THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF JAPAN Volume 4 Early Modern Japan Edited by JOHN WHITNEY HALL JAMES L. MCCLAIN, assistant editor CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521223553 © Cambridge University Press 1991 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1991 6th printing 2006 Printed in the United States of America A catalog recordfor this publication is availablefrom the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data (Revised for volume 4) The Cambridge history of Japan. Includes bibliographical references. Contents: v. 4. Early modern Japan / edited by John W. Hall - v. 5. The nineteenth century / edited by Marius B Jansen - v. 6. The twentieth century / edited by Peter Duus. 1. Japan - History. I. Hall, John Whitny, 1916DS835.C36 1990 952 88-2877 ISBN-13 978-0-521-22352-2 (v. 1) hardback ISBN-10 0-521-22352-0 (v. 1) hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-22353-9 (v. 2) hardback ISBN-10 0-521-22353-9 (v. 2) hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-22354-6 (v. 3) hardback ISBN-10 0-521-22354-7 (v. 3) hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-22355-3 (v. 4) hardback ISBN-10 0-521-22355-5 (v. 4) hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-22356-0 (v. 5) hardback ISBN-10 0-521-22356-3 (v. 5) hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-22357-7 (v. 6) hardback ISBN-10 0-521-22357-1 (v. 6) hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 GENERAL EDITORS' PREFACE Since the beginning of this century the Cambridge histories have set a pattern in the English-reading world for multivolume series containing chapters written by specialists under the guidance of volume editors. Plans for a Cambridge history of Japan were begun in the 1970s and completed in 1978. The task was not to be easy. The details of Japanese history are not matters of common knowledge among Western historians. The cultural mode of Japan differs greatly from that of the West, and above all there are the daunting problems of terminology and language. In compensation, however, foreign scholars have been assisted by the remarkable achievements of the Japanese scholars during the last century in recasting their history in modern conceptual and methodological terms. History has played a major role in Japanese culture and thought, and the Japanese record is long and full. Japan's rulers from ancient times have found legitimacy in tradition, both mythic and historic, and Japan's thinkers have probed for a national morality and system of values in their country's past. The importance of history was also emphasized in the continental cultural influences that entered Japan from early times. Its expression changed as the Japanese consciousness turned to questions of dynastic origin, as it came to reflect Buddhist views of time and reality, and as it sought justification for rule by the samurai estate. By the eighteenth century the successive need to explain the divinity of the government, justify the ruler's place through his virtue and compassion, and interpret the flux of political change had resulted in the fashioning of a highly subjective fusion of Shinto, Buddhist, and Confucian norms. In the nineteenth century the Japanese became familiar with Western forms of historical expression and felt the need to fit their national history into patterns of a larger world history. As the modern Japanese state took its place among other nations, Japanese history faced the task of reconciling a parochial past with a more catholic present. Historians familiarized themselves with European accounts of the course of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 vi GENERAL EDITORS' PREFACE civilization and described Japan's nineteenth-century turn from military to civilian bureaucratic rule under monarchical guidance as part of a larger, worldwide pattern. Buckle, Guizot, Spencer, and then Marx successively provided interpretative schema. The twentieth-century ideology of the imperial nation state, however, operated to inhibit full play of universalism in historical interpretation. The growth and ideology of the imperial realm required caution on the part of historians, particularly with reference to Japanese origins. Japan's defeat in World War II brought release from these inhibitions and for a time replaced them with compulsive denunciation of the pretensions of the imperial state. Soon the expansion of higher education brought changes in the size and variety of the Japanese scholarly world. Historical inquiry was now free to range widely. A new opening to the West brought lively interest in historical expressions in the West, and a historical profession that had become cautiously and expertly positivist began to rethink its material in terms of larger patterns. At just this juncture the serious study of Japanese history began in the West. Before World War II the only distinguished general survey of Japanese history in English was G. B. Sansom's Japan: A Short Cultural History, first published in 1931 and still in print. English and American students of Japan, many trained in wartime language programs, were soon able to travel to Japan for study and participation with Japanese scholars in cooperative projects. International conferences and symposia produced volumes of essays that served as benchmarks of intellectual focus and technical advance. Within Japan itself an outpouring of historical scholarship, popular publishing, and historical romance heightened the historical consciousness of a nation aware of the dramatic changes to which it was witness. In 1978 plans were adopted to produce this series on Japanese history as a way of taking stock of what has been learned. The present generation of Western historians can draw upon the solid foundations of the modern Japanese historical profession. The decision to limit the enterprise to six volumes meant that topics such as the history of art and literature, aspects of economics and technology and science, and the riches of local history would have to be left out. They too have been the beneficiaries of vigorous study and publication in Japan and in the Western world. Multivolume series have appeared many times in Japanese since the beginning of the century, but until the 1960s the number of professionCambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 GENERAL EDITORS' PREFACE vii ally trained historians of Japan in the Western world was too small to sustain such an enterprise. Although that number has grown, the general editors have thought it best to draw on Japanese specialists for contributions in areas where they retain a clear authority. In such cases the act of translation itself involves a form of editorial cooperation that requires the skills of a trained historian whose name deserves acknowl- edgment. The primary objective of the present series is to put before the English-reading audience as complete a record of Japanese history as possible. But the Japanese case attracts our attention for other reasons as well. To some it has seemed that the more we have come to know about Japan the more we are drawn to the apparent similarities with Western history. The long continuous course of Japan's historical record has tempted historians to look for resemblances between its patterns of political and social organization and those of the West. The rapid emergence of Japan's modern nation state has occupied the attention of comparative historians, both Japanese and Western. On the other hand, specialists are inclined to point out the dangers of being misled by seeming parallels. The striking advances in our knowledge of Japan's past will continue and accelerate. Western historians of this great and complex subject will continue to grapple with it, and they must as Japan's world role becomes more prominent. The need for greater and deeper understanding of Japan will continue to be evident. Japanese history belongs to the world, not only as a right and necessity but also as a subject of compelling interest. JOHN WHITNEY HALL MARIUS B. JANSEN MADOKA KANAI DENIS TWITCHETT Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS General editors' preface page v List of maps, figures, and tables xiv Preface to Volume 4 xv Chronology xvii 1 Introduction 1 by JOHN WHITNEY HALL, Department of History, Yale University Japan's early modern transformation 1 The Oda-Toyotomi institutions of unification 6 The role of local studies 9 The emergence of the samurai class 14 Formation of the early modern village 16 The Edo bakufu in the eighteenth century 18 The political process 20 Patterns of political development 22 Growth and conflict 23 Thought and religion 27 The Edo period: a new field of study 30 A note on the organization of this volume 35 A final word 38 2 The sixteenth-century unification 40 by ASAO NAOHIRO, Faculty of Letters, University of Kyoto Translated by BERNARD SUSSER Political unification 40 The military and economic base 53 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 X CONTENTS Changes in international relations 66 The power structure of the unified state 78 3 The social and economic consequences of unification 96 by WAKITA OSAMU, Faculty of Letters, Osaka University Translated by JAMES L. M C C L A I N Introduction 96 The Taiko land surveys and the early modern peasantry 99 Commerce and the early modern cities no The early modern social system 121 Conclusions 125 4 The bakuhan system 128 by J O H N W H I T N E Y H A L L , Department of History, Yale University The Tokugawa house and its rise to power 130 Formation of the Edo bakufu 145 The bakuhan power structure 150 The Edo shogunate: the authority structure 156 Bakufu organization 161 5 The han 183 by H A R O L D B O L I T H O , Department of East Asian Languages and Civilisations, Harvard University The han and central control, 1600-1651 191 The han and central control after 1651 201 Han finances 213 Han politics 225 6 The inseparable trinity: Japan's relations with China and Korea 235 by JURGIS ELISONAS, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, Indiana University Trade and piracy 235 War and peace 265 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS XI 7 Christianity and the daimyo 301 by JURGIS ELISONAS, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, Indiana University The arrival of the Europeans ' 302 The condition of Kyushu 304 Deus or Dainichi? 307 , The search for secure patrons 310 Xavier and Ouchi Yoshitaka 312 Otomo Sorin Yoshishige 316 The beginnings of the Christian mission in the Kansai area 318 The symbiosis of daimyo, missionaries, and merchants 321 The Jesuit colony of Nagasaki 326 Christian advances in Kyushu 331 The vicissitudes of Bungo 335 The end of Ryuzoji Takanobu 343 The ecclesiastical politics of vice-provincial Coelho 347 The collapse of the Otomo realm 353 Hideyoshi's invasion of Kyushu 356 Hideyoshi's anti-Christian edicts 359 The Christian daimyo and the early Tokugawa regime 365 The anti-Christian system of the Tokugawa 368 8 Thought and religion, 1550-1700 373 by BITO MASAHIDE, Faculty of Letters, University of Tokyo Translated by KATE WILDMAN NAKAI Religion 378 Thought 395 9 Politics in the eighteenth century 425 by Tsujl TATSUYA, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Yokohama City University Translated by HAROLD BOLITHO Tokugawa Tsunayoshi 427 The Shotoku era 437 Tokugawa Yoshimune 441 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Xll CONTENTS Kyoho Reforms: the first stage 445 Kyoho Reforms: the second stage 449 The Horeki period 456 The Tanuma period 460 The Kansei Reforms 467 10 The village and agriculture during the Edo period 478 by FURUSHIMA TOSHIO, Faculty ofAgriculture, University of Tokyo Translated by JAMES L. MCCLAIN The Sengoku village legacy 478 The social composition of the early modern village 486 Land-tax revenue and government finances 492 Irrigation and land reclamation 498 Agricultural use of forestland 502 Technology and commercial agriculture 504 Cooperative aspects of village society 515 Conclusion 517 11 Commercial change and urban growth in early modern Japan . 519 by NAKAI NOBUHIKO, Faculty of Letters, Keib Gijuku University and JAMES L. MCCLAIN , Department of History, Brown University An era of urban growth 519 Cities and commerce in the seventeenth century 538 Cities and commerce in the early eighteenth century 568 Cities and commerce in the late eighteenth century 579 Conclusions 590 12 History and nature in eighteenth-century Tokugawa thought 596 by TETSUO NAJITA, Department of History, The University of Chicago Introduction 596 History 601 Nature 621 History and nature in the late eighteenth century 638 Epilogue 656 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS Xlll 13 Tokugawa society: material culture, standard of living, and life-styles 660 by SUSAN B. HANLEY, Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington Housing: samurai, town, and farm 665 The house and life-styles 674 Food, nutrition, and other dietary factors 680 Clothing 689 Implications of changes in the material culture and life-styles 693 14 Popular culture 706 by DONALD H. SHIVELY, Department of Oriental Languages and East Asiatic Library, University of California, Berkeley Introduction 706 Education 715 Books and publishing 725 Kyoto the source 733 The society of prostitutes 742 The theater world 749 The chdnin 761 Works cited 771 Glossary-index 813 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 MAPS, FIGURES, AND TABLES MAPS Provinces and regions of early modern Japan page xxvi Maritime routes, early modern East Asia xxviii 4.1 Major daimyo domains and capital cities, midseventeenth century 151 6.1 Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea 274 11.1 Major cities and transportation routes, eighteenth century 543 FIGURES 4.1 Genealogy of the Tokugawa family 132 4.2 Main offices of the Tokugawa bakufu 166 TABLES 4.1 Confiscations of daimyo holdings, 1601-1705 152 14.1 Number and rank of prostitutes in Kyoto, Osaka, and Edo, c. 1700 746 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 PREFACE TO VOLUME 4 Each volume in this series has its own identity and editorial history. Volume 4 derives its special tone from the fact that it relies more heavily on contributions prepared by Japanese scholars than do most of the other books in the series. In order to handle the problem of accurate translation for this multicultural study, an effort has been made to select translators from among established American scholars who have a sensitivity toward the interests and intent of the Japanese author whose essay they were assigned to translate. This method has been tested previously in a number of bilingual seminars held on the Muromachi, Sengoku, and early Edo periods. The Introduction to this volume acknowledges the contributions made by the authors, but little is said about the translators. We have been fortunate in attracting a number of talented scholars as translators, and I feel the results have proven the soundness of our policy. One who deserves special mention is James L. McClain who has served as assistant editor. Aside from his work as author and translator he has prepared the historical chronology and has been invaluable in facilitating the production process throughout the entire procedure. I am especially grateful to him for negotiating several complicated editorial issues and in serving as a link with authors on his visits to Japan. My retirement in 1983 meant the transfer of editorial work from Yale and the setting up of a home office and computer center. Michael Cutler, whose natural ability to make the computer friendly was crucial at this time, compiled the chart of the Tokugawa genealogy; and, armed with his own bilingual word processor, he also prepared the list of Works Cited. The meticulous care shown by Luke S. Roberts in preparing the Glossary-Index proved invaluable. Two of the general editors of the Cambridge History ofJapan series were most generous with their time and editorial help: Kanai Madoka whose encyclopedic knowledge of Japanese history was called upon to read portions of the manuscript and later the proofs, and Marius Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Xvi PREFACE TO VOLUME 4 Jansen whose vision stirred this project from its beginnings and whose good natured companionship has made it all worthwhile. In this volume Japanese is romanized according to the Hepburn system, and Chinese according to the Wade-Giles system. Japanese and Chinese personal names follow their native form, with surname preceding given name, except in citations of Japanese authors writing in English. We wish to thank the Japan Foundation for grants that facilitated the production of this series. Throughout the unexpectedly long time it has taken to bring this volume into being there has been one invaluable assistant who deserves special recognition. My wife Robin has worked closely with me as general facilitator and encourager. At a time when she was anticipating the leisure of retirement from her own professional duties she has patiently endured the invasion of her home by computer equipment and the indignity of having to learn to master it for this project. JOHN WHITNEY HALL Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CHRONOLOGY Era names (nengo) are indicated in bold type; months and days correspond to the Japanese lunar calander. 1532 Tenbun era begins on 7/29. 1534 Oda Nobunaga is born; the process of national unification begins. 1536 Toyotomi Hideyoshi is born, perhaps on Tenbun 6/2/6. 1542 Tokugawa Ieyasu is born; Portuguese traders arrive in Japan and introduce Western muskets and cannon. 1549 Francis Xavier (1506-52) lands at Kagoshima and initiates the Christian mission. 1555 Kdji era begins 10/23. 1558 Eiroku era begins 2/28; Hideyoshi (Kinoshita Tokichiro) enters the service of Nobunaga. 1560 Nobunaga gains national prominence by defeating Imagawa Yoshimoto, the foremost power in the Kanto region, in the battle of Okehazama. 1562 Nobunaga concludes alliance with Ieyasu. 1568 Nobunaga marches into Kyoto and installs Ashikaga Yoshiaki as shogun; Nobunaga issues the rakuichi-rakuza decrees in Kano and abolishes toll gates in all provinces. 1569 Nobunaga issues erizeni decrees (Eiroku 12/3); the city of Sakai submits to Nobunaga. 1570 Genki era begins 4/23; Nobunaga launches campaign against the True Pure Land sect, with warfare to continue for nearly ten years. 1571 Nobunaga destroys Enryakuji, headquarters of the Tendai sect on Mt. Hiei. 1572 Nobunaga confines the shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki to Nijo Castle, burns much of the inner city of Kyoto, and then drives Yoshiaki from Kyoto, in effect putting an end to the Ashikaga shogunate. 1573 Tensho era begins 7/28. 1576 Nobunaga moves to Azuchi and begins to construct a new castle. 1580 English trading vessels visit Hirado; Nobunaga orders a cadastral survey for Yamato and Harima provinces. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 XV111 CHRONOLOGY 1582 Akechi Mitsuhide betrays Nobunaga; Hideyoshi avenges Nobunaga's death by slaying Mitsuhide in the battle of Yamazaki and torches Azuchi Castle; Hideyoshi orders a cadastral survey for Yamashiro Province, initiating what ultimately will become a nationwide land survey (kenchi). 1583 Hideyoshi enters Osaka Castle. 1585 Hideyoshi is appointed kampaku (imperial regent). 1587 Hideyoshi conquers Kyushu and issues an edict restricting the practice of Christianity. 1588 The exiled Ashikaga Yoshiaki resigns the office of shogun, bringing a legal end to the Ashikaga shogunate; Hideyoshi initiates a sword hunt in many provinces. 1589 Hideyoshi orders the brothels of Kyoto to be brought together in one licensed quarter known as Nijo Yanagimachi. 1590 Hideyoshi completes his military hegemony by defeating the Go-Hojo at Odawara; the final resistance in northern Japan ceases by the following year; Ieyasu resettles in the Kanto and builds a castle at Edo. 1591 Hideyoshi issues a three-clause order prohibiting changes of status from samurai to merchant or from fanner to merchant. 1592 Hideyoshi's armies invade Korea; Bunroku era begins 12/8. 1594 Hideyoshi constructs a grand palace at Momoyama and a castle at Fushimi. 1596 Keicho era begins 10/27; Hideyoshi's field generals arrange a truce with the Chinese that fails to meet Hideyoshi's military objectives. 1597 Hideyoshi orders the death of twenty-six Christians in Nagasaki (Keicho 1/ 11); Hideyoshi moves to Osaka Castle (Keicho 1/11); Hideyoshi orders the second invasion of Korea (Keicho 2/1); Ashikaga Yoshiaki dies. 1598 Hideyoshi dies, and the Japanese invasion armies are recalled from Korea. 1600 The first Dutch ship arrives in Japan; Ieyasu grants an audience to Will Adams at Osaka; Ieyasu asserts military hegemony with a victory in the battle of Sekigahara. 1603 Ieyasu is appointed shogun; Okuni, a priestess of Izumo Shrine, performs kabuki dances in Kyoto; the bridge at Nihonbashi is constructed in Edo. 1604 The Confucian scholar Hayashi Razan is employed by Ieyasu; he later founds a private school in Edo. 1605 Ieyasu retires as shogun and the post passes to his son Hidetada; Ieyasu takes the title of retired shogun (pgosho) and names the family castle at Sumpu as his official residence; Hayashi Razan has his first audience with Ieyasu. 1607 Envoys from Korea arrive in Edo, their first visit to Japan since Hideyoshi's invasions. 1609 The Dutch East India Company receives permission from the shogunate to trade at Nagasaki. 1612 The shogunate issues prohibitions against Christianity. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CHRONOLOGY XIX 1614 The shogunate expels 148 Christians from Japan; Ieyasu launches his winter campaign against Hideyori at Osaka Castle. 1615 The summer campaign culminates with the fall of Osaka Castle and the death of Hideyori; the shogunate issues its "one province, one castle" edict and the Bake shohatto (ordinances pertaining to warrior houses); Genna era begins 7/13. 1616 Ieyasu dies and his remains are interred first at Mt. Kuno in Shizuoka and later at Nikko; all foreign ships, except Chinese, are restricted to Nagasaki and Hirado. 1617 The shogunate authorizes the establishment of a licensed quarter at Yoshiwara; the first kabuki theaters are licensed in Kyoto. 1618 The shogunate issues injunctions against those who disguise themselves as mountain ascetics (yamabushi). 1619 Fujiwara Seika, regarded as the founder of early modern Japanese NeoConfucianism, dies; Christians in Kyoto are executed. 1621 The shogunate issues edicts against overseas travel, the construction of ships capable of sailing to foreign countries, and the exportation of weapons. 1622 Fifty-five Christians are executed at Nagasaki; a period of intense persecution begins. 1623 Hidetada retires as shogun and is succeeded by Iemitsu; the English close their shops at Hirado and leave Japan. 1624 Kan'ei era begins 2/30; Saruwaka (Nakamura) Kanzaburd forms a kabuki troupe in Edo. 1628 "Women's kabuki" (onna kabuki) becomes popular in Edo. 1629 The Buke shohatto is amended and reissued; the shogunate bans women from the kabuki stage; Hayashi Razan publishes his Shunkansho, an exposition of the tenets of Neo-Confucianism. 1630 Ieyasu's great-granddaughter is enthroned as the empress Meisho. 1631 The Shimmachi licensed quarter opens in Osaka. 1633 Shamisen are first used in kabuki performances. 1635 The shogunate restricts foreign ships and foreign trade to Nagasaki and prohibits overseas Japanese from returning home (commonly referred to as the sakoku laws); the sankin kotai system of alternate residence is institutionalized as lozama daimyo are ordered to participate in the system. 1636 A barrier guard post (sekisho) is established at Hakone to protect Edo from the West. 1637 The Shimabara Rebellion begins, continuing into the next year. Ieyasu's spirit is deified as Tosho.-dai-gongen at Nikko. 1638 The shogunate issues its most severe edicts against Christianity; the phenomenon of Ise pilgrimages sweeps the nation during the summer. 1639 The shogunate prohibits Portuguese ships from calling at Japanese ports. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 XX CHRONOLOGY 1640 The shogunate establishes an anti-Christian inquisition (shumon aratame yaku); brothels in Kyoto are transferred to a new location, Shimabara. 1641 The Dutch trading posts are transferred from Hirado to Deshima at Nagasaki. 1642 The fudai daimyo are instructed to participate in the alternate residence system. 1644 Shoho era begins 12/16. 1645 Takuan Soho, a leading figure in the Zen reform movement, dies. 1648 The shogunate issues a legal code regulating the lives of commoners in Edo; Keian era begins on 2/15; two months later codes concerning urban life and commerce are issued in Osaka. 1649 The shogunate issues the Keian furegaki, impressing on the peasants the necessity of diligence and frugality. 1651 Ietsuna succeeds Iemitsu; the shogunate uncovers a plot by Yui Shosetsu. 1652 "Young men's kabuki" (wakashu) is banned in Edo; J66 era begins 9/18. 1655 Meireki era begins 4/13; the Confucian scholar Yamazaki Ansai opens a private school in Kyoto. 1656 Illicit bath houses become popular in Edo. 1657 A great fire destroys large portions of Edo; a new licensed quarter, the Shin Yoshiwara, is established near Asakusa; the daimyo of Mito, Tokugawa Mitsukuni, begins compilation of the Dai Nihonshi (The history of great Japan). 1658 Manji era beings 7/23. 1661 Kambun era begins 4/25; Kimpira j'oruri enters period of great popularity in Edo. 1662 The Takeda theater is established in Osaka. 1663 The Buke shohatto is revised to prohibit warriors from committing suicide upon the death of their lord; fireworks are banned in Edo. 1665 Asai Ryoi publishes his Ukiyo monogatari (A tale of the floating world); the shogunate issues regulations governing temples and priests {skoshujiin hand). 1666 The twenty-volume illustrated lexicon Kimmo zui (Illustrations and definitions to train the untutored) appears. 1672 Under the direction of Kawamura Zuiken, preparations are completed for the western and eastern coastal shipping circuits. 1673 Empo era begins 9/21; the Mitsui family opens its textile store, the Echigoya, in Edo. 1679 The shogunate executes the masterless samurai Hirai Gompachi, who had taken refuge in the Yoshiwara licensed quarter and robbed townspeople. 1680 Tsunayoshi is appointed shogun; he asserts his authority by dismissing Grand Councilor Sakai Tadakiyo and confiscating part or all of the domains of fortysix daimyo, beginning with Matsudaira Mitsunaga of Takada in 1681; a revised and expanded edition, containing more than thirty thousand entries, of the fifteenth-century dictionary Setsuyo shu is published in Edo. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CHRONOLOGY XXI 1681 Tenna era begins on 9/29. 1682 Kinoshita Jun'an becomes Confucian adviser to the shogunate; Yamazaki Ansai, prominent Neo-Confucian scholar and founder of the Suiga school of Shinto, dies; Ihara Saikaku publishes his first book, Koshoku ichidai otoko (The life of an amorous man). 1684 Joky6 era begins 2/21; codes regulating the publishing business are promulgated in Edo. 1685 A guide to Kyoto, Kyo habutae, appears, listing 241 master teachers offering private instruction in forty-seven specialties. 1686 A protective association (kabunakama) is formed by cotton cloth wholesalers in Edo; regulations concerning trade with Korea are issued; Saikaku publishes Koshoku ichidai onna (The life of an amorous woman) and Koshoku gonin onna (Five women who loved love); Chikamatsu Monzaemon writes Kagekiyo (Victorious). 1688 Saikaku publishes Nihon eitaigura (The eternal storehouse of Japan); Genroku era begins on 9/30; Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu becomes grand chamberlain for the shogun Tsunayoshi; the shogunate limits to seventy the number of Chinese ships visiting Nagasaki each year. 1689 Basho departs on his journey along "Narrow Roads to Distant Places." 1690 Ukiyo-zoshi literature reaches new hights of popularity; the wood-block print artist Torii Kiyomori begins to draw actors, producing his first poster for the Ichimura-za; the school founded by Hayashi Razan is named as the shogunate's official school. 1693 The shogunate completes a census of Edo, recording a chonin population of more than 353,000. 1694 The Group of Ten Wholesale Associations is formed in Edo; Basho dies. 1696 Miyazaki Antei writes Nogyo zensho (The complete agriculturalist) barely one year before his death. 1698 Tsunayoshi orders his first debasement of currency. 1702 The forty-seven ronin carry out their celebrated vendetta. 1703 Chikamatsu's Sonezaki shinju (The love suicides of Sonezaki) is first performed; more than twenty domains have by now established schools for educating samurai. 1704 Ichikawa Danjuro, first head of the Ichikawa kabuki troupe, dies; Hoei era begins 3/13. 1705 Thousands across Japan join in okagemairi pilgrimages to Ise; the shogunate confiscates the wealth of Yodoya Saburoemon. 1711 Shotoku era begins 4/25. 1712 Arai Hakuseki completes his influential history, the Tokushiyoron. 1714 Kaibara Ekken dies, a prolific writer on such topics as ethics for commoners, education for women, natural history, and Neo-Confucian metaphysics and cosmology. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 XX11 CHRONOLOGY 1715 Nagasaki trade limited to thirty ships annually for the Chinese, two for the Dutch; Arai Hakuseki writes his Seiyo kibun (A report on the Occident). 1716 Yoshimune becomes shogun and launches the first major reform of the shogunate; Kyoho era begins 6/22. 1719 Nishikawa Joken completes his Ckdnin bukuro (A bagful of advice for merchants). 1720 Yoshimune allows Chinese translations of Western books into Japan. 1721 Nishikawa Joken writes his Hyakusho bukuro (A bagful of advice for farmers), encouraging literacy among farmers. 1723 The shogunate prohibits depictions of double love suicides in publications or on stage in Osaka; the shogunate introduces the tashidaka system of augmenting stipends in order to facilitate the promotion of capable officials; a protective association of book dealers is formed in Osaka; censorship of new publications is carried out. 1724 Oil, rice, and other commodity dealers are instructed to form closed associations in Edo; the shogunate issues the Kyoho-do horitsurui, a collection of legal precedents and instructions. 1726 Edo wholesalers dealing in fifteen different products, including rice and cooking oils, are required to submit account books and price lists to the shogunate. 1727 Nakagawa Seizaburo and other Osaka merchants join to open the Dojima rice market; Ogyu Sorai publishes Seidan (Political essays). 1728 Trade in rice futures is permitted in Osaka; Kada Azumamaro petitions the shogunate to establish a "school of national learning." 1729 Dazai Shundai completes his Keizairoku, a widely read work on political economy. 1730 The City Office in Edo issues regulations concerning the establishment of fire-fighting services. 1732 Famine conditions prevail in Kinki and portions of southern and western Japan. 1733 Chonin residents in Edo and other major cities attack the shops of rice merchants to protest high rice and commodity prices, the first instance of violent demonstrations by commoners in Edo. 1735 Several daimyo abolish licensed quarters in their castle towns. 1736 Gembun era begins 4/28. 1737 Kamo Mabuchi arrives in Edo to promote the study of ancient Japanese texts such as the Man'yoshu. 1738 The evolution of popular protest into a major factor in domestic politics is exemplified by the rioting of 84,000 farmers in Iwakitaira and the intervention of troops from thirteen daimyo domains to crush a protest near the Ikuno silver mines. 1741 Kampd era begins 2/27. 1742 The shogunate compiles the Kujikata osadamegaki, a codification of its legal codes and procedures. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CHRONOLOGY XX111 1744 Enkyd era begins 2/21; the Kyoto merchant Ishida Baigan, who founded the commoner teaching known as Shingaku, dies. 1745 Aoki Konyo issues a Dutch-Japanese dictionary. 1748 Kan'en era begins 7/12; the first performance of the eleven-act puppet play Kanadehon chushingura (A copybook of the treasury of loyal retainers) depicts the classic act of samurai revenge, the 1702 vendetta of the forty-seven ronin. 1751 Horeki era begins 10/27. 1760 Ieshige resigns and his son Ieharu becomes the tenth Tokugawa shogun. 1763 A merchant association handling Korean ginseng is founded in the Kanda district of Edo. 1764 Meiwa era begins 6/2. 1769 Tanuma Okitsugu begins his rise to prominence under the patronage of Ieharu. 1770 Licensing procedures are put into place for oil producers in Osaka and surrounding areas. 1772 An'ei era begins 11/16; the shogunate issues the nanryo nishugin coin in an effort to increase the amount of currency in circulation. 1777 Russian authorities approach the authorities of Matsumae domain in Hokkaido with a request for trade. 1781 Temmei era begins 4/2. 1783 Mt. Asama erupts, and much of the agricultural land in the Kanto is severely damaged. 1786 The shogun Ieharu dies; Tanuma and several of his assistants are dismissed from office. 1788 Matsudaira Sadanobu is appointed as chief senior councilor for the shogun Ienari and initiates the Kansei Reforms; Otsuki Gentaku publishes his Rangaku kaitei (Explanation of Dutch studies). 1789 Kansei era begins 1/25. 1790 Sadanobu initiates the so-called prohibitions against unorthodox teachings. 1791 The Sumitomo family opens the Besshi copper mines. 1792 Adam Laksman, a lieutenant in the Russian navy, arrives in Nemuro with instructions from Catherine the Great to seek the repatriation of Russian castaways and the opening of diplomatic and commercial relations; the shogunate orders coastal defenses improved. 1793 Matsudaira Sadanobu is stripped of his position as senior councilor. 1794 The shogunate's bibliographer Hanawa Hokiichi completes the Gunsho ruiju (Classified documents). 1798 The scholar Honda Toshiaki publishes his Keisei hisaku (Secret proposals on political economy), calling for the creation of a national merchant marine. 1801 Kyowa era begins 2/5. 1804 Bunka era begins 2/11. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 XXIV CHRONOLOGY 1809 Compilation of the Tokugawajikki (Veritable records of the Tokugawa house) begins. 1811 The shogunate establishes an office to translate works from the West. 1818 Bunsei era begins 4/22. 1830 Tempo era begins 12/10. 1837 Oshio Heihachiro leads riots in Osaka; several domains launch reform pro- grams. 1841 Mizuno Tadakuni abolishes protective associations, begins the shogunate's Tempo Reforms. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 MAPS Early modern Japan Maritime routes, early modern East Asia Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 XXVI MAPS MAPS XXV11 Provinces and regions of early modern Japan. PRpviMCES REGIONS I z. & 4- 5 6 7 S 9 I O II IZ_ 13 14- IS 17 IS 19 CHIKUG,0 6IZ-EM KAWACHi IZLUMI M,1