Bodhisattva(s)
as the Bodhidharma story, drawing principally upon Daoxuan's work.
See also: China Bibliography
Broughton, Jeffrey L. The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.
Faure, Bernard. "Bodhidharma as Textual and Religious Paradigm." History of Religions 25, no. 3 (1986): 187-198.
Faure, Bernard. Le traits de Bodhidharma: Premiere anthologie du bouddhisme Chan. Paris: Le Mail, 1986.
Yanagida Seizan, ed. and trans. Daruma no goroku. Zen no goroku 1. Tokyo: Chikuma shobö, 1969.
Jeffrey Broughton
BODHISATTVA(S)
The term bodhisattva (Pali, bodhisatta; Tibetan, byang chub sems pa; Chinese, pusa; Korean, posal, Japanese, bosatsu) refers to a sattva (person) on a Buddhist marga (path) in pursuit of bodhi (awakening) or one whose nature is awakening. In the Mahayana tradition, a bodhisattva is a practitioner who, by habituating himself in the practice of the paramitA (perfection), aspires to become a buddha in the future by seeking anuttarasamyaksambodhi (complete, perfect awakening) through prajna (wisdom) and by benefiting all sentient beings through karunA (compassion). A bodhisattva is one who courageously seeks enlightenment through totally and fully benefiting others (parartha), as well as himself (svdrtha). A bodhisattva is also termed a ma-hasattva or "Great Being" because he is a Mahayana practitioner who seeks anuttarasamyaksambodhi and who is equipped with the necessities for enlightenment—punyasambhdra (accumulation of merits) and jiianasambhara (accumulation of wisdom)—and the quality of upaya-kausalya (skillful means); that is, he knows how to act appropriately in any situation.
According to the Bodhisattvabhumi, the bodhisatt-vayana (spiritual path of a bodhisattva) is considered to be superior to both the kavakayana (spiritual path of the disciples) and the pratyekabuddhaydna (spiritual path of a self-awakened buddha) because a bodhisattva is destined to attain enlightenment by removing the klesajneyavarana (emotional and intellectual afflictions), whereas those on the other two spiritual paths
aspire for nirvana, that is, extinction of emotional afflictions only.
The bodhisattva is known by different appellations; for example, in Mahdydna-sutrdlamkdra XIX: 73-74, the following fifteen names are given as synonyms for bodhisattva:
1. mahasattva (great being)
2. dhimat (wise)
3. uttamadyuti (most splendid)
4. jinaputra (Buddha's son)
5. jinddhdra (holding to the Buddha)
6. vijetr (conqueror)
7. jindnkura (Buddha's offspring)
8. vikrdnta (bold)
9. paramdscarya (most marvelous)
10. sdrthavaha (caravan leader)
11. mahdyasas (of great glory)
12. krpdlu (compassionate)
13. mahdpunya (greatly meritorious)
14. Tsvara (lord)
15. dhdrmika (righteous).
Bodhisattvas are of ten classes:
1. gotrastha (one who has not reached purity yet)
2. avatirna (one who investigates the arising of the enlightenment mind)
3. asuddhdsaya (one who has not reached a pure intention)
4. suddhdsaya (one who has reached a pure intention)
5. aparipakva (one who has not matured in the highest state)
6. paripakva (one who has matured in the highest state)
7. aniyatipatita (one who although matured has not yet entered contemplation)
8. niyatipatita (one who has entered contemplation)
9. ekajatipratibaddha (one who is about to enter the supreme enlightenment)
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10. caramabhavika (one who has entered supreme enlightenment in this life).
Regarding the bodhisattva's practice, different texts use different categories to discuss the process. For example, the Dasabhumika-sutra refers to the daiabhumi (ten spiritual stages) of a bodhisattva, while the Bodhisattvabhumi makes reference to twelve vihara (abodes), adding two vihara to the list of ten bhumis: gotravihdra (abode of the bodhisattva family) and adhimukticarydvihdra (abode of firm resolution), the latter of which continues throughout the next ten abodes. The last ten of the viharas essentially correspond to the ten bodhisattva stages of the Dasabhumika-sutra, although each has a name different from the names of the stages. In each of the ten stages of the Dasabhumika-sutra, a distinct paramita is practiced so that the bodhisattva gradually elevates himself to the final goal of enlightenment. The stages of practice according to the Daiabhumika-sutra, with their corresponding paramitas, are as follows:
1. pramudita-bhumi (joyful stage): ddnaparamitd (perfection of charity)
2. vimala-bhumi (free of defilements stage): ifla-paramita (perfection of ethical behavior)
3. prabhdkan-bhumi (light-giving stage): dhydna-paramita (perfection of contemplation)
4. arcismati-bhumi (glowing wisdom stage): ksantiparamita (perfection of patience)
5. sudurjaya-bhumi (mastery of utmost difficulty stage): vTryaparamita (perfection of energy)
6. abhimukhT-bhumi (wisdom beyond definition of impure or pure stage): prajnaparamitd (perfection of wisdom)
7. durdngamd-bhumi (proceeding afar stage [in which a bodhisattva gets beyond self to help others]): updyakauialyapdramita (perfection of utilizing one's expertise)
8. acala-bhumi (calm and unperturbed stage): pranidhanapdramitd (perfection of making vows to save all sentient beings)
9. sadhumati-bhumi (good thought stage): bala-paramita (perfection of power to guide sentient beings)
10. dharmamagha-bhumi (rain cloud of dharma stage): jnanaparamitd (perfection of all-inclusive wisdom)
However, the numbers of stages of a bodhisattva are inconsistent from sutra to sutra and from commentary to commentary. One finds fifty-two stages in the Pusayingluo benye jing (Taisho no. 1485), fifty-one in the Renwang jing (Humane Kings Sutra, Taisho no. 245), forty in both the Fanwang jing (Brahma's Net Sutra, Taisho no. 1484) and the Avatamsaka-sutra (Huayan jing, Taisho no. 278), fifty-seven in the Surangama[samadhi] -sutra (Taisho no. 642), fifty-four in the Cheng weishi lun (Taisho no. 1591), four in the Mahdydnasamgraha {She dasheng lun, TaishQ no. 1594), and both thirteen and seven stages in the Bodhisattvabhumi (Pusa dichijing, Taisho no. 1581).
There are other classifications of bodhisattvas, such as those who enter enlightenment quickly and those who enter gradually; those who are householders and those who are not, each divided into nine classes; those who are extremely compassionate, such as AvalokitesVara; and those who are extremely wise, such as ManjuSri. Maitreya bodhisattva is considered to be the future buddha who is prophesized to appear in this world. Sakyamuni himself is understood to have been a bodhisattva in his past lives and is so called in the accounts of his previous births (jataka).
In order to distinguish him from the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas, who benefit only themselves, a Mahayana bodhisattva is characterized as one who makes vows to benefit all sentient beings, as well as himself. In the Pure Land tradition, for example, according to the Larger Sukhavativyuha- sutra, the Bodhisattva Mahasattva Dharmakara makes forty-eight vows and becomes the Buddha of Infinite Light and Life (AmitAbha or Amitayus), who resides in the Western Quarter and functions as a salvific buddha.
Among the well-known bodhisattvas, AvalokitesVara and Maitreya are probably the most popular in East Asia. In the East Asian Buddhist tradition, AvalokitesVara, better known by the Chinese name Guanyin (Korean, Kwanseiim; Japanese, Kannon), is worshiped by both clergy and laity as a mother figure, a savior, and a mentor, who responds to the pain and suffering of sentient beings. In Tibet, Tenzin Gyatso, the fourteenth Dalai Lama, is considered to be a reincarnation of AvalokitesVara.
Maitreya (Pali, Metteyya) bodhisattva, who is said to dwell in Tusita heaven, is known as the "future buddha" because he will appear in this world to reestablish Buddhism after all vestiges of the current dispensation of Sakyamuni Buddha have vanished. Tradition holds that Asanga went to Tusita to study
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An image of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara being worshiped by the donor of the painting. (Chinese painting from the caves of Dunhuang, tenth century.) The Art Archive/Musee Guimet Paris/Dagli Orti. Reproduced by permission.
under Maitreya, where he received five treatises from him that became the basis for establishing the Yogacara school. Worship of Maitreya as the future buddha has also contributed to millenarianism and millenarian movements in several Buddhist traditions.
ManjuSii and Samantabhadra are bodhisattvas who are often depicted in a triad together with the primordial Buddha Vairocana. Samantabhadra stands on Vairocana's right side and ManjuSii on his left. Samantabhadra is also often shown seated on the back of a white elephant, holding a wish-fulfilling jewel, a lotus flower, or a scripture, exemplifying his role as the guardian of the teaching and practice of the Buddha. ManjuSrI, by contrast, represents wisdom, and is depicted wielding a flaming sword that cuts through the veil of ignorance.
Buddhist scholars and savants of India, such as NAgArjuna and Vasubandhu, have been referred to as bodhisattvas; in China, Dao'an, for example, is known
as Yinshou pusa. In more modern times, founders of new Buddhist movements in China, Taiwan, Japan, and the United States are considered by followers to be bodhisattvas and, in some cases, even buddhas.
See also: Bodhisattva Images; Mudrä and Visual Imagery
Bibliography
Dayal, Har. The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1932.
Dutt, Nalinaksha, ed. Bodhisattva-bhümih. Patna, India: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1978.
Hardacre, Helen, and Sponberg, Alan, eds. Maitreya, the Future Buddha. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Kawamura, Leslie S., ed. The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1981.
Ogihara Unrai, ed. Bodhisattva-bhümi: A Statement of Whole Course of the Bodhisattva. Tokyo: Sankibo Buddhist Book Store, 1971.
Yü Chun-fang. Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.
Leslie S. Kawamura
BODHISATTVA IMAGES
Although they play a fairly limited role in early Buddhism, bodhisattvas came to occupy a position of preeminence in later Buddhist literature. Moreover, visual representations of bodhisattvas comprise one of the largest and most important categories of imagery in Buddhist art. Despite this popularity, however, depictions of bodhisattvas, as with anthropomorphic depictions of buddhas, apparently did not first appear until at least several centuries after the lifetime of the historical Buddha, Sakyamuni. Various explanations have been proposed to account for the relatively late emergence of the cult of images in Buddhism, but the textual and archaeological record remains inconclusive on several important fronts, such as the contentious question of when—and why—the earliest images of buddhas and bodhisattvas were created. While many aspects of the origin of the bodhisattva in the context of Buddhist art thus remain unresolved, the subsequent evolution and transmission of images of bodhisattvas are easier to chart.
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Early representations
Judged on the basis of surviving stone sculpture from India, which constitutes the largest block of early evidence, the iconography of buddhas and of bodhisattvas differs in several key respects. A second-century triad from Gandhara illustrates the typical characteristics of the two figural types. The central Buddha is depicted as an ascetic, with a simple coiffure, the plain robes customarily worn by a monk, and no other sort of adornment; the flanking bodhisattvas, by contrast, are depicted as very much of this world, with elaborate hairstyles and headdresses, rich robes, and the sorts of jeweled necklaces, bracelets, and earrings typically reserved for royalty. More than merely a reflection of stylistic preferences, these differences have long been interpreted as carrying deeper meaning. The simplicity of the Buddha's presentation, for example, can be seen as indicative of his status as one who has renounced the material world, while the ornamentation of the bodhisattva invokes analogies between earthly and spiritual power, and between material and spiritual abundance.
It should be noted that there are several other images, such as a red sandstone sculpture from Mathura, that seem to contradict this general categorization: Although the standing figure exhibits the lack of adornment associated with images of the Buddha, the inscription labels it very clearly as a bodhisattva. In fact, such representations are reflections of a popular early motif that emphasized Sakyamuni's status as a bodhisattva, both in previous lives and just prior to becoming a buddha. This tradition, however, was certainly overshadowed by more typical imagery of the so-called mahasattvas, or "Great Beings," as the well-known bodhisattvas generally associated with Ma-hayana Buddhism were often called. It is this later ideal of powerful, transcendent figures dedicated to alleviating suffering in the human realm that underlies the development of the complex and multifaceted iconography of bodhisattvas that permeates the Buddhist world.
While there are, then, certain general characteristics shared by almost all bodhisattvas, there are also many specific individual traits that serve to distinguish one from another. Often these take the forms of particular attributes, such as the vase carried by Maitreya, the thunderbolt (Sanskrit, vajra) held by Vajrapani, or the sword and book frequently given to Manjusri, while in other instances a bodhisattva might be paired with a specific animal mount, as are Samantabhadra and his
elephant. In practice, however, this kind of straightforward iconographical identification is often made more difficult by the fact that many traits evolve over time, of course, or are transformed in different geographical regions; furthermore, some bodhisattvas can assume multiple physical forms, each with its own distinguishing characteristics. A closer look at some of the traditions of representation of Avalokitesvara, undoubtedly the single most popular bodhisattva in the pantheon, will help to illustrate the nature and scope of these complexities.
The Bodhisattva of Compassion
The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Perceiver of the Sounds of the World) appears frequendy in Indian Buddhist literature and art, and in both arenas assumes a multiplicity of forms and plays a variety of roles. In some sutras, the Avalokitesvara is merely a background figure, so to speak, and pictorially and sculpturally he is often portrayed as a subordinate attendant to the Buddha; over time, however, he was increasingly represented in both mediums as the focus of attention. What remains constant, and thus serves as a unifying element in the majority of literary and artistic depictions, is an emphasis on Avalokitesvara as the embodiment of infinite karunA (compassion). One concrete expression of this emphasis can be seen in the many literary accounts detailing how the bodhisattva can save someone from the perils of the world. Icono-graphically, this theme is reflected by such features as the multiple limbs and heads with which Avalokitesvara is often endowed (underscoring this special ability to help those in distress), and by the image of Amitabha Buddha usually found in his headdress (alluding to the Western Paradise where Avalokitesvara may help one be reborn).
The popularity of Avalokitesvara spread to China (where he is known as Guanyin) and other parts of East Asia (Japan, Kannon; Korea, Kwanseum), and grew to such an extent that it essentially overshadowed that of all other bodhisattvas. Initially this was brought about in part by the widespread appeal of the Lotus Sutra (SaddharmapundarIka-sutra), several early translations of which were made into Chinese, in which Guanyin figures prominently; in fact, chapter 25, which details some thirty-three different manifestations of Guanyin, was often published and circulated as an independent text. Many well-known depictions of Guanyin are based on imagery from the Lotus Sutra, and it is perhaps the elasticity of form described
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The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara—the Bodhisattva of Compassion—shown with a thousand arms, symbolizing his ability to help those in distress. (Chinese wood sculpture.) © Reunion des Musees Nationaux/Art Resource, NY. Reproduced by permission.
in the sutra that made it possible for different branches of Buddhism to be associated with different characteristic representations of the bodhisattva. Thus, to give just two examples: While Pure Land Buddhism favored images of Guanyin leading souls to paradise, the Chan school preferred the so-called Water-Moon Guanyin and its allusions to the illusory nature of the phenomenal world.
Of all the developments associated with representations of Avalokitesvara, none has received as much scholarly attention as the gender transformation that Guanyin underwent in China. While it is true that bo-dhisattvas are theoretically beyond such dualities as male and female, early depictions of Guanyin often exhibit decidedly male characteristics (such as the mustache common in both Indian and Chinese portrayals), while the Lotus Sutra also lists various specifically female forms that Guanyin is capable of assuming. Whether influenced by these literary descriptions, or because compassion was perceived as a more feminine emotional trait, or in response to the cosmological tendency in traditional China to create yin/yang pairings of complementary forces such as wisdom and compassion, whatever complex combination of factors was at play, the outcome was that Guanyin emerged in
China as the goddess of mercy and compassion, and retained that status throughout later East Asian artistic traditions.
Meanings beyond the text
Images of Avalokitesvara, despite their great variety and multiplicity, share a common emphasis on the virtue of karuna, and exhibit remarkable continuity over time and location. To a great extent, this is due to a close correlation between text and image; indeed, the primary meanings for most representations of bodhisattvas derive from sutras and other literary sources. There are, however, many instances where bodhisattva imagery exhibits different patterns of development, and derives meaning from other arenas. The Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha, for example, who may have evolved from pre-Buddhist Indian earth gods, rarely appears in either art or literature in India. In China, by contrast, as the Bodhisattva Dizang, Ksitigarbha is frequently depicted in illustrations of scenes of hell (though his popularity drops off remarkably after the thirteenth century), while in Japan, where he is known as Jizo, he has long been popularized as the protector of children. Lastly, as Chijang posal, he was one of the most important bodhisattvas in Korean Buddhism during the Choson period (1392-1910), and most traditional Korean monastic complexes had a special Ksitigarbha Hall where paintings of Chijang and the Kings of Hell were the focus of ritual offerings on behalf of the deceased during the mourning period for the dead. Each of these instances demonstrates the frequently localized meanings of a given theme that can evolve apart from canonical textual sources.
On an even more particularized level, bodhisattva imagery has often been linked to historical individuals, a phenomenon that certainly can alter visual meaning in a number of ways. For example, Bodhi-dharma, the reputed transmitter of Chan Buddhism from India to China, is claimed in Chan tradition as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara. This may account for both the somewhat surprising frequency with which Avalokitesvara is depicted in images connected with Chan, as well as the structural similarities between such images as "Bodhidharma on a Reed" and the "White-robed Guanyin" or "Guanyin with Willows"—similarities that are clearly intended to appropriate the aura of the bodhisattva for the Chan patriarch. (In a similar vein, the Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism is also viewed as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara, and here, too, the identification certainly
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serves to reinforce claims of spiritual authority.) There are also well-attested examples that link secular, rather than religious, leaders with bodhisattvas. In China, the infamous Empress Wu Zetian (d. 706) of the Tang dynasty, for example, went to great lengths to encourage belief in the idea that she was an incarnation of the Bodhisattva Maitreya, and it has been claimed that various Buddhist images that she sponsored actually bear her own likeness. In the Qing dynasty, the Qianlong emperor (r. 1736-1795) had himself portrayed on multiple occasions as the Bodhisattva ManjuSri, enshrined at the center of a complex mandala, while in the late nineteenth century the empress dowager Zixi cast herself as Guanyin in elaborate living tableaux that were preserved in photographs. Whatever religious motivations may lie behind such acts, the ends they served can justifiably be described as more political than religious.
In short, if many images of bodhisattvas, whether painted or sculpted, are informed by sincere attempts to convey the spiritual powers associated with these Great Beings whose superhuman exploits were made famous by Mahayana sutras, there are other images that attempt to borrow these connotations for different purposes. At the same time, there are also cases in which representations of bodhisattvas are so far removed from the context of Buddhism that they are essentially depleted of religious meaning altogether. For example, while it is difficult to determine whether the elegant blanc-de-chine ceramic images of Guanyin first popularized in the seventeenth century were originally admired and sought out primarily for their formal and aesthetic qualities, that certainly became the case for the avid collectors, mainly foreign, who started to amass them in the early twentieth century. In the end, even a bodhisattva is powerless in the face of commodification.
See also: Buddha, Life of the, in Art; Hells, Images of; Mudra and Visual Imagery; Sutra Illustrations
Bibliography
Czuma, Stanislaw J. Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early India. Cleveland, OH: Cleveland Museum of Art, 1985.
Huntington, Susan L. The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, fain. New York: Weatherhill, 1985.
Hurvitz, Leon, trans. Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976.
Murase, Miyeko. "Kuan-yin as Savior of Men: Illustration of the Twenty-fifth Chapter of the Lotus Sutra in Chinese Painting." ArtibusAsiae37, nos. 1-2 (1971): 39-74.
Schopen, Gregory. "Monks and the Relic Cult in the Mahaparinibbana-sutta." In Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy, and Texts of Monastic Buddhism in India. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997.
Seckel, Dietrich. Buddhist Art of East Asia, tr. Ulrich Mam-mitzsch. Bellingham: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 1989.
Whitfield, Roderick, and Farrer, Anne. Caves of the Thousand Buddhas: Chinese Art from the Silk Route. London: British Museum, 1990.
Yii, Chun-fang. Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.
Charles Lachman
BODY, PERSPECTIVES ON THE
The path to nirvana or awakening, for Buddhists, involves the entire human being as a psychophysical complex. Although known to distinguish physical processes from psychic processes for the purpose of analysis, Buddhists do not ascribe to the notion (articulated by other religious traditions originating in India) that within every person there exists an eternal nonphysical self that may be said to "have" or "occupy" a body. For Buddhists, physical processes are dependent upon mental processes and vice versa. Thus, Buddhist traditions utilize the body as an object of contemplation and as a locus of transformation.
Buddhist scriptures and meditation manuals present a wide variety of meditations that focus on the body. Many involve mindful awareness of everyday activity: mindfulness of breathing; mindfulness of modes of deportment, such as standing and sitting; and mindfulness of routine activities, such as walking, eating, and resting. Others meditations are analytic in nature. The body may be broken down into its four material elements: earth or solidity, water or fluidity, fire or heat, and air or movement. Such analytic exercises are particularly helpful for overcoming the illusion of an enduring "self (atman; Pali, attan). In the Majjhimanikaya (Group Discourses of Middle Length; III. 90-1), the analysis of the body into its four material elements is compared to the quartering of an ox; once the ox is so divided, the generic concept of "flesh" diminishes recognition of the individuality of the ox.
Although members of other religious communities in ancient India also practiced such meditations on the physical elements of earth, water, fire, and air in the
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