance from here / . . .
The lexical item change here indicates to listeners that they should prepare themselves
to receive information which will indicate the nature of this change, an indication
which is indeed fulfilled in the pair of clauses which follows. In placing the
noun phrase containing the signal change at the end of the first clause (as rheme; see
Halliday, 1985), the speaker emphasises its importance as a carrier of new information
J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346 333
[principle of end focus, (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, 1985)]; once the
signal change is established as given, the subsequent clauses can emphasise the nature
of the change, by placing its attributes —‘‘steep like a steep hill here’’; ‘‘shallow
and from the same distance from here’’—as rheme in the two subsequent clauses
(again principle of end focus). This information structure is common with signals in
the cataphoric function:
8. Internal fertilization has two great advantages: (1) it is a surer method with
better chances of sperm meeting eggs; (2) it means that the fertilised egg can
be enclosed within a protective covering before it leaves the female’s body . . .
In this example, the signal advantages receives end focus as new information in the
rheme of the first clause; advantages having been accepted as given, the nature of the
advantages —‘‘a surer method with better chances of sperm meeting eggs’’ and ‘‘the
fertilised egg can be enclosed within a protective covering before it leaves the
female’s body’’—can then be emphasised by receiving end focus as rhemes of the
following two clauses.
The next example illustrates the anaphoric function:
9. Clinging to outmoded hypotheses is an occupational hazard in those branches
of biology where it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to test predictions
experimentally and thus settle the matter once and for all. Such is the case
with paleontology and certain branches of animal behaviour.
Here the item case encapsulates the meaning of the preceding stretch of discourse
and labels it as a case, establishing it, in terms described by both Francis (1986) and
Ivanic (1991), as given information which can be developed in the subsequent stretch
of discourse.
The following example shows clearly this function of anaphoric signals of establishing
the meaning of a stretch of discourse as given and at the same time providing
the starting point for new information:
10. (following a discussion of the very rapid rate of increase in scientific knowledge)
. . .In fact the explosion in scientific knowledge prompted a former President
of the Royal Society to remark that nowadays the only item on the
agenda which all Fellows of the Society can be guaranteed to understand is
the statement that tea will be served in the lounge at 4 p.m.
The next example has both an anaphoric signal, view, which establishes the
meaning of a preceding stretch of discourse as given, and a cataphoric signal, idea,
which labels the new stretch of discourse which follows:
11. Like many generalisations, the cell theory has been greatly overworked to the
point that it is taken by some biologists to mean that the cell is the most
334 J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
important unit, the whole organism being little more than a collection of
independent though co-operating cells. As a reaction to this extreme view a
rival idea has grown up, the organismal theory, which proposes that the
whole organism is the basic entity and the cells merely incidental sub-units.
The examples given to illustrate the cataphoric and anaphoric functions of signalling
nouns have been chosen for their relative simplicity in terms of matching the
lexical signal to the stretch of discourse which it labels. Many examples in the corpus,
however, are more complex in this respect. In the next example, the speaker
refers his listeners back to the previous semester’s lectures, when differences between
animals and plants had been discussed, and at the same time signals that these differences
will be reiterated in the following stretch of discourse, by his audience and/
or himself:
12. (referring back to the previous semester’s lectures) / now we did discuss the
differences between animals and plants / and I think we had quite a long list /
but can any of you remember some of the important differences between
animals and plants // STUDENT UTTERANCE // oh / listen to that / perfect
answer / plants are autotrophic / . . . /
Another more difficult use of signalling nouns from the point of view of identifying
their referents is when they point forward or backwards to some stretch of discourse
which is remote from the signals and is not specified:
13. Thus the two long chromosomes are attached to different fibres of the spindle,
as are the two short chromosomes. The significance of this will become
clear later.
14. This kind of division generally takes place in the formation of gametes,
though in some organisms it may occur in the formation of spores. Its full
implications will be discussed later.
Sometimes across-clause signals may be accompanied by modification, as in the
following example:
15. Sixty years ago biologists were preoccupied with describing the structure and
general form of animals and plants—anatomy and morphology. But in more
recent times there has been a shift of interest towards the way organisms
function, resulting in the development of animal and plant physiology. During
the last forty years or so such functional studies have become more and
more chemical . . .
Modification of signals will be discussed in greater detail later in their in-clause
realisation pattern. However, it is to be noted here that sometimes the modification
J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346 335
may be of more semantic importance than the signal which it modifies. In the
example presented here, the writer labels what he has been referring to as studies, but
it seems that the modifier, functional, is what the writer wants to prioritise in terms
of his message. It is the fact that these studies are functional (in contrast to the
structural studies which were referred to earlier) that is important, not the fact that
they are studies. The main role of the signal studies here is in creating an information
structure in which the item functional can be introduced into the discourse and made
salient; its main function is not to attach a propositional label to the preceding
stretch of discourse.
3.1.2. Within the clause
In terms of structure, when signals are realised within the clause, the clause is a
relational one, with the lexical signal as subject and the realisation as complement in
the form of a nominal clause introduced by a preposition such as that or to, or a
deverbal noun.
that
16. The reason why they’re green is that they have chlorophyll.
to
17. / the flower is the reproductive part of the plant / it contains the male and
usually male and female parts of the plant / and the function is to produce
seeds which will then grow into new plants /
deverbal noun
18. Another important structural characteristic of monosaccharides is the occurrence
of isomerism.
In this form, note also how the signalling noun is usually pre- or post-modified in
such a way as to make its reference more specific: the reason why they’re green, The
function of androgens, Another important structural characteristic
The in-clause realisation may also occur in apposition:
19. Lack of vitamin D in children causes rickets, a condition in which the bones
fail to harden and become deformed
In a different structure, in a considerable number of instances, the signalling noun
functions as complement, with its realisation split between the subject and its own
post-modification:
20. Diffusion is a process where the molecules go from an area of high concentration
to the area of low concentration until you get equilibrium
21. One might sum all this up by saying that a living organism is a self-reproducing
system capable of growing and of maintaining its integrity by the
expenditure of energy.
336 J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
This is a form, not mentioned in the literature, the occurrence of which may be
related to the scientific nature of the corpus. The structure corresponds to the classic
form of the formal definition, ‘‘term’’+‘‘class’’+‘‘characteristic’’, where term is in
subject position, and class and characteristic act as complement (Flowerdew, 1992).
Signals which occur in this form include condition, phenomenon, process, property,
structure, and system, etc. The ordering of the elements in definitions like these can
vary. Thus, in the following example we have the ordering of ‘‘characteristic’’+‘‘class’’+‘‘term’’,
in a form sometimes referred to as ‘‘nominal’’ definition:
22. After several days the blastocyst becomes embedded in the lining of the
uterus, a process called implantation.
As discussed in Flowerdew (1992), the ordering of the elements in definitions
relates to their position within the surrounding discourse and which elements may be
given or new.
Realisation of a signal within the clause can also be at the level of the noun group.
This most often takes the form of post-modification:
a process of internal propagation
its function of providing mechanical strength
a shift of interest towards the way organisms function
the advantage of being simple and portable
a theory that is generally accepted that mitochondria found in animal and plant cells
were originally bacteria that were living in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells.
In some (many fewer) cases, realisation within the clause is performed by a pre-
modifier:
a crazy-paving appearance
a pumping action
a highly dessicated state
the division process
the homeostatic function
In many of these cases, however, the pre-modifier may provide only part of the
realisation, the rest lying elsewhere in the discourse. In the following example,
J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346 337
although the pre-modifier, division, specifies the signal, process—in part—much
more information on the nature of the process is contained in the clauses which
follow:
23. How does meiosis achieve this halving of the chromosome number? The
answer lies in the behavior of the chromosomes during the division process.
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions: the parent cell splits into two
(first meiotic division) and the products then divide again (second meiotic
division), giving a total of four daughter cells. . . .
3.1.3. Exophoric function
Sometimes, as Ivanic (1991) has noted, a signal cannot be recovered in the discourse,
but appeals to background knowledge (exophoric reference).
24. An organ system . . . is very effective and can carry out many important tasks
. . .
Here, the item tasks is not realised in the text. It is left to readers to work out what
sort of tasks the writer is referring to, by using their existing knowledge of the sort of
tasks an organ system might carry out. Similarly, in the next example, it is up to
readers to infer what extensiveness and ramifications the author has in mind; they are
not specified in the text:
25. It is only necessary to glance through the current issues of the British scientific
journal, Nature, or its American equivalent to appreciate the extensiveness
and ramifications of biology, both pure and applied.
As Ivanic (1991) points out, again, the application of background knowledge in
cases such as these is not optional, but an essential part of the comprehension process.
As Alderson and Urqhart (1985) have demonstrated empirically, the higher the
level of background knowledge readers (or listeners) bring to a text, the better they
comprehend it. In this way, signalling nouns function like pronouns, indicating to
listeners/readers that they must look for what the signal refers to, whether this be in
the clause, elsewhere in the text, or outside the text.
In the next example, in an unwitting acknowledgment of the role of background
knowledge in the processing of signalling nouns, the speaker overtly encourages listeners
to bring their background knowledge to bear in interpreting the signals purposes
and functions:
26. / so think about that as we discuss the structure of plants / try and think
about the purposes and the functions of many of these structures we’ll be
talking about /
Here the speaker makes it clear that he is not going to provide the realisations for
purposes and functions. In the two preceding examples, however, it is not clear whether
338 J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
realisations for the items extensiveness and ramifications, on the one hand, and tasks,
on the other, will be provided by the author. In terms of cognitive processing,
therefore, the anticipation is set up and it is up to the readers to decide that it is not
going to be realised and that they therefore have to bring background knowledge to
bear in the interpretation of these items.
The previous comments about the need to invoke background knowledge notwithstanding,
it does seem that different contexts vary in the extent to which this is
necessary. In the following example, for instance, it seems that understanding will
not be impaired if readers do not use their background knowledge to realise the full
meaning of the signal advantages:
27. Some biologists feel that the name protist- traditionally associated with unicellular
organisms- should not be used for this expanded group and so it has
been suggested that this kingdom should be called the protista. This modification
of Whitakker’s original five kingdom system has certain advantages
but it will not be used here.
(note also that modification is a signalling noun in this citation)
In a few cases, a signal may be used in a negative clause. In such cases readers/
listeners still need to look for a realisation of the signal, but the negative particle
indicates that the realisation will have a contrary meaning to that of the signal.
Thus in the following examples, the signal no real difficulty is realised by clauses
describing an easy process; the signal no problem is realised by clauses pointing to an
advantage:
28. /. . . / the soluble waste in solution can diffuse from the inside to the outside
very easily / so there is no real difficulty with the elimination of soluble waste /
. . .
29. / small organisms get all their oxygen just by diffusion in from the outside /
for example paramecium is a small single cell organism / no problem at all /
and the carbon dioxide diffuses out into the water again / . . .
3.1.4. Frequency and range
Having described and exemplified the various functions of signalling nouns, data
relating to the frequency and range of these items of the two corpora used in this
study will be presented. Given the relatively small size of the corpora and their register
specificity, care must be taken in assigning any generalisations to the frequency
and range of signals here.
3.1.4.1. Frequency. Table 1 shows average frequency of lexical signalling items per
thousand words for the two main corpora and the subsidiary book corpus. The figures
were arrived at by calculating the average frequency of items for five 1000-word
samples occurring at regular intervals in each of the two main corpora and for the
five text samples making up the subsidiary book corpus. The table shows that there
J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346 339
are on average 20 signals per thousand words in the main book, 17 in the subsidiary
book corpus, and nine in the lectures.
Table 2 shows the frequency of some of those items most often used in a signalling
function, with a break-down according to across-clause, within-clause, and exophoric
function. Table 2 shows that certain lexical-signalling items can occur with
great frequency. Function, for example, occurs in the book 134 times altogether: 91
times with an across-clause function, 40 times with an in-clause function, and three
times in an exophoric function. Function occurs with only slightly less overall frequency
in the lectures: 130 times total, including 89 times with across-clause function,
36 times with in-clause function, and 5 times with an exophoric function.
While function occurs with only slightly less frequency in the lectures than in the
book, Table 2 also shows that there can be considerable variation in relative frequency
for a given item across the two corpora. Result, for example, is quite frequent
in the book, but does not occur at all in a signalling function in the lectures.
Effect, similarly, occurs only three times as a lexical signal in the lectures, but is used
considerably in the book.6
While, as seen in Table 1, the book has a higher total average number of occurrences
of signalling nouns per 1000 words of text, Table 2 shows that while in most
cases, and consistent with Table 1, there are more instances of any given item in the
book than the lectures (function, way, result, case, effect), in some cases a given item
Table 1
Average signaling items per 1000 words
Book
(Roberts)
Book
(Green et al., 1984)
Lectures
Average signalling items per 1000 words 20 17 9
Table 2
Frequency of the six most common signaling items in the corpora
Book Lecture
Total across In exo. Total across in exo.
Function 134 91 40 3 130 89 36 5
Way 125 89 24 12 148 76 35 37
Result 66 19 37 10 0 0 0 0
Case 91 55 10 26 35 25 8 2
Effect 48 19 18 11 3 1 1 1
Kind 60 31 6 23 163 110 20 33
6
A possible reason for this phenomenon is that the lectures use a less formal style. Instead of saying
something like ‘‘The result of X is Y’’ (signalling noun), a lecturer might prefer something like ‘‘If we do X
then we end up with Y’’ (no signalling noun).
340 J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
can occur more frequently in the lectures than in the book. Kind, for example, is very
frequent in the lectures (163 total: 110 across-clause, 20 in-clause) but is much less
frequent in the book (60 total: 31 across clause, six in-clause).
Another feature of Table 2 worthy of note is that there is considerable variation in
the proportion of the two functions (across-clause and in-clause) that a given item
can play. Most instances of function, for example, are in the across-clause usage (91
for the book; 89 for the lectures)—more than double the number for the in-clause
function (40 for the book; 36 for the lectures). Result, on the other hand, is more
frequent in the book in the in-clause usage (19 across clause; 37 in-clause), while not
occurring at all as a lexical signalling item in the lectures.
3.1.4.2. Range. Although Table 2 shows that certain lexical signalling items occur
with considerable frequency, it must be emphasised that many of them have a relatively
low frequency, some of them occurring only once or twice in the two corpora.
In relation to pedagogy, of course, the differing frequencies of the various items
suggests a criterion for selection and grading for teaching.
Table 3 (Book) and Table 4 (Lectures) show all of those items identified in the
book and lecture corpora, respectively, as fulfilling a lexical signalling function.
One-hundred and sixty-six different items were identified as fulfilling the signalling
function for the book and 112 for the lectures. Although, as Tables 3 and 4 show, a
considerable range of items function as signalling nouns, given the low frequency of
many of them, as noted earlier, it is probable that larger corpora would be likely to
yield an even wider range of items, a possibility made more likely by the considerable
number of items which occur in only one of the two corpora. Table 5 includes
those items which occur in only one of the two corpora.
Table 3
Signalling items in the Book corpus
Book
accident, account, action, activation, activity, adaptation, adaption, advance, advantage, analogy,
analysis, appearance, approach, argument, arrangement, aspect, association, assumption, attraction,
basis, case, category, cause, change, characteristic, choice, circumstance, classification, coincidence,
combination, comparison, complexity, composition, concept, condition, configuration, connection,
consequence, consideration, constituent, context, content, contrast, controversy, converse, conversion,
correlation, criterion, cycle, danger, description, detail, deviation, difference, difficulty, dilemma,
discovery, discussion, distinction, divergence, diversity, division, effect, emphasis, endeavour, evidence,
example, exception, exchange, explanation, explosion, fact, factor, feature, field, form, function,
generalisation, idea, implication, indication, influence, instance, interpretation, item, kind, knowledge,
manner, means, mention, method, modification, movement, objection, observation, occasion, operation,
part, pattern, phenomenon, point, piece, position, prediction, principle, problem, procedure, process,
progress, property, purpose, question, ramification, range, reaction, reason, regard, relationship, respect,
result, role, scheme, section, selection, sequence, series, shape, shift, significance, similarity, situation, size,
split, solution, sort, stage, state, statement, step, structure, studies, subject, success, suggestion, support,
survey, system, task, technique, tenet, theory, thesis, thing, topic, treatment, trend, truth, type, uniformity,
use, variety, view, viewpoint, way, work, zone
(Total: 166 words)
J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346 341
As a further indication of the overall wide range of signalling nouns in elementary
biology text, the following were all found in the 5000 word sample for the subsidiary
book corpus, but did not occur in either of the two main corpora: ability, convention,
expansion, importance, theme.
4. Pedagogic implications
Halliday (1993) has suggested how the development of science in the eighteenth
century was accompanied by the development of a scientific discourse characterised
Table 4
Signalling items in the Lecture corpus
Lectures
action, activity, appearance, argument, arrangement, aspect, attack, bit, branch, calculation, case,
category, cause, chance, change, characteristic, class, classification, comparison, completion,
complication, components, concentration, condition, confusion, constituent, control, cycle, description,
difference, difficulty, dimension, distribution, division, example, extension, fact, feature, force, form,
formation, function, grouping, growth, heading, illustration, information, kind, lengthening, limit,
manner, meaning, means, method, mistake, movement, name, need, object, part, pattern, plan, point,
position, possibility, preparation, problem, process, product, property, purpose, question, range, rate,
reaction, reason, recapitulation, relationship, requirement, respect, response, reverse, rise, role, rule,
selection, sequence, shape, similarity, situation, size, sort, stage, state, step, structure, suggestion, system,
task, technique, technology, test, theory, thing, time, type, usage, use, variety, warning, way, work,
(Total: 112 words)
Table 5
Items occurring in only one of the two corpora
Book only
accident, account, activation, adaptation, adaption, advance, advantage, analogy, analysis, approach,
association, assumption, attraction, basis, choice, circumstance, coincidence, combination, complexity,
composition, concept, configuration, connection, consequence, consideration, context, content, contrast,
controversy, converse, conversion, correlation, criterion, danger, detail, deviation, dilemma, discovery,
discussion, distinction, divergence, diversity, effect, emphasis, endeavour, evidence, exception, exchange,
explanation, explosion, factor, field, generalisation, idea, implication, indication, influence, instance,
interpretation, item, knowledge, mention, modification, objection, observation, occasion, operation,
piece, phenomenon, prediction, principle, procedure, progress, ramification, regard, result, scheme,
section, series, shift, significance, split, solution, statement, studies, subject, success, support, survey, tenet,
thesis, topic, treatment, trend, truth, uniformity, view, viewpoint, zone
(Total: 99 words)
Lectures only
attack, bit, branch, calculation, chance, class, completion, complication, components, concentration,
confusion, control, dimension, distribution, extension, force, formation, grouping, growth, heading,
illustration, information, lengthening, limit, meaning, mistake, name, need, object, plan, possibility,
preparation, product, rate, recapitulation, requirement, response, reverse, rise, rule, technology, test, time,
usage, warning,
(Total: 45 words)
342 J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
by, among other things, an increasing use of abstract nouns in the expression of
processes and properties. This language of ‘‘events into things’’ (1993, p. 76) has
been developed up to the present day and is the predominant register of the educational
system, Halliday claims. This register, because it is removed from the concrete
world of experience, poses problems for children and, by extension, we can add,
foreign learners. Halliday (1985, p. 95) cites an example from his child, Nigel, who
had told his mother a long story about a double-decker bus. Nigel’s mother says,
‘‘Those are very interesting observations’’, to which Nigel retorts: ‘‘What did she
mean by observations?—there are no double decker observation coaches’’. Martin,
Wignell, Eggins, and Rothery (1988) go so far as to refer to this highly nominalised
register as ‘‘secret English’’ because of its inaccessibility to many children when they
are confronted with it in the educational system.
What then are the pedagogical implications of the research reported in this
paper concerning signalling nouns in academic spoken and written texts? The wide
range and frequency of these items and their important role in signalling the
unfolding of a discourse establishes signalling nouns as important for learners to
be aware of and to master. Communication is likely to break down if learners fail
to recognise a relation in listening or reading or fail to realise an anticipation
which they set up in speaking or writing. A set of grammatical statements derived
from the results section of this paper provides a solid framework for developing
materials to teach the language of lexical signalling in discourse, whether receptively
or productively.
Given the important discourse role that lexical signalling items fulfill, an appropriate
pedagogy should involve the study of signals in context. Rules and examples
might provide a useful initial heuristic. But this would need to be supplemented
with the study and production of signals in context. Alternatively, an inductive
strategy might be preferred, with learners identifying signals and how they function
in context and then being presented with the rules for reinforcement and
systematisation.
Francis (1988) has reported the use of the following approach to the teaching of
retrospective signals. Four types of activity were tried:
(1)
 The students were given short texts in which signals were used effectively.
 The students were asked to identify the referents for the signals.
 Students discussed the function of evaluative modifiers to the signals.
 Students were asked what the effect would be if signals were replaced by
‘‘this’’ (the reference would be ambiguous or less precise).
(2)
 Signals were deleted and students asked to select an appropriate one from a
given list.
(3)
 The signal was again omitted but this time without alternatives provided.
J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346 343
(4)
 Students were given the first part of a text in which the writer had used a
signal and the students were required to provide a follow-up sentence or
sentences.
All of these activities might be modified to take account of the in-clause and exophoric
realizations of signalling nouns, not dealt with by Francis.
An alternative approach might be for learners to mirror the process underlying the
corpus-based empirical dimension of the research presented in this paper. That is to
say, learners would use a concordancer to work out the forms and functions of signalling
nouns. Authentic examples derived from the concordancer have the potential
to show learners the catophoric, anaphoric and exophoric functions of signalling
nouns. Unsorted authentic concordances (i.e. sets of concordances which have not
had non-signalling homographs removed) can be used to illustrate how there is not a
one to one relation between a lexical item and its signalling function, i.e. items which
look like signalling items may in fact have another function (like the word fact in
this sentence, in fact!). Information concerning the typical patterns in which given
signalling items occur can be used to show learners how to recognise if a given item
is fulfilling a signalling function or not.
Students can access the sort of linguistic information referred to in the previous
paragraph either directly from the computer—i.e. they can be trained to look for
signalling items and run the concordancer themselves—or via hard copy print-outs;
most concordancing software allows data to be exported to word-processors; it can
thus be edited and incorporated into printed materials (see Thurstun & Candlin,
1998 for material along these lines which includes signalling nouns, although does
not focus on them specifically).
To conclude with a word of warning; there is a danger in any applied linguistic
research of attaching incommensurate pedagogical importance to a new insight or
finding. While this paper has focussed on signalling nouns, it should be stressed that
this is but one type of textual cohesion. The sort of pedagogic materials envisioned
here would thus perhaps be seen as part of a battery of exercise types on cohesion
(e.g. Nuttall, 1983 for exercises to develop other aspects of cohesion). Furthermore,
it should be noted that the types of relations which signalling nouns are used to
express are not always marked lexically (Winter, 1977), as illustrated in the following
examples (30) and (31). Learners need to be made aware of this fact also.
30. Muscle fibres are not the only cells capable of movement. Certain white
blood cells can undergo amoeboid movement by streaming of the
cytoplasm. . . (exemplification)
31. When a eukaryotic cell divides the chromosomes replicate and are distributed
evenly between the new cells by means of an elaborate spindle apparatus
made of microtubules. When a prokaryotic cell divides the DNA replicates
and the two strands move into the new cells without the aid of a spindle
apparatus. (contrast)
344 J. Flowerdew / English for Specific Purposes 22 (2003) 329–346
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John Flowerdew is a professor in the English Department at the City University of Hong Kong. His
research and publications in ESP and EAP have covered a wide range of areas, with the writing processes
and attitudes toward publishing in English among Cantonese L1 speaking academics in Hong Kong a
particular focus in recent years.
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