EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA
Author(s): BRET WALLACH
Source: Geographical Review , January 2013, Vol. 103, No. 1 (January 2013), pp. 1-19
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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The Geographical Review
volume 103 January 2013 number 1
EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIAf
BRET WALLACH
abstract. In this article I draw attention to the galaxy of European buildings built over the
last five centuries in Asia. I show how quickly and accurately European styles of the day were
adopted in Asia, whether that style was Renaissance, Neoclassical, Gothic, Idiosyncratic
Revivalist, or Modern. I argue that recent attention in Asia to architectural and urban
preservation is itself of European origin. Although I suggest in conclusion that this architectural
galaxy is part of an overwhelmingly one-sided process of globalization, my primary
focus remains on the buildings themselves as the residue of one culture diffusing across
distant domains. Keywords: Asia. t colonial architecture , cultural diffusion European architectural
styles, globalization.
^Zn the spring of 1980, shortly after arriving in India for the first time, I went to a
lecture in Hyderabad by Mildred Archer, at that time a fine-arts curator at the
India Office Library. She mentioned in passing that Hyderabad's former British
Residency was one of the most noteworthy examples of Georgian architecture in
India. I had never heard of the building, which then, as now, was hidden within the
secure perimeter of a women's college, but I arranged to take a look at it. Figure 1
shows the building as I first saw it. I was impressed, as the builders presumably
would have wanted. We know that at least one early Resident wanted the building
to impress visitors because in 1811 the high and mighty twenty-seven-year-old Henry
Russell, newly appointed as Resident, wrote that Indians could "judge of power
and authority by no other standard than the external marks of it" (quoted in
Davies 1985, 96). What struck me most, however, was the building's sense of insecurity
and sentimental mortality. The insecurity came from a corner of the building
where a veranda was protected by massive iron bars, installed perhaps after the
building came under attack in 1857. Mortality came from behind the building,
where a small cemetery was filled with disintegrating British tombstones. India
has so many. Sentimentality came from a tiny memorial set into the front of the
building. It bore the name of the daughter of the last Resident, the date 1947, and
the words: "My beloved Fifi, whose tail still wags in my heart."
t Additional information on all of the buildings discussed in this article is available at my Web site, [www
.greatmirror.com] .
Dr. Wallach is a professor of geography at the University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
73019; [bwallach@ou.edu].
The Geographical Review 103 (1): 1-19, January 2013
Copyright © 2013 by the American Geographical Society of New York
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2 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
Fig. i- The Residency, Hyderabad, I
What I did not appreciate at
galaxy of colonial structures. It
of it. Gradually, and without
more. A few months after visi
side-Calcutta's Government Ho
Residency though built on a
Wellington's older brother, Ca
the home-away-from-home fo
after 1857, India's viceroys. By
governor of West Bengal.
Raj Bhavan, as it was now call
So did the Residency. Both bu
columns both had pediments
Unlike the Residency, Governm
central block. Those arms, like
Kedleston, a Derbyshire mansio
Arriving as viceroy in 1899, in
around the building even in th
would have been unfamiliar and there were some other modifications.
Meanwhile, a Hyderabad nobleman had built a hilltop palace a few miles from
the Residency. Falaknuma, "the mirror of the sky," adopted the Kedleston plan of
block and arms, although its pediment was- and is- crowned by a star and eresThis
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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA 3
cent. The palace soon became the property of t
by 1980 that state no longer existed, and the high
a wall and had a good look at the building,
scared me away from the open doors. Curzo
visited Falaknuma. I wonder now, when Falak
his arrival in 1902 he was again reminded of K
Neoclassical Asia
One of the fundamental characteristics of this galaxy is that it mirro
tural tastes of Europe both promptly and with great fidelity. The Bom
of 1833 (Figure 2), which was built to house as well the Asiatic So
museum, has been judged by one authority as wthe finest neo-cla
India" (Davies 1989, 445). Another admires its "exceptional Neo-C
and considers it "hardly inferior to many of the works of the master
Classicism" (Tadgell 1990, 283; italics in the original). Surely this i
building is tiny compared with Claude Perrault's facade on the Lo
contender might be Bangalore's huge Karnataka High Court, ori
Offices Building.) Granted, the fluted columns of the Bombay To
from Britain as ballast, were considered so overwhelming that th
the otherwise unknown Thomas Cowper of the Bombay Enginee
Instead of pairing the columns, as they are paired on the Louvre,
in a simple line. The leftovers were used on the nearby Christ Chu
Fig. 2- Town Hall, Mumbai, India, 1833. (Photograph by the author)
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4 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
Greek-temple look-alikes were soon s
employed the form strictly, even grimly,
French adopted it for the Hue National S
and General Vo Nguyen Giap. So did the
Philippines. Fresh from three years at th
office of John Galen Howard, William E.
been hired at the suggestion of Daniel Bu
of public buildings closely modeled on t
misses them as "grandiose," although he
smaller projects (Hines 1973). And let u
classical buildings facing the Shanghai B
dan Street, is not far behind.
Gothic Asia
Devoted as they were to classical forms, the patrons of nineteenth-cent
pean architecture were equally wed to Gothic architecture, and here ag
served as a mirror. Mumbai in particular remains not only India's but t
Gothic museum. William Wurster and Catherine Bauer sensed this in t
when they called the city "the most thoroughly Victorian metropolis ext
38). A later author calls Mumbai's collection of Gothic buildings "unriva
world" (London 2002, 37). Still another, comparing Bombay with postw
don, calls Bombay "India's present and Britain's past" (Tindall 1982, 210
Fresh from designing the jewel box of the Albert Memorial and the i
of the Midland Grand Hotel at St. Paneras Station, George Gilbert Scot
Bombay University's library and iconic clock tower (Figure 4). Philip D
sidered it "one of Scott's finest and least-known works" (1985, 164), but S
no mention of it in his autobiography, Personal and Professional Recollection
1977)- Possibly he completed the manuscript before completing the tow
but it could also be that he did not consider a project in India worth r
Certainly Scott never visited India, which was far less important to the
England than it was to the English on the spot.
Again the style spread. Figure 5 shows the High Court in Cuttack, a
ignored in the literature but significant, I think, because it is such a dir
Calcutta's much-better-known High Court. That building itself is a ne
the Cloth Hall of Ypres, although both in Cuttack and Kolkata the cen
was reduced for fear that the ground was too soft to support the wei
massive original.
All of the buildings I have mentioned to this point were secular, but t
style was almost inevitably chosen for the cathedrals that in the 1870s
alone were built in Lahore, Singapore, Saigon, and Canton. Far less
churches were built in many smaller places, and many of those churches
very substantial. Figure 6, for example, shows the Coles Centennial Telu
Church, which has a tower fit for Rapunzel yet stands in a town, Kurnoo
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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA 5
Fig. 3 {above)- Hall of Justice, Batavia
(Jakarta), Indonesia, 1870. (Photograph
by the author)
Fig. 4 (right)- Raj abai Tower, University
of Bombay Library, Mumbai,
India, 1878. (Photograph by the author)
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6 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
Fig. 5 (above)- High Co
ca. 1916. (Photograph by
Fig. 6 (left)- Coles C
Baptist Church, Kurnoo
graph by the author)
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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA 7
Fig. 7 (above)- Our Lady of Divine
Providence Church, Goa, India,
1661. (Photograph by the author)
Fig. 8 (right)- St. Paul's Church,
Diu, India, seventeenth century.
(Photograph by the author)
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8 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
fewer than 30,000 residents at the time
because an American missionary, recrui
spent forty years in Kurnool. While ther
a New York City physician whose own
1950, 99). Coles gave $20,000 for the ch
Renaissance Roots
One might well argue, and I would entirely agree, that this mirrorin
Asia was nothing new and that it had been going on since the arriv
earlier of the Portuguese. The style of that day was the style of the Ren
the Portuguese put it to work. A good example is Our Lady of Divi
(Figure 7), completed in Goa in 1661. With its giant-order columns
between corner towers, it combines the facade of St. Peter's Basilic
built, with Donato Bramante's earlier plan for the church. In cynic
occurs to me that the biggest difference between the church in Goa
Rome is that visitors to the Goa church do not have to wait in line an
a security check.
Jesuits, meanwhile, built many churches in Portuguese Asia on a
from Rome's Gesù Church, where the preaching space was maximize
the nave and eliminating the aisles. Bom Jesu in Goa is a good exam
Fig. 9- St. Andrew's Church, Chennai, India,
1821. (Photograph by the author)
smaller St. Paul's in Diu, whose interior
is shown in Figure 8. And of cours
there are the Portuguese fortress
which are built like a chain around the
Indian Ocean from Mozambique Island
on the west to Diu, Goa, and Malacca
on the east, with an extension in Macao.
Some of the fortress walls survive, along
with ornamented gateways faithful to
the inspiring form of the Roman triumphal
arch.
Idiosyncratic Revivalism
Asia mirrored later and more origin
European styles, too. How many vis
tors to Chennai today happen upon
Andrew's (Figure 9) and see, as I fail
to see, that its facade is a near copy
London's St. Martin-in-the-Fields? The
London church, which appears from
the front to be a Greek temple sprouting
a slightly setback steeple, had been
devised by James Gibbs and was subseThis
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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA 9
quently emulated very widely, not least in the
Paul's Chapel, the only colonial church surviv
St. Andrew's in Bombay (1815), St. John's in M
(1816), and farther east, at St. George's on Pena
those parishes wore clothing that was as au cou
Chafing at the stylistic straitjacket of a worl
confined to classical or Gothic forms, the ver
1882, "Old work is real and . . . ours is not re
474; italics in the original). His response was a
today as Queen Anne. It has little to do with
century before Shaw's birth, but Shaw did m
ornamental gables, and white woodwork, he m
even if it looked old. The style is perhaps mo
University of Cambridge's Newnham College,
gland is the Norman Shaw Buildings, originally
two near twins was completed in 1890. Strikin
ings (Figure 10) is a near copy and was complet
building was finished in 1906.
Much as Shaw reworked European traditio
Queen Anne, so European architects rework
famously in the Indo-Saracenic style
displayed by Bombay's Municipal Corporation
Building. Other examples
abound. Among them, the Lahore Museum
has the distinction of having been
designed by an Indian, Bhai Ram Singh,
whose remarkable but little-known rise
from a family of carpenters has been
traced in a recent monograph (Vandal
and Vandal 2006). The style spread
eastward, too, prominently to Kuala
Lumpur and its public buildings, especially
the railway station.
Figure 11 shows an unroofed stairway
deep within the huge Madras High
Court, completed in 1892. Davies calls
this building the culmination of the
Indo-Saracenic style (1985, 198), but this
does not mean that the style has been
universally praised. One critic calls it
"no more than a superficial applique of
Indian motifs on otherwise conventional
European buildings" (Evenson
Fig. 10- Royal Insurance Buildings, Kolkata,
India, 1902. (Photograph by the author)
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10 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
Fig. ii (left)- Madras H
India, 1892. (Photograph
Fig. 12 (Mow)- Unive
(Vietnam National Unive
1926. (Photograph by th
Fig. 13 (facing page > t
dung Institute of Techn
nesia, 1920. (Photograph
Fig. 14 (facing page ,
West Hall, Bandung In
Bandung, Indonesia, 19
author)
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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA 11
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12 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
1959> 93)- Another mocks the E
a "flagrant late Mughal Revival"
grand buildings designed by Edw
corners with empty stone paras
called them "stupid, useless th
broader attack he wrote, "I do n
(quoted in Evenson 1959, 93).
Perhaps the Indo-Saracenic style
ing the outward forms of India's e
rable tactic. Ernest Hébrard, best k
Thessalonika after a fire in 1917, w
ture and Town Planning Service fr
he designed for Hanoi's Universit
sity; other examples of his work
Orient (now the Louis Finot Mu
writes that in these buildings Hé
a Beaux- Arts plan." She continues
Sarraut, the colonial minister at th
sions of mutual engagement an
political support from the Vietnam
1987, 307-308). A much more sy
tect of "Vinterculturalite" who wa
gionalism critique " (Yiakoumis 2
An even more striking examp
enous style can be seen at Bandu
of the Bandung Institute of Tec
Sumatran longhouse (Figure 13)
space unencumbered with colum
congruously light parabolic arch
was the work of the Java-born-b
bining modern engineering wit
thirty-six-year-old Pont's last c
signed it as an experiment in p
forty-three years of his life Po
may call this expiation, but I cal
Modern Architecture
Two or three miles from the Institute of Technology is yet anothe
mirror, this time reflecting a style that appeared in Paris in 1925 a
monly called Art Deco. The building I have in mind, Villa Isola (Figu
part of a college campus but was built as the private house of a n
nate. When new, it stood surrounded by rice paddies; hence th
House." Despite its massive appearance, it is actually a stone-clad-bu
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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA 13
building, the work of Wolff Schoemaker, another
enjoyed a more extensive practice than did Pont. S
remarkable honor. The young Sukarno had studied
Technology. Many years later, after he had become
Sukarno said: "Professor Wolff Schoemaker was a gr
difference between whites and non-whites. For him
nesians. No free men or slaves. All that mattered f
do" (quoted in van Dullemen 2009, 159).
The Villa Isola is the most spectacular and best k
Indonesia, but the style was briefly popular else
include the lineups of apartment buildings on Mu
the west side of the city's Oval Maidan; another col
Mau neighborhood.
Deco was only one branch of modern architectu
of Le Corbusier it had a sibling of greater longevity. I
lal Nehru commissioned a capital for the newly cr
was Chandigarh (Figure 16), where Nehru anticipa
totally fresh and wholly responsive to the aspiratio
this great country" (quoted in Evenson 1966, 6).
Nehru remained enthusiastic as the city took sh
he said, "come to see what is going on in Chandigar
the city has not worn well, although it retains en
buildings are reportedly being mined by dealers se
into the international art market" (Gentleman 2008
while arrived in India, not least Edward Durell Sto
1958. (Geographers may recall that Stone also d
Center in Washington, D.C., but also the Nation
quarters there.)
Since the 1950s, of course, Asia has become not on
display of high-rise buildings but its clear superior
ings for Europeans in Asia has become European bu
a case can be made that modern architecture is no
it long ago became, as it claimed to be, internatio
Kuala Lumpur or Shanghai the proudest towers ar
For people as proud as Asians and as sensitive to c
reliance on outsiders is astonishing, as though the
architecture of the colonial era and the architectur
Scott and the University of Bombay's Rajabai Tow
inspect a site before the steel begins rising.
Architectural Preservation
The belated preservation of a few Singapore shophouses, shown in F
us to an ironic sequel. The battles between developers and preserve
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14 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
Fig. 15 (above)- Villa Isola, Bandung, Indonesia,
Fig. 16 (below)-' The Secretariat, Chandigarh, I
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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA 15
Fig. 17- Shophouses, Singapore. (Photograph by
today in Asia as anywhere. Even in China, wher
fills the glove of government, the tension betw
is not only real but almost certain to grow str
The irony is that preservation itself is a Euro
gins in 1590, when Sixtus V ordered the restor
Marcus Aurelius. The idea arrived in Asia abou
monuments that fell within the colonial empi
restore a Taj Mahal, an Angkor Wat, and a Bor
historic districts. Figure 18 shows one case in w
the construction of a walkway opened to the pu
the Old City of Jerusalem in 1919. The wall was
wrapping the city with a greenbelt, parts of w
largely forgotten contribution of C. R. Ashbee
by the then-governor of the city, Ronald Storr
work for the Pro-Jerusalem Society survives
phy, Orientations ([1937] 1945).
Surprisingly, perhaps, such an interest in the
ture was almost unknown in Asia until introd
Western universities. An easily overlooked
restoring- often rebuilding- the monuments o
but a more poignant story comes from China a
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l6 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
Fig. 18- Walkway on the Old City wall, Christia
and Harvard-trained architect and arch
nent historian, discouraged Liang's inte
cent of ancient architecture has been
Liang persisted, his explorations culmi
Foguang Temple (Figure 19), one of the
Tang Dynasty. Liang wrote that "the i
made those the happiest hours of my
(quoted in Fairbank 1994, 95).
Liang fought to save not just isolated
Beijing. Here he ran into insurmoun
notion of urban planning amounted to
was more traditional than he knew, for
of past repairs was to replace the old b
building; if this meant the demolition o
praise- worthy as virtuous achievement
Liang's efforts to save Beijing were cru
Revolution. Posthumously, he has been
respected to the point of veneration, a
yard house in Beijing from recent and
architectural historian reminds us that
sical archaeology and visiting the Part
China" (Dyer 2007).
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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA 17
Simple Truths
For most readers, this story is an obvious sliver of the much grander narra
globalization. What else, one might ask, should one expect from a colonial ag
its aftermath? Architectural styles would inevitably be introduced, along
languages, administrative systems, infrastructure, and commercial enterpr
I would only add that this reading has unwelcome implications for anyone
wants to understand globalization as hybridization or cross-fertilization. The
sion of European architectural styles doesn't offer much support for that b
reading.
True, a strong current of diffusion from the East to the West once existed. More
than 500 years ago Leon Battista Alberti wrote that the architects of ancient Greece
"began by examining the works of the Assyrians and the Egyptians" ([1450] 1988,
157-158). Later historians have agreed. The Mycenaean palaces at the start of the
architectural history of Greece, they write, were "inspired by the great columnar
halls of Egyptian temples" and "profoundly influenced by oriental architecture"
(Dinsmoor 1975, 124; Lawrence 1996, 3). Still, the last 500 years is a long time for
the ball to have been in the European coürí.
It is also true that one can find recent examples of Asian-styled buildings in
Europe, most familiarly perhaps with the pagoda at Kew Gardens and the IndianFig.
19- Foguang Temple, Shanxi Province, China (Photograph by the author)
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l8 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
inspired Royal Pavilion at Brighton. Still,
the battering ram of European styles in A
saying, "I think we have to go in whateve
If we are not connected to this modern w
fishing village we once were." What does t
nos," Lee has said, "but the world has chan
resort like the ones in Las Vegas- Las Veg
and Arnold 2007). A casino opened in 2010
revenues jumped 50 percent.
For myself, I prefer to focus less on the cu
on the architectural galaxy itself. The buil
tably only a tiny sample of the hundreds
over from Europe's collision with Asia.
Zelinsky's 1955 article on place-names in t
be possible to produce maps of Asia loaded
European architectural style surviving in
fatigability to produce such maps, but m
increases as the decades go by. Perhaps I am
phy addresses the face of the earth, and if
galaxy as I once did, then perhaps it is wo
even with a very broad brush.
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