Musica Poetica Musical-Rhetorical Figures in German Baroque Music Dietrich Bartel Uni\'{'r~iIY of Nc-bra<;ka Pre:.s Lincoln :uld London C 199711> the U"I'Cr,'l) of :-,iebra.ka I'rc,. ,\11 n~hb re!tCrH~d Ma"l,lf~c.un:o.I in rh.: Unllcd SlalC'~ of Amc'rica 8~ paper in rill) bool IllC"Ch lhe n,in,mum remlanenc" of Parer (Of Pmlled I ibmry ~lal cna". ,,~, 7.19· ~ II- r'- 1 71h <:en(uryI'h ilo)oph), and Ilc.rhcrics. J, )"' u,ic _ G~n" an) - ,.o.lh l"emuTyPhilu'''phy aud ac~lhctk) . I, Ranel. Diclnch. Iialldblich der mu,ikalhdlcn Fi~llTenkhr~ . II . Tille Ml 3K-I9 1I1K9 t99~ 7l!o· .<}-I3 "l19031- <.k2 t 97-1..\50 Ct~ CONTENTS Introduction VB PART ONE JNTRODUCTlON TO THE CONCEPTS Luther on Music: A Theological Basis for German Baroque Music 3 Toward Musica Poelica: The Emergence of a German Baroque Music 10 The Concept of the Affections in Gennan Baroque Music 29 Principles of Rhetoric in Gennan Baroque Music 57 PARTTwQ TREATlSES AND SOURCES Joachim Burmeister 93 JohalUlcs Nucius 99 Joachim Thuringus 103 Athanasius Kircher 106 Elias Walther I I I Christoph Bernhard I 12 Wolfgang Caspar Printz 119 Johann Georg Ahle 122 TomH Baltazar Janovka 125 Mauritius Johann Vogt 127 Johann Gottfried Walther Johann Mattheson Meinrad Spiess Johann Adolf Scheibe Johann Nikolaus Forkel PART THREE 13 I 136 144 148 156 DEFINITIONS AND TRANSLAnONS OF THE M USICAL-RHETORJCAL FIGURES Definitions and Translations 167 A pPENDICES Appendix I: Summary of Figure Definitions 439 Appendix 2: Summary of Figures by Category 444 Appendix 3: List of Figures by Author 448 Appendix 4: Sununary of Figures by Author 453 Bibliography 458 Index 466 INTRODUCTION Music has frequently been referred to as a uniwrsal language. As uni\'ersal as organized pitch and rhythm might be. as common as some musical intervals and rhythmic pattems are to all cultures and civiliza· tions. there are nonetheless a greal many "dialects" of this language which not only distinguish one civilization from the next, but indeed distinguish different eras of the same culture from one another. The music of the Baroque era is just such II dialect, growing out of the language of Renaissance music. yet with a contcnt fundamentally distinct from the aesthetics and semantics ofEnlightenment or Romantic musical cxpression. ThroughOlli tht: twentieth century musicians and musicologists alike have concerned themselves wilh deciphering and interpreting the language of Baroque music. After generations of "enlightened" neglect and '"romantic" miswlderstanding, it became evident thai objective insight into the Baroque musical idiom could onl) be gained if its grammar and its syntax- that is. its 0\\11 uniqll~ compositional precepls and principles- were rediscovered and appreciatcd. This interest in authentic Baroque performance practice has revolutionized the interpretation of Baroque music. spa\\ning countless perf0n11ing groups and artists who further the cause of Baroque authenticit), with Baroq\le bows, gut strings, and valveless hams. all tuned to appropriate Oaroque pitch. Likewise. in the discipline of musicology. a great deal of scholarly energy has been invested into a myriad of historical and theorctical questions. resulting in a focus of increasing attention on the relationship between music and rhetoric during this period. The call for a more systematic study of music and rhctoric, specifically regarding lhe musical-rhetorical figures. initially was issued by Schering in an article publi~hed Sh0l11y after the tum of the century.! The seed thus planted brought forth abundant fruit in the following gencntlion of primarily German musicologists. particularly in thc ] Arnold Scherin&.. "Die lehre \'011 den 11iusikalisc\lI."n Figuren inl 17. und 18. Jahrhundl'tt:· K".chellmllsilcullsches Jahl'Ollcll 2] (1908): 106. VIII Introduction studies by Brandes, Unger, Gurlin, and Schmitz.2 In addition to these more general examinations of music, rhetoric, and the concepts of the musical-rhetorical figures as well as the affections, monographs on individual theorists and their treatises began to appear, including significant studies of Bernhard, Bunlleisler, Nucius. Thuringus, and Mattheson.) Furthennore, in addition to facsimile editions of numerous Baroque publications during this lime, a few treatises which had remained in manuscript were made available in modem editions, notably those of Bernhard and the early compositional treatises by J. O. Walther and J. Scheibe.· As details of the various treatments of the musical-rhetorical figures were exposed, it became increasingly apparent that a unified or systematic Baroque doctrine of musical figures-as presented by Schering or Unger--could not be endorsed. There were simply too many discrepancies, contradictions in definitions, and varied bases of the concept of the figures to pennit such a generally valid and unified teaching or "doctrine." Rather than one Figurenlehre, there appeared to be virtually as many Figurelliehrell as there were music theorists. Just as performing artists could be exces- 2. Heinz Brandes, Studiell :ur mllsiiealischell Figuren/ehre im 16. JahrhUllder/ (Berlin: Triltsch & Huther, 1935); Halls-Heinrich Unger, Die Be:iehllngen :wischell Mllsik lind Rhetoriie im 16.-18. Jahrhtmdert (WOrzburg: Triltsch. 194 1; Hildesheim: Olms. 1969); Willibaid Gurlin, "Musik lUld Rhetorik," Helicon 5 (1944): 67-86; Arnotd Schmitz. Die 8i1dlichkeit in der lI'ol'fgebllndellen Mllsik J S. Bocm (Mainz: Schott, 1950). 3. Helmut Federhofer, "Die Figurenlehre nach Christoph Bernhard und die Dissonanzbehandlung in Werken von Heinrich SchOtz," ImenlOliona/er MusiKlI'issen· schajilicher Kongrep Bomberg (Kassd : Bltrenreiter, 1953), 132- 35; Martin Ruhnke, Joachim Burmeister Ein Beitrag :ur MlIsiie/ehre 11m 1600 (Kassel: Barenreiter, 1955); Fritz FeldmMII. "Das 'Opusculum Ripartitum' des Joachim Thuringus (1625) besonders in ~inen BezirillUlgen zu lob. Nucius (16 13)." Archi\'fiir MlIsikll'iSUnfchafi 15 (1958): 123-42: Hans Lenneberg, "Johann Mattheson on Affect and Rhetoric in Music," Journul for Mllsic Theory 2 (1958): 47- 84. 193- 236: George 1. Buelow, "The /.oci topid and Affect in Late Baroque Music: Heinichen's Practical Demonstration." Music Rel'lew 27 (1966): 161- 76. 4. Johann Gottfried Walther, Praecepta der musicalischen composition, ed. Peter Benary. Ms. t708 (Leipzig: Dreitkopf & Hlirtel. 1955); P. 8enary. Die dell/sch" Kunrposi/iolls/ehre des 18. Jahrhlllllier/s (Leipzig: Brcitkopf & Hlirtel. 1961). which includes Scheibe's early composition treatise Compendillm Muskes: losefM. MUllerBlattau. Die Kompositions/ehrl! Heillrlch Schiil:l!lIs ill ller f'asslmg seines Schii/us ChriSloph BemlUlrd (Kassel: BlI.renreiter. 1963). Introduction IX sively zealous in their application of newly discovered approaches to "correct" musical interpretation, so too could mUSicologists distort the portrayal of historical developments through strained associations or misconstrued conclusions. Nonetheless, the fact remains that numerous German Baroque authors described compositional devices which deviated from the ordinary or regular manner of musical expression with terminology either borrowed from the discipline of rhetoric or fonnulated to emulate such temlinology. Instead of matching a certain term with a singlc definition (or vice versa) as Unger has attempted, a clearer understanding ofa tenn can be attained by tracing its use and development through the diverse Figllrenlehren. H. H. Eggebrecht, a student of Gurlitt and my mentor at Freiburg University, developed this methodology in Studien zlir musikalischen Terminologie (1968). Such a terminological approach to the subject avoids the pitfalls of the earlier systematic generalizations regarding the Figurenlehre and sheds further light on the growing relationship between rhetoric and music, as well as on steadily evolving artistic and aesthetic principles throughout Ihe seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The rigorous application of rhetorical terminology and methodology to musical analysis and composition remained a predominantly Gennan Baroque phenomenon. While rhetorical principles influenced musical composition in Italian, French. and Englisb circles, only in Gennany did this develop into an enthusiastic adoption and adaptation of rhetorical terminology, methods, and structures. This resulted in a veritable musical rhetoric. a "local Gennan dialect" which flourished particularly in the writings of Lutheran Kanlors. In tbe postscript to a reprinted article which examines the fundamental differences hem/een Italian and German Baroque aesthetic principles, Eggebrecht acknowledges that the fundamental criteria for determining these differences are to be discovered in the unique and pervasive influences on Gennan musical thOUght of the Protestant refonner Martin Luther.' At the very heart of Baroque musical concepts in Protestant Gennany lies Luther's theology 5. Hans Heinrich Eggebrecbt. "Dber Bachs geschichtlichen 011," Johunn Seba.ftimr Bach (Wege der Forschung 170, Dannstadt: Wissenschafttiche Buchgesellschaft, 1970): 247-89, x Introduclion of music. which had significant influence on the development of Gemlan music throughout the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. His theological understanding of music helps to explain the continued German acceptance of Ihe scientific-mathematical significance of medieval music theory, the didactic rather than purely aesthetic intention of music, the increased importance of the rational accessibility to the musical craft. and the heightened significance of the rhetorical discipline, including the concepts of the affections and the musicalrhetorical figures. The present study explores the framework, origins, and development of the concept of musical-rhetorical figures.6 By examining the commonalities and differences between the various Figllrenlehren in their divergent contexts, we are able to trace the development not only of the concept but also of Baroque musical thought. It will be observed that the concept of the musical-rhetorical figures grew out of a desire to identify and deline with rhetorical tenninology those expressive musical devices which deviated from conventional compositional nonns, that the musical-rhetorical concept developed into a specific means ofrepresenting and arousing the afTections, and that toward the end of the Baroque era, an age in which such systematic and objective principles contradicted the increasing emphasis on "enlightened" individualistic and subjective musical expression, such a concept would experience its inevitable decline. Frequently these developments will be observed in the various definitions of a single musical-rhetorical term, Part 1 of this study seeks to present not only the necessary backgrotu1d to the concept of the musical-rhetorical figures but can serve as an introduction to Gennan Baroque music theory in general, focusing Oil Luther's theology of music, the development of the Gennan Baroque concept and discipline of mllsica poetica, the concept of the affections in German Baroque music, and the application of the principles and devices of rhetoric in compositional theory and practice. Regarding the chapters on musica poetica, the affections, and rhetoric, the discussion focuses chiefly on developments in Germany during the Baroque period, 6. Parts 2 and 3 of this study are based on the author's dissenation completed at the Alb(!/"{,I./ldll'ig.{- U"iwrsitiit, Freiburg im Breisgau (1982). published as Handbuch der m1l.~ikalische" Figurenlehre (Laaber: Laaber Verlag, 1985). /lllrrx/ucliOI1 as this remained the almost exclusive locus of the systematic development of a "musical rhetoric," including the musical-rhetorical figures. Occasionally it will be necessary to provide some background inf0n11ation to these various developments and concepts. In such cases, it is the legacy of the historical background \vhich will be of chief interest, rather than a thorough presentation of the historical developments leading up to the Baroque period. It should be remembered that in seventeenth-century Gennany Cicero and Uoethius were still being read, albeit at times in modified or amended versions. rendering these and othcr "ancient" sources authoritative and therefore "contemporary" to thc 13aroque student. Considering the centrality of Luther's theological views on music to this subject, the study begins with a brief summary of Luther's theology of music. While this short chapter is not intended to present an exhaustive discussion of Luther's views on music but serves primarily as a foundation for the following material. it is fundamental to the Gemmn concept oflIlusica poetica, and thus deserves its own. separate albeit brief presentation. This is followed by a chapter on IIll/sica poetica, the uniquely Gennan discipline of Baroque music which seeks to combine medieval music theory with Lutheran theology, inspired by Renaissance humanistic thought and seventeenth-century rationalism. The concept ofthe affections, which is central to the musical-rhetorical figures and has been associated with both music and rhetoric since antiquity, constitutes the subject matter of the third chapter. The fourth chapter concerns itself with rhetoric, predominantly in its application to Baroque musical composition. Part 2 introduces the various Figllrenlehren as presented in seventeenth- and eighteenth·century treatises and publications. After a cursory biographical sketch, each author's interpretation and classification of the figures is discussed. The diverse descriptions and categorizations resulted in some figures being classified as simple ornaments (Monieren.figllrae simplices) by some \\Titers and as musical·rhetorical figures by others. For this reason, Figllrenlehren such as those of Printz, and the discussion of ornamental embellishments by authors such as Vogt, Walther, Mattheson, and Spiess, are also included, but a cOlllpre- XII Introduction hensivc terminological study of the relevam tenus is not attempted.7 In pan 3 the various authors' deftnitions of the musical-rhetorical figures are presented alphabetically with their original text \\;Ih parallel English translations. accompanied by a discussion of the Icnn's origin and development. Regarding the orgaruzation of this section, an alphabelicailisting of the figures was considered the most appropriate and convenient method for a number of reasons: flfSt. any other method of listing the figures (for example by category) would make looking up figures rather awkward. especially since there aTC many references to individual figures in parts I and 2 ofthe text. as well as mmlerOliS crossreferences in part 3 itself; second. it renders part 3 most accessible as an independent reference resource; third. it preserves the methodology of a tenninological study in which the tenn rather than its content is the detennining criterium, a methodology which allows for a revised and corrected Wlderstanding of the Figllrefllehre itself; finally. related to the last point, it avoids numerous figures needing to be pilleed in more than one category owing to frequent multiple meanings of the same term. Included in the appendices is a swnmary of the ligures by category which groups the figures in various classifications, thereby aiding rellders who wish to discover groupings of related figures. While further examples in addition to those found in the sources which would demonstrate the use of a figure in various Baroque compositions would have added interest to this study, this was considered infeasible for a nwnber of reasons: first, as a tenninological study, the interest of the present text lies in exploring the origin. development, and understanding of a term rather than the content which the term names or describes; second, the fact that a single term often receives multiple definitions would lead to an unwieldy study far exceeding the intended compass of this volwne; third. there presently exist numerous studies which explore the use of musical-rhetorical figures by specific composers or in specific compositions: finally. it is my hope that this present study, having contributed toward the clarification of the diverse understanding and development of musical-rhetorical figure tenninol- 7. For a thorough discunion ofsuch ernbellishiug devices. the reader is referred to studies such as Frederick Neumann'S Omaml'ntmion in Baroque (SlId l'OSI-BoroqUI! Ml/s lC (Princeton; Princeton Universiry Press, 1978. 1983). lnlroollclr'on xi ii ogy. will facilitate further work in the use of the figures by specific composers. Each discussion of a figure begins with a swnmarizing definition, followed by a terminological explication. Wherever applicable, the tenn's literal meaning. rhetorical content, and musical application. interpretation, and development are discussed. Because individual authors are amply discussed in part 2 and all the musical definitions arc listed with their translations, it was not considered necessary to recapitulate each author's understanding of the figure but rather to concentrate on matters concerning the linguistic and musical origins and development of the term. The musical definitions of a figure arc preceded by rhetorical deftnitions of the respective tenn whenewr possible, represented among others by classical (Quintilian). Renaissance (primarily Susenbrotus), and Baroque (Gottsched) sources. nle musical definitions of each term are presented in chronological order. occasionally including definitions taken from sources other than a recognized Figurenlehre (e.g., Praetorius, Herbst). The source of a definition is indicated in parentheses following the name of the author through an abbreviation of the treatise and the appropriate page number. when possible. Should the treatise only be available in a modem edition. as in Bernhard's treatises' or Walther's Praecepta, the page numbers of the modem edition are used. All translations were prepared by myself~ at times in consultation with previous translations. While the English translations remain relatively literal, the inclusion of the original texts pennits certain liberties which facilitate a more fluent translation. The musical examples fOWld in the treatises are occasionally omitted, such as when the examples in various treaLises coincide or when an author includes numerous similar examples. In addition to the musicalrhetorical figw-es. the ornamental embellishments (/igllrae simplices or Mauieren) which are included in the treatises of the various authors have also been incorporated. However, rather than discussing these embellishments comprehensively, they are considered only to the extent of their inclusion in the relevant treatises.9 8. til the case of BffTlhard's treatises, the page numbers refer to the Millier-BI:lll:lU (1963) edition. 9. For an exhaustive sludy ofsuch ornaments, see NeullIaun. Ornamentation. Introduction The four appendices at the conclusion of this text provide various summaries and overviews of the musical-rhetorical figures, beginning with a listing of the figures in alphabetical order accompanied by a short definition, followed by a listing of the figures according to seven categories: figures of melodic repetition, figures of hannonic repetition (including fugal figures), figures ofrepresentation, figures ofdissonance and displacement, figures of silence, figures of ornamentation, and miscellaneous figures.10 As the classification of the figures varied widely in the seventeenth- and eighteenth-centuries, no modem attempt at classification can be considered defmitive. Rather, the present categorizalion of the figures is meant both to assist in determining or locating related figures and to provide a tool with which more expediently to match a certain musical-compositional device or phenomenon with a specific ternl or figure. For this reason, the tenns which were cross-referenced in part 3 and in appendix 1 are listed here along side the term under which the figure was defined in part 3. It is also in this appendix that the ornamental, "non-rhetorical" figurae simplices or Mal1ierel1 call be most easily discerned. Appendices 3 and 4 provide summaries of the figures by author, appendix 3 listing the authors alphabetically and the figures defined or mentioned in their respective treatises in the order of their original appearance, and appendix 4 listing the figures alphabetically followed by the authors who define or mention them. I would like to express my appreciation and gratitude to a few of the individuals who have encouraged and helped me throughout this entire project: to Prof. H. H. Eggebrecht, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitdl, Freiburg i. Br., Gennany, who directed me toward this area of research and patiently advised and guided me in my original doctoral studies and research; to Prof. Rolf Dammann, Albert-Llldwigs-Universitdt, who inspired me to "think theologically" about Gcnnan Baroque music; to Dr. Traugott Schachtele, who spent countless hours with me in Freiburg over Latin translations; to Prof. Gregory Butler. University of British Coilmlbia, Vancouver, Canada, who introduced me to the area of music 10. These categories are an adaptation of the classifications found in George Buelow's article. "Rhetoric and Music." Nell' Grm·e DicliOl1ury 0/Music ond Musicions. ed. Stontey Sadie (London: Macmillan. 1980). IS: 793·803. llt/rOC/llcliOIl xv and rhetoric and advised me in this present study: to Prof. Evan Kreider. Uniwrsity of British Columbia. who encouraged and advised me throughout this project; and above all. to my wife. Jocelyn. without \\ hose support. advice. proofreading. but most of all patience and understanding. this project would not have seen completion. PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPTS LUTHER ON MusIC: A THEOLOGICAL BASIS FOR GERMAN BAROQUE MUSIC For muslc ;s Q gift and largesse a/God, nO( a hllman gift, Praise through word and nIlisie is u sermon in l Olli/d. ... In Sllnrma, nexl 10 the Word a/God, Ihe noMe ort of music is 'he gre(J(('sllreaSlire in Ihis lI'orld Martin Luth~ Martin Luther"s outspoken comments on music are as legendary as they are colorful. Luther presented his fledgling church with much more than a random collection of passing thoughts on musical issues. Rather, in his ,witings one is confronted by a theology of music which not only outshines the musical musings of other church refonners but indeed, during the centuries that followed, provided Protestant musicians and music theorists alike with a fundamentally theocentric philosophy of music. M USIC, A DIVINE G IFT Luther's views on music differed substantially from those held by his humanistically inclined contemporaries. including those of t\'IO other notable refonners, Jean Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli. Rather than viewing music as a primarily human innovation, Luther believed music to be essentially a divine gift to humanity, second only to the Word of God or theology. This divine origin of music established God as the author and source of the natural phenomenon of sound. including the world of tones. Speculative musical theory based on the nwnerical proportions of musical intervals did not become irrelevant conjecture, as it did for the more humanistically minded, but rather was gennane to lUlderstaodiog music's divinely ordained power. 'Illis belief proposed that the very essence of God is revealed in and through the musical proportions. Through music the invisible becomes audible. The divine essence of music was underscored again and again by Luther in his numerous 4 Luthel' on Music writings. In his foreword to Georg Rhau's Syn/phoniae (1538), Luther wrote: "1truly desire that all Christians would love and regard as worthy the lovely gift of music, which is a precious, worthy, and cosIly treasure given mankind by God. ... In summa, next to the Word of God. the noble art of music is the greatest treasure in Ihis world."l Ln an unfinished essay on music (1541), he stated: "For music is a gjft and largesse ofGod. not a hwnan gift. ... After theology I accord to music the highest place and the greatest honour."l Not surprisingly, Luther regarded music as the most significant of the four mathematical disciplines ofthe seven liberal arts. Writing to Ludwig Senfl (1530). Luther maintained: "For this very reason the prophets cultivated no art so much as music in that they attached their theology not to geometry. nor to arithmetic, nor to astronomy, but to music. speaking the truth through psalms and hymns.") TItroughout the Baroque, Lutheran writers continued to emphasize this speculative aspect of music theory. reinforcing rather than rejecting its metaphysical relevance. Along with music per se. the discipline of musical composition was also viewed as a divine gift. Unlike his humanistic colleagues. Luther was not willing to abstract the art from the material. Both music and its associated discipline were God-given gifts. In the preface to the Geistliches Gesangbilchieill (1524). Luther \\Tote: "I desire that all arts, particularly music, be employed in the service of Him who has given and created them. I pray, therefore. that every pious Christian ... ifGod has endowed him with the necessary talents and ability, help further the cause.'14 It is therefore most appropriate that Luther praise the fine compositions ofmusicians such as Georg Rhau: "However. when man's natural musical ability is whetted and polished to the extent that it becomes an art. then do we note with great surprise the great and perfect wisdom of God in music. which is. after all. I-lis product and His gift; we marvel when we hear music in which one voice sings a simple 1. This and the following translated Luther quotations are taken from Walter Buszin. Lllther on Mus/c, ed. J. Riedel. Pamphlet Series No.3 (Saint Paul: Lutheran Society for Worship. Music and the Arts, 1958). The essay first appeared in M llsicut QUGner /y 32 (1946). 2. Cited in Buszin, LII/her (}If M IISIC, I I. 3. Ibid.. 7. 4. Ibid., 10. Luther on Music , melody, while three, four, or five other voices play and trip lustily around the voice that sings its simple melody and adorn this simple melody wonderfully with artistic musical effects. thus reminding us of a heavenly dance, where all meet in a spirit of friendliness, caress, and embrace.... A person who gives this some thought and yet does not regard it as a marvellous creation ofGod, must be a clodhopper indeed and does not deserve to be called a human being; he should be pennitted to hear nothing but the braying of asses and the gnmting ofhogs.'" MUSIC: ITs EFFECT Luther continued to embrace the concept of music's affective and fonnative power, based ultimately on a Christian interpretation of the Greek ethos teachings. The order of natural sound as defined through the mathematical proportions of the intervals was present from the moment ofCreation and is thereby an attribute ofthe Creator. To further support both this "orderly" explanation ofCreation and the phenomenon of music, most Lutheran music treatises of the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries continued to quote a passage of scripture taken from the Apocryphal book, the Wisdom of Solomon (ch.ll.20): "But thou hast ordered all things by measure and number and weight." The act of hearing music, of listening to ordered sound, is to resonate with Creation, of which the individual is a part. When the human ear perceives the various musical harmonies, it involuntarily recognizes the reality oftbe Creator's work. The human desire to participate in musical activity is not, therefore, so much a need for self-expression, as the humanists would have it, as it is a longing for and a reflection of a relationship with the Creator. This recognition also has affective and fonnative power on the human mind and body. Luther's views on music reflect Augustine's synthesis of Greek music theory with Christian dogma: music not only mirrors the order ofthe created universe through its own numerical order but can positively affect individuals by audibly ''putting them in touch" with the greater order of Creation. The order or 5. Ibid., 6. 6 I.u/her on All/sic "music" through which God created the universe thus becomes a means of spiritual growth. Music becomes a theological statement which allows it to be used in the struggle against melancholy, depression, and powers of darkness. References to the metaphysical power of music are frequently encoWltered in Luther's writings. In the preface to a collection ofpart songs (1538), he wrote: "To you, my dear )'OlUlg man, I conunend this noble. wholesome. and joyful creation. through which the feelings of your heart may at times be helped, especially when withstanding shameful lusts and bad company.'>6 And from his unfinished essay concerning music: "Music drives away the devil and makes people happy; it induces one to forget all wrath, unchastity, arrogance, and other vices.'" In one of his table talks, he claimed that "Satan is very hostile to [music]. since it casts out many scruples and evil thoughts. The devil does not remain near it, for music is one of the finest of all arts.... Music drives away the spirit of sadness. Music is a taskmistress which makes people milder and more gentle, more civil and more sensible."a Luther had little patience for those individuals who did not appreciate this power of music: ;'lbose who are not moved by this [contrapuntal music1are. indeed, unmusical and deserve only to hear some dWlghill poet or the music of swine.'>9 MusIC: A PEDAGOGICAL TOOL In assigning music the preeminent position as theology's handmaid, with its role of praising God and edifying humanity, Luther also gave music a didactic purpose. Rather than being a hwnan invention developed for the purposes of entertainment. recreation, and selfexpression, God's gift of music could impart divine truth both to those who heard il and to those who perfonned or studied it. Youth in particular were to be trained in the musical discipline, Luther repeatedly pointed out. In the preface to the Geistfiches Gesangbiichlein Luther 6. Ibid., S. 7. Ibid.. II. 8. Ibid.• 13. 9. Ibid.. S. /,/lthel' 0/1 MII.fie 7 expressed his concern over the musical education ofyouth, particularly regarding the eternal parental an.xiety over their instinctive musical preferences: "The music is arranged in lour parts. I desire this particu· larly in the interest orthe young people, who should and must receive an education in music as well as in the other arts if we are to wean them away from carnal and lascivious songs and interest them in what is good and wholesome. Only thus will they learn. as they should, to love and appreciate what is intrinsically good."10 Again from his letter to Senfl: " It is necessary indeed that music be taught in the schools. A teacher must be able to sing; otherwise I will not as much as look at him. Also, we should not ordain young men into the ministry unless they have become well acquainted with music in the schools.... We should always make it a point to habituate youth to enjoy the art of music. for it produces fine and skillful people." !! Thus music was to become an integral part of the Lutheran Lateinscllllle curriculum. In his Leiter to the Aldermen al1d Cities ofGermany 10 Erect alld Maimain Christian Schools of 1524, Luther wrote: "Since youth must skip about and leap, or at least do something that affords pleasure. and since it would certainly not do to forbid this entirely. oUght we nOI to furnish schools in which we could teach youth such art? ... If I had children and would be able to carry it out. I would insist that they study not only the languages and history, but also singing music and all of mathematics."]2 Not only music "and all of [the other] mathematics," but also the linguistic subjects were regarded as integral to the curriculum of the Lutheran Lateillschllfe. The new Lutheran emphasis on preaching the Word in worship services further encouraged the widespread "rediscov. ery" ofthe rhetorical discipline. Rheloric was given a very specific task: the preacher was to use the persuasive art of oration to admonish and edifY his congregation. Luther maintained Ihat preaching also occurs specifically through music, particularly when music is combined with a sacred text. A musical composilion could thus become a "sennon in 10, Ibid.. 10. 11. lbid.. 8. 12. Ibid.. 14. 8 Llllher on Music sound."ll Music could play both an indirect and a direct role in this process. First, it could move the listener to a receptive state for the spoken word: "(MusicI can engender a calm and willing heart. making it receptive for God's Word and Truth.,,1. Furthermore, music could lend the associated text a greater measure of emphasis and potency. While a spoken text might be understood intellectually. its text and affection could be expressed more emphatically through the addition of music. The musical expression of the text and the associated affection became the dominating concern for the following generations of Lutheran musicians and composers. Luther had given them the mandate not only to express the text and affections in their compositions, but to explain and expound on the meaning and significance of the words. He encouraged musicians to ensure that ';all the notes and melodies center on the text."l! In fact, in a proper musical setting, "the music will bring the text to life."16 Music is therefore not just a passive reflection of the text but a tireless advocate of the text. In the Latin preface to the Funeral Chorales (1542), Luther also maintained that "the addition ofthe singing voice (to the text] results in song, which is the voice of the affections. For just as the spoken word is understood intellechl8lly, it is affectively perceived through song.,,17 Both the heart and the mind were to be targeted by the composer. The affections were to be portrayed and aroused by the Lutheran composer not primarily to delight the audience, or 10 faithfully renect and re~ present the text. but rather, quite simply, to preach the Christian Gospel. Herein lies one of the significant differences between Italian and Protestant German Baroque music. Like the sermon, the musical composition was the "living voice of the Gospel," the viva vox evallgelii.ll And like the preacher, the composer was to use any artistic i3. "DIIS laudare verbo el musica isl cine sonOrA praediclltio." Oskar S6hngert, Theo/ogie der Musik (Kassel: Johannes Slauda Verlag. 1967), 95. i4. ibid., 96. 15. "Die Musica soli ' aUe ihre NOlen IUld Gesllnge auf den Text richten...' Ibid" 95. Significantly, this quote is also found in Michael Praetorius's S)"~la8m a musiCllm /. 16. "Die Noten machen den Text lebendig." Ibid.• 97. 17. "Sed vocem addendo fit canlUs. que vox est affectus. Sicul ergo verbum est jnlellectus, sic vox ipsills afi"eclUs." Ibid.. 96. IS. Ibid., 97. Luth~,. on "{usrr: 9 means necessary to convince his listeners. The use ofrhelorical devices and structures in music was one of these methods. Both its structuring steps and divisions as well as the expressive devices used in rhetoric were adopted by the Lutheran musicians in order to make them better "preachers." Specifically the musicahhetorical figures became not simply unconventional or decorative musical phenomena, but rather musical devices which were developed to lend the composition a greater measure ofexegeticaJ capacity. The role of Lutheran music was clearly pedagogical, seeking to teach and edify. With both music and rhetoric accorded such prominent and related status in the Lateinschlile curriculum, the path for their inevitable interrelationship was cleared. Although the new Italian musical idioms and styles were to be adopted by Lutheran musicians, these were always to be used primarily to explain and express the meaning and sense ofthe text, not just to imitate its affection. In summary, through his continued adherence to the holistic medieval concept of music and his simultaneous emphasis on music's practical application, Luther prepared the way for a synthesis between mllSica specliialiva and musica practica, ultimately leading to the uniquely German musica poetica. Through his concern over the education of youth coupled with his colleague Melanchthon's classical, humanistic interests, a curriculum for the new Lutheran Laleinschllien was to be established which would emphasize both the mathematical and the linguistic Latin disciplines. Through his emphasis on the importance of music as well as the spoken (and preached) Word, Luther stimulated the integration of the rhetorical and musical disciplines. And through his theological reinforcement of the traditional ethical view of music, Luther encouraged the combination of a musico-theological ethos with the concept of the affections based on the speculative science of the numerical proportions of the musical intervals. TOWARD MUSICA POET/CA: THE EMERGENCE OF A GERMAN BAROQUE MUSIC Muska I'oe(ica is thai discipline ojmusic which leaches how to compose a mllSical COmPOSifion. .. in order /0 sway (he hearts and spirits of indi~'iduals info van·ous dispruifions. Joachim Bunneister (1606) Music is a heavenly-philosophical and specifically mathematical science, which concerns i/Selfwilh fOlies, with the in/ent to produce an agreeable and artful HarmollY or consonallce. Johann Gottfried Walther (1708) Mllsic is the science and art wisely 10 alTange proper and agreeable sounds in a correct manner. O/Id to execute fhem pleasingly, in order fO josfer God 's glary and all virtlle fhrol/gh Iheir consono/fce. Johann Mattheson (1739) Two themes consistently receiving attention in German Baroque music treatises are music's speculative mathematical foundation and its intended edifying effect. Johann Gottfried Walther, J. S. Bach's cousin, friend, and colleague in Weimar, introduces his compositional treatise with the above definition of music which highlights both of these points. Although Walther's Italian contemporaries had abandoned the concept of music as a mathematical science, the understanding of music as a "heavenly-philosophical and specifically mathematical"l discipline remained prevalent in Lutheran Germany throughout most of the Baroque. While the philosophical basis for such an understanding is founded on the Lutheran theocentric philosophy of music, the historical basis for this phenomenon is rooted in classical and medieval concepts of music, influenced by Renaissance hwnanism and the revival of the linguistic and rhetorical disciplines. In order to gain a clearer and more thorough understanding of Gennan Baroque music, it will be necessary to explore these classical and renaissance influences. I. "Die Music ist eine himrnlisch-philosophische. und sonderlich aufMathesin sich grtindente Wipenschaft. welche umgehet mit dem Sono. so fern aus selbigen eine gute und kUnstl. Hannonie oder Zusanunenstimmung hervor zubringen:· J. G. Walther, Praecepta. 13. Toward Afllsicu Poefico I I THE CLASSICAL LEGACY The Roman philosopher and mathematician Ooetruus (480--524) furnished the link between Greco-Roman and medieval music theory, and remained inlluential well into the Baroque era. Through rus work the Pythagorean concept of music as a mathematical discipline became entrenched in medieval scholastic thought. establishing the primacy of tbe speculative science over the sensuously perceivable art of music making. The musical discipline was subdivided into three orders: fIIusica mill/dana, fllllsica hUll/ana, and mlfsica illsrrumentalis. In all three categories Lhe relationship between a microcosmic reflection of a macrocosmic reality becomes evident. The highest order of music, IIIl1sica nUll/dana (music ofthe spheres), deals with the "harmonic" and orderly motion of the stars and planets. the alternation of the seasons, and the organization of the elements. It is essentially a rational explanation of the macrocosm, presented through numerical proportions. The next order of music, fill/sica humana (music of the hwnan body and spirit), concerns itself with the "harmonic" relationship between the body and the soul, uniting the two in certain numerical proportions which are influenced by and reflective of the macrocosmie order of mllsica mundOI/O. As such, the human body represents a microcosm of the larger order. Both are governed by the same numerical proportions and relationships. The third and lowest order of music, musica instrllmelllalis, deals with the physical properties of sound and focuses on the numerical proportions of the musical intervals. The audible intervals are detennmed by the same proportions which govern musica mlmdalla and nil/sica I/llmal/O. In this order the numerical proportions become audibly perceptible through the physical application of the mathematical principles. The distinguishing feature between the two higher orders and the applied order lies in the fact that the former exist a priori while the latter is the result of human fabrication, using either musical instruments or the human voice. Medieval scholasticism placed much more confidence in intellectual ratio than in the emotional and consequently fallible senslls. Ii is therefore mathematical ratio which was always to correct aural sensus. With mathematical proportions detennined through ratio, the music theorist (mlfsiclfs) was considered superior to the practical musician or composer (calltor). Mllsica 12 TOWQl'd A{I/sica Poe/iea instrumelltalis was regarded as a rational exercise rather than a creative or expressive act. with the instruments merely being touls which allowed scientific observation and practical application. Throughout the Middle Ages music was accorded a place alongside its sister mathematical disciplines, arithmetic. geometry, and astronomy, these four subjects making up the quadrivillm of the seven liberal arts. Consequently the instructor of this subject, the /IIusic/ls . was a mathematics professor on the quadrivium faculty. The craft of musical composition had no place in this speCUlative concept of mllSica. The linguistic subjects ofthe trivium incorporated the other three liberal arts: grammar, dialectic. and rhetoric. It was as a member of the trivil/m faculty that the practical musician, the callfor. found his place. Applied music was considered a craft dealing with elocution or delivery. and was therefore more akin to rhetoric than to mathematics. In addition to directing school or church choirs and teaching the nldiments of music, the cantor was also frequently called upon to teach other subjects of the trivium, especially Latin and Rhetoric. This connection was to stand the Lutheran Kantor in good stead as rhetorical principles and methods became adopted by the musical discipline. While the linguistic disci· plines were regarded as inferior or "trivial" next to the quadrivial subjects in the medieval ordering of the seven liberal arts. this ranking was to change with the dawn of the Renaissance. Rhetoric and poetry rather than mathesis would increasingly be regarded as music's "sister discipline." Gradually it was the composer who was to be regarded as the true musicus poeticlIs, albeit with a redefined mandate. NUMERlCAL PROPORTIONS OF TIlE INTERVALS The numerical proportions of the various intervals can be audibly and visually demonstrated through the use of the monochord, a single stringed instrument with a moveable bridge. lbis instmment became the "laboratory" of the musical science, the tool of musica jnstrllmentalis. Given the continued significance of these principles in German Baroque music theory, the intervallic proportions will be explained in more detail. The first and simplest interval, the octave, is produced by dividing the monochord string into two equal portions. If the original Toward Alusica Poetica 13 string SOlmds a C. then one of the two portions would produce a c. the note one octaw higher than the original note. resulting in the octave proportion I:2. Octaves can therefore also be calculated by factoring by 2: the note c 1 (an be represented by the relationship 1:4. the note c } by I:8. etc. The fifth is created by dividing the string into three equal portions. One of these portions produces the note g, a twelfth higher than the originnl C. resulting in the relationship I:3. Fifths can therefore be calculated by factoring by 3. To arrive at the proportion of the fifth, the munbers represeming c (I :2) and g ( I :3) are jUJ.;taposed, resulting in the proportion 2:3. The interval of the fourth with its proportion 3:4 is deri,'ed by juxtaposing the nwnbers representing g ( I :3) and c I ( I :4). To arrive at the next fi fth. d }, the g (1 :3) must again be divided into thirds, resulting in the relationship I:9. To calculate the proportion of a whole tone. the Illunbcrs representing c} and d J are j uxtaposed, resulting in the proportion 8:9. Through combining the calculations of fifths and octaves, all musical intervals can thus be given a specific numerical proportion, based on the number representing the desired new note juxtaposed against the appropriate octave of the original note. To establish the proportions of a major third, two further divisions by 3 of the note d 1 are required, resulting in the interval C-e ' having the relationship I:81, and c'-e J generating the proportion 64:81 . Through. out the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, major and minor thirds were increasingly regarded as consonances. calling the validity of their high proportions and thus their implied dissonance into question. Renaissance music theorists were to demonstrate that in fact an e 1 could be generated on the monochord with the relationship I:5, resulting in the consonant proportion 4:5 for the major third c l -e I, while 5:6 (e I _ g ' ) was shown to produce the minor third.2 With this justification, it becomes apparelll that sensus rather than only ratio was being called upon to delennine dissonance and consonance. The medieval distrust of 2. TIlis "new" proportion of the major third (4:5 - 64:80) is indeed very close to the ~1hagoreltll proponion 64:81 . Being now so much closer to the unison, it could be defined as a consonrulcc instead ofa dissonance. The difference between these two thirds (80:81) was considered equal to one comma. Nine commata mltke up one whole tone (8:9 '" 72:81: 81 • 72 ,. 9). with a major semilone consisting of 5 commata and a minor semilone consisling of 4. See also Apotomia in part 3, below. 14 Toward Musica PQlt/C(l the senses was being gradually modified by a new Renaissance "humanized" orientation. In summary: Unison: (C) \ :1 Minor Third: Octave: (C-£) 1:2 Major Sixth: Fifth: (c-g) 2:3 Minor Sixth: Fourth: (g-c I) 3:4 Whole Tone: Major Third: (c l-il') 4:5 Semitone: INTERVALLiC PROPORTIONS AND THEOLOGICAL SYMBOLISM (e '_g I ) 5:6 (g-< ' ) 3:5 (e '-c 1 ) 5:8 (C 1-(/ 1) 8:9 (b l---c: I) 15:16 In the cosmo-theological understanding of the musical discipline, the relationship between the musical intervals and their divine origin did not remain vague speculation but was thoroughly explored by Gennan Baroque music theorists. The unison, with its proportion 1:1, was considered the starting point of all music, much like the point of a line in geometry. It remained only a small step to make the connection between the perfection of the unison and the perfection of God, the "starting point" ofcreation.} For music, the mirror of the cosmos, has a perfect origin like the universe itself, with the unison standing above consonance or dissonance. From this "point" the perfect and imperfect consonances are derived. The intervals were ranked according to their proportions by the following principle: the closer a proportion is to the unison (i.e., the lower the numerals), the more consonant it will be. It is not surprising that in such a cosmological understanding ofthe intervals, numerology played a significant role. Thc composer and theorist Andreas Werckm eister went to some length to ascribe theological 3. "Denn wie die Unitlit von sich seiber ist f und von keiner Zald den Anfang hat I sondem der Anfang aller Numerorum seiber ist I und kein Ende hat. Also ist Gott ein eintziges Wesen von Ewiglr.:eil f der Anfang ohne Anfang I und Fortgang aller Dinge I depen Wesen und Kraft sich in Ewlgkeit erstred:et / lll\d kein Ende hat" Andrea.! Wercluncister, MI/sicofirche Porado:l.ol-Discoune (Quedlinburg. 1107), 92. "Oou selbst ist die Unitllt." 1. 1-1. Buttstett. m: ioU. SOL, 24, cited in Rolf Dammann, Der Musikbegriif im deutschen Harock (Laaber: Luber Verlag, 1984). 38. Toward Alusica Poe/iea 15 sili!.nilicance 10 the various intervallic proportions. 4 While the numeral I ;eprescnts God the Father. 2 represents the Son. being onc with the Father yet distiJl(:I..iust as the two notes spanning an octave are the same \ ct distinct ~umer6 Music thereby acts as 5. ·'Camaeh hat aueh der Mensch die Gleichheil der Musicalisehen Proponionen in seiner Seele I und lIuperlichen Gliedem I wie wir geh6ret haben I wann nun der Mensch solche dureh die Sonos vemimmt I so wird ihm dadurch ebenmlissig sein EbenSlid vorgeslellet I an weichert er sich belustigen kan." Werckmeister, Paradoxa/, Discourse, 25. 6. ·'Und C5 kann aueh nicht anders seyn, als dap GemUth des Mcnsehen durch cine wohlgesetzte Music mup regieret und bewegel werden. Denn ein Mensch ist so wohl inner!. als liuperlich, gdst- und leibl. ein von Gott erschafTenes harmonisches Wesen. ... Weil nun der Mensch ein rechtes formular der Music ist, so belustigct er sich freylich, wenn ihm sein Ebenbild durch musicaiische Proponiones vorgestellel wird: ' Walther, PraeceplO, 75. Similarly Werckmeister: ··Wenn nun ein wohlgesi nneter Mensch eine Music hOret I so empfindet sein Gemlithe zwar die U cblichkeit I so den Seh/jpfer georOOet J aber er weip doch nieht die Uhrsache I wo iiln nichl die Zahlen Toward }'frlsica Poe/iea 17 an ethical force, influencing the individual through its reflection of the dh'ine Creator. "Is it not marvelous to recognize that music finds its origin in God, and that as His image, we can hannonize with God! "1 FlIflhennore. not only does music present an individual with his own li\...eness. "(namely that he is hannonically created). but God is also reminded of His own divine wisdom, providing Him with pleasure.'" For this reason the human endeavor of music-making is a delight both to God and humankind. Just as /III/sica praclica serves to praise God and edify the listener, so too do the speculations of mllsica theoretica serve to glorify God. LUlher's fami liar quote, "next to Theology, I give music the highest place." is nol an empty statement in simple praise of music. Rather, it POiIllS to the importance of the speculative discipline of musica theorefica in uncovering and explaining the mysteries of the Wliverse. The very role of music was to make arithmetic audible and could not therefore be simply a speculative exercise. Of this Leibnitz writes in 1712: ·'Music is a hidden arithmetical exercise which 'counts off' (se IIl1merare) subconsciously in the soul.'J'} In music's mathematical order, the order of creation is revealed, manifesting God's wisdom and creative power. In the words of Werckmeister: "Nothing ofthe natural order can be discO\·ered in music unJess ratio, that is arithmetica and mathesis first point out the right way."IOAgain Werckmeister: "We call that naruml which can be comprehended by sense and ratio ... in accordance with God's creation and ordering of all things."II dahin gebrachl hiinen I und ihm die Proportione! harmonicas, welche von Gon geordnet I gezeiget h31101." Puradwol-DisCOllrs~, 25. 7. "1st das nun nicht rill gropesldall wir willen wie die Music ihrem Uhrtprung a ilS Goo habe f wld dal} wi! als Ebcnbilde Gottes I mit Gott hannoniren kl:\nnen." Ibid., 28. 8. '·Denn durch die Music wird dem Menschen nicht allein scin Ebenbild (neml. dap er harmonisch zubereitet sey) vorgeregt; sondem es wird auch Gott seine gottl. Weipheit \"orgehalten, darinnen Er sich belustigel." Walther, Praecepla, 14. 9. ··Musica est exercitiulIl arithmeticae OCCUItUIll neseientis se numerare animi:' Leibnitz. in a letter to mathematician Goldbach, cited in Danunann, Musikbegriff, 79. 10. ··Es kann aber in Musicis nictus natUrliches geschlossen und erkandt werden, wo nichl ralio. das ist Arithmetica und Mathesis vorher den rechten Weg zeigeten:' Cited in Eggebrecht, "Ober Baehs geschichtlichcn Ort,"' 266. II. ··Wir nennen dasjenige natUrlich I was ullsere Sinne und Vemunffi begreifen konnen . .. wie Gott aile Dinge in der Welt geschalTen und gcordnet hat." Andreas Werckmeister. Mllsicae malhemOficae Hodegus clfrio.flU (FrankfurtlLeipzig, 1686), 12. 18 Toward Musica Poe/ieD CHANGING PRJORITIES OF SPECULATIVE AND PRACTICAL MUSIC THEORY The purely speculative Boetman concept of music slowly began to lose its dominating position at the dawn of the Renaissance. With the growing concern regarding musical notation and the craft of musical composition, a new categorization ofmusic was introduced which gave greater prominence to matters concerning humanly conceived music. In his Tetrachordum musicae (1490) Adam von Fulda, an influential Renaissance music theorist from Wittenberg, redefined musica instrumentalis while retaining the categories of musica mundana and musica humana as two subcategories of musica naturalis. He listed as the laner's cowuerpart musica artijicialis, under which he reintroduced mllsica instrumentafis and added musica vocalis. l1lUS musica instrllmentalis graduated from the lowest manifestation of musica to one of two categories of musica artijicialis or "skillfully crafted music," itself now at least on par with musica natllralis. Besides incorporating the structuring of intervals and modes, musica artijiciafis also included the various notational and compositional precepts. Throughout the Italian Renaissance the speculative science of music gradually lost ground to the more practical craft of musical composition. The two speculative orders ofmusic, musica mundana and musica humana, were subsumed into one musical category, musica theoretica or naturalis, resulting in a bipartite division ofthe musical discipline into a theoreti· cal and a practical category. In addition, the concept of science itself underwent a change during this period, increasingly referring to the realization ofa concept rather than just the concept itself. A science was to be functional rather than purely speculative. It was to be applicable and pertinent to the individual in order to be relevant. The underlying reasons for this change are to be found in the very essence of the Renaissance world view. The human began to replace the Divine as both object and subject ofthe disciplines. To legitimize this shift in emphasis, the sciences were "humanized" while, at the same time, the arts were given greater credence through scientific explanations and justifications. Ftuthennore, the linguistic disciplines ofthe trivium, with their empha· sis on human communication, became increasingly prominent. This pennitted those theorists who chose to continue emphasizing the science Toward MI/5;ca Poe/ic(I 19 of rnusi(' to legitimately include its practical application. Thus Machau! (Quid already declare: "And music is a science. whose purpose is to make pcopk laugh and sing and dance.,,12 The changing perception of the arts and transformed concept of science "humanized" the theory of music. \\hile simultaneously "rationalizing" the craft of composition. THE RISE OF MUSICA POETICA Throughout the fifteenlh and sixteenth cennlries. the cosmological focus of IlIl1sica reyealed in the numerological abstractions of mllsica flleol'efica shifted to an anthropological fOCliSrevealed in the rhetorical powers of IlIl1Sica poetica. This paralleled the Renaissance shift in emphasis from the mathematical quadrivium to the linguistic trivium. In italy, this change was accomplished at the dawn ofthe Baroque era. The musical composition was thus perceived aesthetically rather than speculath·ely. Music itself had become the language. While Italian Renaissance and Baroque writers tended to adhere to the bipartite divisions of music i11l0 mllsica theoretica (natura!is, speculativa) and /Ill/sica practica (artijicialis), some German Lutheran writers began to promote a third category, mllsica poelica. This order ofmusic combined the established tmlhs of mllsica theoretica with the heightened Renais· sallce concept of the composer as artist, who is called upon to reveal the meaning oflhe text in and through his music. The speculative medieval tradition was not cast off but rather redefined in the Lutheran north. In reaction to the grO\\ing scepticism of medieval speculative music theory Adam Yon Fulda exclaimed: "The unfortunates! They do not seem to know that Bocthius said in the XXXIII chapter of the first book of his lnstitutione: 'id mllsicus est, qui ratiolle perpensa' (the musician is one who measures by reason)."lJ It was only few years later that Nicolaus Listenius introduced the tenn nil/sica poetica as a genre of musical 12. Cited in Palll Henry Lang, Mllsic ill /Yes/em Cil'iliza/ioll (New York: Norton, 19.\1).162. 13. lbid.. 60. 20 TOli'ard Afusica Poetico composition,I4 In 1563 the lenn was first used as a title for a compositional treatise by Gallus Dressler. 1$ establishing it as a description of both a genre and a disciplLne. By 1600 a systematic use of rhetorical principles and terminology, including the concept of musical~ rhetorical figures. had been established in the 1Illlsica poelica discipline through the writings ofJoachim Bunneister.10 This emphasis on persuasive communication was incorporated by expanding mllsica practica into two subcategories: the traditional ars caIJrfls. focusing on the execution of a composition, and the new mllsica po€rica, focusing on text-expressive composition. While some German theorists, such as J. G. Walther, induded ",,,sica poelica as a subcategory of m"sica pracfica, thereby retaining the Italian bipartite classification, others, such as Andreas Herbst, defmed it as an independent musical category. In either case, the theoretically informed composer was now given the highest ranking as the true lII"sicIIS poeticlIs, replacing the medieval nlllsiclIStheorist. Werckmeister's explanations of the roles of theorist and practitioner clearly point to the superiority of one who has mastered both disciplines. While the theorist only knows the rules but cannot practically apply them (by playing or composing) and while the practitioner can compose or play according to the rules but cannot comprehend or explain them. the ideal musician is expert in both areas.n The concept of divine order remained all important to the Gemlan Baroque musician, reflecting the increasing Significance of natural rationalism in the context of the cosmologically and theologically 14. Nicolaus Listeniu5. Rlldimellla mllsicae pltmae (Witlen~rg. t533). MI/sica poe/ica predates the introduction of the term mllsica re.fe/1.'ata (first used by Coclico, CamJnndilim nUlsiees. 1552) alld becomes Inuch more widespread alld significant. particularly in German circles. 15. Gallus Dressler. i'raeceplo musicae poe/icae (Magdeburg. 1563). 16. Joachim Burmeister. Hyponmemolllm muskae poe/icat (ROSIOCk, 1599); Musica poe/iea (Roslock. t606). 17. "Ein Theomicus kan die Natur der proportioncn oder dercr FOl1schreitung wohl gribldlich beschreiben l und gute rationes davon geben I es kan IIber demselben an der invention der ZusammenSetZ\Ulg \Uld mll.nirlichcn modulation fchlen; Ein PrllcticliS aber kan aus den Regeln ' welche ein TheoretiClis vorgeschrieben I die manier und modulation auf allemand Arth verllndem Ijedoch weip er keine rlltiones von seiner erbauten Iill.nnonia 7.Ilgcben.... Jedoch ist c:s umb so \'iel hesser I wenn jemand ein Thc:orelicus und Practicus zugleich seyn ken." Werckmeister. Mllsic(le nw/hematicae. 10. TOlYard Musica Pootica 21 anchored Protestant view of music. Intellectual understanding recognized order in Nature (arithmetic proportions). a natural order which the musical composition was to reflect. Ratio was to be used to discern the power of music, to structure musical compositions, and ultimately to control the affections of the listeners. Even the untrained ear would recognize the beauty of properly composed Illusic, for when "truth" is experienced, it is recognized as such. Conversely, music wruch did not conform to the natural laws would confuse the ear and would be recognized as chaotic. The further the proportions strayed from the unison (i.e.. from God), the more dissonant they would become, the infinite being considered reprehensible and confused.I' The Baroque discipline of music attempted to understand and control nature and its hannonic system through this objective rationalism. encouraging the taming of nature as did Baroque gardening, painting, and architecture. Nature itself was to be controlled and hamessed to become what it was destined to have bcen. Artistic devices, whether in gardening or in music, were to be employed to "correct" nature herself. particularly those aspects of nature where the uncontrolled had run amuck. Hwnankind, ,'lith its higher rationalist insight, could faci litate this. The result would be ultimate truth, the very core of nature. 111us htullan artful and rational improvements, reprojectcd upon nature, could illuminate the true essence of nature, realizing in the end that which thc Creator had originally intended according to "measure and number and weight." It is in this light that the Baroque concept of the affections and the musical-rhetorical structures, with their mandate to arouse and portray the passions, can best be understood and explained. For j ust as nature could be tamed, so too could the human temperaments and passions be controlled through orderly and craftfully fashioned artistic devices. ultimately leading to a rhetorical and affective musica poefica. 18. "... so sind es l1umen. wetche ill keine kleine Zahlen k6nnen gebracht werden l und bekommet der Vmtand des Menschen gleichsam ein Grauen vor so1chen grossen Zahlen I weil sie nicht k6nnm ~griffen und verstanden werden I darum heiset es hie auch wohl natura ab infinitis abhorret." Werckmeister, Cribrum mllsicllm oder ""I.'iica/ischt$ Sieh (Quedlinburg und Leipzig. 1700). 7r. Also Werckmeister. Musicae "'a/hen/mica('. 13 11lis rational naturalism. heightened to !II dogma during this period. was considered unnaluraltoward the end oflhe Baroque eta. 22 Toward MUJico Poe/lea MUSICA POETICA, AN EXPRESSION OF TEXT AND AFFECTION The objectives of mllsica poetica were summarized by Walther as follows: "Musica Poetica or musical composition is a mathematical science through which an agreeable and correct harmony of the notes is brought to paper in order that it might later be sung or played, thereby appropriately moving the listeners to Godly devotion as well as to please and delight both mind and soul, , ' , It is so called because the composer must not only understand language as does the poet in order not to violate the meter ofthe text but because he also writes poetry, namely a melody. thus deserving the title Melopoeta or Meiopoew,,,19 As this definition points out, musica poerica is essentially vocal music in which the "music-poet" was to present the text in a Klang-rede or musical oration. In order ultimately to move the listener to greater Godly devotion, music was to express both the text and its associated affections, two mandates which were either implied or emphasized in most musica poetica treatises. Luther had already established text expression as one of music's primary purposes: music is most powerful when united with the Gospel, for in combining the Word with music, God's two most powerful gifts to hwnanity are forged into one invincible force.l o While the text convinces the intellect, the music persuades the passions. Furthermore, music was to be used both to express and to explain the text. Just as the sermon is the "living voice of the Gospel," so too is music to "bring the text to life,,,ll Luther's interest in present- 19. "Mush:a Poetica, oder die musicalische Composition ist eine mathematische Wil}enschaffl, verm6ge welcher mall cine Iiebl. und reine ZU5ammenstimrnung der Sonorum aufsetzct und zu Papier bringet, dal} wlche nachmahls kann gesungen oder gnpielet werden, den Menschen fUmemlich zu eifriger Andacht gegen Gott dadurch zubewegen, lUld dann ouch das GeMr und GemOth del}elben zu ergetzen und zu \'ergnllgen , . , wird sie genennct deswegen, weil ein Componist nicht a1lein die Prosodie so wohl als ein Poet verstehen mul}, damit er nicht wieder die qU8fltitaet der Sylben verstol}e; sondem auch, wei! er ebenfalls etwa$ dichtet, nem!. eine Melodey, von wetcher er auch genetUlet wird Metopoera oder MeJopoeus." ProeceptQ, 75. 20. S6hngen, Theofogie der Musik, 91 fI. 21 . "Die rechte Predigt ist \';\'0 vox I!mngefii ( '" lebendige Stimme des Evan· geJiwns), lUld auch die reciJte Music is \'i,'o \'0.\' nYlnge1ii: 'Die Noten mochen den TVrI lebendig ' (Tischreden Nr,2545b)," Ibid., 97, The reference to "bringing the text to life" Toward /il1I.fica Poelica 23 ing and teaching the Christian message through music also encouraged a German adoption of those styles of music which were limited to the theater in Italy. For it was the text-expressive SlY/lIS ,hearralis, including the s(I·II,S recilativlIS. which could depict and explain the text most. . effectively. lllis style of music also made the best use of the many textexprcssi\ e and affection-arousing devices which paralleled the rhetorical figures of speech and thought. The mandate to express and explain the 1e.xl encouraged not only the development orthe concept of musicalrhetorical figures but also led to the introduction ofa musical inve"'io, disposilio, and e/ocutio, along with the associated rhetorical methods and dc\'ices. Musica poe/ica thus adopted literary and rhetorical concepts and language to describe and define its own mandate, The description of a composition and its expressive musical devices in such rhetorical tenus first emerged in Gennan circles during the sixteenth century, parallel to the establishment ofLutheran Protestantism. Throughout the sewnteenth and eighteenth centuries, mllsica poetica then gradually embraced virtually all of rhetonc's principles and procedures, While the focus ofthe musical-rhetorical figures was initially on the lext. the expression of the affections through the figures gradually gained prominence, eventually replacing the text's dominating role, In the introduction to the musical-rhetorical figures in his Musica Poetica, Bunneisler assured the student that "the text itself will present the rules" for Iheir application.u In his list of figures Burmeisler included such devices as hypotyposis, used to express the text in a realistic and lifelike manner, andpathopoeia, which was most suitable for expressi.ng the text and creating the associated affection. Johalm Nucius listed over forty words to be musically expressed al the end of his chapter dealing with the musical-rhetorical figures.l ) The same list also appeared in Andreas Herbst's treatise.N Adopted from Nucius were the "affective words" (\'erba aJlecfllllm): rejoicing, weeping, fearing, wailing, moumIS ul1 mi~taka bly reminISCent of the rhetorical figure of speech, hYPOl)posis, See H.~P()/J1}OSis in part 3. below. 22. See p.97, n. IO, betow. 23. Johannes Nucius, Musicu poetieaesil'e de compositione COn/liS (Niesse, 1613), 03'. 2.1 Johann Andreas Herbst, MI/siea poe/iea s;"e compendium melopoelicum (Niimberg. 1643), Ill. 24 TOU'Ufd MI/sictl f'oet/C(I ing. pleading. raging. laughing. pitying: "words of motion and place": standing, nmning. dancing. resting. leaping. lining. lowering. ascending. descending. hea\'en, hell. mountain. abyss. heights. etc.: "adverbs of time and number": quickly. fast, soon. slowly. early, late. l\vice. thrice, four times, again, once more. often. rarely: and other words such as light, day, night. darkness. Herbst also included words describing human states: childhood, youth. old age: and human mores: haughty. humble. contemptuous, inferior. odious. By the end of the century. Daniel Speer would almost double Nucius's list ofwords,H A similar albeit much shorter Jist was presented by Demhard in his introduction to the figures used in the styills rheatralis. a sty le most closely linked to the expression of the text.26 Kircher repeatedly stressed affection and text expression both in his introductory comments and definitions of the figures. shifting the emphasis of the musical-rhetorical figures from an elaborative 10 an expressive concept. The text was to bc depicted and made present and alive through the music. This concept of vividly expressing the "idea" of the text through the music was also underscored by Mauritius Vogt. who called his expressive musical-rhetorical figures ji'gl/rae ideales. Like Nudus and Thuringus before him, Vogt encouraged the composer to emulate the painter. "placing the beautiful or frightful images life-like before the eyes of the listeners through the IllUSiC."21 Johann Allie's discussion of the musical figures was based entirely on the literary figures. The composer was to reflect musically not only the syllables. accents, and caesurae but also the rhetorical figures which were fOWld in the text. The natural expression of the text was also underscored by Mattheson. who devoted a number of chapters of his Der vollkommelle Capellmeister to this maller. However, with Mattheson, and especially Scheibe and Forkel. the centrality of a text gave way to general affective expression, equally important and possible in purely instrumental music. By the early eighteenth century. IIIIISico poetico's emphasis on text expression was superseded by the call to portray and arouse the aiTec- 25. Vier/aches nlUJikali.fches Kleebla/t (Ulm. 1697).283. Nucius's and Speer's lists are ciled in Hans-Heinrich Unger. Die BI'=iehllngen =wiJchen Mlis/k lind Rhe/or!k 1m 16.-18. Jahrhllllrfl'rt(WOrzburg: Trittsch. 1941 ), 38. S~e Hypot)'posis for Speer's list. 26. See p.116. below. See also H)1}Q/yposis. 27. Se~ p.128. 0.89. I>1:low. Toward A{usiCQ Poe/iea 25 tions. gradually giving way to the emerging Enlightenment mandate to express an individual 's sentiments. A CHANGING MUSICAL AESTHETIC TIle 1I"",erlls-oriented concept of seventeenth-century Gennan Baroque music underwent a fundamental transfonnation during the following century. In music. as in all other artistic disciplines. the equilibrium between sellSIlS and ratio wroch the Renaissance had established would be upset in the eighteenth centill)'. In a Zeitgeist which sought to detennine aesthetic principles on the basis of empirically discemed personal experience, the influential role of the speculative perception of music was increasingly called into question. The first indications of this change can be traced back to the sixteenth-century reevaluation of the legitimacy of the third as a consonance. While this modem approach detennined the concept of music at the begiruting of the Italian Baroque, resulting in an early rejection of an aesthetic based on numerus, the mathematical-theologically oriented tmderstanding of music in Lutheran Gemla0Yheld its own into the eighteenth century. Writing at the close ofthe seventeenth century, Wolfgang Caspar Printz still pointed to the authority of ratio over sensus:"Although we have two judges in music, ratio or the intellect and senslls or the ear, it is imperative that while they should agree. ratio retains the upper hand and does not allow the ear the freedom to judge independently, unless it is absolutely unavoidable. For if the ear is given the upper hand and is allowed the freedom to judge independently, then absolutely nothing could be verified with certainty in music.,,21 Not only is this musical ratio still rooted in speculative mathematics, but so is its calculable effect, a point which Johann Kuhnau emphasized a few years later: "Music belongs among 28. "Wir baben zwar in der Music zween Richter I Rlllionem. die Vemunfft l und Audilum. das Oehlke I jedoch dergeslall l dap beyde mil einander i1bereintrelTen l und doch Ralio die Ober-Hand behalle I und dem Geh6re niemahls die Freyheil gonne allein zu judiciren f es erfordere es dann eine unumbglingliche Nothwendigkeit. Denn wenn das GeMr die Ober-Hand und die Freyheil allein zujudiciren haben solIe I so wOrde man in Musicls ganlZ nichts Gewisses schliessen kimnen." Wolfgang Caspar Prinlz. Phr)mis !I(l lIle"llelis. odl'r Saf}Tischer Componist (DTesden/Leipzig, 1696). pl.3. R4. 26 Toward Musica Poetica the mathematical sciences and is therefore axiomatic.'029 However, Kuhnau's illustrious student Johann David Heinichen was of quite a different mind on this matter. As if arguing directly against Printz (and all others who shared Printz's views including his own teacher) Heimchen stated: "Musicians of the past, we know, chose t\vo judges in music: Reason and the Ear.... It wrongly classed the two judges and placed the Ear, the sovereign of music, below the rank of Reason.... [Prescnt-day musicians) return to the oppressed Ear the sovereignty of its realm; ... but othe['\vise, (if] Reason differs in opinion, it must serve Ithe EarJwith complete obedience and employ all of its skill, not for the visual appearance on paper, but to give the Ear the satisfaction of an absolute ruler.")O Walther's earlier definition of musica poelica as a "mathematical science" (Praecepta) was also noticeably revised in his Lexicon: "Musica Poetica . .. the name given to musical composition, or the art [!] of inventing melodies and arranging consonances with dissonances.")) The changing concept of music in Gennany was un· equivocally and explicitly emphasized by Mattheson, who went to considerable length to discredit the speculative·mathematical concept ofmusic: "I am therefore basically still of the same opinion, ... namely that not a grain of musical substance can be found in arithmetic.... It is Nature which produces sound, including all the as yet undiscovered proportions.... Mathematics is like a pen, and the notes the ink, but Nature must do the writing.... Mathematics is only a human art; but Nature is a Divine power."Jl While still accepting a theological rele· 29. "Die Music gehiirel Wlter die Mathematischen Wissc:nsdtaften Wld hat folgendlich unfehlbare Demonstrationes." Johann Kuhnau, Musieaiisehe Von/ellung einiger lJiblisener Historien (Leipzig, 1700; new ed. K. Stone, New York: Broude, 1953), xi. 30. Cited in George Buelow, Thorough-Ross Aeeompallimem according /0 Johann Dodd Heiniehen, revised ed. (Ann Arbor: liMl Research Press. 1986), 278f. 31. "Musica Poetica .. . also heisset die eigenllich also genannle musicalische Composition, oder die Kunst. Melodien zu erfinden, und die con- und dissonirende KIl!nge mit einander zu vemuschen." Johann Gottfried Walther, Musieafischu Lexicon (Leipzig, J732). 32. "Der Satz: Dall die Mathematik bey der Musik nichts helffe, ist unrichtig, und bcdruff' einer guten Er!liuten.Ulg .. . dall die Mathematik der Musik Hen und Seele sey; dall aile GemUths-Verl1nderungen. so durch Singen Wld Klingen hervorgebracht werden, bloll in den verschiedenen liusserlichen Verh1ihnissen der TOne ihren Grund haben, solches ist noch viellirger und irriger, als obiger Ausspruch.... Des Hmens BewegWlg hat derlUlach ihren Gn.Uld. d.i. we Ursache, ihren Urspnmg nirnmermehr in den blossen 1'Qwa,'li Mllsica Poe/lea 27 vance of music theory. the mathematical explanation of music became subser,ieo! to the empirical realm of natural experience. TItis reorienta· tion placed a subjC(:tive and individualistic slant on musical interpreta· tion. consequently preparing the way for the eighteenth·century Empfil1dsamkeit aesthetic. Objectivity gave way to subjectivity, mathe· matics to nature. science to expression, and the Baroque to the EnJight· enmcn!. [n summary. throughout the seventeenth century, general musical thought in Lutheran Gennany continued to revolve around theocentric, malhematical·scientific concepts inherited from medieval music theory. llo\\e\'er, influenced by Renaissance thought and Lutheran theology, significant revisions of the purely speculative perception of music resulted in a "humanized" understanding of the discipline. The human senslls hecame as important as ratio in determining music's effects, illustrated by the admittance of the third as a musical consonance. The purpose ofmusic as an efTective as well as affective means of communication made the practical discipline ofcomposition more prominent than its theoretical counterpart. But instead of dismissing the speculative acoustical science of music as irrelevant. German writers sought to incorporate Lutheran theology and Boethian mathematics into the flouri shing understanding of music as a humanistic art form. With the growing Renaissance and Lutheran emphasis on the trivium, linguistic and rhetorical concepts became significant elements of musical compo· sition. resulting in a uniquely Gemlan /II"sica poelica. The Lutheran emphasis on exegesis of the Word coupled with the Renaissance emphasis on the linguistic disciplines resulted in a concept of music which elevated the expression of the text and its associated affections Ktangcn lind W6rtem.... Denn die Seele. als tin Geist. wird empfindlich geriihret. Wodurch? wahrlich nicht durch die Kllinge an und fUr sich. noeh dUTCh ihre Gr6sse. Gestalt lmd Figur allein; sondem haupts!khlich dureh deren gesehickte. immer neucrsonnene. Wid unersehClpOiche Zusallum~nfilgwlg.... leh bin also im Grunde noch eben der l'"le)~lwlg .. . dap nchmlieh in der Rechenkullst keill Schein des musikalischen Fundamc!lls steckel... . Die Natur bringt den Klang. mid aile ~eine. aueh die grosseslen Theil, nodI lUlbekannte Verhilitnisse her\.'or. . . . Mathesis ist die Feder. Klange sind die Dinte: aber die Natllr nlUp der Schreiber seyn. ... Mathesis ist eine menschlich Kunst; Natur aher eine GOnliehe Krafft." Mattheson. VO/'/·"dt'.ljer rolli()mmClle Capellmeis/er (Harnburg. 1739). 16- 22. 28 Toward J.fw;ica l'oelica above all else. Although few authors went to quite the same length as Werckmeister in order to establish the relationships between theology, science, and art, the synthesis of these disciplines was a central element of musica poelica. It was now the art of composition rather than the discipline of musica which had become the mathematical science. Most authors of Gennan music treatises were established and prominent musicians, holding positions as either Lutheran organists or Kaflfors, not simply theorists contemplating musical mysteries in ivory towers. It was the mllsicus poeticllS, the theoretically infonned composer and pcrfonner, who was now regarded as the ultimate musician. He was to use all available resources to portray and arouse the appropriate affections, including the various rhetorical procedures and devices. With all the theological, rhetorical, and musical tools at his disposal, the melopoeticus could move the affections of the listener at will, ultimately to the glory of God and to the edification of the listener. Musica poetica remained a unique concept of music, one which sought to balance science and art, ratio and sensus, speculation and craft. Its primary purpose was rooted in moving the listener through affective text interpretation and through a musical representation of the cosmic order. The compositional emphasis of musica poetica solved the dilemma of focusing on the text while retaining the speculative nature of musica theoretica by assimilating the principles of rhetoric and mathematics. TItis synthesis of science and art not only laid the groundwork for the rational approach to the concept of the affections, subject matter which until then had remained in the domain of the trivium discipline of rhetoric, but allowed the inclusion of the concept of the temperaments, subject matter which was traditionally part ofthe medical discipline. Medieval cosmology, Protestant theology, and rhetorical artistry all combined to this end. Throughout the eighteenth century the governing mathematically oriented concept of music was called into question, resuJting in the eventual replacement of numerus with natura. While affective and rhetorical principles became increasingly influential in musical construction, the speculative understanding of music lost its predominant position, preparing the way for the dawn of Empfind- samkeit. THE CONCEPT OF THE AFFECTIONS IN GERMAN BAROQUE MUSIC 11 11<'1'<'<1.\' ,,1/ v/lIlIIsie 's pleasanlness groll'S chiefly 0111 olhe/' ability to mm'e heart and W,n/ Johann Andreas Herbst (1643) Thl! coml'U-Il!r alH'u)'J ol/glll 10 work IOwards aehie~'illg Ihe imeJl(/l!d affection ill Iml COlllpOSIllOIl Mauritius Vogl ( 1719) /11 SIIPPllPltII:1 i'1'el1'thing Ihal OCClirs without 'ifJeelions. means nOlhing. does nothing. I/ml 1.1 1I o/'Ih I/O/hili!:! Johann Matthesoll ( 1739) Since antiquity the concept ofthe affections has been associated with both music and rhetoric. While music's power ovcr the human emoti ons was never denied throughout the medieval or Renaissance eras. the p0l1rayai and arousal of the affections became the intended purpose. indeed, the very essence ofaJl Baroque music. Werckmeistcr asserted Ihat music "is ordered to arouse, correct, alter, and calm the passions."i At the height ofGennan musical rhetoric, Johann Mattheson claimed that "the goal of all melody is none other than a gratification of the ear through which the affections of the soul are aroused."] Meinrad Spiess said of the affections: "to arouse and to still the same is music's one and only goal.") While the various Baroque styles and traditions throughout Europe shared tillS general concept of affective music. the speciticaUy Gennan view was based on an attempt to rationally wlderstand and explain the underlying physiological phenomena, coupled with the singular interest in the structuring principles furnished by the I. Andreas Werckmeister, Musicalisehes Send-Schreiben (Quedlinburg, 1700). I! 2 "Weil in7wischen das rechle Ziel aller Melodie nichts anders sevn kan als cine• • sokhe Vergniigul1g des Gehors, dadurch die Leidenschaffien der Seete rege werden," Mattheson, Capel/meister, 207, §31. In §30, Matthewn speaks of the difference between ~'ocaJ and instrumental music, pointing out that although words become superfluous, Instrumental music cannot dispense with the expression orthe affections. 3, ·'Leidenschaften. AffeclUs. Bey denen Menschen zu enegen, oder zu stillcn. ist der l\fusic cin7iges ZihL" Meinrad Spiess. True/alliS mlisiclis "omposiluria-pruclh'lIs (AlIgsburg. 17-15); cited in Dammann, Musikbegriff, 215 . 30 Th~ Concep/ oflhe AjJtCliOlls rhetorical discipline in order to fulfill the mandate of musica poetica. Gennan music theorists and composers were ofone mind regarding the centrality of expressing the affections but were less unanimous regarding specific methods ofexpressing them. As Buelow has pointed out, the assumption frequently encountered in modem music scholarship-that there existed a certain Doctrine of the Affections or Aflektenlehre-becomes untenable when one examines the many Baroque sources.~ Virtually every writer admonished the composer to examine the text which was to be set to music for affective words or implied affections. Many writers ascribed certain affective qualities to the various church modes, although few agreed on specific details. Others suggested that certain affections might be portrayed through specific dance genres, types of rhythm, or literary fonns. The generally accepted affective nature ofthe various intervals also led some \\'fiters to suggest certain interval combinations for representing affections. While all of these suggestions were no doubt legitimate methods of expressing the affections, particularly for those writers who were suggesting them, a generally valid doctrine or Lehre cannot be discerned. What can be established, however, is the general principle of expressing the affections. The primary goal of Baroque music is defined by the composer's intent to objectively present a rationalized emotional state referred to as an affection, as diverse as this process Illay have been. This principle or concept of the affections is rooted in the rhetorical discipline, which was becoming increasingly influential, particularly in Gennan compositional theory. The concepts of rhetoric and the affections were eventually to center on the musical-rhetorical figures, which were referred to as "the vel)' language of the affections."s In order to elucidate this high calling of musical-rhetoric, it will be necessary first to discuss the concept of the affections, focusing primarily on general principles rather than on specific methods of their expression. 4. George Buelow, "Johann Mattheson and the invention ofthe AjJekumlehrl," New Malrheson Stl/dies. ed. G. J. Buelow and H. J. Marx (Cambridge: Canlbridge University Press, 1983).393. 5. ··Kann man woht olinI,' sie die Gemllthsbewegungcn e~en und ausdriickm? Keinesweges. Die Figuren sind ja setbst eine Sprache der AR'eaen:' Johann Adolf Scheibe. fJer erilisehe Musiells (Leipzig, 1745). 683. The Con"ept ofthe Affections 31 M USIC AND THE AFFECTIONS The original Greek tenn. pathos, was understood as an ailment or malady resulting in a passive condition orthe person. The Latin translation ofpa/llos. offiCI/IS. is rooted in the verb adficere, meaning to work upon. lnfluem;e, affect.' Both Plato and Aristotle wert concerned about the power of music and its influence on the hwuan spirit, leading them to suggest specific uses ofcertain kinds of music based on the ethos of the specilk Greek modes. Quintilian, whose InstilWio oratoria became the 1110st influential classical rhetorical source in the Renaissance, called for music that "excites generous feelings and calms disordered passions."·7 The Stoics retained the early Greek negative view of the affections. regarding them as wmaturaL Desiring an impassioned stance or condition. Stoicism demanded complete mastery over the passions. Both lerms, pmsio and af/ectlls, were lIsed by early Christian writers, including Augustine. Here the concept of the affections was expanded to include both constructive and destructive passions, including human virtues and sins. The ethical and healing power of music was promul· gated in Illusic treatises throughout the Middle Ages and into the Baroque era. l3iblical stories describing music's power were added to the traditional classical myths, thereby blending Christian and GrecoRoman musical values. With the increasing importance oflhe linguistic disciplines in the Renaissance and the simultaneous "huruaniz.t1tion'· of musical thought, a new emphasis on text expression began to replace the c1assicalmedieval significance of speculative music. A long list of Renaissance writers advocated the musical expression of the affections discerned in a composition's text. As Zarlino pointed out, the primary concern 6. Bolh "affcction·· and '"affect"· have been used in English scholarship. "Affect" underscures the imponance of the concept in German music theory (Gemlan: AjJllct), while al the Slime linte distancing Ihis concept of ratiolllllizC'd emotional slates from Ihe modern meaning of ·'affection." However. recent scholarship has tended to favor the English tcrm "affection," II usage which is adopted in this book. 7. 11I51rl/ll/0 oratoria (De ml/sica). i. 11 : ciled in Claude Palisca, "Ut Oratoria Muska: TIIC' Rhetorical Basis of Musical Mannerism:· nl(.' MeUllillR ofMannerism. ed. F. Robinson and S. Nichols 1r. (Hanover 1'111: University Press of New England. 1972). 39. 32 n,l' Concepl oJfhe AffecliOlIS should be direCled towards a proper and appropriate setting of the words. "so that everything may be done with proportion:'R Through correct text declamatioll and sensitive text expression. words and music were to be brought into a balanced equilibrium. The concern of sixteenth-century writers and musicians was not so much to move the listener as to express the words. Renaissance theorists and composers alike regarded the text as the object of affective expression. B AROQUE M USIC AND THE AfFECTIONS Although the affective role of music remained fundamental throughout both the Renaissance and thc Baroque eras. the exhilarated spirit of the Baroque called for a heightened expressiveness. The Renaissance balance between text and music was disturbed, resulting in 'lilUllmll' harlllcmirhe. 4. 32. as trallSlated in Oliver Strwlk. SOl/ree Ueadil1f(s ill M m"k Jlis/Q/J' (New York: Norton. 1950), 256. The COT/Cepl ofthe AffeCliQlIs 33 THE AFFECTIONS AND THE NUMERUS The mow toward a greater affective musical expressiveness did not initially cancel the fundamental imponance of the speculative mathematical understanding of music in Germany. Rather, the physical and psychological musical elements were 10 be in resonance with eaeh other and with rationally discemable natural laws. Fundamental to this argwnent was the beliefthat all creation is rooted in, reflects, and longs for a natural order, the IInilas, which is the essence of the Creator himself. Music would reflect this universal order by virtue of its hannonic proportions. When confronted with this truth. the hwnan spirit would instinctively recognize it as such and resonate accordingly.9The controll ing factor found in the numerical proportions of the musical intervals guaranteed a predictable reaction in the listener to the musically created affection. The subjective expression of a personal sentiment or feeling, so familiar to us through a nineteenth-century aesthetic, is quite foreign to this understanding of music. The intended affection remains an objectively conceptualized state of mind. At the very heart of the Baroque concept of the affections lay a quasi-Newtonian premise of law and order, action and reaction, mutually accepted by musician and audience. Rased on such rational explanations, the Baroque composer could count on a calculated emotional response from the listener. thus eOnlrolling the emotional state of the listener through the music's power. He had a concrete and well-defined understanding of the affections. The desired affection could be presented and aroused through the appropriate mode or key, time signature and tempo, figure and cadence. along with the entire arsenal of rhetorical methods and devices. The Lutheran melopoela regarded it as his mandate to use this rhetorically motivated divine power of music appropriately to arouse and move the affections in the hearts of the listeners. Effective and affective musical text-setting would move the devout listener to greater 9, "Oenn gleichwie aus 0011 l als dem einigen Wesen alles Gute herflid3et l und was dem an Ne~hsten verwandt I eine Hanlloniam mit mm machet: Und was gar zu weit Von demselben cntfemet f mit ihm gar n[Cht hannolliret. Also mercket dalklbe auch Unser Gemiithe in der hamlOnia durch die Zahletl I wenn sie zurn klange gebra~ht werden." Werckmeister. Paradoxal·Viscol,,.se. 92. 34 'The Concept o/Ihe Af/ee/ioM piety and Godly devotion. TIle music of the church was therefore not to limit itself to archaic or austere styles but rather to use those devices and styles which had been proven effective in stirring the affections in secular Illusic, particularly in opera. In 1721 the Lutheran theologian Gottfried Scheibel published a music treatise, Zujdllige Gedancken von del' Kircilenmlls ic. in which he deplored the attacks of the Zwingelianer who were opposed to the inclusion of the modem stylus lhealraJis in church music. lie valued music's role in moving the affections of the worshipers in hannan), with the Word of God, He also supported the practice ofparodying operatic music by substituting appropriate sacred words for Ihe secular text, adding, "I do not Wlderstand why the opera alone should have the privilege to move us to tears, and why this is also nol appropriate to the church.,,10 The audience for its part did not asswne an aesthetic~renective or distanced and critical stance. The presented affection enveloped the listener, causing a direct and spontaneous reaction. lie was not free to control himself; rather he was controlled by the realized affection, spontaneously breaking into laughter or weeping, SOITOW or longing, rage or contentment. Numerous contemporary eyewitness accounts refer to the intensity and grand effect of such afTection~arousing compositions, causing the entire audience to break spontaneously into sobbing and wailing.ll TIle Baroque affective musical devices were considered learnable and teachable, analogous to the mathematical and rhetorical~linguistic aspects of music theory. In order to have access to and take advantage of music 's affective power, it was considered possible to undertake a rational analysis of music and to objectively identify its God~given power. The Gernlan Baroque composer still viewed the act of composition as a craft rather than an aesthetic undertaking. Like all other disciplines, music was taught by learning the rules, studying the established examples, and imitating the works of the masters. The triwnvirate 10. George Buelow. "Scheibel." Nell' GrQ~'e DicliOlw ry, 16: 601. II . "Die 8ewegung ist oftmal so groB und heffiig I daB die auditores liberlaut anfangen zu schreien I seufzen I weinen I sonderlich in casibus tragicis. daB auch in diesem S1iick die heutige Music der ahen nichu bevor gibt." Kircher, Musurgio Urril'ersalis. in the translation of Andreas Hirsch. Ar/is ,,,ognoe de COIISonO & Dissollo Ars Millor; Dos is/ I Philosophischer Ex/roc/ (Schwllbiseh.Hall, 1662), 134; cited in Dammann, IIfusikbegriff, 228. 71111 COllcepl of/he A1Tf!"lions 35 of praeNpllllll. exemptulII. el imilatio was as imr<>rtant to the subject of lIIusic :1 ~ it \\ 3S to rhetoric. In order to master the discipline of cOlllposition. tlK" B.ll'(Xlue composcr therefore spent much time copying and then imitating the works of established masters. Together \\ ith the study and aC4uisiliuIl of theoretical knowledge. the composer also practiced his empirical ski lls by obsen'ing human behavior. recognizing as well as al1l-ll~ zj ng psychological phenomena on the basis of acquired theoretical kno\\lC'dge. rhe Baroque composition was not a result of inspiration, subjecti\c c-..:perience. or the "outpouring of a lonely soul." Rather, it \\-as c:liculatC'd "in cold blood," as Martheson puts it.(2 Initially this was baseo on acquired knowledge, which could certainly include- but not necessariI~ - 3 past personal experience of the intcnded affection. During thc course of the eighteenth century. the need to have personally e.-..:perienced the affection was increasingly emphasized to the point that. at the dawn of Empjilldsomkeit, experience rather than rational knowledge of the affection was considered of paramount imporlance. Mattheson, who would put so much emphasis on a di sci~ plincd rhetorical approach to eOlllposition. sought to discover the root ofthc afkction in its personal experience rather than in the IllfmerllsY The musical-mathematical discipline became subservient to the empiri ~ cal realm of natural experience. in a significant reversal of Werck~ meister's understanding of music, Mattheson contended that "Mathe~ matics is a human art; Nature. howe\'er. a Divine force.,,(4This is also reflected in the determination of the source of the rhetorical figures: \\Titers 011 rhetoric as well as music increasingly pointed to natural linguistic and musical expression as the source for expressive composi~ tional de\'iccs rather than 10 traditional scholastic sources and writings. 12 "Die Erfindung will Feuer und Geist haben: die Einrichtung Ordnung lind Maasse: die Ausarbeitung kalt 81ut und Bedachtsamkeit." Capel/meisler. 241. See atso Mlnl/!xis. below. for an eXplication of Imi/otia. 13_ "Lknn niemand wird geschickt seyn. eine Leidenschaffi in andrer Leute GeIlllithcm 7U enegen, deT nich1 eben di eselbc Leidellschatlt so kenne, als ob er sie setbs( elllpfulldcn h~lle. oder nod i empfindet." Ibid.. 108. "So wird mirjs niellland dieses Ziel (Teffen. der keine Absichl daraufhat. seiber keine Hewegung spiire1." Ibid.. 207. 14. ··Ma1hesis ist eine menschliche Kunst: Natur abet- ~ine GoUliche Kraffi." Ibid.• VOIl'(!tie. 21. Fwthenl'lote. "Menschliche Gemuther sind gl~ichsalll das Papier. Mathesis ist die Feder. Klinge sind die Dinle; aber die NalUr 1lI\1~ dCT' Schreiber seyn." Ibid.. 20. 36 11.e COl1cepl of lhe AjJecliom Thus rhetorical as well as musical expression became increasingly empirical and less theoretical. Human experience rather than dogmatic divine truth gradually became the foundation ora new music aesthetic . THE AFFECTIONS AND THE TEMPERAMENTS, A MUSICAL P ATHOLOGY The mid- seventeenth century witnessed the publication of two widely read and influential texts on the subject of the human affections. Rene Descartes's Les Passions de i"iime (1649) was the first modern attempt to develop an all-encompassing, systematic theory of the affections. Not only the reasoning behind the process but the actual physiological process of bodily reaction to the represented affection was subject to rational explanation, resulting in a kind ofmusical pathology or JIll/sica patherica. Only one year later. Athanasius Kircher's Mllsllrgia lI11ive/"salis appeared in print in Rome. It is a synoptic, encyclopedic compendium of historic and contemporary musical thought, truly universal in nature. Kircher was a Gennan Jesuit and fanner professor of sciences working in Rome. His work is a far more detailed and comprehensive tome than Descartes's. incorporating all facets of musical interest. Kircher devoted much antis Mllsllrgia to the subject of mllsica pathelica, discussed at great length in the chapter entitled QlIomodo IIUJllerus harmonicus affecllIs moveat ("How the harmonic numbers arouse the affections"). The desire to link mathematics, and the closely related discipline of medicine, with rhetoric is unmistakable, now in COl-YUIlCtion with the teachings of the four temperaments and humors. The teachings of the temperaments. going back to Greek medical theory as fonnulated by Empedocles, Hippocrates, and Galen, remained authoritalive into the Baroque era. 15 According 10 this ancient theory. there arc four different inunan temperaments: melancholic, sanguine. choleric, and phlegmatic. Each temperament is associated with one of the four elements: earth, air. fire, and water. A temperament is deter- 15. Judith Pilszynski, 'The Evoh'ement orthe Humorat Doctrine:' Medica/Times 92, 10 (1964),1009. The Concept ofthe AffeetiO/IS 37 mined by a combination of two of the four primary attributes: hot and cold. wet and dl)'. Each temperament is also associated with a certain b,)dy Iluid or hwnor, produced by an internal body organ. lbe following table summarizes the concept: HUlllor & ~ lel11enlS & Season Tune of Day AffeClions Love, Joy Anger, Fury Sorro...... Pain Winter Night PcacefulllesS, Moderate E\'el)' human being is governed by a certain temperament according to the indh'idual's physiology, which is determined, in part, astrologically at time of birth. A personality will reflect those affections associated with its corresponding temperament moce prominently than other affections. All imbalance in the humors results in a pathogenic condition. Furthennore, an external affective stimulus (music or otherwise) will influence an individual with the corresponding affective inclination much more strongly than those individuals governed by contrasting temperaments. The individual is thereby inclined to suffer from some affiictions (due to an overemphasis of a particular affection) more easily than others. . An indiyidual is moved to certain affections by a process which tn\'olves a change in balance of the four humors in the body. When appropriately aroused by extemal stimuli, the affected body organ produces its corresponding humor, wruch enters the blood stream in a gaseous state. The vaporous humor then combines with the spiritus animalis (Descartes: esprits animal/X; German: Lebensgeister). Descartes considers these the smallest subparticles in the blood, a kind of ether. The "humored" spiritus animalis then rise from the blood and 38 1'he COnCf!pf ofthe Affect/OIls enter the nerves, described as hollow, tubular tissue. Thus they travel through the body. affecting all body functions and parts, including the hlmlOr-producing organs and the brain. These vapors also influence the soul . wltich was thought to be situated in the pineal gland.'6 This process would result in the corresponding affection, a physio-psychological condition which would last until another affection was evoked. The effect ofmusic on the human psyche was Wlderstood as just one of the affection-arousing stimuli. The numerical proportions, which are at the root of all created matter and life, are the same ones which are reflected by the musical ilHervals. Thus music, the audible form of the numerical proportions, facilitates an aural perception of the realities which lie at the root of all natural phenomena. The properties of the air which is set in motion through the music is analogous to the music itselt~ both consisting of the same proportions. These proportions then enter the body via the ear, thereby setting the corresponding physiological functions in process and resulting in the appropriate affection. The numerical proportions embodied in the music, the "outer air," sets the spirillls allimalis, the "inner air," into motion, which in tum motivates the humors.17 For this process to function satisfactorily, it is necessary that both the text and the accompanying music express the same affection, and nOI contradict each other. The quadrivial and the trivial 16. The pineal gland is situated near the hypothalamus, at the base ofthe brain. It presently has no knOV.ll function, although its tiny follicles suggest a glandular function. It seems to ha\'e some calcium.containing bits thaI medical researchers have descriplh'ely dubbed "brain sand." Although some aspects of the conCepl of the temperaments seem quite far-fetched to a modem mind, the similarity between the hUlIIl.lrs and the hormones is an intriguing one. 17. "Vorausgesetzt nun I da~ die einige proportion des numeri relati. in welchem die qualitates disponiret sind I das praedominium derer passionen oder GemUthsBewegungen machet I und daf} die unterschiedliche Vermischungen des numen relati die Ursachen der Wltenchiedenen harmonien sind I so iSI gar leicht zu schliessen I da~ eben dieselbigen proportiones, welche sich in denen qualitatibus befinden I auch in denen harmonien gesucht werden kOnnen; daher e5 dann kommt I da~ I wenn jemand eine gewisse disposition oder Ordllung harmonischer proportion htiret I dap sie mit denen Ubereinstimmen I in welcher in ihm berneldte qualitliten disponirel sind I so ist gewi~ I dap die passio, welche ihn llberherrschet l dadurch gereitzet W1d "ermchret wird I lUld zwar dieses urn deswi11en I weil gkich und gleich nach einandcr begierde tril,gt." Werd.meister. Mlisiculisches Send-Schreiben, 60. (This Werckmeister work is an expanded translation of Agostino Steffani's QI/U"IO certc::o [1659]). Cited in Dammann. Mllsikbesriff, 250. The Concept of/he Affections 39 principles must cooperate. Were a composer fully 10 comprehend and master Ihese principles, he would be able to arouse any desired affec· lion. Listeners' different reactions to hearing the same music was also rationnlly explained. The varying lemperaments ofdifferent individuals would predispose them to stronger reactions to different affections, For example. a melancholic person would reacl much more readily and rchemently to melancholic music than would someone of a choleric charar.:ICr. This is due to the fact that Ihe melancholic temperament, along \\ilh the already dominant corresponding humor, would be that much more receplive to the arousal of an affeclion parallel to its own naMe. TillS understanding prompted Morely to speak of "diverse men diversel) affected to diverse kinds of music,',rl and Werckmeister to assure that "the melancholic or passionate person very much appreciate the correct use of dissonance.,,'9 Not only would "diverse men" react differently 10 various affections, but they would also be attracted to music corresponding to their individual "temperamental" predisposilions. In fact, an individual 's predominant temperament could be discemed from his musical preference.20 These variables also precluded a systematic and generally valid aOoctrine" of Ihe affections. Those musical devices and idioms which might arouse a certain passion in one listener may not succeed 10 Ihe same degree in anolher listener. This becomes particularly evident in the discussion of modal and tonal characlerislics. A mode which may suggest a certain affection to one aulhor (composer or listener) may not necessarily evoke the same affection in another. 18 fhomas Morely. A Plaille ami Easie IlIlradllCli()n 10 Praclicalf Mlisicu (London. 1597; newed" New York: Nonon. 1952).297. 19. "/I,·telancholici Wid lieifsinnige Leule werden den rechlen Gebrauch der Dissonantzcn ... seht beypflichten." Mus/cae mallremalicae. 84. 20. "Oerowegen kan man so wohl eines Musici der da Music machet f als eines Zuhorendcn GemUthe I daher ziemlicher mapen erkennen. . .. fin ttaunger und Melancholischtr I wird mehr aur traurige Music halten I als auf freudige lind luslige St(icke I 1.'111 frtlhlicher Mensch hingegen wird \'on der traungen Harmonie nicht viel halten. Abo, wenn einer tin Instrument berUhret I so kan man seine Humor und GelOlithe zkmlich daraus erforschen." Werckmeistcr, Pamdoxal-DiscQurse, 38. 40 The Co"cepl a/ the Affectiolls THE AFFECTIONS AND MODALITy/ToNALITY Renaissam;e and IJaroque theorists and composers frequently stressed that one of the primary considerations regarding the musical expression of the affections should be the choice of a composition's mode or key. Throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the various church modes had been assigned expressive characteristics analogous to the ethos of the Greek modes. As the Renaissance drew to a closc. hannonic concepts were being significantly revised: major-minor tonality was beginning to replace modality, while the expressive characteristics of the modes or keys were being redefined. Although no theorist or composer would have suggested that modes or keys do not contain expressive power, many questioned the validity of associating speci lic affections with individual modes or keys as had traditionally been done. Grounded on the assumption that the church modes had developed from Greek forerunners, humanistic zeal encouraged the application of the classical modes' affective ethos qualities to the church modes, resulting in substantial discrepancies between the Greek and the medieval modal characteristics. Unbeknown to Renaissance writers, their church modes had evolved from the Byzantine octoechoi rather than the Greek ethos·oriented modes. Not only were there discrepancies between the classical and Renaissance modal characteristics, but. as Manheson indicated, "neither do today's musicians agree on the character of the keys, nor can any unifomlity in the compositions be easily established in this regard, reinforcing the saying: ;Many heads, many minds.",21 At times an author might even change his mind on a specific mode's effect. As much as some musicologists may have tried to develop a Wlified doctrine ofkey·affections, there is little historical basis for such a thesis. The changes to modallheory during the Renaissance were inspired not only through rediscovered classical music theory sources but through an evolving and changing hannonic aesthetic. By the sixteenth 21. "Gleichwle nun die Allen I also sind auch die heutigen Musici wol schwerlich einerley Meinung in dem was die Eigenschaffi der Tohne belriffi l und kan auch nicht leichtiicb tine Gleiehllirmig,keil in allen Srucken hierllber practcndiret werden I massell es wol dabcy bleibel: Quo( capita, tal sensus." Johann MattheSOIl, Dos lIeu-erojfrrele Orchestre (Hamburg, J712), 231 f.. §6. 711(1 CQIICepl 0/1/14! AffecliQns 41 ccnIUI")'. the eight medieval ecclesiastical modes had been expanded \0 r.\clvc thtough Glareanus's addition of the Aeolian and Ionian modes l Ius their plagals). Based on thejiuoli.s A (Aeolian) and C (Ionian), tltt: t~O nc\\ modes were to become the prototypes for the major and minor s~'a l cs. 1\\0 paths lead toward the gradually emerging major~mi nor wnalit). Beginning wilh Zarlino, theorists increasingly pointed to two basic d asses of modes which were determined by either a major or a millor third above thejinalis, paralleling the major and minor scales. \\'hile the modes which generatc a major triad over theirfina/is were to he used 10 express joyful sentiments. those with a minor triad could express sadder affections. Zarlino thus maintained that "certain compositions aTC lively and full of cheer, whereas others 011 the contrary are some\\ hat sad and languid.... Whereas in the first group the major third is often placed beneath the minor, in the second 19rollp1the opposite is rrue."n Zarlino's differentiation between these joyful lIIodi laefiores and sad modi trisfiores was also propagated by Calvisius in his influential Exercitatio Musica tertia (1611}.H It was Johann Lippius (Synopsis musicae nova, Strassburg 1612) who ';first presented a comprehensive theory of major-minor polarity" differentiating between "two types of mode almost exclusively according to the quality of the 'tonic' triad.,,24 In addition to referring to joyful and sad modes, Andreas Herbst III one point mentioned three qualitative differentiations oflhe modes Uoyful, sad yet gentle, and harsh}, just as Kircher had pointed to three funda mental affections: joy, pious submission, and sorrow.!' JohaiUl Kuhnau, J. S. Bach's Leipzig predecessor and Johann I-Ieinichen's teacher, maintained that "the difference between the modes with the major third and the minor third is certainly clearly perceptible, in 22. Rita Sleblin, A I/{slory Qf Key ChoruCleriSlics in the Eighfeelllh u/UJ Eu/'I)' Nineteenth ( e/f/uries (Ann Arbor: lIMl Research Press, 1983), 3J. 23. Mallin Ruhnke, joochi'" BUf7/reisler. fill Beitrag ZIIr MWfiklehre "'" 1600 (Kassel: Blirenreiter, 1955), 120r. 24. Joel Lester, "The Recognition or Major and Minor Keys in Gennan ·111COry: 1680~ 1730; ' Journaf ofMusic Theory 22 (1978), 65. 25 "VaT allen dingell ,her I soli ein solcher modus, welcher mil der materi dell Texles I odtr der Won rein UbereinstinUlll 1elegin und erweh1et werden: Dann etliche Modi seynd fi":ilich: als I. 9. 11. Etlithe abet Itaurig und gelind: als 4.6.10. Elliche hart und l.Omig: als Lydius der filnffie modus:' Herbsl, MrM·im poe/ica, 83. 42 The Concepl of/he AO'«llo,u that the fonner present something perfect and cheerful. while the latter portray a sad, melancholy, and longing spirit."ltl Maltheson also con· ceded that those "who wish to discover the secret of harmony' s power in the major and minor third, with all minor keys being sad and major ones being joyful, are certainly not wrong on all accounts, although they still have much to leam."n Furthermore, the frequent additions of a Bflat or an F-sharp to the various modes resulted in transpositions either to the "major" Ionian or the ''minor'' Aeolian mode. Either way, majorminor tonality gained increasing acceptance throughout the seventeenth century. albeit not always without vociferous objections. It would be misleading to suggest that modes with a minor third above thefinalis were consistently considered sad and those with a major third joyful. In fact, neither the Dorian nor the Aeolian were usually referred to as particularly sad modes. Conversely, the Lydian mode was frequently regarded as harsh, presumably because of the tritone between itsfinalis and subdominant note. However, ifit is altered through the addition of a B-Oat (as was frequently done), it would result in a joyful, transposed Ionian mode. Thus the placement of the semi-tone within the notes of the mode or scale of a key also detennined its expressive quality. Not only was the authority ofthe traditional modes being called into question, but so too was the principle of their distinctive expressive content. Burmeister had already admitted that he had failed to discover the specific power of the different modes as defined by older sources, but had noticed that a composer could express various sentiments using the same mode.28 A similar opinion was expressed by Burmeister's contemporary, Calvisius.29 Herbst also "senses, that a whole range of 26. "Sonderlich ist die Difference zwischen denen Toois mit dec Tertia majore, und denen mit der minore gar sehr empfmd\ich I indem jene etWas vollkommenes I und lustiges I diese aber etWlS trauriges I melancholisches I und wegen des Mangels eines halben COlllmatis ohngefehr I oder andem kleinen Theilgens I was sehnliches vOTStellen." Kuhnau, Biblische Historie". xii. 27. "Diejenigen I die da meinen I es steeke dasllantze Geheimnip in der Ter1ia minore oder majore, und danhwt wollen I da~ aile mone Tohne I in genere davon zu reden I nothwendig trawig sind f hergegen abet I dal! aile dure Tohne gemeiniglich eine lustige Eigensehaffi hegen I haben zwar nicht in allen gar zu grosses Unrecht l sie sind abet in der Unlenuchung noch nicht wei! gekommen." Manheson, Orchestre, 231, §3. 28. Ruhnke. BurmeiSler, 120f. 29. Ibid., 122. The COl/repl oJthe "ffiwions 43 affections can be expressed in one and the same mode or tone," for which n:aSon he felt inclined to further elaborate on the expression of affeclin: \\ords.JO Similarly, Kuhnau "is surprised, that many musicians and espedally those who are familiar with the fundamentals of their art (including the otherwise inquisitive Alhanasius Kircher) nonetheless in spite of mathematical principles adhere to the preconceptions ofthe past and conlinue 10 repeat in simple blind faith that each mode has a certain precise cll'ect." Jl Kuhnau's student Heinichen also questioned the validity of specific modal effects. maintaining "that one can express the same \\ords and affections in various and. according to the old theory, opposing J...t'ys. For that reason, what previous theorists have \...Titten and re-\\Tinen about the properties of the modes are nothing but trifles. as if one mode could be merry, another sad, a third pious, heroic, war-like, etc. OUi e\ en if these imaginary properties had any inherent correctness, the slightest change of temperament used for them (which can never be accurately done by the tuner of instruments) and even more changes of Chortol/. Kammerloll, French, and the extravagant Venetian tunings would cause continual Ship\\Tecks. In my opinion. the ancient theorists erred in their research of modal characteristics. in the same way as we continue to crr today in judging a musical work.... It remains the case, therefore. that every single key and all keys or musical modes without distinctiOIl arc suited to expressing many opposing affections."n Nonetheless. Baroque theorists continued to recommend a careful choice of mode or key in setting a text. frequently listing the expressive characteristics of the various modes, even if the validity of such a list 30...Jedoeh weil ich spure J dal! gleichwol inn einem jeden Modo oder Tono, alterley a/letlen dep Gemiiths klinnen exprimir1 und aupgedrueke! werden I als hat mich \'or gut 3ngeschm I von dieser Saehen etwas l11ehrers ill specie, und insonderheil zu tracti.en und !llll!zufilllren. Erstlieh IlJiissen die Verba und Won ... I wo1 ponderir1 und derosdbcn Natur und E),gen5(:haffi fleissig in acht genommen lUld betraehtel werden." Herbst. '\IIf1'1c(I poeliclI. III. 31, "Jch se1ber wundre mich I daj3 viel Musiei. lind sonderlich diejenigen I weleheo da~ Fundamcl11 ihrer KlUist nicht unbekand ist (darunter ieh aueh den sonsl eurieusen Alhan;!siu111 KireherU111 finde) dennoch wider die Principia Matheseos in denen Praejudki i5 derer Allen Sleeken bleibell l und in einem rechten Koh1er-Glauben ihnen immer blindlings nachsagen I dap dieser Tonus praedse diese Wirckwlg ein ander eine illld",re habe" Kuhnau. Bib/iselle Historien. xii. 32. Cned in Buelow. 17lOrollgh-8ass AC'C'QmJ1(1l11mem. 283. 44 was questioned in the same treatise. In his chapter a ll sening the text. Herbst elaborated on the expressive qualities of the modes, a topic he had already considered in his discussion of the exordio, medio. andfine of a composition (ch. 8). He suggested that the composer should first examine the meaning of the text and then choose a suitable mode, "for the mlisicllS poeticllS (should he not be well versed and experienced in musical composition) will not easily be able to express and fe-present the affections required by the text in any mode; all modes are not suitable for all texiS. for SOme have joyful and olhers have sad properties and qualities, and are thus perceived."B Herbst went to quile some length in describing the modes, presumably for those less "well versed and experienced in musical composition" and not able to express a certain affection in any mode. After dealing with the expressive characteristics oflhe twelve modes, Herbst then discussed the more significant musical elaboration ofaffective words. Vivid text expression rather than "correct" choice of mode became more important for the successful representation of the desired affection. Most oflhe references to the modal characteristics point to a mode's general expressive properties rather than 10 an affection. A joyful or sad mode could be Ilsed to express a joyful or sad affection, without inherently being an expression of that affection. This allowed authors to describe the modes (or later keys) as possessing a certain character withmll limiting their use to a specific affection. Thus some theorists would continue to list the properties of modes while at the same time insisting that compositions in one mode could express a variel)' of contrasting affections. Instead of dogmatically imposing a specific and objective aflection on a key or mode, the reference to a mode's character 33. "Zurn ersten I soli ein Componist den VerSland d~p Textes odcr Selllenz \Vol in aellt nemm I denstlben wol exwniniren \lIld beuachten I in weldlenl Modo nernlichen er die Hannoniarn oder den Gesang componiren und Selzen will. ... Also ein Musicus Poeticus (wenn er \lichl wol versiret. lind in setzung der Consommtien, sonderlichen exerciret und erfahren ist) wird nieht in einem jeden Modo. die jcnigcn affeClen und Bewegwigen I so der Texllmd Sentenl;': erforder1 1also leiehtlichen hcrfilrbringen l und an den Tag geben koonen: Denl\ sich nkht aile Text auff aile Modos schicken I weil etliche Wlicher. etliehe aber Irawriger Proprietllt und Eygenschaffi seyn I lind erfunden werden." Herbst. M'IJica poe/ica. 10 1. Among others. Kircher s\Lggestcd a similar approach. Dammann. Musikb(!gl·ijf. 315. Th~ Concept ofthe Affections 45 or property allo\\ ed for a wider spectrum ofthe mode's application and reception. Specific key characteristics were thus also closely linked to an individual's temperamental disposition rather than only to designated expressive attributes. After voicing his doubts regarding the composer's arbitrary powers over his audience, Kuhnau reminded his readers that the '·temperaments of individuals are quite different. For the composer's ease or difficulty in executing his intentions will be determined by the temperament of the listener. A merry spirit can easily be led to joy or compassion. while the same is achieved with a melancholy or choleric (emperamem only with great difficuhy."J~ When Heinichen discussed the criteria for choosing a certain mode or key for a composition. his first consideration was the inclination or temperament oftbe composer.H Similarly. Mattheson stressed that his suggestions regarding the expressive nature of the keys were only his personal interpretations, "allowing evcr)'one complete freedom to construct a better arrangement according to their o\"n sentiment, being fully aware that although they may seem satisfactory. they will not necessarily find favor with everyone else."J6 He repeated this concern at the end of lhis discussion of the key's expressive content: "the more one wishes to clarify the matter, the more contradictory it becomes. For the opinions regarding this matter are innumerable. I can only explain this on the basis of the human temperameniSwhich must undoubtedly be the main cause for a certain mode to seem merry and lively to the sanguine temperament but troubled and sorrowful to the phlegmatic one. For that reason we will not dwell on 34. "Und wenn WIS nichts anders zweiffelhaffiig machen kllnte so ware doth dieses einzige genug dazu I dall die Complexiones der Menschen gantz unterschieden sind. Denn nach dem der Humeur der Zuhllrer ist I nachdern wird auch der Musicus seine Intention schwer oder leichte erlangen. Ein lustiger Geist kan ohne Schwierigkeit zur Freude o.der zUm Mitleiden gebracht werden I da hingegen ein KUnstier grosse MOhe haben wlrd J wenn er dergleichen bey einem Melancholico oder Cholerico ausrichten soIl." Kululau. IJibluch, Historien, ix. 35. "However. the choice of these depends primarily on four basic conditions: (I) . on the inclinatiOIl or in physical tenns, on the temperament of the composer." Buelow. l'hv/'(JUKh-Bass Accomponimell/, 283 . 36. ". . dabey zugleich einern jeden seine "lIllige Freyheit lassen I naeh seinem Sentiment eine andere lind bessere Einrichtung hierin zu machen I von welcher er sieh d.och auch I Wetll sic gleich noch so vollkommen I nicht wird versprechen konnen I dap Sic bey allen Wld jeden Ingress finden werde." Matlheson. Orchestre. 231. §6. 46 The Cmrcepl ofthe Affecti(}fls Ihis any longer, but allow each one the freedom to ascribe certain qualities to the modes according to his own disposition."l1 lncreasingly the natllra of the composer and audience instead of the scienlia of the music becomes the determining factor in the musical expression of the affections. Rather than limiting himself to musical artifices whose expressive content had been predetermined, the' Baroque composer sought to express the textually or otherwise inspired affections with devices morc closely tied to natural ex.pression. These he found in the principles and procedures ofrhetoric. For rhetoric was not only inextricably tied to natural speech but had been intimately associated with the expression of the affections since antiquity. Not surprisingly then, the hwnanistically oriented musical discipline found rhetoric to be the ideal framework for developing its affective expressiveness, rather than the frequently contradictory concepts of mode or key characteristics. THE AFFECTIONS AND RHYTHM Rhythm, meter. and tempo were also examined and explained according to their affecrive properties, for these too are numerical expressions. While the sanguine and the choleric personalities would generally prefer faster tempi, a serious and grave composition would find resonance in the temperament of a melancholic or phJegmatic character, Although the importance ofrhythmic variety in a composition was emphasized in the Renaissance,ll the reason for its importance lay in the desire to delight (obleclalio) the listener with a varied but balanced composition, As in 37. "AUrin je mehr man sich hestreben wolte I etwas positives davon zu staluiren I je mehr eOll1radieenles w(lrde sich vielleicht finden I sinlemahJ die Meinungen in dieser Ma\erie fast unzehlig sind I davon ieh keine andere Raison, als den Unterscheid der Mensehliehen Complexionetl zu gehell weiP I als wodurch es Zweifels frey hauptslichlich gesehehen mag I dap ein Tohn I der einem Sanguinischen Temperament lustig und emnullemd scheinet I einem Phlegmatischen trtige I klllglich und betrUbt vorkommt I u. s. w. derowegen wir uns hierbey auch nicht lIlnger auffhahen I sondem einem jeden noehmohls die Freyheit gerne lassen wollen I dap er einem oder andem Tohn solche Eigensehaffien beyJege I die mit seiner nattirliehen Zuneigung om besten Uberein· kommen { da man delln finden wird." Ibid.. §25. 38. ". .. ita ct in Illusica eoneentuum diversitas animam auditorum vehementer in oblectamentum provocat." Tinctoris. cs tV, 152. dted in Dammann, Musikbegriff, 309. Th, CQIICepl afille A(feCIiom 47 thi." other areas of Baroque compositional theory. the emphasis on rh~ Lhmic mrielas shifted to a desire to portray and arouse the alfections. Werchllh:ister spoke of the tempo indications such as presto or adagio prill1aril~ as indications of the affection. Should "changes be indicated \\ithin a composition governed by one affection, the different tempi are to be Wlderstood as proportional changes within the go\'erning tac!lIs:,}Q Midl:lcl Praelorius supported this view when he suggested that the designations offorte or piaI/O, presto. ada1!!io. or lemo serve 10 express the afkction and stir the listener.~n Mauheson also encouraged the composer to focus on the intended affection when choosing a tempo indication: "This purpose must always be visualized when a composer sets his adagio, andante. presto. etc, Then his work will be a success.,,41 Both tempo indications and rhythmic characteristics of dance fonns could hclp express the affection. Mattheson amplified this by elaborating on I) pical Baroq~le dance fOl1us: Ihe minuet typifies moderate delight (mdssige LIIJ/igkeir). the ga\'otte jubilant joy (jallchzende Frellde). the bourree contentment (Zufriedenheil), etc.42 The various dance genres were to embody the affective characteristics in much the same way that the temperaments of individuals or stage actors typify a certain affection. Unlike the varielas-oriented Renaissance suite. the Baroque suite was thus a series of dance movements ordered and detenuin('d by affection. In an age \\'here all musical composition \vas directed IOward expressing and arousing the affections, the correlation bet\\een specific dances and their afiections resulted in the dance fom] assuming ,I predominant role in structuring both sacred and secular. inslrumental and vocal music. 39. Dammann. MlIsikbegl'iff, 310. 40. "forte, Pian: Praesto; Adagio Lento .. . So deuchtet mir doch solche variation \lnd umb" l'~h~elung I wenn sie fein moderate und mit einer gUICl! gratia. die an'cctus zu exprimiren und in den Mensehen zu moviren. vorgenommen lind zu werek gerichtet wird , nkht allein nieht unlieblich oder unrechl sevn I sondem viel mehr die aures & animo5 auditorwn affidre. " Michael Praetorius. ,s)''';(lRII1(/ Musiclwl III (WolffcnbUttel, 1619),1 12. 4 1. Capel/meisler. 233, §137. 42, Ibid. 2241T. 48 The Concepl ojthe Affections ON SPECIFIC AFFECTIONS There seems to have been limited consensus regarding the number of affections which could be represented through music. Kircher suggested that the various affections could be categorized into three groups Uoyful. pious/subdued, and sad), out ofwhich all the other affections originate.4l He then listed eight typical affections: Amor (love), LUcllls sell Plal/etllS (mourning or lamentation; also called Dolor: grief or sorrow), Laelitia et Exu/latio (joy and exultation), Furor et bfdigllatio (rage and indignation), Commiseralio et Lacryma (pity and weeping), Timor el Ajjlicrio (fear and pain), Praesllmptio et Alldacia (presumption and audacity). and Admiratio (admiration or astonishment). Other writers also summarized the different affections in two or three categories. The Gennan philosopher Christian Wolff differentiated between agreeable and unpleasant affections, with the affection of longing being a mixture of the two extremes.44 Mattheson mentioned over twenty different af'fections,43 many of them being closely related. In spite of the different classifications, there seemed to be general agreement regarding the musical representation of at least the fundamental affections. A sorrowful affection could be expressed through harsh or grating intervals and hannonies as well as through syncopated rhythms. Just as the human condition in this affection is far removed from the joy and contentment experienced in a wholesome and healthy situation, so too should the intervals be far removed from tbe image of perfection, the unison. The suggestion to use syncopations or suspensions rests on both hannonic and rhythmic irregularities. While the resulting suspensions will incur hamlOllic dissonances, the rcgular meter of the composition will be interrupted, thus causing uncertainty. 'Jbe effect of the dissonant intervals and hannonies with their high numerical proportions will concur and sympathize with the human emotional state of this affection, thus ensuring the desired result. The dissonance of the semitone is considered useful for portraying the sadder affections, not only on 43. See p. I09, 11.38. below. 44. Walter Serauky, "Affektenlehre:' Mllsik ill Geschichle 1I11d Gegemml"/ (Kassel: BlIrenreiter, 1955). t: 113. 45. Capel/meiSler, 16- 19, §56-82. 1ne Concept o/the Affections 49 acCOWl! of its "imperfect" and "dissonant" proportion but also because of its small scope or span. The various dissonances, particularly when moving slowly, also cause the spiritus animales to weaken and slow down, finally even causing their suffocation. This unnatural condition is reflected by an unnatural, slow, thin and weak pulse, resulting in an affection of sorrow or sadness.46 Werckmeister continued this thought by explaining that the weakened spiritus animales find it more difficult to enter the senses and intellect.47 The same intervals in a fast tempo would express and arouse the affection afrage. A joyful affection requires the more consonant and perfect intervals, found in the major keys. The rhythm should be faster, and there are to be few dissonances and syncopations, the texture being closer to perfection both in hannony and rhythm. As an individual longs and strives for wholeness, that is for God, he strives toward the unison, resulting in joy and contentment. Thus the closer the nwnerical proportion of an interval is to the unison, the more joyous must be its effect. The major triad with its proportions of 4:5:6 is therefore considered more joyful than its minor cOlmterpart, with the proportions of 10:12: 15. The reason that compositions in the minor key were to end in a major triad or open fifth has much less to do with presenting a happy ending than with the longing and striving for perfection.4 ! The tessitura should 46. "Die Traurigkeit hat auch gantz widerwlirtige pulsus, nemlich gering / langsam / diinne und schwach I dardurch wird die Wlinn ersticket I wegen Zertretttmg del} Gebliits ! daher komI klilt Wld Erstarren de!} gantzen Leibs; gleich wie nun in der Excessiv-grossen Freud die Geister zetlrennet werden I dap der Mensch sterben Wld verschmachten mull I also gehets auch mit der Excessiv-grossen Traurigkeit f wegen der ErsticklUlg der Geister." Kircher, Musurgia unh'ersalis, in the Hirsch translation, Artis Magnae, eXlr. 317; cited in Dammann, MlIsikbegriff, 274. 47. " ... freylich also durch die unvotlkommenen consonantien Iraurige affectus regen f und durch den rechten gebrauch der dissonantien noch mehr I denn sie ziehen nichl allcin die Spiritus zusanunen I sondem gehen schwerlicher in den Intetlectum, und Sensum ein." Werckmeister, Mtlsiealisehes Send-Schreiben, 67. 48. "Jedoch wird der Gesang in Cadentien ... sowohl in der Mitte ... als auch im Final ill die Tertiam majorem, ob schon der Gesang mollis ist I versetzet. Woraus wir scheu I dap die Natur nach der OrdnWlg lUld Vollkommenheit / strebet I damit doch der ~ensus zu letZl sein Vergnilgen habe." Werckrneister, Musieae Ala/hemalieae, 81. And Slnli1arly: "Clausula formalis ist in mancherley Partibus und Stinunen I durch allerhand liebliche Concordantien ... da in deroselben final Wld Endschafft I entweder eine Rub odeT stillstand I oder eine perfection Wld Vollkommenheit erfordert wird." Herbst, MUsica poetiea, 58. 50 The CrmCf'pl oj/he AjJecliorrs be relatively high. resulting in a brighter sound. Triple time, symbolizing the Trinity- and therefore perfection-is commonly used, especially in conjunction with faster moving dance CamlS. The swift, leaping conso· nances will effect a similar movement ofthe spiritus animales, coincid· ing with and thereby arousing the characteristics of these affections. It is a far more natural affection than sorrow because it is the "friend of life and health,'''9 The affection of love is characterized as a longing to appreciate the beauty of something or someone beloved. This affection will therefore include both longing and joy. Those who find themselves in this condition are unstable, at times vehemently stirred, at times languid, and at yet other times "agreeably tickled" (suaviler Iilillames, Kircher). Matthcson refers to love as a dissipation or diffusion (Zerslreuung) of the Lebens-Geisler, requiring the employment of intervals of similar nature.30 The composer must find means to express these various and contrasting stirrings. Hannonic and melodic material should include both rousing and gentle intervals, both soft (i.e., semitone) and strange intervals. The tempo and rhythm should be calm, as with the sadder affections. The other affections are evoked by using various combinations of consonant and dissonant intervals and hannonies, faster or slower rhythms or tempi, and different tessituras. The affection of rage and indignation should use faster, more vehement tempi and rhythms with a liberal use of dissonance. It is the affection closest to the choh:ric temperament. Monteverdi's stile concitato corresponds to this affection. The affection of pity and weeping would use slower tempi and smaller intervals, panicularly the minor second. Fear and pain would be expressed through harsher hannonies and a moderate tempo. The affections of presumption or audacity and admiration or astonishment are determined by the text and the corresponding musical expression, including suitable musical-rhetorical figures. 49. Maltheson. Capellmeisler. 17, §70. Mattheson continues by reminding lhe reader that the most appropriately used joyful music is directed toward the praise ofGod, for we continually have great reason and opportunil)'. 10 broaden (ausbreiten) the spirilus allimoles (Ner'\,en-Geister). 50. Ibid.. 16, §58. 7he CUllcepl ofthe A,Occfio/U 51 THE T EXT AND THE AFFECTIONS Throughout the seventeenth century, the musical representation of the affections was inextricably tied to text expression. Music theorists frequentl) included lists of words closely resembling lists of affections which were to receive particular atteOlion in the composition. After discllssing his musical-rhetorical figures, Nucius stated that "to these must also be added the other embellishments of the harmonia, beginning with the affective words: rejoicing, weeping, fearing, lamenting, bewailing. mourning, raging, laughing, and pitying, which are expressed and painted through the variety and sound of the notes."}] A similar list was incorporated into the pathopoeia definition by Thuringus, a figure which. as Burmeister pointed out, expresses the text in such a manner ;'that no one remains untouched by the created afTection."~2 The list of affective words reappeared in Herbst's Musica Poelica, preceded by introductory comments wruch again emphasized the expression of the affections: "'T1lerefore, the beauty ofmusic consists primarily in stirring the heart and the affections, which was demonstrated in the preceding discussion of the nature and properties of the modi. However. because I recognize that the various affections can be expressed in anyone modus. I find it appropriate to be more specific and to elaborate on dtis matter. Firs!. the words upon wruch the composition is to be based must be well pondered, their nature and properties being carefully observed and considered, beginning with the affective words."B While attributing 51. "Huc infermda sunt alia Harmonise quoque decora. UI sun! primum verba atl'tttuum. Laetari. Gaudere, lacrymari. timere. ejulare. f1ere. lugere, irasci. ridere, Misereri. & : quae ipso sono & notanun variel3le Sunl t'Xprimenda & pingenda:' Nucius. Milsices poe/lcae. G3'. 52. S« f athopoeia (Bunneisler. HJPonmematllm), below. 53. ··Oieweil dann aile Liebligkeit der Music I mehrmtheils in Bewegwig der Hene1l und GcmUlher bestehet I wie seiches kurz \'omer \'on aller Modorum NalUr und :ygells(;'hafft is! angezeigt worden I und daraup nach dcr Litnge karl gesehen werden: Jedoch weil ich $pUre I dap gleichwol inn einem jeden Modo oder Tono, alJerley affecten dep Gem[llhs k6nnen exprimirt und aupgedruckel werden I als hat mkh \'or gut angesehen I von dieser Sachen etwas mehrers in specie. und insonderheit zu IraCliren und aulhufiihrcli. Erstlich mllssen die Verba Wid Wort I naeh welchen die moduli sollen (jngin und angestellet seyn I wol ponderin und deroselben Nalur und Eygenst:haffi neissig ill aclll gC110mmen Wid betrachtet werden I als da seyn: Verba affecluum bewegwlgs Worter." Herbsi. Musica poelica, til . 52 TI.e Concl'PI ofthe Affectiolls certain expressive characteristics 10 the church modes. Herbst was quick to point out that no one mode was limited to a ccrtain affection or vice versa. More important is the expressive representation of the words of a text using a variety of musical devices. With Kircher the musical expression of the affections became more closely linked to rhetorical structures and devices. It was Kircher who introduced the rhetorical steps of inve1llio. dispositio. and elOCllfio (elaboratio, decaratia) into musical compositional theory. linking them to text expression. He equated the musical figure s with their rhetorical counterparts, both being used to express diverse afTections. ill addition. Kircher was the first to consistently emphasize the expression of both the affections and the text in his figure defmitions, frequently providing examples ofboth a suitable affection as well as appropriate words for a figure. Janovka not only adopted Kircher·s affective understanding of the musical-rhetorical figures but also applied the list of affections which Kircher had used to describe the church modes now to describe the figures. Mauritius Yogt also linked the expression of both the affections and the text with the musical-rhetorical figures, which he calledfigurae ideates. He encouraged the composer vividly to paint the images found in the text through the music, "always to make it his goal that the intended affection be achieved in his composition; and furthermore, where there are no suitable affective words, he ought to grasp the sense of the text.""· The admonition "to grasp the sense of the text"· points to a growing concern in the eighteenth century to reflect the general affection of a composition instead of getting caught up in excessively specific or inappropriate word-painting. Heinichen was preoccupied with a similar concern. He also asswned a close relationship between affection and text expression: "What a bottomless ocean we still have before us merely in the expression of words and the affects in music. And how delighted is our ear, if we perceive in a well-written church composition or other music how a skilled composer has attempted here and there to move the emotions of an audience through his refined and text-related musical expression, and in this way successfully 54. Sec p.128, n.89. below. The Concept ofthe AffectiOlu 53 finds the true purpose of music."" To assist the composer in "grasping the sense ufthe text," Heinichen suggested the application of rhetoric's loci ropici, especially in those cases where the given text contained little affective material. The loci ropici (discussed below) could assist in establishing a composition's affection, whether this be rooted in the text to be set or, should it be an "uninspired" one, in the surrounding lexts.J6 Mattheson fin ally related virtUally every aspect of composition to the expression of the affections. OnJy one of his countless references to affective text expression will suffice: "The greatest emphasis, most powerful expression, and exact observance of the words, that is the sense of the words, are rooted in the affections, and can no more exist without them as can a carriage without wheels.,,)7 The most important Baroque genre for portraying and arousing the affections of a text was the aria, appearing at climactic points of operas, oratorios, or cantatas to comment or reflect on the proceedings of the libretto. Erdmann Newneister, who provided nwnerous libretti for Bach's church cantatas, referred to the aria as "the soul of an opera."" The aria does not further the action in a Baroque opera but rather reflects upon it. The actor singing the aria does not seek to develop a character but rather aspires to portray the temperament of the character as he interacts with the various and changing situations in the plot. Of this Alessandro Scarlatti says that "the expression of the passion with which the characters speak ... is the very most principal consideration and circumstance for moving and leading the mind of the listener to the diversity of sentiments that the various incidents of the plot of the drama unfold."J9 111e temperament ofa character is, of course, predetennined. 55. lohrum David Heinichen, De,. General-Boss ill de,. Composition (Dresden. 1728), 24, as translated in George Buelow, ·'The 'Loci ropiei" and Affect in Late Baroque Music,·· Music Review 27 ( 1966), 162. 56. See p.78. below. 57. ·'Der grtlsseste Nachdruck, slarcke Gedancken. Wld die genauesle Beohachtung der Wane. d.i. des in den Worten steckenden Verstandes rilhrenja urspriinglich von den ~emUths-Bewcgungen und Leidenschafften her, lind ktlnnen eben so wenig ohlle dleselbe bestehen. als tin Wagen ohne Rider." Capeffmei$ler, 146. 58. Darnmann, MlJsikbegriff, 264. 59. Mafia Fabbri, Alessandro Scar/alii e iI Principe Ferdinanda de · Medici (Florence, 1961). 73; cited in Claude Palisca, Baroque Mllsic (Engle"..ood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. 1981), 236f. ,. The Concept ofthe "'ffee/ions and would remain unchanged throughout the plot. The sudden changes in the plot resulted in the character being plunged into frequently contrasting passions. Not a subjective. personal response, but an objective, universally valid reaction to a situation detennined the resulting affection, "so that a character at any given moment of expres· sian [was] for the time being simply the incamation of a certain state of mind and feeling.,,60 The coincidence of the two forces, the changing extentai situations and the constant temperament afthe character would delennine a whole spectnun of affections endured by the character throughout the story. He becomes the mirror of the human being as an actor on the "world stage,..61 Thus an aria represented the consequence of the character's temperament coupled with a particular situation in the plot, resulting in a highly stylized presentation of the single resulting affection. TIle reigning affection guaranteed musical Wlity of the aria, thereby thwarting any dynamic musical or character development. It was a rational fabrication of affection-typical unity, based on a single rhetorically derived nucleus. "The complete picture of the character is to be obtained by the synthesis of all these expressive moments rather than, as in modem drama, by the analysis of a complex of moods expressed in a single aria or scene.'>62 The Baroque inclination to control the natural forces by means of an overarching and unifying fonn, which is also renected in contemporary architectural or garden design, resulted in the static da capo aria impervious to any demands of dramatic realism. The sixteenth-century compositional technique ofepisodic concatenation exemplified in the contrapuntal motet was replaced by a homogeneous structure based on a single rhetorical-textual idea and musical device representing the one, single affection. In his Praecepra, Walther slates that "when an affection is to be expressed. the composer should 60. Donald J. Grout. A Short History o/Opera, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia Unh'crsity Press, (965). 159. 61. TIle concept of Renaissance and Baroque drama (and opera) as a representation of the (IIrillrum mUlld; is a well-known phenomenon. When Shakespeare pronounces that "All the world's a stage .. .'. (As YOII Like It. 11,7). he reinforces the belief not only that the individual is part ofa cosmic drama but that this macrocosm is microcosmically leflected 01\ stage. 62. Grout. Opertt, 159. 1ne COllcepl oflhe Affections "focus on that. rather than on the individual words: not that the words should be completely disregarded. but rather that those words which contradicl the affection should not be singularly expressed.''') On the other hand, a situation in the plot may allow various responses by the character or indeed present contrasting or even opposing perspectives, frequent ly resulting in the use of the musical-rhetorical figure all/i("e!is.'~ In certain situations, the contrasting affections suggested by the text could influence the overall fonn of the aria. In such cases, the central B section of a da capo aria might renect on me action from a different perspective as the A section. thereby portraying antithetic affections. In nwnerous Bach call1ata arias the contrast is rooted in a theologically derived parallelism frequently highlighting the difference between a worldly. existential view and a heavenly, eschatological perspective.65 In such cases the second section can be exegetical in naturc. interpreting and commenting on the primary, human reaction. The rhetorical process is thus combined with a theological and musical interpretation. In sununary, the concept of the affections remained authoritative throughout the Baroque era. determining virtually every aspect of music(ll composition. Rather than simply representing the affections fOlUld in the text, the Baroque composer sought to arouse and move the listener through music portraying and arousing the affections. The text and its affection replaced the I1II111erIiS as music's subject, while the listener replaced the text as the object of music. An artful and craftful representation of the affections in the music could cause an involuntary and corresponding emotional state in the listener. Both the theories of the IllI/1/erllS as well as the teaching of the temperaments explained this 63. "Wenn aber eilte GemUths-Regun" zu eXprimir\:TI ist. soil der Componisl mehr auf diesclbe. a1s auf die eilllzein Worte seht.'ll. nicllt zwar. dall er dieselbcn insonderheit gar lIicht achten dorffie, sondelll, dap er nUT die Worte. welchc der Gerniiths-Regung zu wieder sind. nicht absonderlich e)(primiren solle." J'mecejJla. 158. M. Fur example. in Bach's "[joyously awnit my death" (\Jwv 82, lch Iii/he [{fllllg), the rh)1hrnic vitality expr~ses joy, while the C-minor tonality and other devi ces reflect death and ~orrow. See also Ami,hesls. below. 65. In the aria "Es ist vollbracht" from his SI 101m Passion. Bach pits the opening pathos-laden lament OVCT" Jesus's death against the jubilant outburst over Christ's victory OVer Satan !II the B section. Doth are equally legitimate responses to Christ's act of self- of1"er;ng. '6 process. In addition to harmonic and rhetorical principles, rhythm and meter were also used to express the desired affections. While the affective purpose of music remained constant throughout the era, the foundations for expressing the affections underwent a fundamental change. Gennan musical thought was detennined by the authority of the theological.mathematicai concept of music throughout the seventeenth centwy, culminating in such speculative writings as those of Andreas Werckmeister. However, encroaching eighteenth-century EnHghterunent thought fundamentally altered the orientation of the prevailing concept of music toward an empirical, natural aesthetic. Toward the end of the Baroque era, the dogmatic methods of explaining and portraying the affections were found increasingly unnatural and artificial. Enlightenment composers found the restrictions of such theologically infonned and scientifically detennined music far too oppressive; Enlightenment listeners preferred personal. subjective expressiveness and a pervading presence of the emotional utterance of the individual. An era with a radically altered philosophy of music was ushered in. PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC IN GERMAN BAROQUE MUSIC SO wt """Sl cOllclwt Ihal Ihtrt I.! only lillit dijftrtnce In/wun mzuic alld Iht naturt 0/ oroliOf1 Joachim Bumleisler ( 1601) ... IInlillhe arl of/IIltsic has altainlffi sllch a height in allr own do),. Ihat it may illdted bt compared to a rhttoric. in ,"it»' afthe multitudt offiguru . Christoph Bernhard (late seveDteenth century) For tht figurts are themse/~'f!S a langllage oft"t affections. Johann Scheibe (1745) The humanists' renewed interest in the linguistic disciplines during the Renaissance was to have a profound effect on virtually all aspects of academic and artistic endeavor Ihroughout Europe. Common to all European Renaissance and Baroque music traditions was the growing emphasis on musicallext expression and general references to the relationship between music and rhetoric. Unique to the Gennan musica poerica tradition was its thorough and systematic development of a secondary "musical rhetoric" corresponding to the contemporary linguistic rhetorical discipline.I Fundamental to this concept was the attempt to identi fy and define existing musical phenomena and devices I. Brian Vickers's attempt to denounce a Baroque "musical rheloric'· ("Figures of RhetoriCIFigures ofMusicT' Rhttorica, 2, I [1984], 1-44) must be dismissed for various reasons. Besides being riddled with musical misunderstandings and inaccuracies Vickers's argument refuses to allow the transfer of rhetorical methods 10 nonlinguisti~ dUciplines: ··but rhetoric is inalienably about communication. and CaD only use words. IDd meanings" (p.44). However. as George Kennedy points out. "the application of theories of rheioric outside ofthe field oforal expression was nOllimited to literature" (Classical Rhtfol"lc and its ChristiaN and Secular Tradition/ rom ANcient to Modern Timts [Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1980J, 2IS).ln addition to its adaptation by the musical discipline. rhetoric was also influential in painting (Kennedy. p.215). While Ihis may be inconsistenl with classical rhetorical concepts. the existence of this development cannot be repudiated. In order to discover the significance of a cenain era's music, the musicologist must assume an unprej udiced historical per· spective. Only Ihrough its unique, theologically informed, and rhetorically permeated character can the essence ofGennan Baroque music be discovered and explained. To understand mlls,,·a pOI!tica one must accept its own tenets and language. '8 Principles ofRhetoric with Icnllinoiogy borrowed from rhetoric. It would be misleading to explain these developments by maintaining that mllsicQ poetica sought out rhetorical methods and devices and then constructed analogous musical foons. The Gennan musician's primary point of departure was an existing musical expression or fonn which was to be analyzed 10 identify ils components, making it available for both pedagogical and artistic purposes. Both musica poetica and rhetoric aspired to an emphatic and affective form of expression through the artfu1 application of their respective techniques. In addition, both disciplines approached their respective subjects objectively and analytically. The one element which musica poetica lacked was a tenninology which could articulate its intent and methods. With common didactic methods, expressive purposes, and related positions in the Lateinschuie curriculum, the "rhetorization" of musica poetica was an inevitability. The increased significance placed on language and the linguistic disciplines by contemporary humanist scholars resulted in a growing influence of rhetorical concepts on musical thought. The Lutheran emphasis on the Word as a means of revelation, education. and proselytization reflects the humanist influences on Protestant thought" and also points to the didactic function of music associated with a text. Both music and word were to teach; both stood in the service of proclaiming the Christian Gospel. In addition to facilitating a synthesis of 11I11sica specuialiva and musica praclica, as well as encouraging an ethico-theological interpretation of the concept of the affections, Luther's theology of music prepared the way for the unique and thorough Gennan adaptation of rhetorical principles and procedures, including a systematic development of the concept of musical-rhetorical figures. 2. A widely read rhetoric text in the Renaissance, Rudolphus Agricola's De Dialeclica /m'err/ione (1479), which contended that "the first and proper objective of speech is to teach," was very influential in the writings of the Protestant leader and friend ofLuther Philipp Melanchthon, who developed the curriculum for the Lutheran LUleinsc/wfen (Kennedy, Clrusicaf Rhetoric, 208f). See also Witfried Bamer, Barockrhe/orilc (T{lbingen: Niemeyer. 1970), 260. Principles ojRhelo,.ir: '9 GERMANY AND [TALY: CONTRASTING PIIlLOSOPHIES OF M USIC (talian Bawque music was modeled after the art of oratory rather than Ihe discipline of rhclOric. lts goal was to imitate the actor rather than the pla)"night. the orator rather than the rhetorician, reflecting a longstanding Platonic mislrust of rhetoric. Dramatic gesture and pathosladen deliwry "as to supply the necessary inspiration for musical invention.) The Italian rejection of music's numerological and cosmological significance in favor of its direct affective and aesthetic effect led to a fonn of musical expression which focused on a modem aesthetic principle of expressing and stioing the affections rather than explaining the text. Although the text was central to musical composition, it became the springbo3rd for musical expression rather than the object of Ihe composition. TIle expressive musical devices which characterize the Italian III/ave mllsiche were developed with an aesthetic rather than exegetic principle in mind. Instead of introducing an intermediate level oflinguistic and theological significance to the musical phenomena as was done in Lutheran Gennany, the Italians sought to speak directly and immediately to the senses. Thus Monteverdi's Or/eo, a paragon of Italian Baroque music. celebrates the power of music over physical and spiritual forces. While the compositional phenomena and devices may appear analogous to IIl11sica poelica's musical-rhetorical figures as defined by Gennan theorists, Italian writers and composers were not as 3. "When they [the musicians) go for their amusement to the tragedies and comedies that the mummers act, lel them ... be so good as to observe, when one quiet gentleman speaks with another, in what nllnner he speaks. how high or low his voice is pitched. with what volume ofsowld, with what sort of accents and gestures, and with what rapidity or slovlllcss his words are uttered... . Let them observe the prince when he chanccs to be cOllversing with one of his subjects and vassals; when with the petitioner who is entreating his favour; how the man infuriated or excited speaks; the married woman. the girl. thc mere child. Ihe clever harlot. the lover speaking to his mistress as he seeks to persuade her to grant his wishes. the lllan who laments. the one \Iho crie~ Oll!. the timid mall. I'Ind the man exuilal1l with joy. From these variations of CI ~CUmstance .. ,they will be able to select the noml of what is filling for the expression 01 any other conception whatever that can call for their handling." Vicenw GalileL iJru/ogn dl.(/a IIIII.nca mlfir;,j e deffa m(J(lcma (Florence. 1581 ); cited in Strunk. Source /(eading5. J 18. 60 Principles of Me/ode interested in a linguistic articulation of naming and defining these musical devices. (The art of Italian vocal or French inSlnUllental ornamentation, on the other hand, was developed much more thor· Qughly, owing to the Italian emphasis on delivery, on actio or pronunciatio, the last ofthe rhetorical structural steps and the one most important to the actor.) The spokesperson for the Florentine Camerata. Vicenzo Galilei. who decried the Aristotelian-scholastic emphasis on learned rhetoric,4 recommended to composers that they observe human behavior, thereby empirically acquiring the methods for the musical portrayal ofthe affections. This precluded the discussion of a systematic application of rhetorical compositional techniques. Natural, affectiondirected speech and its delivery rather than studied, rhetorical theory was to be the compositional model. Only toward the end of the Gennan Baroque did this approach make inroads into Gennan musical thought, championed by writers such as Manheson. Scheibe, and Forkel. Although Mattheson and Forkel insisted that musical truth lay primarily in natura, they nonetheless reconunended a rhetorically structured approach to musical composition. However, while Mattheson leaned more toward mus;ca poetica's artistic concepts, Forkel's thoughts sprang from the context of a post-Baroque (Enlightenment) aesthetic. The situation in France corresponded to the Italian Baroque music aesthetic. While rhetoric seems to have been even more significant in French Baroque music, there is no evidence of the development of a systematic concept of musical-rhetorical figures. in spite of a promising beginning by Anonymous of Besan~on .' Like the Italians, the French looked to the actor or orator for musicahhetorical inspiration. In the words of Rameau, "a good musician should surrender himself to all the characters he wishes to portray. Like a skillful actor he should take the place of the speaker, believe himself to be at the location where the different events he wishes to depict occur, and participate in these events as do those most involved in them. He must declaim the text well, at least to himself, and he must feel when and to what degree the voice should rise or fall, so that he may shape his melody, hannony, modula- 4. Dammann, M/Isikbegriff. 107. 153ff. 5. Gregory Butler. "Fugue and Rhetoric." JOllrnal of Mmic Them,. 21(1977). 53. Principles ofRhetoric 61 lion. and movement accordingly.'06 In England there were also references to a correlation between music and rhetoric without the subsequent development of a systematic concept of musical-rhetorical figures. In his music treatise Charles Butler mentioned four "Graces or Ornaments: Consecution. Syncope, Fuga. and Fonnaliti," describing the proper progression ("consccurion") of the intervals. the use ofthe suspensions, and the fugue, as well as the arrangemenl of a composition using these devices and cadences.1 Even though he quoted Calvisius's reference to a composition's exordium and finis,! he did not elaborate on the musical-rhetorical implications as was done by Bunneister and his followers. The remaining English musicalrhetorical references occurred primarily in rhetorical rather than musical treatises,9 Furthermore, they referred predominantly to technical fugal devices of repetition. While English rhetoricians continued to use rhetorical tenninology in their discussions of the rhetorical figures of repetition, no conscious effort was made by music theorists to adopt similar terminology. Instead, terms such as reply, revert, report, and coumerchallge ofpoints were employed. The similarity between the musical devices and the rhetorical figures was then emphasized by the rhetoricians instead of the musicians. Francis Bacon summed this up in his conunent: "The reports and fugues have an agreement with the 6. Traitt de f'Harmonie riduite ases Principe.s naturels (Paris, 1722; trans. Ph. Gossen, N.ew York: Dover, 1971), 156. Although Leslie E. BrO"ll ("Oratorical Thought and ~he 1ragMie Iyrique: A Consideration of Musical-Rhetorical Figures," CQllege MIlS/C. S~'mp()Sillm 20 [19801. 99) makes a number of helpful references to the role of rh~nc In French Baroque nlusic, the identification oflhe exp~ssive musical devices ~hich were employed by French composen; as musical·rhetorical figures ~mains ques~1OQa~e. While the identified devices undeniably coincide with numerous expressions rdentified as musical·rhetorical figures by German wrilers, they we~ never referred to as .such by French writers. Although a contemporary German musician, upon encotlntermg the French music, may have defined the musical phenomena as musical.rhetorical figures, the lack of any such French references would seem to suggest that neither the French composer nor his audience would have junlped 10 the same conclusion. I 7. Charles Butler. The pn'ncip/es ofmusik (London. 1636). 57. The Ireatise is argely based on Seth Calvisius's ExercitatiOfles Musicoe Dr/oe (Leipzig, 1600). 8. BUller. Principles. 86. . 9, For a discussion ofthis phenomenon. see Gregory Butler. "Music and Rhetoric ill Early Seventeenth-Century English Sources," Musical Quarterly 66 (1980). 53. 62 Principles ofRhetoric figures in rhetoric of repetition and traduction."'o Furthermore, as in France and italy. there seems to have been linle attempt made systemati~ cally to link the rhetorical figures and devices with text- and affection_ expressive musical composition during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. There was no English advocate of "musical preaching" comparable to the Lutheran Kantor, the driving force behind the development of mllsica poerica. English Protestantism was fundamen_ tally Calvinistic. a theology which rejected all fonns ofelaborate church music. While orthodox Calvinism allowed unaccompanied, unison congregational singing in worship, it frowned on the liturgical use of choral polyphonic music, which was associated with "popery" in England. The tone for Anglican church music was set by the "author" of the Book of Conunon Prayer, Thomas Cranmer, chaplain to Henry VIlI and Archbishop of Canterbury (1533). In a letter to Henry VIIl regarding a translation of the Great Litany, Cranmer suggested that "the song that should be made thereunto would not be full of notes, but, as near as may be, for every syllable a note, so that it may be sung distinctly and devoutly."" The Calvinist view of music as a humanistic recreational endeavor stood in sharp contrast to the Lutheran divinely ordered and ordained concept of music. Thriving in the historical 10. Francis Bacon. S)'/I'a Syfl'arum: or. a naJurall histarie, in ten centuries (london 1621), 38. 60. II . Suunk.SOl/ree Ikodings, 35). Similar directives to specific cathedrals abound in the sil{tcenth century. In an injunction to the dean and chapter at YOfk Minster in 1552 it was lIottd: "We will and conunand that there be none other note sung or used in the said church al any service there to be had. saving square note plain, so that ev~ syllable may be plainly and distinctly pronoWlced, and without any reportS or repeatings which may induce any obscureness to the hearers" (peter Ie Huray. Music and Ihe Reformalioll ill Ellgiand J549~1660. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1 9~8. 25). During the Eliz.abethan period. similar strict controls were placed on church muSIC. l\S is evidenced in the ban of contrapuntal music in Winchester Cathedral in 1511: "Item. that in the choir no more shall be used in song that shall drown any word or syllable, or draw out in length or shorten any word or syllable. otherwise than by the nature of the word it is pronounced in common speech, whereby the sentence cannOI be well perceived by the hearers. And also the often reports or repeating of notes with words or sentences. whereby the sense may be hindertd in the hearer mall not be used." Jbid.. 38. The one oasis or contrapuntal church music during this era was the Chapel Royal. "which obstinately refustd to be bound by the restrictions urged upon so many other centres of church musk" (Eric Routley, A Shorf History of English Church Music, London: Mowbrays. 1917,23). Prjllciple.~ (If Rhc/olic 63 association between music and rhetoric in the context of the Lateinschu/ell. Lutheran musical exegesis led to the text- and affectionportraying IIIlIsica poetica, combining the disciplines of music and rhetoric more explicitly and systematically than any other European music tradition. Only on Gennan soil did the theological. historical, and practical prerequisites for the development of such a musical rhetoric exist. The Gennan mlls;clISpoeticils first sought to analyze and define his linguistic source and then construct a parallel musical strucrure. instead ofaspiring to draw directly on the source of the affection. The text was to be depicted and explained. reflecled upon and taught. This process included a search for analogies between text and music, frequently involving complicated and at times obscure exegetical devices. A divinely ordered universe would guarantee the possibility of rationally explaining not only the mathematical and affection-arousing aspects of musical th~ory but also Ihe rhetorical-linguistic principles of musical c.omposition. In prescribing that a composition be "arranged in order and proportion," Matthesonjuxtaposed theological and rhetorical ternlinology: the rhetorical "arrangement" (Eil/l'ichtIlJlg~dispositio) ofa composition is to reflect the order and proportion of the created universe.'2 The Italians. in contrast to Gemlan writers, put less emphasis on theoretical and theological considerations. concentrating primarily on the effect of music.ll Only the execution of the speech, the final two steps in the rhetorical process oforation (memoria and pronuntialio or actio). were to be influential in music. Gesrure and declamation were to be of prime consideration. not structure and fonn. The Lutheran application of the traditional pedagogical method of praeceptulI1. exempilim. el imitatio (learning the rules, studying exam. pies. and imitating established masters) reinforced the continued perception of musical composition as a craft rather than an aesthetic 12. See p,35. n.12. above. 13. The Itillian emphasis, characterized by its empirical approach, is in part enCOuraged by a quasi-magicat understanding of the power of music, parallel to a similar understanding of the power of oration to stir Ihe affections. tn his Raliollalis PhiloSophlC/e "ars fer/la, Campanella devotes chapler I I to De oraloris inslrllmento magico. And l\'lonteverdi, the son of a physician. also oonccr11ed himself with alchemy. Dammann. "flUllcbegriJ!. 160. 64 Principles ofRhetoric undertaking. While the Italians highlighted "heavenly inspiration" (celeste injlllsso et inclinatiolle),'4 and argued that a composer must be a born composer, the Germans emphasized the teachable and learnable skill of composition. In his Musica Poetica, Andreas Herbst " 'TOle: "JuSt as a builder or carpenter leaves a house or other building to posterity. so too and in like manner can a mus;clIs poelicus or composer bequeath 10 following generations a musical composition which he constructed with great diligence, toil, and industry, thereby ensuring the abiding remembrance or his name."'s In accounting for his musical accomplishmcniS. 1. S. Bach commented, "I had to work hard; anyone who is as industrious, can achieve the same level.,,16 Bach's comment was not made simply out ofbashful modesty but rather reflects the conviction that the craft of musical composition can indeed be learnt. That which was captured instinctively in the south was analytically unraveled, tenninologically objectified, and systematically taught in the north. THE DISCIPLINE OF RHETORIC The ancient and distinguished discipline of rhetoric, the art of eloquent speech, originated in the fifth century S.c. as an oral skill used by lawyers and statesmen. Athenian rhetoricians and philosophers graduaUy produced systems of rules and regulations which were taught at the various schools and academies. With the rise of epideictic oralion. which focused on rhetorical display, philosophers became wary of the discipline. From Plato to Aristotle, philosophers "either reject rhetoric altogether, or they treat it as a subordinate part of philosophy, claiming to treat the subject wilh greater competence than the professional 14. Ibid.. 113. !.S. "Dann gleich wie ein Werckmeister oder Zimmennann I ein Haul} oder SOflsten ein Gebliw I SO von ihme verfeMiget I hinter ihm vertlis!: Also auch und der gestalt kan ihme ein Musicus PoetiCU5 oder Componist I ein dergleichen Musicalisches Wercklein I welches er mit grossem fleip I milll und arbeit I durch diete kllnst zusammen gebracht I zu seines Nameru immerwlirendem Gedachtnup den Nachktlm)ingen hinderlassen." Herbst, Musica poetica, I. 16. "lch habe fleipig sein mlissen; wer ebenso fleipig ist, der wird es ebe:nso weit bringen ktlnnen." Cited in Danunann, MU$ikbegriff. 11 3. Principles 0/Rhe/oric 65 rbelOricians were able to do."n With the rise of Christianity, scholars and writers of the Church adopted the classical rhetorical discipline from their Roman teachers who, in tum. had fully embraced Greek theol)' and practice. The art ofpublic speaking lost its prominence in tbe Middle Ages. While medieval rhetoricians focused on the art ofcomposing letters or official documents, the clergy cultivated rhetoric in the literary genre of the homily or sermon. Rhetoric, championed by tbe humanists along with all other classical disciplines, experienced a revival in the Renaissance, "and came to pervade all areas of civilization. as it had not been the case during the preceding centuries.... For the studia Illlmanilatis included granunar and poetry. history and moral philosophy, as well as rhetoric. As a humanist enterprise, rhetoric was thus closely connected with all these other subjects, and the rhetoric of the humanists must be Wlderstood as an integral part of their widespread interests and activities."I! RHETORIC IN THE LATEINSCHULE CURRICULUM Through the Lutheran school refonns pioneered by Luther's hwnanistically inclined associate, Philipp Melanchthon, the discipline of rhetoric received high priority in the parochial LaleilJSchulen, schools which vinually all German Lutheran musicians would have attended.19 The fri\lium, which included rhetoric, fonned the core ofthe cWTiculum both at the Laleillschu/en and the universities. Indeed, Kalliors teaching at Lateinschulen frequently fOWld themselves teaching both music and Latin. which included grammar and rhetoric. This was also the case with Joachim Bwmeister, the author ofthe first musicapeeNca treatise which systematically combined the disciplines of music and rhetoric. All c.ourse instruction was conducted in Latin. Furthermore, all conversation, whether in the classroom or on the playground, was to be in Latin. 17. Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissallce 7'harlghl alld lis Saurces (New York: COIU111bia Un iversity Press, 1970), 219. 18. Ibid., 242f. B 19. For all excellent and exhaustive study of rhetoric in the Baroque, see Barner, arodrhelarrk, especially 241- 32 1. 66 Principlu ofRhtlorlc (Allhough the exclusive concentration on Latin abated throughout the seventeenth century, it was not until the eighteenth century that the vernacular replaced Latin as the language of rhetoric.) Introductory rhetoric was amy taught in the fmal one or two years of school, after the students had thoroughly mastered Latin grammar and syntax. The weekly curriculum of the advanced students included eight hours of Latin, three hours of dialectic (logic), two hours of rhetoric, and 1\\'0 hours of Cicero. In addition to other subjects, provision was also made for further private tutoring in rhetoric. The student was taught to prepare a given topic either in oral or written form according to the examples of classical authors. To this end the students used various textbooks which presented the general rhetorical concepts and techniques ofthe classical authors (Aristotle, Cicero. Quintilian) in a condensed form. Lossius. who was BtUllleister's teacher, simplified the texts by Melanchthon and Erasmus for his own use. Rules ofrhetoric were defined with examples rrom classical writings, providing material which the students could emulate. Classical authors were not read for their literary content but rather to detennine linguistic rules. Like all other disciplines including Latin grammar and music, the subject of rhetoric was taught through praecepw11I, exempillm, et imilatio.20 RHETORICAL STRUCTURE The process of rhetorical structuring traditionally comprises five steps: illvemio, dispositio, eloclltio, memoria, and actio or pronllnciatio. While invemio concerns itself with determining the subject and gathering pertinent infonnation. dispositio focuses on logically arranging the material. The third step, eloclltio, translates the various jdeas and thoughts into words and sentences, adding any necessary devices which would give the argument greater emphasis. The last two steps deal with memorization and delivery. The first three steps each receive further consideration according to the topic's generalities or ideas (res) and to the particulars and words (verba). To assist in finding a suitable theme. 20. See also Mimesis, below, for an explicalion of imito/io. Principles ofRhetol'ic 67 rhetorical ;nvellfio offers a long list of loci topid or "subject areas," including topics dealing with names, definitions. antecedent or subsequent causes, effects. comparisons. and contrasts.21 lbrough the dispos;(io or arrangement and development of the subject maUer, the oration is usually subdivided into six segments: exordium (introduction), lIarrafio (factual aCcoWlt), propositio (the proposed argument or point to be made), confirmatio (supporting arguments). con/lltatia (rebuttals), and peroratia or conc/llsia (concluding comments). Regarding eJocu/io, ils stylisti, expectations are summed up in the fOllr virtutes eloclitionis: correct syntax (puri/as. lalinitas), clarity (perspiclIitru), figurative language (omallls), and suitability offonn to COlllent (aplllm, decorum). It is in this third "virtue," omalus, that the rhetorical figures and tropes find their home. Tropes are understood as metaphoric expressions, while figures are described as deviations from the nonnal choice, order, or stnlClure of words and sentences. It is above all these figures of speech, which serve to embellish. amplify. and vividly portray the thoughts, that were considered the most useful tools in presenting and arousing the affections. The last two structural steps. memoria and actio or prommciatio, deal with memorizing the oration and polishing the delivery. adding gestures and proper inflections. Because these two steps have little to do with the fonnulation of a properly ordered sennon or speech. they received only minor attention in the Gennan context. Vossius. who V;TOte one of the most widely read rhetorical textbooks in Germany, focused on inventio in books I and 2. on disposilio in book 3, and on elocutio in books 4 and 5, appending only two short chapters on memorization and delivery at the end of book S.n The preponderance of the first three rhetorical steps in Gennan rhetoric was also reflected in the musica poetica tradition. The Gennan context encouraged an emphasis on orderly and eloquent construction rather than on dramatic delivery. Illvemio's loci topici, the sectional dispositio, and e!ocutio's rhetorical figures, rather than the rhetorical steps concerning delivery and perfonnance, were to detennine 11Iusica poetica's concepts and . 21.ln his DergriJnenJlIgend nolhwend;ge Ged(l1lcki!n (Leipzig, 1676). Christian Weise eX3!l\ined ty,.·etve lod topic;, summarized in Unger. Be:;iehllngen, 4. 22. For 3 detailed discussion of Vossius·s COlllmemarlQrlml RheloriC'orunr (Leiden. 1606 ). sc:c: Barner. Burockrhe/oril. 265ff. 68 P"i/1ciple~' ofRhetoric structures. The composer sought to emulate the rhetorician rather than the actor. with the composition replicating an orderly rhetorical con· struction rather than mimicking an inspired theatrical presentation. Although there were minor variations in the number and presentation of the rhetorical structures. they can be summari7..ed as follows: a) ["venrio. including the loci topic; b) Disposi/io i) exordium ii) narratio iii) propositio (divisio) iv) cOflfirmatio v) con/walia (rejutatio) vi) perorario (conelusio) c) £/oclilio (Decoratio) the four virtutes eloclltionis: i) purUas, latil1itas ii) perspicu;tus iii) amalus. including rhetorical figures and tropes iv) aptum, decorum d) Memoria e) Actio, Prolllmciatio THE RHETORICAL FIGURE The Latin teonfigura is rooted in the verbfingere (to form or shape) and refers to a "modeled fabrication." Whilefigllra originally meant simply "shape" or "fonn," it later referred to the image of the original shape or form. Thus the tenn assumed the meaning of both an image or reOection of an object as well as an independent structure or conception. Greek rhetorical tenninoiogy used the tenn schemata to designate both rhetorical styles as well as the specific forms of expressive elaboration. This term was then translated into Latin asfigura by Cicero (b. 106 Be). using it to designate certain rhetorical styles, and later by Fabius Quintilian (b. ca. AD. 35) in his instillitio oratoria. with reference to the Principles of Rhetoric 69 embellishing devices,u Quintilian's teachings on the rhetorical figures are indisputa.bly the O1ost significant and influential writings on the subject. remaining authoritative throughout the medieval. Renaissance, and Baroque eras. In books 8 and 9 of his Instilulio oratoria Quintilian discussed the Iropes and figures at great length, explaining that while tropes and figures are used for the same purpose. namely "to add force and chann" 10 me oration,24 the two types ofembellishments should not be confused. While a trope is "the expressive alteration of a word or phrase from its proper meaning to anolher,,,lj he described a figure as "a conformation of our speech altered from the common and obvious usage... . A figure is therefore a new and artful manner of speeth."u; While the trope lends novel content to familiar language, the figure uses novel language COtL'itruclion. The various literal nuances of meaning ofjigura asforma and imago become evident in Quintilian's rhetorical use ofthe term. The tenn was used in reference to any "fonn" of verbal expression, as well as to an intentionally altered use of language from the ordinary and simple fonn.21 Through this alteration (mulalio) the verbal expression is used to denote a deviating or illusory meaning, thereby being an implicit imago of that which is not explicitly stated. lbis rhetorical understanding offigura would later be transferred to music, as the musical figure through its unique structure becomes an expression of beth the image (imago) of the text and the source (forma) of the intended affection. The traditional classification of the figures into two groups, sentence 23. Erich Auerbach. ''Figura.'' GtSommelle Auftar..e XlIr romanischen Philologie (Bern: Franke, 1967), 55. . ~4: ". .. usus quoque est idem: n8m et vim rebus adiiciunt et gratiam praestant." QUlntillan, /nstilulio oratorio ed. and trails. by H. E. Butler (London: Heinemann In l~mi~M9. ' 23. "Tropus est verbi vel sermoni! a propria significatione in a1iam cum virtute mutatio." Jbid., VllI.vi.1. 30t. 26. "Figura ... conformatio quaedam oralionis remota a communi et primum se ,offerenle rarione.... Ergo figura sit ane aliqua novala forma dicendi." Ibid., IX.i.4, 14 'O.3M ' ~7. "Nam doobus modis dicitur: uno qualiscunque forma sententiae.... altern, quo pr~pne schema dicilur. in sensu vel sermone aliqua a vulgari et simplici specie cum ratione mUlatio." Ibid.• IX.i.IO, II, 352. 70 Principles ofRhe/oric figures and word figures, was also observed by Quintilian.lI Words or phrases could be altered or repeated in various ways with the intent of lending the oration greater power and chann. for ''there is no more effective method of exciting the emotions than an apt use of figures."l9 However, the specific figure was not to be confused with the affection to be expressed. While rage, pity, pain, fear, and other affections can be expressed through the figures, they are not figures themselves. Quin. tilian went to considerable length to clarify this point, citing long passages of Cicero's Orator and De Oralore. ln addition to the tropes and figures. Quintilian also listed four kinds of amplification. including j"cremefllunI or auxesis, comparario, rOliocinatio. and congeries. These amplifieationes are closely related to various figures, resulting in their incorporation into the lists of figures by subsequent writers. The Renaissance was marked not only by the humanistically inspired reappearance of many classical sources and texts but also by a surge in contemporary texts on rhetoric. A widely circulated collection of figures and tropes is found in the Epitome by Johannes Susenbrorus.'o Susenbrotus defmed a rhetorical embellishment, including both figures and tropes, as "a deviation from the simple or normal fonn of speech."]1 Figura was defined as an artful and novel fonn or manner of writing or speaking.12 Susenbrotus then distinguished between grammatical and rhetorical figures. The grammatical figures were concerned with orthographic alterations to a word and syntactic changes to a sentence. A number of his syntactic figures had been defined as either tropes, 28. "Inter plurimos enim. quod sciam, consensum est duas eius esse partes. 6Ia \lo(al;. id est mentis \lei sensus vel sententiarum, et ).~EWI;. id eSI vC1'borum vel dictionis vet elocutioni! \leI sermonis \lei orationis; nam et varialur et nihil refert." Ibid.• IX.LI7,356. 29. Ibid., IX.i.21. 358. 30. Johannes Susenbrorus. Epitome troporum ac schema/um e/ gramma/lcarum el ".hetOl"lIm (Antwerp. 1566). Henry Peacham the Elder (1546-1634) based his influential The Garden ofEloqllence (London, 1593), also a collection ofthetorical figures and tropes. on Susenbrotus's Epitome. 31 . "Figura est ratio quaedam. qua de recto at simplici loquendi gtntre cum aliqua dicendi virtule deflectitur." Epitome. 6. 32, "Schema vel fig\ll1l. proprie, est aliqua novata et scribendi et dicendi fonna. Vel est quaedam ane novala, tum scribendi tum dictndi ralio." Ibid. Susenbn)tus uses the lenns figura. schemata. oralianis lumina, exornatio, lUld color intC1'changeably. 71 jigllrae 1·erbon/lll. orfigurae sememiae by Quintilian. Just as Quintilian had done. Susellbrotus classified the rhetorical figures into word and sentence figures. additionally including Quintilian's methods ofamplification as a third class of figures. forming the categories offigurae dictiolllllll./iglirae Ora(iOIlIlI1l, andfigllrae ampl!/icationis. According to Suscnbrotus. the purpose of the figures was to '''relieve tbe irritation of C\CI) day and worn-out language. to lend the oration greater delight. dignity. and elegance, to add greater force and chann to our subject. and finall) to fortify our \\Titing or speaking in an unusual manner:·j} A significant aesthetic rather than functional reorientation concerning the purpose of the rhetorical fi gures can be observed in Susenbrotus's definition. Quintilian's concept of the figures was entirely rooted in their classical function, namcly to move and convince an audience. be it (he senate or a public crowd. through a heightened and enlivened [om1 of oration. This utilitarian purpose was replaced by a primarily aesthetic and artistic one: to lend the oration greater delight and dignity. lorce and charm. Moreover. thanks to centuries of medieval rhetoric. it was nol only the spoken but also the \VTitten language which benefitted from this uncommon expressiveness. Eloquently intensified composition rather than convincing political oration characterized the Renaissance purpose of the rhetorical figures. Wilh this altered concept of the figures and of rhetoric in general. the groWldwork had been prepared for music's adoption of rhetorical principles and techniques. The philosophical CUlTenlS of Ihe seventeenth and eighteenth centuries spa\\lled certain rcfonns and revisions in the rhetoric curriculum of the Lutheran LOfC'illschuien. significantly influencing the Wlderstanding of the rhetorical figures. With neo-Platonic thOUght replacing Aristotelianisll1. emphasis began to be placed more on natural, affective expres~ ion than on calculated composition. Influenced by a rising national identity and il call for an intuitive naturalness, the Gennan language began 10 replace Latin. Rhetorical figures were not to be . 33. ". . ut quotidiani ac protriti sennonis fastidium le\ltnt, UI orationem aUI HK:undiorem. aut gra\'iorem, aUI elcgantiorem efficiant, ut vim rebus adiiciant el gratiam praestent, et nos deniquc II \'ul gari. tl1m scribeodi 111111 dicendi gtnere munianl.'· Ibid., 49..~~ phr~se "ut \i111 rebus adiiciant tt grntiam praestCIlt" had already been used by QUlllllhan to descri he the purpose of the figures (IX.i.2). 72 Principles vjRhetoric sought in ancient textbooks but rather in the inspired natural speech of the Gennan citizen. The most significant Gennan late Baroque rhetori_ cian, Johann Christoph Gottsched (1700- 1766), published numerous influential ,works on this subject. including his AlIsfiihrliche Redekflllsr and Versuch einer Critischen Dichtlamst. both texts Wldergoing multiple editions and printings. Gottschcd also classified the figures intofigurae dic(ion;s and senrenliarllnl, of which "the fomlcr are not all of equal value, for most of them are nothing but empty wordplay which produce nothing but a childish clatter and contain no fire of an affection."H Gottsched's concept of the rhetorical figures rests entirely on their capacity to express the affections: "One could even say, they are the language of the passions. Everyone who is possessed by a certain affection will naturally and involuntarily invent figures, for no one can express their affection without figures."n Gottsched further compared the figures to facial expressions, which, like language, are external reflections of internal activities or emotions. Furthermore, like the actions of the swordsman. figures could be used to startle, distress, delight, enrage, and elicit approval from an audience. The figures thus assumed a dual purpose: like facial expressions or the work of a painter. they could be used to portray the reigning affection; and like the combative endeavors ofthe fencer, they could arouse various affections in the listener. In his Critische DichtJrunst, the work which formed the basis of Johann Scheibe's concept of the musical·rhetorical figures. Gottsched maintained that "the entire power of an oration is rooted in the figures, for they possess a certain fire, and through their magic throw a spark into the heart of the reader or listener, and similarly set them aflame.,,16 Although the arousal of the affections had been associated 34. "Die Figuren sind zweyerley. nemlich Didionis und Sententiarum: dj. entweder in einzelnen WorteJl. oder in ganzen Slitzen, Die ersten sind nicht alle von gieichem Werthe. denn die meisten darunter siZld nichts, als kahie Wonspieie. die nichts. als ein kindisches Geklapper in den Ohren machen. aber kein Feuer eines AlTectes in sich halten:' Johann Christoph Gottsched, AlIsfiinrlicne Redektmsf (Leipzig, 1736). 276. 35. "Man kl:innte kUrzer sagen, sie waren die Sprache der Leidenschaften: Weil alle Menschen, die im Affecte sind, von Natur, und ohne daran zu denken, Figuren machen; und niemand seinen Affect ohne Figuren recht ausdrOcken kan." Ibid.• 273. 36. ''Die ganze Stltrke einer Rede zeigt sich darinn. wei! sie ein gewisses Feuer in sich enthalten, welches auch den lesem oder ZuhlSrem. durch eine geheime Kunst. Fwtken ins Herz wirft, Wid sie gleichcrge:slah entzOndet:' Johann Christoph Gonsched. Principles ofRhetoric 73 with rhetoric and specifically the figures since antiquity, only in the late Baroque was Ihis elc\ aled to the figures' primary purpose. While QUilltilian regarded the figures as a means to convince an audience, and SusenbrotuS focused on their decorative role in speech and literature, Gotlsched sought t(l hase his concept of the figures entirely on their atfecti\'e nature ::md potential. A similar process can also be observed in the developl1ll!!\l of the musical concept ofthe figures. TOWARD A R flETORlCAL MUSfCA POETfCA General comparisons ha\'e been drawn bern'een music and rhetoric since antiquity. While Roman \\Titers emphasized the usefulness of musical knowledge for the oralor.17 rhetoric was increasingly regarded as the model for musicians as early as the sixteenth century. Just as it was the intent of rhetoric \0 assist ill captivating and convincing an audience, so too did it become expected of music that it should express the sentiment of the text in order to increase its effect on the listener. lbis could be accomplished through a musical reflection of the text's syntax, meter. and structure. as well as tluough a vivid representation of the text's images. affections. and ideas. As music adopted rhetoric's goals and intentions. namely \0 encourage audience involvement through the portrayal and arousal of appropriate affections in order ultimately to rno\'e and effect them. it is not surprising that references emphasizing a similar approach to composition are frequently encountered in music Versuch em!'r "//Ircne" D'chfkmlSf, 4th ed. (Leipzig. 1751 ). 314. 37. In hiS /nSflfllf/Q or(l/nno (i. 165-177), Quintilian stressed lhe importance of an orator' s knowledge of music: ..It is by the raising, lowering. or inflection of the \'oi« th~t the otQns of etegantiae et suavitatis; at times, all the voices might pause because of emphasin as well as the meaning of (tet alone (he sophisticated and "modem" Italians and French), who learnt, knew, and taught Ihe craft of music, r("gMded by a colleague and Leipzig professor of rhetoric. 1. A. Birnbaum. as a greal "1l1usical omlor." 40. For a comprehensive lisl of sixteenth-century rhetorical references in musical treatises. including Iho:: olles menlioned here, see Ruhnke. Bllrmeister, 135-38. As the presenl study focuses on Ihe musical-rhetorical figures. only those references to metorica[ figures aro:: listcd here. 4\. The fact that Gallicllius uses both {he terms schemata ({he Greek (enn for rhetorical figllrl'S, otherwise nOI encountered in contemporary music theory) and Co/arllm, traditionally also associated with the rhetorical figures. makes it almost cenain Ihat he was referring to rhetorical figures in music. See also Unger, Beziehllngen, 32. 76 Principles ofRhetoric the words; he highlighted Clemens non Papa's use of suspensions, cadence, and fugue as three outstanding omamenti. Hoffmann (1582) referred to the transgression of a mode's range as redlllldalllia and ellipsis. Following these and other musical·rhetorical references by various German writers, the Lutheran Kantor and teacher Joachim Burmeister provided a detailed and systematic approach to musical composition which enshrined rhetorical terminology and methodology in the German musica poetica tradition at the beginning of the seven· teenth century. Burmeister's efforts have been characterized as "the most significant consequence of combining music and rhetoric:'~l profoundly influencing German compositional theory throughout the Baroque era. BAROQUE MUSICAL-RHETORICAL STRUCTURE References to rhetorically arranged music became more specific throughout the seventeenth century. Parallel to musica poetico's gradual adoption ofthe concept and terminology ofthe rhetorical figures was its acceptance of rhetoric's structuring principles. Athanasius Kircher was the first to introduce the terms of the rhetorical structuring process, invenlio, disposilio, and eJocutio into musical compositional theory. preparing the way for a more explicit correlation between music and rhetoric. All three steps in this process were linked to text expression: while inventio refers to an appropriate musical adaptation of the carre· sponding text, the dispositio concerns itself with an "appropriate and pleasant" musical expression of the words. The musical eJoclilio then embellishes the entire composition through the use of tropes and figures.·) This Wlion between music and rhetoric was consummated in 42. Eggebrecht. "Ober Bachs geschichtlichen Ort," 270. 43. "Ubi Rhetorica tribus constat partibus. invemione. disposilione el eloculione, ila et nostra Muswgica Rhetorica: Inventio Musurgicae Rhetoricae nihil a!iud est, quam apIa Musarithmorum verbis congruorum adaptatio; Dispositio vern est pu1chra quaedam eorundem per aplas nOlarum applicationes expressio. Elocutio denique est ipsa Melothesiae onmibus numeris absolutae, tropis figurisque exomatae per cantum exhibitio." Athanasius Kircher. Musllrgia IIniversa/is sive Ars Magna ConSQn; et Dissan; (Rome. 1650) II. loS. ch.S. §4: "De Partibus Rhetoricae MU$urgica," 143. Pri/1cip/~s ofRhetoric 77 the writings of Maltheson. particularly in Der vollkommene Capell· meisler. While the concept of the musical·rhetorical figures of the musical elocutio had taken firm root by the eighteenth century, Mat· theson introduced the complete rhetorical structuring process to musical composition and with it the various particulars oftha! process, including all of inventio's loci lopici and the six steps of the dispositio. M USICAL-RHETORICAL INVENTIO The first step in the rhetorical structuring process is inventio: detennin· ing a topic or subject. Although Kircher had introduced the concept of a musical·rhetorical inwntio, he limited its application to the musical representation of the associated text. According to Kircher, the com· poser first chooses a theme or subject whose material is to become the basis and fOWldatioll for the represented and evoked aife<:tion.44 Second, the key for the composition is chosen, again in consideration of the desired affection. Third. the composer decides upon the meter and rhythm for the composition, taking both text and its affection into consideration. This must all be done before the actual work of composi· tion (dispositio) can begin. l he "invention" ofsubject, key, and rhythm should be Wldertaken in such a way that the intended affection is established. Throughout the seventeenth century, composers were provided with lists of words ofmotion, place. affection, time, number, etc., which they were encouraged to "express and paint,''''S The musical expression of a word was frequently accomplished through the use of musical.rhetorical '~,pof):posis·figures, devices through which "the meaning of the \\lords arc enlightened in such a way, that they seem to spring to life."~6 With invelllio thus linked to text·expression, this first step of the rhetorical process was directly linked to the third step, 44. Ibid., ch.3. De locomm /emporisqlle cons/i/II/ione ad affec/lls conci/andos ordinal/do. Dammann. Musilrbegdff, 314. 45. "... quae ipso sono f.'t nOIMlIn varietate sunt exprimenda et pingenda." Nucius. M/I$ices poetica... G3'. 46. See l~lpo/ypn$l.f (B urmeister. MI/sica poe/iea). below. H}poI}pruis devices, limited only by the composer'S imagination. include figures such as anabasis, calabasis, and circlilatiu. 78 Principles ofRhetoric eloculio or decoratio, which traditionally concerned itself with the rhetorical figures.~1 The flourishing genre of seventeenth-century instrumental music brought with it an expansion of the text-oriented concept of the musical inventio. Particularly fruitful in this regard was the incorporation of the phan/asia technique, "used to refer to certain short, mechanical contrapuntal patterns, so called because they were the product of the composer's or player's imagination.'>4S The correlation of inventio and phan/asia is demonstrated by Mauritius Vogt when he gave the title "De Phanlasia et Inventionibus" to the sixth chapter of his compositional treatise.49 With the rise of instrumental music and the growing concern regarding unity of affection, early-eighteenth-century composers were encouraged to make use of the loci topici in writing their music. By transferring the rhetoricalloei topiei to musical composition, Heinichen proposed that the composer might "derive a good idea from the given (and frequently unfruitful) text. But to lead our imagination, cannot, I believe, be better accomplished than through the oratorical loci topici. Even with the most uninspired text one can take just the three principal sources, namely antecedentia. concomitantia, and consequentia textus, and examine them according to the locus /opicus by weighing carefully the purpose of the words, including the related circumstances ofperson, time, place, etc. Thus the inborn natural imagination ... never lacks for the expression of valuable ideas or, to speak more clearly, skillful 47. See Unger, Beziehungen. 35ff. 48. Gregory Butler, "The Fanlasia as Musical Image," Musical Quarterly 60, 4 (1974).614. 49. Mauritius Vogt, Conclal'e thesauri magnae arlis musicae (Prague. 1719). III a glossary at the beginning of the treatise, Vogt provides the following definition: "Phantasia. simplex & ordinatus processus sonorum, ex quibus variae fugae, themata, & pausgio eliciuntur" (Cone/ave, 6). In addition to ilJustrating how a simple chord progression can be expanded into a longer passage, Vogt also includes some unconventional suggestions for musical invention. The composer might drop four hobnails bent in various shapes representing dilIerentfigurae simplices, and then notate musical figurations imitating the patterns of the nails. Furthennore, the composer may want 10 use dice in detennining the intervals to be used, or even resort to alcohol: "Et ut sim aptior ad inveniendum et componendum ... generosi vitrellum vini non abjiciam:' Ibid.. 157. Principles ofRhelo1'ic 79 inventions."·soA composer could use the principle of the rhetorical loci topici and examine the texts surrounding the one which was to be set to Ulusic. Out of the context of preceding (al1lecedentia), parallel (concOmifal1fia). or subsequent (collSequentia) texts, the composer would be able to establish a suitable affection for even the "uninspired" text. Not only could such an application of the loci topici furnish the composer with ideas for his composition, but it would also discourage a preoccupation \vith particular words which might be contrary to the governing affection.51 While Heinichen focused only on the locus circlilnstamiarulll, Mattheson suggested that all loci topici be explored for their musical potentiaL Mattheson began his chapter on melodic invention ,..ith a discussion ofmelodic motives which might be used in structuring the melody.~2 Although he mentioned that a composer might "make a collection ofall the pleasing motives which he has encountered, order thcm according to chapter and title, and when the need arises, gather counsel and consolation from them," he assured the reader that this would result in ragged patchwork.51 Rather, the motives are to be kept in mind so that the composer can express himself comfortably "without constantly consulting a Lexicon for counsel."~4 Mattheson devoted the rest of the chapter to a discussion of the musical application of the loci topici. Even the locus exemplorum, which he interpreted as an imitation of other composers, can prove beneficial. However, even if this is Ihe most frequently used source, the composer must take care that he nOI silllply copy or steal another's work but "return it with interest. That is. one must arrange the borrowed materials in such a v.ay, that they assume a more beautiful and improved expression than in their original contcxt. ... EYen the greatest capitalists will borrow money if it is to their advantage or convenience. "~' The Baroque compositional process was an objective one, In 50. Heinichen. De,. Generaf-Bass, 30, as translated in Buelow, "The 'Loci Topici' and Affect in Late Baroque Music," 162f. 51. If. for example. the composer were setting a lext such as "death is swallowed up in victory:' he would focus on a joyful affection instead of the word "death."' 52. Capel/meisler, pt.2. ehA, "Von der melodischen Erfindung," 121. 53. Ibid.. 123. 54. Ibid.. §17. 55. Ibid.. 131-32. 80 Pdnciplcr ofRhetoric contrast to the subjective and individualistic one of later eras. The adaptation of a preexisting idea and the invention of a new theme were equally considered a part of the inventio process. The necessity of a personal and subjective experience as an inspired source for composi. tion was foreign to the Baroque mind. AU irrational. indefinite, or inaccessible musical thought was considered unworthy. This applied as much to il1venlio as to the other structural steps. The composition was conceived of and structured by rational principles of fonn and expression common to composer and audience alike. Thematic or subject material was in the public domain, common to all composers and comprehensible to all listeners. Whether or not a composer's disposition or "mood" coincided with the desired affection of a composition was immaterial: the composer was obligated to set a certain text to music (or provide instrumental music for a certain occasion) and looked to the given, objective material or situation for the predetermined affection. For the mlisiclis poetjclls such a rationally conceived and perceived composition would portray and arouse the desired affections called for by the text, always with the intention of glorifying God and edifying the listener. M US ICAL-RHETORICALDISPOSITIO The first musical reference which renects the steps of the rhetorical dispositio can be found in Gallus Dressler's description ofthe exordium. medium, and finiS of a composition.S6 Burmeister, who also espoused this tripartite organization, referred to the central section as "the body ofthe composition itself.,,51 The dispositio order became a detemlining factor specifically in fugue composition. TIle opening statement of the fugal theme was referred to as "fa proposilio/Je della/llge" by Angelo Berardi in 1690, a thOUght which is echoed by Dresden Capellmeistcr Johann Christoph Schmidt in a letter to Johann Mattheson in 1718. As Butler points out, Schmidt used the rhetorical chria, a simplified form 56. RUhnke. Burmeisler. 137. 57. " Haec Ires habel partes. 1. Exordium. 2. Ipsum corpus cRrminis, 3. Finis." Bumleister, Musica poet;ca, ch.I.5: "De Analysi sh'e dispositiane carminis musici," 72. Principles ofRhetoric 81 of the djspositio. to explain fugal structure.SI It remained for Matthcson to systematically apply all of the rhetori~ cal dispositio steps to musical composition. now no longer applied primarily to the fugue. ~o The exordillm introduces the composition, arousing the audience's attention and preparing them for that which is to follow. This might take the foml of a prelude to a fugue or, as Praetorius indicated. an opening ritomello in an aria or concerto.60 The narratio advances the intention or nature of the composition. This can be realized through Ihe entry of the vocal part in an aria or the solo instrument(s) in a concerto. Just as the narratio is optional in rhetoric (it is omi!led in the chria). it can be incorporated by the propositio in a musical composition. Besides being identified with the presentation of a fugal theme, the proposilio is assigned the function of presenting the actual content and purpose of the composition. The following two sections. confirmalio and con/utatio, can be considered as contrasting processes with the same ultimate purpose: to strengthen the proposition by either confirming the argument or by refuting or resolving any objections to it.bl While the cOlljirmafjo employs varied and artful repetitions to reinforce the proposirio, the con/ulalio makes use of suspensions. chromaticism, or contrasting passages which, when properly resolved, strengthen the original theme.62 Finally, the pero"a~ 58. "Oenn eille Fugmlm :w trad iren. muss ich die anificia so wool aus der Oratoria. als bey dem Stylo modemo. nehmen.... Denn Dux ist Propositio: Comes Aetiologia. OpposilUlU ist inversio varia Fugae: ... Confirmatio wlite wenn ich das subjeclum caJOnisire; und Conclusio. wenn ich das subject gegen die Cadenze, in Imit8tione, liber eine n313m fimlam hOren lassen: ' Butler, "Fugue and Rhetoric," 67, 69. Butler's study provides a most enJigluening discussion of the rhetorical structure and interpretation of Baroque fugal composition, focusing primarily 011 the steps of the disposilio. 59. The details of the (/isposilio are discussed in Copel/meisler. pt.2, ch.14: "Von dc:r Melodien Einridnung. AUS3rbeitung und Zierde," 235ft". II is also primarily in this dtapter that Manheson deals with the musical·rhetorical figures. domain of the rhetorical elocli/io. 60. Praetorius..~I"frl(lgm(j MU.ficum 1/1, 1.51. 61. Frequently linked together under the term comentio. these steps seem to be reversible or altemMing in a composition, explaining Mattheson 's different ordering of the two in chapter 14. §4 and § 10- 11. G. BUller, "Fugue 311d Rhetoric." 70. 62. G. Butler lists a number of musical-rhetorical figures which are associated with these sections, including t'oll~l!,.ies (specifically mentioned by BurmeistCl"), incremellillm (( lIu e.sis). climax (grur lectures and which would guide us by the hand, as it were. Similarl~ these established forms would provide the listeners with termS IN BurmeiSler 95 practicalI) all musical devices. through which they could recognize and r -dersland the musical de\ ices.... In choosing these terms, we were oved by nOlhing other than our sincere desire to eliminate the lack of FenninoJogy. We believe thnt through these terms and designations it '11 be possible to become fnmi liar with the musical material in its propriate foml...; The vlIrious musical devices are given names which are either rrowed rrom rhetoric or coined to emulate rhetorical terms. Frequently this involves a transrer onJy of the literal meaning oflhe word thcr than the rhetorical de\'ice associated with the term.l In other cases the rhetorical and musical contents of the term coincide. Bunneister's point ofdeparture is always the musical composition and its expressive devices nuher than the rhctorical term ,,~th a search for a corresponding musical e:-.:pression. In their desire to establish a closer link between music and rhetoric. later authors would not only redefme some of Bunneistcr's terms \\lth a musical content closer to the original rhetori· cal meaning (e.g.. anapilora. cmadiplosis) but would also include more figures which were common to both disciplines. While he does not consider his lisl of ol'llamenfa exhaustive, Burmeister'S musical· rhetorical figures are meant 10 provide a means 10 identify and then apply teclmiques which clluld be used in artful composition. To illustrate the application or thesc figures, Bunlleister cites numerous examples frolll composers such as Clemens non Papa and Orlando Lassus, culminating in a complete analysis of Lassus's motet, In me transiel'lmf. Burmeister describes the musical figures, or omamenta as he also caUs thcm. with a detinit iOIl similar to the description of the rhetorical figures. 'nlcy are hannomc or melodic e:-.:pressions which deviate from the simplest forms of musical expression, thereby enhancing the . 2. A larger ponion of the extensive foreword can be found in German translation Ib Ruhnke. HUr""'isler. l-lolL which was also the source for the above translation. J. An interesting adaptll1ion of the rhetorical tenn s\'lIIploce occurs in Bumleister's lIJ'ic-a PCX!lic·a. \Ihere the lenl1 signifies a mixture of r~ajor and minor semilones. (See COItIple.liQ. ~Iow.) BlUnllO'istl'r's ddinition has nothing in common with the rhetorical definition of the figure. but rather is a fine ef>l With these classifi· cations. Bernhard also establishes a link between the figuroe principales and minus principa/es ofearlier Figurenlehren and his own categories. While principaies andfimdamentales refer to the principal structural, musical devices fundamental to the stylus gravis. minus principales and sllperficiales signify the affective and rhetorical, omatus-oriented figures. In contrast to the earlier jigurae principafes, fugue is not included in Bemhard'sjimdamentales figures because it is not a device dealing specifically with dissonance, as do the passing note (transitus) and suspension (syncopo/io or ligatura). The sliperficiales figures include sliperjeclio, subsumtio, variario, multiplieQ/io, ellipsis, retardalio, hetero!epsis, quasitransitus, and abruptio. No longer listed as specific figures in the Bericht are anticipalio, pr%ngatio, syncopalio catachrestica, JXUsus duriuscu/lIs, and sa/Ius duriusculus, mutalio loni, inchoatio imperjecla, longinqua distantia, consonantiae impropriae, tertia deficiens, sexta sllperjlua, quaesitio nolae, cadentiae dllriflscliiae, eXlensio. mora, and transitus inversus. While many of these are either subswned under other figures or given new names, others are apparently not considered sufficiently irregular, rhetorical, or expressive to warrant special mention. Bernhard's discussion of the musical-rhetorical figures updates the Figurenlehre, placing it squarely in the context of mid-seventeenthcentury stylistic trends without breaking iLS ties to the past. He not only illustrates the correlation between the expressive or dissonant compositional devices of the stylus ltaurians and the principles of the stylus gravis but seeks to provide the composer of modem music with expressive figures to affectively express a text. In this modernized Figurenlehre, the works ofthe great past masters of vocal polyphony as well as the compositional styles of contemporary composers such as Monteverdi, Carissimi, Cavalli, and Rossi are cited as appropriate models for imitation.M Bernhard presents a concept of the musical- 63. See n.50, above. The lext continues: "Bil} dal} auff unsere Zeilen die Musica so hoc:h kommen, da!} wegen Menge der Figuren, absonderlich aher in dem neu erfundenen und bisher immer mehr ausgezieJ1en Sty10 Recilativo, sie wohl einer Rhetorica zu vergleichen." Berich/, ch.ll; Hilse, "Treatises," 9Of. 64. True/a/us, chAl. Pr;nt: 119 rhetorical figures \\ hich focuses less on the analysis of vocal polyphony through the application of rhetorical concepts than on the composition of contemporary music through the usc of modern expressive techniques. Kin:ller's reference tn the suitability of the musical-rhetorical fi gures in the s(l'llls recitatil'lIS is thus rigorously applied in Bernhard' s Figu/'enlehrf', WOLFGANG CASPAR PRINTZ Wolfgang Caspar Printz (164 1-1717) was an important latesen:nteenth-cenrury composer, theorist. and music historian, whose works influenced \\TilerS of the next generation such as J. G. Walther and !'. Iattheson. After attending the Lateil1schule in Vohenstraup (Upper Palatinate), he wcnt to Altdorfin 1659 to study theology at the university. His career as a Lutheran minister was cut short through the rec(lll\'ersion of the local aristocracy to Catholicism, at which point Printz decided 10 make music his profession. In 1662, during an cxtended trip through Italy, Printz encountered Kircher, "who was a major intluence on ltis theoretical writing:06~ After his return, he eventually ftlTlved in Sorau (now Poland), where he remained for the rest of his productive life, assuming the positions of Kantor as well as music direclor to the counts of Promnitz. fvluch of Pri.ntz·s theoretical writing concerns itself with questions regarding perfonnance rather than composition. lie is included in this study not only because of his inllllence on nil/sicapoetica theorists, but also because many of the embellishments discussed in his writings also appear in Figlll'elllehrell of lalel' authors. In his Phrynis Mylilenaells66 Printz speciticaJ!y stales that his intention is to describe musical embellishments, but nOI "!hose var;at;ol1es which occur through the COIUleClion and arrangement ofconsonances and dissonances, of which 65 George Buelow, "Printl:," Nell GrOI'e D ie/iollon>, 15: 274, 66. P/J'VII!i .1/1 Il/(,lIoell.f, odeI' Sa~1 I'i.schel' COfllpolli~/, published in ilS enlirety in 1696 (Dresdeu, LeipZig). was published earlier in three 5q)atflte volumes (Quedlinburg, 1676-79) 120 you have been sufficiently infonned through mllsica poelica.'~1 His instructions are directed toward the performing musician, the Musicam, not the composer, who is compared to a cook rather than an orator: "Why should not also the musician, who is concerned with delighting the ear, apply as much effort as the cook or painter in discovering every variation in order to do justice to his calling? After all, music itself consists onJy of variations in souud, and everything which is repeated without change is an annoyance rather than a pleasure to the ear.'061 The following diagram depicts Printz's classifications: Printz defines an embellishment or variat;o as "an artful modifiea- 67. " [ch will aber hler nkhl handetn de Variatione. so geschicht Coniunctionibus & Conseculionibus Consonanliarum & Dissonantiarum. und dergleichen I davon du genugsam berichtet bist aus del" Musica Poetica. soodem de Variatione. aus welcher aile undjede Erfindungen cines Componisten fliessen." Phr),nis A{I·/ifenaells. pan 2. ch.8. ~5. 46. 68. "Warumb solte denn mm nicht auch der Musicant, der das Geht\r zu vergnUgcn besch!tffiiget ist I gleiche Flei!! (wie der Koch odeT Maler) anwenden f ane undjede Varieteet Wid AbwechsellUlg zu erfmden I umb seinem Ambte rechtschaffen vorzustehen I zumahl weil die Music an sich selbst in mera Varietate sononnn bestehet l und slIes was om in derselben wiederholet wird I dem Gehtlr mehr Verdrull ats Annehmlichkeit verursachet:' Ibid.• §3. 45. Prirrt~ 121 tion of a given musical passage.'>69 Although the tenns figura and manier are brought together in a follOwing definition, it is clear that Printz understands the termfigllra as a general heading for the embellishments. mallier meaning simply "manner" rather than "ornament" as Mattheson would use the term: "A musicalfigura is a certain modulus which results through divisions of one or more notes and which is performed in an appropriate manner,,,70 Of his embellishments, the circulo and slispiralls appear in musica poe/iea treatises as musicaJrhetorical figures. Kircher had already defined the circulatio and the suspiratio as such. Furthermore. the (ira/a and especially the aecen/us are also given text-expressive potential by some writers. However, Printz defines all of his embellishments as melodic ornaments, quite independent of their hannonic implications or expressive capabilities. His examples are without exception monodic, unlike Bernhard's, which were always placed in a harmonic context. This is particularly significant in the case of the accen/flS. While Printz explains this ornament simply as a melodic embellishment, other writers describe it in terms of its hannonic context and implications. The sllspirans, described by others under the terms sllspirario or stenasmus, is simply defined as a three-notefigura carta in which one of the notes is shortened through the insertion of a rest. Although the term itself suggests an expressive application (suspirare : to sigh. long for), there is no reference to this expressive content in Printz's definition. Printz goes to some length in his pursuit to define the various figurative constructions. For example, in enwnerating the salli composti, a four-note combination of simple leaps, Printz arrives at one thousand possible combinations. With his use ofthe temljigllra, Printz introduces yet another method of differentiating the figures, namely. between ornamental embellislunents and expressive musical-rhetorical figures. Mattheson refers to the embellishments asfigllrae canriones or Manieren, while Vogt and Spiess call them figurae simplices. The musical-rhetorical figures, on the other hand, are referred to asjigurae canlIIs by Mattheson,figurae ideales by 69. "In slriclII Significatione aber is Variatio eine jede Verllnderung eines Moduli, da man dieses allezeil injener mercken und abnehmm kan." ' bid.• §7. 46. 70. "Figura ist in Musicis ein gewisser Modulus. so mlStehet eus einer I oder auch et~icher NOlen Zenheilung f Wid mit gewiuer ihm anstlndiger Manier hervor gebracht wlfd:· Ibid.• ch.9, §I. 47. 122 Ahle Vogt, and simplyjigllrae by Spiess. While Printz's discussion of the ornamental melodic figurae or varia/iones does not contribute directly to the development of the concept ofmusical·rhetorical figures, it does indicate a growing Gennan interest in melodic rather than only contrapuntal principles. Parallel to the emphasis on modem expressive compositional devices in Bernhard's Figurenlehre, Printz's emphasis on melodic ornamentation reflects a gradual modernization or "Italianization" of Gennan musical thought. It would remain for Mattheson to fully integrate the modem melodic orientation into a comprehensive rhetorical structure. JOHANN GEORG AHLE Johann Georg Ahle (1651-1706) was the son of the renowned organist Johann RudolfAble, from whom he presumably received his musical education.'1 Born and raised in Milhlhausen, he succeeded his father as organist at S1. Blasien at age twenty~three. a post he held until his own death. He was then succeeded by the young 1. S. Bach. Ahle was not only an accomplished musician but also a distinguished poel. being crowned poet laureate by Emperor Leopold I in 1680 "on account of not only his virtue and wonderful capabilities, but especially his excellent scholarship in the noble art of German poetry, as well as his exceptional and graceful manner of musical composition."n Ahle's musical-rhetorical Figurenlehre is presented in his SommerGespriiche, the second in a series of four publications covering the theory and history of music.n The prose of these texts is wrinen in 71. The LUneburg Kantor Michael Jacobi referred to Johann Rudolf Ahle as ·'the German Monteverdi," A. Adrio. "Able," Musik in Guchich/e und Gegellwart, I: 169. 72. Hartmut Krones. "Die Figurenlehre bei Bachs AmlsvorgAnger Johann Georg Ahle," Osterreichische MJlsilc:eitschrij/40 ( 1985): 89. quoling E.L. Gerber, Neues historisch.biographisches Le.xikon der Tonkiinstler, vol. I (Leipzig, 1812), 35. 73. TIle first of the series, Johann Georg Ah/ells mllsika/ischu Friihlillgs.Gespr(j· che. darinenj1irnehmlich l'om gnmd- rmd krmslmlipigen KompOllirell gehalldelt wirJ, was published in 1695 (MUhlhausen). The following Somme,.·Guprdche, He,.b~I' Gesprliche, and Winter-Guprliche then appeared at two-year intervals. Ahle deals wlth consonances. dissonances, and cadences in the first volume, ending with the matter of text settings. This is taken up in the second volume under the musica1·rhelorical figures; Ahle 123 hUJTlorolls dialogue limn. one of the characters being Helian, a pseudonym of the author deri\'ed from the letters of his latinized name. Ahlellills. Aller discussing the importance ofobserving a text's periods, conunas. and colons through various cadencesand pauses, Ahle focuses on the carefulllltlsical expression ofa word's S) lIables and accents. He then proceeds to the topic of the musical-rhetorical figures. Ahle, the poet laure"t!;!. deriycs his concepl of the figures directly from the rhetorical source. I-Ie suggests that the composer tirst study the rhetorical fi gures found in th~ lext and then reflect these in the music, in the same mmmer that the cadences and accents orthe lext might be represented by the music: "Just as orators or poets use a great variety of rhetorical figures. so also do a number of me/opoe/s use them in their musical discoursc:'N To demonstrate the mllsical application of the rhewrical figures, Ahle does not supply musical examples but rather, in keeping with his literary interests, simply illustrates the various figures through changing amI rearranging a givell two He applies assorted repetitions. inversions. and additions 10 a psalm verse: "Rejoice in the Lord. all the earth: sing. glorify, and praise him. The intelligent songpoet will know ho\\' to construct various word figures out ofthis text."" While all of his e~all1ples are taken from the rhetorical emphasis figmes. devices used to clarify and accentuate the text 16 AWe also, stresses the figures· omallfs character: "And because the composer is aware thai the oralorical and poetical embellishments are only used like sugar and spices. he figurates each statement different from the other, according 10 the most appropriate and uscfullllllllllcr."n Two rhelorical the third volume includes a discussion of musical embtlJilhmenls, including accento, tremolo. gr"lIf10. cl/'colo nle::Q. cercart tlella 11010, and tirata me::ll. The Willu,., Gelpruche deals with questions regarding poetry. the nlOdts. and the musical intervals. 74. "Gleichwie die Redner in freier I und die Poeten in gebundener Rede allerlei ~elorische FigurCll gcbrauchen: also bedienen sich audJ mancher die Melopoeten in smgender Rede." .')mulller·Gespriiche (MlIhlhausen. 1697). 16. 75. '·'111 98, Psalmen Siehl: JauchzeI dem HErren .lilt weI!. singe!, rilhmel und l~~, ~ier~us weis ein verst~il1digtr Sangdichter unlersdJiedliche Figuras .l.i'EW<; seu dlCIlO11lS 7,11 1I1achen: ' Ibid. 76. Krones. "Die Figurenlehre bei Ahle." 93. 77, "Dan wei1 ihm I:\ewust I dafl die Rednerischen und POeIischen zierligkeilen nur ats zukker lind gewilrze zu brauchen; so figurirel er inllmreinen ausspruch andersl als den andem f nach dem er es luhnlich wld dienlich til scin beflnde!.,. So,"me,.. Gesprache.17. 124 Ahle figures which AhJe does discuss in their musical context are antithesis and emphasis. However, instead of defining them. Ahle cites an exam_ ple in which the two rhetorical figures are ignored in their musical setting afthe text: "For one day in Thy courts is better than a thousand elsewhere." After quoting a certain musical setting of this text, he lawtches into a critique of the anonymous composer's efforts: "Oh how silly that sounds! The malpoet (melopoet, I meant to say) has neither regarded nor expressed the antithesil1 or emphas;II, For in this text Ihe words one day and a thousand as well as in thy courts and elsewhere are juxtaposed: therefore he should have set the word one longer than day and elsewhere higher than/or, as proper emphasis would dictate."71 Able includes nol only Ihose rhelorical figures which are easily applied 10 a musical composition (epiulais.79 tlllaphora, al/adiplosis, climax, epistrophe. epa/Talepsis, and epa/Todos) but also figures which will remain purely literary devices. such as asyndeton and pol),syndeton.&O His concept ofthe musical-rhetorical figures is a tmique one. Ahle's point ofdeparture is not the text-expressive musical phenomena, the explanation of dissonance, or even the expression of the affections through devices which music and rhetoric have in common. Rather. he begins with the rhetorical figures which are found in the text and which are then to receive musical expression or at least consideration. This would imply that the composer is to observe not only those figures 78. "Ei, wie llippisch klinget das! Hat doch der Schlimsetzer (Stimsetzer wollte ich sagen) weder dieAnlilherin noch Emphasin beachlet und ausgedrilckl. Dlln hier werden die w6rter ein Til und 'Iuund I wie auch in deineD Vorb!ifrn und son!t gegen einander gesetzet: darum hltte er rin linger als TIC l und 50nsl hoher als din I wie beides der nachdruck erfordert I selZen sollen." Ibid., 31 . 79. Ahle's assumplion Ihal the rhetorical figures be applied in the musical composition is clearly evident in a commenl he makes about epi;:ewru: il is Ihe 111051 conunon figure, "as composers use il in virtually all passages." ("Doeh wie das salz die gemeinste wUne iSI; also is! die Epizeuxis die gebreuchlichste Figur: sintemahl sie \'on den Komponisten schier in allen commatibu! angewendet wird.") Ibid., 17. 80. The asyndeton and pofy:r)'lIdetarl refer to a lack or excess of conjunctions. Those figures which cannot be reflected in the music (a:ryndelon, pofysyndew/1. synOrlymia) would nol be adopted by Wahher in his Lexicol!. who otherwise includes Ahle's figures, eventhouglt they were defined as purely rhetorical devices. Although Vogt would include the pol)'sYlldeton in his list offiguroe ideafes, he defines it as a. purely musical, expressive figure, reflecting the term's literal meaning rather than its rhetorical content. See also PoI),s)'tIdefon and 5),noll),,,,io, below. 125 which in one way or other can be transferred from the literary to the musical mediulll but. indeed. all rhetorical figures found in the text. In addition. the composer is also to apply the rhetorical Figurenlehre, constructing literary figures in the text and then observing them in his setting of the words. Thus, Ahle's Figurenlehre implicitly embraces all ofthe rhetorical figures, eYen though he explicitly mentions only a few of them. TOMAS BALTAZAR JANOVKA Tomas Baltazar Jano"ka (1669-1741) was a Czech organist and lexicographer. Like Kircher, Janovka received a Jesuit education, which emphasized not only the liberal arts in general but rhetoric in particular.81 He received a masters degree in the liberal arts from Charles University in Prague in 1689. Two years later he accepted the post as organist at Tyn, Prague's principal church, a position he held for the following fifty years. Janovka is remembered chiefly for his one published work, Clov;s ad ThesallYUm.S2 The Clavis is the flTSt music dictionary to be printed in the Baroque era. While other authors included lists of defined terms in their composition trealises. Janovka devotes his entire publication to the definition of approximately 170 musicallerms arranged in alphabetical order. In defining the tenns, lanovka borrows from various older sources, Kircher's Mlisurgia Universalis in particular. In many cases, "his definitions are more correct and precise than those ofK.ircher."8l Kircher serves as the only source for Janovka's definitions of the musical-rhetorical figures, all listed lUlder the term Figurae Musicae. In his inlroductory comments to the figures, Janovka, like Kircher, emphasizes their role in expressing the affections. Unlike Kircher, however, Jano\'ka does not place the same emphasis on the affective 81. The Jesuit emphasis on the rhetorical discipline is detailed in Barner's IJQrocirrheIOl·ik. 32 1- 66. . 82. The Clads ad Ihes(Jw'ulII lIIagnoe arlis mrl$icae (Prague, 1701) was reprinted III 1715 as ClclI'I's ad mllsfcOIll. The facsimile edition (Amsterdam: F. Knuf, 1973) is a reprint of1. S. Bach's personal copy, bearing the composer's signature, dated 1705. 83. J. Clapham and T. Volek. ··lanovka." Nell' GrOI'e Dicliollory, 9: 501. 126 attributes of the church modes,l4 While Kircher had compared the rhetorical tropes to the twelve modes through which "specific affections of the soul are manifested,,,IS Janovka uses the same phrase in his definition of the figures, thereby combining Kircher's defmitions of modes and figures in his one definition: "The musical figures function similarly to the tropes and the varied manner of speech in rhetoric. Furthennore, the musical figures consist of certain musical passages in which specific affections ofthe soul are manifested. for example, love, joy, ferocity , violence. dignity, modesty, moderation, piety, compassion. et cetera."J6 Janovka also classifies the figures according to jigllrae principales and minus principales. The commissura, syncopatio, and fuga belong to the first group,1T while pausa, anaphora, climax, semplica (complexus), similiter desinens Figura (Kircher's han/aiop/aran), anti/he/an, anabasis, catabasis, circulario,jilga alia sensu, assimilatia, and abruptio make up the latter group. Three further terms associated either with the musical-rhetorical figures or the various melodic ornaments are defined by lanovka in other places in his dictionary. In his discussion ofcounterpoint, lanovka employs the terms hyperba/us and hypobatus to describe the placement ofthe countersubject in relation to the subject. Chordal chanting, known 84. lanovka discusses the church modes under the tenn canllls, where he briefly describes the eight modes and lists an associated affection for each one (Clm·is. p.8). Under the lenn tonus, the word Kircher used for the modes, Janovka goes to some length to define the various major and minor keys. listing their common intervals and their individual key signatures. Janovka's hannonic concept is governed more by modem tonality than modatity. 85. "Nos tropos aliter sumentes. nihil aliud esse dicimus, quam certils Melothesiae periodos, certam animi affectionem connotanles: & tales iuxta duodecim tonorulll diversitatem duodecim quoque constituimus." Musurgia mriversalis. L.8. ch.8. §7, 144. 86. "Figurae Musicae idem praestant, quod Tropi, alque varii dicendi modi in Rhelorica. Sunl autem Figurae Musicae quaedam Melothesiae periodi, certam animi affectionem connotantes, puta: amoris, gaudii, ferociae. impetus, gravitatis, modestiae. temperantiae. religionis, compassionis &c.'· Clavis ad thesaurum. 46f. 87. lanovka's definition ofjuga includes not only thejilga tOlalis (the canon. also calledj uga ligala) andjilga purliulis (the imitative fugue. also called[uga libera. solu/O) but also various specific fonns of fugue: jilga inl'ersa or conlraria.juga perpe/UQ or longa,juga reciproca, andjuga cancrizans. Like Kircher. he also inc1udesjuga (in aha sensu) in his list ofjigurae minus principales, referring there to the use of fugue in a text-expressive manner in which the literat meaning ofjuga ("chase, flight") is reflected in both the words and the music. See Fuga. below. Vagi 127 as/also bordolle (not to be confused with/miXbourdon), is also called pleollasll1l1s by JanoYka. He mentions that Kircher used the term isobaflls to describe the technique. Tn describing hyperbatus, hypobatus, and pleonasmus as purely technical deyices \\ithout any affective characteristics. Jano\"ka defines them outside of his list ofthe musicalrhetorical ftgures. Melodic embellishments. including the acce1lfus (£i1l/all). colloratwa (diminurioll€s or passagae). COllie, harpegiatura, r;rata. fI·emu/o. and fI'illa are also defined in the C/avis in their appropriate alphabetic order, flaving described the jigllrae mlls icae as passages which are used to express the affections. the purely ornamental devices do not fi nd a place among Janovka's musical-rhetorical figures. MAURITI US J OHANN V OGT Mauritius Vogt (1669-1730). bom in K6nigshofen, Bavaria, studied philosophy and theology at Charles University in Prague. It is not inconceivable that Vogt and Janovka. exact contemporaries who attended the same university. were acquaintances. After entering the Cistercian monastery at Plasy in 1692, he was ordained priest in 1698. Besides his music studies at the monastery, Vogt also traveled to Genllany and Italy to study music. In 1724, after rnany years ofmusical activity as organist. composer. and music director in Plasy, Vogt was appointed Superior at the pilgrimage church Marianska Tynice, where he remained until his death. In 1719 Vogt published a comprehensi\'e music treatise, the Cone/ave Ihesauri n1(1gnae (ll"lis lIIlIsicae. The treatise is divided into three parts. each consisting of three to fhe sections (trac/allls), which in tum are divided into anywhere from fi\'e to sixteen chapters. The first pan of the treatise, which deals with historical and speCUlative matters, also includes a section on organ building. Pat1 2 concerns itself with Gregorian chant and the church nwdes. Part 3 comprises well over half of the treatise and discusses the composition of polyphonic music. The third section of this part begins with I\\'0 chapters discussing instrumental and \'ocal ranges. keyboard fingering. and a long list of admonitions to composers. singers. and instrumentalists. Then follow two chapters on the musicaliigures: chapter three discusses tl1ejigllrae simplices and 128 Vogt "00 )" Th"chapter four thejigurae ideales (ad arsin. el ,hes;", et perl 111/1. IS section concludes with chapters on the affections, on phanfasia and inventio, and on the parts of a composition. The last two sections then explain the principles and rules of cOlmtcrpoinl. Vogt incorporates the vocal and instrumental embellishments into his Figurenlehre, resulting in his novel classification of the figures. He calls the embellishmentsfigurae simplices. which include the aecemllS, coule, curta, groppo, harpegiolllra, herbeccio. messan:a, me:ocirolu (circullts), lirafa, tremula. and trilla. Some of these omaments are only mentioned, while others are explained through musical examples. Vogt also illustrates how thcfigurae Simplices can be combined, resulting in "compound figw-es" (figurae composirae). TItis process, which he calls phantasia, generates a variatio composed of mixtures or messan=ae of figurae simplices. The strong correlation between thcfigurae ideales and the musical expression ofboth the text and the affections is repeatedly underscored in Vogi's treatise. In his earlier admonitions, Vogt had encouraged the composer "to be a poet, not only that he recognize the meter of the verse but that his themes also be inventive. He oUght to understand hO\.... • to further intensify [the composition) imaginatively through the musical-rhetorical figures of hypotyposis 3Ild prosopopoeia, and like a painter, place the beautiful or frightful images life-like before the eyes ofthe listeners through the music.... He ought always to work toward achieving the intended affection in his composition; and furthennore. where there are no suitable affective words, he ought to grasp the sense of the text.. ,. He ought to Wlderstand the alllitheses, prosonomasias, and all the other rhetorical figures, which are used in music.,,·9 AI the end of his explanation of the figures, Vogt notes that "there are many 88. "Figurae sunt simplices. aut compositae, aut ideales ad arsin, aut thesin. & periodum." Concl(ll'f!, 147. . . . 89. "Debet porro Componista esse Poeta. ut non solum nont quanl1tates tenll1nonun. sed d iam inventiosus sit thenlatum. Debet esse ideosus, & quodammodo piclOr, ut sciat per figuras musicas Rhetorica! hypotyposes, & prosopopaeias idealiter elevare amplius, ac res pulchras, vel horridas cantu vivatiter ante oculos audientium propon.ere. ... Debet compositione semper eo lendere. ut proposilum affectum as~uatur; lmo nullum. quantum fieri potes!, texlUm ampere debet. ubi non sint verba ad affectus "pta. ••• Debe!: scire antitheses, prosonomasias, aliasque figuras rhetoricas, quarum usus est in Musica." Ibid., 144. 129 jigllrae ideates, usuaH) moli\'ated by the text. . .. The texts deserving expression through thcfigllrae ideales are innumerable.,,9(l The expression of the affections through the figurae ideales is mentioned again in a follo\...;n8 chapter.91 These figures are not only to renect the text but to present the text's "idea" 10 the listener in a lifelike (vivaciter) and imaginative Udealiter) manner. Vogt lists two familiar musical-rhetorical figures. hypotyposis and prosopopoeia, which could be employed to this end. TIle hyporyposis had been mentioned by Burmeister, while Kircher had replaced l1lUringus's parlhopoeia with prosopopoeia in his list of figures. These are used in rhetoric to re-present either the situation. affection. or another person's words in an oration.92 With the expression of text and affection detennining Vogt's concept of the musical-rhetorical figures, the h)'{XJtyposis and prosopopoeia characterize the entire category of figures, which he callsjigllrae ideales. This is furth er supported by Vogt's definition of the idea musica as "the musical representation of something. The idea is namely that which is portrayed through Il)potyposis figures.'>9J Once again idea and hypoIyposis are correlated. Vogt's choice of the verb decal1lare indicates that he is referring to vocal music. Furthennore, the plural formulation of figurae hypolhiposeos suggests an entire class of hypotyposis figures. Music and words arc to work together in a vivid representation of the ~oEa (literally, "that wltich is seen") of the tex:t, using the "hypolhiposeosfigurae ideales." Besides encouraging the use ofhypotyposis and prosopopoeia, Vogt also mentions antithesis and prosollomasia. Of these fOllT figures, only the antithesis is included in his list of defined figures. The prosol/omasia, however, can be linked to another figure which Vogt does define in his list of figures, namely the polyptotoll.'*' 90. "Plures figurae SWlt idea!es. quibu$ plerumque textus dat occasionem.... Tales IWlt te;<1us infinili. qui idealibus figuris deserviunl." Ibid" 1!l3. 91. "Ut !igurae ideales SUU1l1 facianl effectum, & affectum, permuhu1l1 conduClml particulae affectionales:' [H Affl!criolre. Themale. CapriCcio. el /'s),chophOflia. Ibid., ch.S, 154. 92. See f(lpOl}pmi.f and /'oll/opoeia, below. 93. " Idea lIlusica, imago rei decantatae. Idea haec idem, quod affectU5 figurae h)'pOthiposeos:' COllc/Ol·e,!l. 94. Sonnino. Halldbook. 24. 26. Quintilian's definition ofpnronomasio mentions two forms of the figure: the repetition of a word with a change of case ending, also known as PUI)plOlOn. and a repetition of a word ""1th greater (but unspecified) emphasis. 130 Vagi Before defining thefigurae ideales. Vogt points out that they can affect either a part of or the entire periodus or passage.9S He suggests that some figures are used at the beginning of the periodus (ad arsin), such as the al/tilhe/oll or schematoides. while others are used at the end (ad tiles;,,), such as the anaphora.96 Yet others can be used i" medio. such as the clima:c or tmesis. However, in his definitions of these and other figures. Vogt does not limit their use to any specific part ofllie periodus or musical passage. Rather, his definition of anaphora sug. gests that the figure can be used throughout the composition, while a c!imat or tmesis would also be very effective at the end of a periodus. Presumably he simply wishes to indicate that thefigurae ideales can be used in various parts of or throughout (ad periodllm) the composition. The allusion to ad ars;n et thes;n would thus be understood as a general reference to rather than specific application ofthefigllrae ideates. Vogt then lists and defines twentyfigurae ideales. All the fignres are labeled with Greek terminology. reflecting his concern to establish a relationship between the ancient art of rhetoric and the musical· rhetorical tradition. In contrast, the "modern" jigurae simplices are given contemporary Italian names. vogt's list ofjigurae ideales does not suggest a dependence on any other specific musical Figurenlehre. Rather, he includes figures fOWld in various preceding treatises, at times supplying them with divergent definitions. Half of Vogt's figures are mentioned for the fllSt time in his Conclave: antistaechon, apotomia, ecphonisis. emphasis,epalladip!os;s, ethophonia. metabasis,polyplotoll, schematoides. and tmesis. Of these, apolomia and schemaloides are Peacham Ihe Elder supplies another variation of the paranomasia {sic). namely as "a figure which de<:lineth into a contrarie by a likelihood oflettert, either added, changed. or laken away." The Garden a/Eloquence. .56. Vogt may have been using the leOTI prosononrosio in the more generic sense ofvariou! word repetitions. while specifying the polyp/a/on in his defined list offigures. See Polyp/O/on and Paronoma.sia, below. 9.5. "Capll/ IV. De Figuris ad Arsin. et Thes'n. e/ Periodunr. Figurae ad arsin. & thesin Sunl, quae non concemunt totam periodum, sed solum in parte, & vel maxime in principia ponuntur; ut sun! anlitheta, schematoides &c. Aliae obveniunt media, ut climax, tmesis. Aliae veniunt ad finem, ut anaphorae .!te." Conclave. 1.50. 96. Although VOgl relates arsis and thesis to the first and ~ond part of a tactuS in his inlroductory glossary ("Arsis. divisi tactus prinlUm medium. Medium altenlln dicilUf Ihesis." Conclave. 2). he presumably uses the ICnt\S al this point to refer to the beginning lind end of the pe,.ioous or musical passage. J G. Wlillher 131 purely musical terms while. of the rhetorical terms, polyplOIOIl is defined as a purely musical device. The other seven terms are given definitions which correspond in some way to their rhetorical meaning. The remaining len tcnns had all appeared in the Figurenlehren of either Burmeister. Kircher (Jano\J..a). or Ahle. In some cases Vogt defines them as IllSpredecessors did. \\hile at other times he supplies the tenus ,\ith ne\, definitions. Fi\e of lhese had been included by Burmeister in his treatises: alladiplosis. allap!mra, aposiopesis. climax. and synaeresis. Vogt only retains Bunneister"s definition of aposiopesis, while adopting Ahle's anadiplosis definition. Vogt shares with Kircher and Janovka both the terms and definitions of anabasis, calabasis, ana· phora, al1firherOIl. and c/illlm'.1cd 10 counterpoint was ullconventional. II. It reflects the growing imponance of a ne\\ uesthetic. one based on naturalness and expressi\·i[). 011 the importance of the perfonner rather than only the composer. on the ex.pressioll of the affections through prommciatio rather than only through dispoS;f;O and decoralio. Increasingly. the embellislunents rather than onl) the composition asswne a role in presenting the aITcctions. ' H Throughout the following decades a new music aesthetic would replace the predominantly Lutheran, theologically determined and dogmatically objectified concept of music. The ';sensitivc" perforn1er would begin to replace the infonned melopoeticlIs. and EmpfiJ/dsomke;r \\ould take the place of mllsica poerica. The musical adaptation of rhetorical tenninology and processes was not simply the result of i1 musical imitation of rhetoric. Since antiquity both disciplines had shared the (Olllmon purpose of expressing the affections. Music adopted rhetorical tenninology throughout the Renai!>sance and Baroque 10 explain its own unique and distinctive expressive dC\liccs. highlighting those elements which it shared with rhetoric but not structll!ing itsel f 10 be aligned with rhetoric. These same principlcs which had already dictated Bunneister's Figurenlehre were now applied by Matthesoll in his explanations of a rhetorically structured composition. He emphasizcs that while a musical disposirio can be discerned in many compositions.j ust as in thc speech of "a naturally gifted. ullschooled orator. . . . most composers would sooner contemplate their dcath rather than such II structure."II() For Mattheson, it was 113. [bid.. 127. §45, 1t4, Ibid.. 133. §2~. 115. 111c imponanc!! of QIlHlmel1!~J embe[ lish ments in portraying the affections is one of the main points in C P. E. Bach's VerSllch libel' die U'(/h,.e Art das Clavier::u :piefen (Berlin. 1753. 1762), ~ 16, "Es ist zwar den allerers!en l'omponisten eben so wenig in den Sinn gekom. men. thre Satze nach obiger Ordllung einzurichtcn. als den lIIit naHlrlichen Gaben vcr. ~ehellen ungelelll1en RcdilCIll. solehen ~e-chs StUckell gellan zu folgen... Dennoch aber I~ nieht zu lcugnen. dap bey f1ei~iger Untersuchung sowol guter Reden als guter Melodlen. sieh dicse Theile. odel die meisten davon. in gcschickter Folge wircklich darin antreffen lassen: ohglcich mallChe~ mahl die Verfasser ehender auf ihfen Tod. als auf solchen Lcirraden gcd~cht hah-ellillogen. ahrondcrlich die Musici." Capellmeister. 235. 140 Maltheson natllra rather than scientia which was the ultimate teacher. Instead of relying on theoretical treatises. the composer could model his composi. tions on the "naturally gifted, unschooled" folk music. In his O\\In compositions, Mattheson "achieved a melodic and at the same tim e vcry expressive simplicity," taking care "in maintaining poetic meters and in general avoided long melismatic passages," with a "striking emphasis on folklike songs, often strophic in fonn."m The existence of the musical-rhetorical figures is taken for granted by Mattheson. not only because theorists had long since elaborated on them and composers had long since been using them, but because they were to be found in natural musical as well as linguistic expression. Asswning the reader's familiarity with the musical·rhetorical figures. Mattheson asks rhelon· cally: "What can be more common than the allaphora in melodic composition? . . Who caIUlot be aware of the exclamation's use? .. Where is the parrhesia more forceful than in melodic composition?"'" Mattheson begins his discussion of the musical decO/'ario (AusschmiickulIg) by reminding the reader that "this depends more on the ability and healthy discretion ofthe singer or instrumentalist than on the directives of the composer. However. the composer must include a certain amount of embellishment in his melodies. To this end, the many rhetorical figures or ornaments can prove most useful, if they are skillfully applied."119 Like Able, Mattheson turns to the rhetorical figures as his source for tbe musical devices. Both thefigurae dicliollis (word figures) and the figurae sententjae (thought figures) could be employed in the musical composition. He maintains thai the word figures "bear a striking resemblance to the varialions in duration or placement of the notes.,,120 In a footnote Mattheson slates that these 111. Buelow, "Mattheson," 834. 118. Ca~lImeis/er. 243. 119. "Wcrm wit endlich noch ein Wort von der AusschmUckung machen mUssen. so wird hauptsllchlich zu crinnem nOthig seyn. dap solche mehr auf die GC5chickliCh~eit tmd das gesunde Urtheil eines Slingers oder Spielers, als auf die eigentliche Vorschnm des melodischcn Setzers ank6mmt. Etwas Zierath mup man seinen Melodien beilcgen. und dazu k6nnen die hliuffigen Figuren oder VerblUmungen aus der Redekunst. weM sie wol angeOfdnet werden, vomehmlich gute Dienste leisten." Ibid., 242, §40. . 120. "Die FiitiTen welche man dictionis nennet, haben eine grosse Aehnlichkeit mIl den Wandelungen der Kilinge in lange und kurtze, in steigende und fallende etc." Ibid., 242, §41 . This should not be construed to mean. as Vickers seems to imply, "that nOles Mat/helOtI 141 figures consist of various word repetitions which can easily be applied to single notes. TI1efiglll'ae selllemiae, on the other band "affect whole sentences through their variations, imitations, repetitions, etc., etc.',121 In the footnote Mattitesol1 points out that these figures, "through which the entire sentence is accorded a certain affection, ... can be looked up in rhetoric textbooks. almost all of which can be applied to the roelody.',m Mal1hcson regards the musical figures as virtually identical with their rhetorical counterparts, being so closely related "and having such a natural position in the melody, that it almost appears as though the Greek orators derived their figures from tbe musical discipline.',m As word figures Matthesoil lists ep;zelL'Cis (sllbjunctio), anaphora, epcmalepsis, epistrophe, (madiplosis,paronomasia,polyplotoll, antana· clasis, and ploce. The only sentence figures he lists here are exciamat;o, parrhesia, paradoxlIs, epamorhosis, paralepsis, aposiopesis, and apostrophe. At lhis point Mattheson notes that he has already discussed the Exciamat;ollen in an earlier chapter, indicating that he interprets those devices as well as the other punctuating caesurae such as pauses, questions, and parentheses as jjgures. l 24 Of all the authors, Mattheson attributed the most significance to the musical expression of a text's punctuation. While composers had long since expressed both the words and punctuation of the text in their music, it remained for Mattheson to fully integrate these devices into a musical rhetoric, thereby increasing in music behave in !he sanle wa)' as do words in language" ("Figures of Rhetoric," 21). Manheson is clearly poinling to similar methods rather than to similar "behavior." the litter sugges!ing a semantic nUher than onl)' a procedural analogy. 121. Ibid. 122. "Spruch-Figurcn, dabey der gantze Spmch eine gewisse GemUths-Bewegung ebthAlt, kommen entweder ausser. oder bey der Unterredwlg vor. Ihrer sind 11, die man in den Rhetorickell nachschlagell und fast aile in der Melodic brauchcn kan." Ibid.• 242. footnote. Mattheson mentions that Ihere are twelve "Wtlrter-Figuren" and seventeen "SPruch Figuren." Unfortunatel). he does not cite his sourte. Mattheson's COlltemporary. Johann Christoph GO!lscbed. lists Iwenty·onejigurae die/ianis and twenty-threejigurae sefl/enliar llflt in his AlI.ifilhrliche Heddl/lISf. 123. ".. . baben solche nalUrJiche Stellen in der Melodic, dap es fast scheinet. als hltten die griechischen Redner sothane Figuren aus der Ton-Ktmst entlehnet." Ibid., 243, §46. 124. "Von den Ab- I/Ild £imcirniften der Klang-Hede." ch.9. In addition. the ~phasis, which is also a rllt'lorical figure. is dealt with in chapter 8. Scheibe lists both QClanWfio and inlen'ogario as specific figures. 142 Mallhe.fon the correlation between the disciplines. In addition to thesefigurae can/lis. Mauheson briefly alludes to the "figures of amplification. which nWllber around thirty, and which serve more as extensions, amplifications. ornaments. embellishments, Or display than to thoroughly convince the spirit." Included here also is ;'the famous art-work of fugue. including the mimesis, expolitio, distribut;o, and other embellishments which are only rarely fruitful and find their home in this greenhouse of figures."12' Both the rhetorical expolitio and distributio are figures which an orator employs to expand his argument, amplifYing his point through various repetitions and divisions ofhis thesis. As such both the expolilio and distriblllio are not only figures but rhetorical processes which can also involve other figures.l26 These techniques can be used both in the rhetorical as well as musical confilfatio. The relocation of the fugue from the jigllrae pri"cipa{es orfimdamentales into the category of amplification figures is Mattheson's innovation. His concern to establish parallels between music and rhetoric again becomes evident through his desire to provide a rhetorical "residence" for the fugue. m Thus he abandons the distinction between the musically and rhetorically rooted expressive figures inaugurated by Nucius. Only the melodic embellishments, the jigllrae cantiones or Manieren, are understood as purely musical figures. Mattheson wishes to distinguish clearly between the musicalrhetorical figures and the Manieren. The two classes of figures "have nothing in common and should not be mixed together.,,128 ln contrast to 125. "Noch eins ist zu erinnem. daj} nffimtich unler die grossen ErweiterungsFiguren, deren elliche drei~ig seyn werden. und die mehr zur VerlAngerung, Amplification, zum Schmuck. Zierrath oder Gepriinge. als zur grUndlichen Uiberzeugung der Gemlither dienen. nicht mil Unrecht zu zehlen ist das bekannte und berOhrrlle Kw\SlStUck da Fugen, worin die Mimesis, Expolilio, Distribulio samt andem Blilmiein. die selten zu reiffen FrUchten werden. ihre RtSidentz, als in einem Gewlichs-Hausc. antreffm." Capel/meister, 244. §52. 126. See Distributio. below. 127. Forkel would remove the fugue altogether from the Ffgurenfehre, trealing il as a highly expressive genre instead of an embellishment. 128. "Vor Zeilen haben Wlsre geldute Musici gantze BUcher in ordentlicher Lehr· Art, von blossen Sing-Manieren (die ich Figuras canlion!s. so wie die vorhergehenden Figuras cantus nenne) lusamrnen gettagen, welche mil den obangefUhrtm gleichwol keine Gemeinschaffi haben. und mil dense1ben nichl vermischet werden milssen: Capel/meister. 244, §SO. M atthf'SOI' 143 the mtlsical-rhetoric,,] figures. the "Mal/iere" thoroughly ruin many a fine melody and. as much as I admire the French instrumental style. I can no longer excuse it. when they entangle and disfigure their varia. tions to such a degree that one can simply no longer perceive the beauty ofthe original notes."I:QI-Iowc\'cr. should the Mmlieren be judiciously applied. "they are not to be lightly esteemed, should they be included by the composer himself. be he a fine singer or instrumentalist. or be spontaneously added by Ihe perfomlcr.,'lJO Matthcson deals with the Manierell early on in this part of the treatise (chapter 3), where he discusses the accellflls (Vorschfag, Uberschlag).lrem%, trillo, tril/ello, tenuta. groppo. c:ircolo lIIe::::o. lira/a. riballllta. transitus, mordant, and acciaca(IIJ"a. Apart from the {ransillls. Ihese ornaments were all regarded as figllrae simplices (var;atiol/es or Mal/jeren) by earlier authors. Although Matlheson includes the /,.ansill/s (the passing note, also knO\\'Tl as cOlllllli.ssura. classified as one o fthefigurae prillcipa/es or fimdamenta{es). he treats it simply as a melodic embellishment. referring to its ornamental character as well as to its ornamentation, without discussing Ihe resulting dissonances. Like Printz, Mattheson supplies only monodic examples of the Man;e,.e", disregarding their harmonic implications. The accellllls is the only Manier which is directly linked 10 the expression of the afTections, while the groppa is considered mOSI useful if the intended affection "consists of similar turns and twists. ·'1)1 Mattheson's concept of musical rhetoric, including the musicalrhetorical ligures. might be summarized as follows: j ust as music and rhetoric share COllU1101l goals. so do they share common methodologies. structuring principlcs, and expressive devices. \Vhile these were initially defined and S) Slemat ized by the rhetorical discipline, they are equally evident in and applicable to the musical art. 'l11ese musical phenomena "':hich are described in rhetorical tenninology have a long standing history. And \\hile it is helpfuJ 10 articulate this musical-rhetorical material. it can also be gleaned both from well-composed music and from naturally gilled musical expression through empirical observation. 129. Ibid • 242. §41. 130. Ibid" §43. 13 1. See Accem"s. Groppo. betow. 144 Spius MEINRAD SPlESS Meinrad Spiess (1683- 1761) was a Bavarian composer and theorist. After entering the Benedictine Abbey at Irsee in 170 I, he was ordained a priest in 1708. Following four additional years of music study in Mwlich, he was appointed music director at the Abbey. a position which he held until his death, Although he seems to have done little traveling, he did stay in contact with other musicians. He was a member of Mizler's Correspondierende Societiil der mllsicaliscile" Wissenschafien in Leipzig, along with J. S. Bach, Telemann, Graun, and Handel. Leopold Mozart was also part of his circle of acquaintances, frequently sending Spiess his compositions for correction. In 1745 Spiess published his compositional treatise Tractatlls mlisicllS, in which. "based on the best past and recent authors, the fundamentals ofmusical composition are extracted. gathered, compared. explained, and clearly illustrated with examplcs."m The "past and recent authors" include Kircher, Vogt, Walther, Heinichen, Mattheson, and Scheibe, among many others. With this disparate list of sources, it is understandable that the concepts presented in the TractafllS would be eclectic in character. Spiess adopts the speculative mathematical explanation of music, characteristic of seventeenth-century 1nusica poetica, "that music is nothing else but clearly sounding numbers, and is therefore reverberating Mathematics."m He also holds to the superiority of the twelve church modes over the major-minor tonal system. Being a treatise written primarily for the composition of "skillful, contrapuntaL serious and dignified church music (which is the primary purpose and only goal of my treatise)," I1~ Spiess proves to be an ardent 132. "True/alliS nlllsiclIs comp(lriIQl·io-practic!u. On ist. Musicalischer Tractat. til welchem aile gute und sichere Fundamenta zur Musicalischen Composition aus denen alt- WId neuesten besten Autoribus herausgezogen, zusanunen getragm. gegen einander gmalten. erk.Ilret. und mit UIltersct71en Exemplen dennassen Idar und deutlich erlluten werden." (Augsburg. 1145; 2nd printing, 1146). IJJ . "... dap die Music nidus anders sey. als lauter deutliche tMnende Zahlen. und ein klingetlde Mathematic." T,.OC/aIlU, 3. 134. "... cine gule Conlrapuncti5cl1e I GraviUIt- und Majest51ische Kirchen-Musik (von welcher hauptsllchlich 7..u schreiben meine lllehreSle Absicht und glinuJicher Endzweck iSI)." Ekkehllrd Feder!. " Der Tractalus Musicus des Pater Meinrad Spi~P (1683- 1761)," Feslsch,.ijI Bruno Sliibleil! (Kassel: Bftrellreiter. 1967): 40. Spiess 145 advocate of the a cappe/fa style. Although the Troclalus is liberally sprinkled with disparaging remarks regarding the modem musical styles. Spiess docs recognize a stylus mixfils. which he defines as "a mixed Church-style, namely when a composition of one to four voices and concertizing instruments is advanced with arias, contrapuntal \\Titing. and fugues. yet in such a marmer that the boWlds of dignity and modesty befitting church music are not overstepped."m The ideal composition is to be facile. clear, flowing, and channing: "Facile is that which is easily grasped and therefore quickly understood. If something is facile. il is also dear: and if a number ofclear things are appropriately cOIillccted. we perceive them to be flowing; and that which is clear and flowing is usually channing."I16 Although Spiess warns against all excesses. he does admit that "something rousing, lively, and brisk can also be presented in churches, particularly if it is required by the text.,'1)7 While ascribing to an essentially conservative concept ofmusic, Spiess does not remain untouched by more modem musical thought. Also more progressive is his adoption of Heinichen's and Mattheson's concepts of an expressive musical rhetoric. Like them, Spiess also proposes the usc ofthe loci rapici in musical invention. Like Mattheson, Spiess bOlh includes a chapler dealing with the caesurae in the text: " VO/1 del/ell £il1- und Absclmitten" (ch.24), and advocates a musical structure analogous to the rhetorical "Invention, Disposition, und Elaboration" (ch.25). Out of his concern to express the text in a "facile, clear, flowing, and channing" manner, Spiess includes a discussion of the musicalrhetorical figures in his Tracratlls (ch.27). He begins his explanations 135. "Venllischler Kirchen·S!y] ist, wann die Composition mil I. 2. J. 4. oder auch mehreren Stilllmen lind cuncenirenden Instrumenlis theils Alios':, Iheils auch mit Wltemlellgten ContTllpuncl. Fugen elc. solchergestalt fortgefilhret wird. dap man jedoch die GrMtzen oder Schranckell der kirchlichen Gra\'lt!it und Modestiae nicht ObeN;chreite:' Tmcrafus, 161: Federl. ''Ikr Tractatus Musicus." 44. 136. "Leicht heisset man alies das, so dcutlich in die Sinnen !liltl: Imd dahero vom Verstand bald kiln begriITen werden. Wann eine Sach leicht ist. so ist sie auch deutlich; und wann \'erschiedene leichle oder deutliche Ding gehl:lrig verblmden werden, so heissen wit sie fliepend. und was fliqlend und deutlich ist, das ist aoch mehrel1lheils lieblich: ' Ibid. 137. "Etwas excitates. lI\unteres, frisches. zumahlen es sonderlich der Text erfordert. kan man in der Kitchell am:h wohl anbringen." Ibid. 146 Spiess by differentiating between the symbols of musical notation and the expressive-ornamental devices, both known asfigurae musicae, stating his intention to elaborate on this second understanding offigura: "These musical figures accomplish the same thing as do the rhetoricalfigurae verborum and sententiarum. Just as the rhetorical figures enhance an oration, so do the musical figures provide no small delight to the refined ear."na This analogy to the rhetoricalfigurae verborum andfigurae sententiarllm is undoubtedly adopted from Mattheson. 119 Spiess does not, however, elaborate on the difference between these two classes of rhetorical figures, nor how they apply to the musical figures, which suggests that he wishes to apply them to music as an inseparable unit. He points out that there are two classes of musical figures. The first category, also known as C%ratllren or Manieren, are the embellishments which he wishes "to leave to the singers, fiddlers, pipers, etc., and experienced musicians to execute."I40 Spiess goes on to say that he wishes, however, ''to write about some belonging to the second kind, which should be familiar to the composer.,,141 He then defines the figures in alphabetical order. However, instead of restricting himself to the musical-rhetorical figures, Spiess in fact also defines many of the melodic embellishments. He describes variatio as an embellishment of the vocal or instrumental melody, thereby adopting the same term used by Bernhard, Printz, and Walther for melodic omamentation. 142 He also Illentions that these variationes were calledfigurae simplices by Vogt. Spiess then defines curta, groppo, circolo (circ% mezzo), tirata, messama (misticanza), tenuta, ribaItuta, superjec/io, trillo, mordent, and acciaccatura. That these ornaments are in fact identical with those Manieren which he wanted "to leave to the musicians" is further 138. "Es thlm diese unsere Figurlle Musieae eben das, was bey den Wohlrednem die Figurae Verborum & Sententianun. Gleichwie nun die Figurae Oratoriae einer vol!kommenen Oration nicht ein schlechtes beytragen; also pflegen auch diese Figurlle Musitae einetn delicaten Gehor kein geringes VergnUgen zu verursllchen." Tractatus, 155 . 139. See p.140, above. 140. "Die erste, so in unterschiedlichen, ja tausendfaltigen Coloraturen, oder sogenannten Manieren bestehet, wollen wiT denen Singem, SingeritUlen, Oeigem, pfeiffem etc. und wohl-geiibten Musicanten zur Execution anheim stellen." Tractatus, 155. 141. "Von der anderen An abeT einige, und zwar die ein Componist wissen soil, hier zu Pappier bringen." Ibid. 142. See Variario, below. Spiess 147 supponed by his use urlhe tenn Manier in the definition ofsilperjectio and in the sentence which follows thai definition: "Other vocal and instrumental Maniel'en could also be mentioned here.,,14J in examining both Spiess's list of figures and their definitions, it soon becomes e\'ideo! thaI he chooses Vogt as the primary source for his O\\ll Figllren/ehre. Not only does he refer to the melodic embellishments as jigllrae simpNces, as Vogt had done, but of his remaining sixteen figures. only the teclmical devices--amicipario, relardario, and dimil1l1fio-were not included in Vogt"s list of figures. In addition, a number of figures are only listed by these two authors, including QlItistaecholl. erlwphonia. metabasis. and tmesis. The remaining of Spiess's figures cat! be found in Vogt's as well as other Figllrenlehren: abrupTio. anabasis, catabasis, anapitora, allli/hesis, aposiopesis, accen/IlS, emphasis, and imitatio.1H However, a further nine of Vogt's figure s do not find a place in Spiess's list. Neither does Spiess adopt Vogt's unique term for the musical-rhetorical figures,figurae ideales. By defining all of his fi gures, including thefigurae simplices, under the general heading ofjigurae musicae, Spiess considers it wmecessary to gh'e the musical-rhetorical figures a classification of their own. nle usc of the musical-rhetorical figures to express and arouse the affections is not emphasized in the fractatlls. Spiess simply mentions that the figures provide "no small delight" to the listeners. However, each of these tigures is explained with reference to a text, either in the definition or in the musical example. In contrast, thefigurae simplices are consistently explained in purely musical ternlS, without reference to a text in their definitions or examples. While the basis of the figurae simplices is an unadomed melody, the source tor the musical-rhetorical figures is the tex!. Spiess thereby adopts mllsica poe/ica's text-oriented concept of the Illusical-rhetorical figures, even if this is not explicitly stated. TIle distinction between the two classes of figures, through their capacil)' to express the lext in addition to their use by either composer or performer. fw1her links Spiess's concept of the figures to that of 143. "Hiehero grhiiren aueh noch andere, sowohl im singen, als auflnstrumenten Uhliche Mallieren," 1'mc/aIllS. 157. 144. VOg!: defines the abruptio in his gloss~ry at the beginning of his Cone/ave instead of under the list ofjigl/rae ideafes. 148 Scheibe Vogt. Vogt'sjigllrae ideales were also linked to text expression. whilf! hisfigllrae simplices were regarded as ornamental embellishments. Although Spiess uses various treatises as sources for his own work. including those of Kircher and Walther. he does nOI adopt their classi fi· cation afthe fugue. passing note, and suspension asjigllrae prillcipales or /lmdamel/tales. In this regard, he also reflects the morc modem concept afthe musical-rhetorical figures as exemplified in the works of Yogt and Mattheson. Like Vogt. Spiess discusses these compositional devices in separate chapters of the TractalllS ,141 'nlC sevcnteenth-cennlJ)' ranking ofthese devices as the fundamental method of constnlcting an expressive composition no longer seems relevant. Lnstead. the aOective and concretely text-expressive musical-rhetorical figures arc defined as the ideal methods ofsetting a text to music. Throughout the eighteenth century the musical-rhetorical figures increasingly assume this affective purpose, at first being associated primarily with a text. subsequently being transferred to instrumental music. as in Scheihe 's Figflrell/ehre. The figurae prillcipaleoS or fimdamenta/eoS. on the other hand. find themselves treated as purely technical, compositional constnlctions. JOHANN ADOLF SCHEIBE j ohann Adolf Scheibe (1708-1776), the son of a well-respected organ builder. was bom in Leipzig. where he also attended the Lutheran Nickolaischule . In 1725 he began studies in law and philosophy at Leipzig University, which he had to abandon prematurely. Nonetheless. he was at the university long enough to become acquainted with the influential Johann Christoph Gottsched, professor of poetry and rhetoric. whose books on rhetoric were significantly to influence his own writings on music. After leaving the university, Scheibe continued his musical studies on his own. During this time he penned a compositional treatise which remained unpublished in his lirctime.l46 He moved to 145. Spiess discusses slIspensions and passing notes in chapters 16- 18 and various kinds of fugue in chapter 26 of his Tmc/all/.T. 146. CompendiulIl musiees Iheorelica-pmclicl/nr. dus iSI Krrr::er Begrifl derer nOtilJsten Conrpruilions-Regefn (ea. I130). published in Peter Benary. Die ,Iel/udr!! Kompo.Jitjotlsfeirre des 18 JanrnlltlderlS (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hlirtet, 1961). Scheibe Scheibe 149 Hamburg in 1736 where, with Telemann's encouragement. he began the publication of his music journal. Der critische Musikus. By 1740 he had published sevenry-eight issues. which were collectively published in Leipzig in 1745 under the same title. The title of the journal was influenced both by Mattheson's earlier Hamburgjoumal, Critica musica {I722-25). as well as Gottsched's Versuch einer Critischen Dichtlomst. Scheibe served as CapellmeioSter to Markgrave Friedrich Ernst of Brandenburg-Culmbach in 1739. and then to King Christian VI of Denmark from 1740-47. Ln later years he established a music school for children and served as composer for the Danish court. Scheibe presents a musical Figurenlehre in Der critioSche Musikus which is directly modeled on Gottsched's rhetorical Figurenlehre contained in Vel'oSlich eiller Critischen Dichtkunst. Scheibe emphasizes "that the musical ligures provide the greatest emphasis and unconunon vigor.. .. The circumstances in music are the same as in oratory or poetry. These two Liberal Arts would be left with neither fervor nor rousing spirit, were they to lose their use of the figures. Could the affections be expressed and aroused without them? Certainly not. For the figures are themselves the very language of the affections, as Professor Gottsched has thoroughly instructed in his Critische DichlkUl/oSt in accordance with P. Lallly.,,1'7 Mattheson's suggestion that the figures "can be looked up in rhetoric books. almost all ofwh:ich can be applied to the melody," is realized by Scheibe. Instead ofconsulting one of the many musical Figllre"lehren, Scheibe turns to the writings of his fonner Leipzig professor, upon whose rhetorical figures be "wishes to mentions four ligures in this ~arly (realise: anlicipalio, relarJalio, \'oriolio, and genentnr Ve,,,.ecnsefrtng. all more compositional devices thM musical·rhetorical figures. While amicipaljo and rewroalio are fonns of suspension, I'arialio describes ornamental embellishmen15. and gellerlllN V'''''ecnsefllng refers 10 the enharmonic rewriting of a note. 141. '"Man wird mir alJerdings Recht geben, wetm ich behauple. dal) die Figurm der musikalischen Schreibart den grof\tC1l Nachdruck und eine ungemeine Stiitke gebell. ... Es ist damit in der Musik eben so. als in der RedekunJl und Dichtkunst, beschaffen. Diese beyden freyen Klillste wOrden Wieder Feuer, noch rtLhrendes Wesen behalten. wenn man ihnen den Gebrauch der Figu ren enwehen wollte. Kann man wohl ohne sic die Gemiithsbewegungen erregen und RlIsdrtlcken? Keinesweges. Die Figuren sind ja selbst eine Sprache der Affecten. wie solches der Herr Professor Gottsched in seiner critischen Dichtkunst aus dem P. Lam! allsfUhrJich erilUlen." Der cri/irene Musikw. 683. Scheibe notes that Gotlsched was influenced by Bernhard Lamy's Lo Rheto";qlle: 011. f'ol'l de parfer (4th ed., Paris, 110 1). 150 Scheibe base the explanations of the musical figures, choosing those figures which particularly belong to music.,,1.. The fact that Scheibe wishes to discuss those figures "which particularly belong to music" points to his belief that rhetoric will help explain those expressions already found in music but not construct new devices analogous to rhetorical ones. Just as Burmeister sought to define musical devices through rhetorical tenninoiogy and Mattheson wished to explain musical structure through rhetorical principles, Scheibe also aspires to establish a musical Figurenlehre parallel to the rhetorical one. Music theorists throughout the Baroque emphasized the similar goals af the "sister discipiines,"14' justifying the employment of common devices and principles. Scheibe applies the figures to instrumental music more consistently and extensively than any author before him. While he emphasizes the figures' role in expressing the affections, the traditional references to text expression are conspicuously absent in his definitions of the figures. He only rarely mentions that they can be used to express the words, his illustrations consistently being drawn from instrumental rather than vocal music. However, in his introductory comments Scheibe maintains that the origins of the musical-rhetorical figures are to be found in vocal music, just as "instrumental music itself is rooted in vocal music. Because vocal music concerns itself with a text which can indicate the specific affection, it can justifiably be said that the root of the figures through which the affections are expressed is also to be found in vocal music. Thus one learns to differentiate between the figures' fonn and content through vocal music. Only then can they be applied to instnunental music, which, concerning the expression of the affections, is nothing other than an imitation ofvocal music ." I ~ Scheibe 148. " Ich will, mit Erlaubnil} des Herm Prof. Gottscheds, das in der crilischen Dichtkunst befindliche Capitel, von den Figurm in der Poesie, zum Grunde meiner Etkilltung der Figurm in det Musik legm, und daraus diejmigen Figuren anmerken, welche det Musik insonderheil eigm sind." Ibid., 685. 149. Ibid., 684. 150. "Aus der Vocalmusik mul} man nUT aufdie Inslnunentalmusik schliell,en. Weil wit in jener mil Worten zu thun haben. dadutch abet die Affe<:len entde<:ken, welche darinnen befindlich sind: so kann man auch mil Recht sagen, dal} in der Vocalmusik eigentlich der Silz der Figurm befindlich ist, dutch welche man n.mlich die Affecten ausdrOckcl. Und so lernel man foJglich duTCh die Vocalmusik. die BeKhaffenheit der Figuren unletscheiden, und einsehen, und sie hernach auch in det InstrurnentaJmusik Scheihe 151 is not suggesting that a figure- assumes a speci fi c. literal meaning in vocal music. \\h.ich is then transferred to instrumental music. In fact, except in the case of Ihe dubirafio. which is used to express doubt. the various figures arc not limited 10 certain affections but can be used to heighten. repeat. alter. or vary Illusical expressions in various affections. While both inslmmental music as well as the musical-rhetorical figures fmd their origins in vocal music. il would be as inappropriate to assign specific. lileral contenl to a Illusical-rhetorical figure as it would to a piece of inSlnunentalmusic. Figures were developed in vocal music as a result ofcomposers seeking to express the affections prescribed by the lexl. These devices can be used in inslrumental music similarly to express tite affections. The dllbir(1/io. for example. is used in vocal music to express the speci fic doubt implied by the text, while in instrumental music similar musical progressions would express general ambiguity: a fi gure used in vocal music to express a specific exclamation could be used in instrumentnl music with a more general "exclamatory" cffect: the musical devices lIsed to express questions in a lext could be applied in inslrumenw) music. resulting in a "questioning" musical expression; the various figures used 10 repeat, amplity. or intensifY a text could also be used in instrumental music to achieve similar effects. nle commonality of the figures' usages in vocal and instrumental music lies in their power 10 express and arouse the affections rather than in their potential to express specific. literal thoughts. Musicalrhetorical figures do not assume a specific, progranmlatic character but rather retain their affec tive expressiveness in instrumemal music. Before addressing the tllusical-rhelorical figures. Scheibe discusses the figurated melodic embellishments or \'erhliihm/en Aus=ienmgen. Instead of dwell ing 011 their application by the performer. as had traditionally been the case. Scheihe focuses on their use by the composer. Should he fai l to do so. "'the composer will neither demonstrate his cieyemess nor achieve his desired purpose in attracting and keeping the listener' s attention. NC\'crtheless adhering only 10 the rudimentary rules or composition.... \\"hy is it. that he conceived and composed so insipidly without coming close to :Ittaining thc desired goal? Certainly g~bUhrend anwendcn: weil diese in t\n~ch\lng det Affeclrn nichls andCTS, als eine Nachahlllung d~r Vocalmusik iSI:' IbId.. 6115. 152 & heibe only because he was too ordinary, too dry, too lean. and therefore dull and loathsome."'" Like the musical-rhetorical figures, the embellishments are also used to better express the affections. Through the use of appropriate and agreeable embellishments. the composer would be able to intensify his composition, "as though the notes had come alive. Even his textless melodies have to captivate and move the listeners. And so he must bring all the passions and affections mder his control. continuo ally being able to stir the listeners anew."m He then praises various composers for their extraordinarily expressive use of the embellishments, including Hasse, Telemann, and, in particular. J. S. Bach.'H Unique to Scheibe is the comparison of the embellishments to the rhetorical tropes, which are descriptions or elaborations using metaphorical, symbolic, or allegorical expressions. Just as rhetoric uses words which digress from their natural and simple meaning, "in music we also have the trope-like, symbolic, figurative embellishments, which digress from the natural and simple order and placement of a composition' s notes."I S4 In comparing tropes to embellishments, Scheibe wishes to equate the Wladomed melody with the unadorned thoughts or words of a sentence. In a trope the metaphoric word's meaning is then symbolically transferred onto the object. In a musical embellishment the ornamental note's "literal meaning" is understood as representing another note. Just as the trope uses words symbolically, so too is a musical ornament based on a note or phrase which itself remains only implied. However, the Wlderlying notes or words. melodies or thoughts. should always remain tacitly yet essentially understood, in spite of their 15 1. "Und der Componis! wird dadurch weder seinen Wilz zeigen. noch auch seinen Zweck bey den Zuh6rem erhalten. Da er aber gleichwohl den gew6hnlichsten Regeln der musikalischen Zusammensetzung gefolget ist• . . . was nlull es dann seyn. dap er so schlilfrig gedacht und geschrieben. und auch keinesweges den gehomen Zweck erreichet hat? Gewill nich!s anders, als dap er zu eigentlich, zu !rocken. zu mager. und folglich plan und niedenrllchtig gewesen is!." Ibid.. 644. 152. "Er mull seinen T6nen gleichsam ein wirkliches Leben enheilen k6nnen. Seine Melodien mUSSell aueh ohne Wone die Zuhorer bewegellund einnehmell. Und so mup er also aile Leidensehaften und Gemtithsbewegungen in seiner vtilHgen Gewalt haben. und ilnmer eine neue Aufmerksamkc:it erwecken konnen." Ibid., 643. 153. Ibid., 646. \ 54. "Man hat al so auch in der Musik Iropische. uneigenlliche und verblUhmte Auszierungen, die sich von der nalilr1iehSlen lind einfliltigsten Folge und Stellung der T6ne eines Gesanges untencheiden." Ibid.. 642. Scheibe 153 embel lishments. 1tfore the bass ends the cadmce. The abruplio is an unexpected musical passage in which we express a rapidly completed thOUght. It occurs most frequentiy at the end of a composition. The abnlJ1tio occurs when a musical passage i! broktn ofT at the end by the placement of certain pauses. The abruptio or tearing off occurs whtn one ends on a fourth in the eadence (which should have been resolved through a third) before the bass ends the cadence. The abrlllJlio or break is a musical figure which eommonly occurs at the wd of a passage whm the composition is sud· denly brokw or snapped off. This is either demanded by the text or, in instntntwtal music. other circumstances, See JanovkR, ('!avis ad Thesullrum, p.56. III the styilis I'fcitativlIs this figure occurs when the melody voice ends on a fourth above the Idominant] bass note without resolving to the third. allowing the bass to end the eadence alone. 170 Spiess ( Tracla/us p.155) Abruptio. Abreissung. Abbrechung, iSI. wann cine oder mehrere Slimmen zu Ende riDes Periodi naeh Edorderung des Texts die Hannoniam plOtzlich, und zwar ohne Erwarnmg riner Cadenz abbrechen. In Stylo redt: ist diest Figur gemeln. occen/us Abruptio, • tearing or breaking off, ocCW'$ when one or morc voices suddenly break offthe passage toward the end of a composition wilhoul completing the cadence, according to the requirements of the text. This figure is conunon in the stylus recital;vus. ACCENTUS, SUPERJECnO: a preceding or succeeding upper or lower neighboring note, usually added to the written note by the per- fanner. 1b.is embellishment orjigllra simplex is included by a number ofauthors in their lists of figures, although it is nonnally not considered one of the musical-rhetorical figw-es. L Should the accentus precede the written note, it can assume up to half ofthe latter note's value, in which case it is also called Vorschlag,le port de vou (Mattheson), or Stimm-Ein/all (Spiess). An accentus succeeding the written note is also called superjectio (Bernhard), translated into Gennan as Oherwur/(Walther) or Uherschlag (Spiess). Mattheson defmes the Uberschlag as an accentus in which an upper neighbor is appended to the first note ofa falling fourth or fifth before the second, lower note is sounded. Printz. who does not differentiate between these two ornaments, also mentions the varius or circumflexus, which occurs when the written note is interrupted by an inserted accentus. The diverse tenninology differentiates between the ornament's effect (accentus) and its structure (Superjeclio, UherwurJ. Uberschlag). Like the other musical embellishments, its association with rhetoric is rooted in delivery or pronunciario rather than in tbe omalllS ofthe decoratio. However, this does not lessen its potential to be a texlor affection-expressive device.2In discussing the Uberschlag, Mattheson relates a performance in which the device was used to embellish the I. Although Janovka mentions the ornament, he does not include it in his list of figures. For a comprehensive discussion ofthe accentUJ, see Neumann, Ornamentation. esp. I03ff. 2. See also Emphosis. (lccenws 171 word "heltge,,'" (bow) ill such an effective manner "that it almost seemed 10 become, isible. the ears becoming like eyes.,,1While some authors do nol rul~ Olll the possibilit~ of the composer placing the ornament in the score. others. like ~ I attheson. clearly regard the application ofthe de\'ice as the pcrfonner's prerogative. The ornament "is not to be notated. hut. like other i'.lanicrcn. is added at the discretion of the pcrfonner, and is particularly effective in compositions oflamenlalion or humility.,,2 Susenbrotus (F:fll/vme p.1S) Hyperbole est cum dictio vel oratio fidem e:o1\ward slide by a second from a consonance to a dissonance or from a dissonance to a conso- nance. Der Accent soli rlUr angebracht werden bey solchen Sylbcn. so im Aussprechen lang fallen: doch werden die [etzten Syl. ben etlicher Woner. als welche es gar IUgl. leidell. ausgenommen. Do • mi· nus De • us Walther (Le.licolI) Accento (ital.) Accent (gall. ) Accenms (lat.) sc. musicus, ein musicalischer A~ · cent, ist diejenige Art ZIl singen oder lU spielen. da mall. ehe die auf dem Papier vorhandene NOIe e:t in those words where it is appropriate to accent the last syllable. II Mel · ne See· Ie war·tet The accen/llS music/IS or musical accent refers to a manner of singing or pla)'ing in which one sowlds the neighboring higher or lower note before expressing the note written in the score. It is of two kinds. The first occurs namely when one moves from a higher to a lower note, for e)(ample from the c] to the b r, and is called accentus desctndens or remillf!llS: the descending accent. The second occurs when one moves Ollt of a lower note illto a higher one, for example from the d 1 to the e1 , and is called accel1lUs ascendellS or inlendens: the ascending accent.... It should be noted that all kinds of accents discussed here (which are otherwise also known as accentllS Simplices or simple accent5) decrease the value of the following note al times only slightly, should it be a longer note, and at times by half, should it be a shorter note. E)(preu. 174 uceenlus AceellfU5 duplex ein doppelter Accent: iSI die jenige An zu singen oder spielen. da man von zweyen Gangs- oder Sprongsweise auf einander folgenden NOlen, die zweyte der gestalt geschwinde zweymahl anschlAgt, daP der ersten an ihrer Geltung die Helme abgenonunen. und hingegm die zweyte wn so Yin cher angeschlagen und gmaret wird. Beym Loulie p.80 seiner Elements oder Principe!> de Musique. iSI die EinrichlWl8 des Accenl5 anders, undo so wohl der marque als der expression nach, folgcnde: Walther (Le.licoll) Superjectio ein Oberwurf oder Accent, der einer lllngem Note aufsteigend noch gantz kurtz anhl!ngt wird. 5. Accento. und zwar des Hm Loulie Meynung. Mattheson (Cop€lImeiJltr p.112[) Erstlich den sogenanntetJ Accent, welcher bey einigen der Vorschlag. und in Frankreich Ie port de voix heisset. da die Stimme. ehe die folgetJde vorgeschriebene Note ausgedruckt wird. den n!lchst darilber oder darunter liegetJdetl Klang vother gantz sanfft. WId gleichsam zweimalll sehr hurtig beriihret. Es sind also die AccetJte theils auf· theUs absteigend. einfach und doppelt: bey den einfachetJ wird von der nlichstfolgetJden Note nur dn wenigl'S, bey den doppelten aber die Helffte der Gehung genommen, so dajJ die aecentirende Note desto IMgcr. WId mit einer angt:rJehmen VerzOgerung gehliret wird, als worin om die beste Lust besteht. Der ncueste. und heutiges Tages starck cingefUhrte Gebrallch dieses Accents aber ist. dap er $Owol im Spieletl als im singen om springend, \'on der Quart an bis in die Octav. auf und unterwllrts The acUn/US dup/v: is a double acUnt. It refers to a I1UVUlCl" ofsinging or playing Iwo subsequent notes, separated by step or by leap. in which the s«ond note is rapidly sowlded twice in such a way thaI the value of the first note is reduced by half, the second note being played and heard thai much earlier. In Loulie's Elements or '>rincipe.s de Musique, p.80, the accent is defined differently, both in its marking as well as its perfomlance, as follows: The $uperjeclio is an ascending accent, which is quickly appended to a note of longer duration. The first [of the Monieren] is the occelllllS, which some call VQr$chlag and is known as If! parI de \'oix in France. It occurs when. before exprening the following written note, the \!{lice sounds the neighboring higher or lower nOle very getltly, as ifbriefly touching it twice. The accents can be ascending or descend· ing, simple or double. The simple accentS diminish the value of the following note by a small amount, the double accents by half its duralion. so that the accenting n()(e is heard that much longer. and with an agreeable mardatioo. wherein ils most emphatic effect is frequently found. Howevet', the newest and cUlTClltly wide· spread use ofmis accent is found in vocal and instrumental music, whet'e it is fre· quently employed in ascending and de· scending leaps of a founh up to an oc· Diensle thun mull als ,\oeriihrle Lehre I'on Acce!Hcn. die man hillig: Uhcrschllige heisscn konllt{'. so wie man ienc Vor· schlagI' nennet. mnll ich doch hier lIIil Stillschllcigen nicht YorUber gehen [as· sen. Es bes[",hen diescJDcn ;\ccente oder UberschlJige dann: wt'tln cin Fall in die Quart, Quint oder II ",iter henllller ge· scht'hen solI. dap alsdenn da~ crste [l1de solcher Imen'nl le einen felllcn und kun · zcn Anhang oder Zusmz von d CI11 l1:1chsl Uberli egcndelll Kl angI' bekiimmt. der nicht zu Iludlc stehen darIT. sondem willkilhrlich isl. lI'it" aliI' alldre Manieren. und absonderlich 111 Siitzen. die II:I~ klagendes oder dellliithiges haben. sehr artlg 7.U horen ist, Z.E. dcr aufgeschl'ie. bene Satz II arc di{'ser: die berlihmtc M:ldame Keiscr hnt diese~ beugen eins! in les-lal? Walther (Lexicon) Aposiopesis heisset in der Music: wenn eille Pausa generalis. oder ein durehIn music the aposiopesis refm loapmlSa generalis. or a complete silence in all 206 g!ingiges Stilschwtigen in allen Stimmen und Partien zugleich VOrXommt, welches auf zweyerley Art geschehen kan. als I) Homoeoteleuton 2) Homoeoptoton. Spiess (Truclatus p.lSS) Aposiopesis, verha1ten, verschweigen, stillschweigen. isl, wann entwederomit· Ielst einer General·Pausen aile Stimmen zugleich stillhalten: oder aueh wann eine einzelne Slimm stillschweiget, und abbrieht. da sie doch solIe singen. und in gehOrige Cadenz geherl. Hat im letzteren Verstand zimliche Gleichheit mil der Figura Abruptio. upo/omiu voices and parts of the composition si. multaneously. This can occur in two ways, through the homoeoteleuton and the hOmaeQPIOlon. The aposiopesis, suppression. conceal_ ment, silence. occurs when either all voices are silenced through a genera] pause, or when a single voice stops and breaks off when it should actually continue to sing and progress into the appro_ priate cadence. This second understand_ ing corresponds to thefigura abruptio. APOTOMlA: an enhannonic rewriting of a semitone, lbis rather obscure figure is only included in Vogt's Figurenlehre. Vogt is also quick to point out that the device is more frequently encountered in music theory than among the figures. In his Lexicon Walther defines the tenn in purely theoretical terms, without any reference to text interpretation or musical-rhetorical use, The tenn stems from Greek musical theory and is used to identify the major semitone. According to Pythagorean theory, a whole tone is subdivided into nine commala, resulting in a differentiation between a minor semitone, consisting of four commata, and a major semitone or apolome, consisting of five commata. Vogt defines the figure apotomia as the enharmonic rewriting of a minor semitone as a major semitone, resulting in enlarging the interval by one comma (intervallic proportion of 80:81).1 Vogt (Conclave p.15 1) Apotomia Major pars semitonii. Spectat inter theoremata musicae amplius. quam inter figuras. lnstruatur hic eanens, ut ad # croculam accipiat quinque commata, & non quatuor, similiter descendendo ad ~ accipiat commata quinque prae quatuor, The apotomia is the larger part of a semitone. It is encountered more frequently in music theory than among the figures. It is fonned when the [ascending] semitone is increased from four to five commata through the addition of a sharp, or when I. For a more thorough discussion of these numerical proportions. see above, p.12ff. assimilalio 207 lit bene. & notabiliter durificel cruces, & bene emolli a! b, Walther (I. Elicon) Apotolnc. von aTto-ci:1lVU), abscindo, ich sclmeidc abo also mUUlten die Grichen ihr in proportione super 139 parteinte 218 bestehendes Semitonium maius. S. Zarl. Vol.l.l'.2. c.28. weil es ein abgeschnittenes Stlick vorn ganzell Tone is!. ASCENSUS: see ANABASIS the descending semitone is similarly increased from four to five commala through a flat. Sharps cause an agreeable and noticeable brightening. while flats cause an agreeable softcning. The apolome. from apo/emllO. abscindo, I cut off. is what the Greeks called the major semitone proportion 139:2 18, because it is a part cut off from the whole tone. (see Zarlino. voL I. part 2. ch.28.) ASSIrvliLATIO, HOMOIOSIS: a musical representation of the text's imagery. The assimilatio or homoiosis is only listed in the Figure1l1ehren of Kircher and Janovka. Their inclusion of this figure as an apparent alternative for Bunneister's hypotyposis indicates a changing concept of the musical-rhetorical figures. 1 As both the Latin and Greek tenns indicate, the rhetorical assimilatio (homoiosis, similiflldo) is a form of simile or parable. Through this figure the thought or significance ofone expression is conferred onto another subject, thereby establishing a parallel. This process is applied to the musical context by Kircher. Through the musical "simile," the composer expresses the content ofthe text, whether it be an affection or other image, thereby establishing the parallel between the text and the music, However, this is more than mere musical word painting. A simile is another fonn of stating the same thing, not a reflection of something already said. Likewise, the musical assimilatio is a musical expression ofthat which the words expressed and not simply a musical "painting" of the text. The music re-presents (referre) the text instead of reflecting the words. The figure becomes not only the image of the text but, through its musical qualities, becomes the very source 1. See Il)put)posis. 208 asynde/OI' of the affection which it is called to depict. The introduction of this figure by Kircher marks the general movement ofthe musical·rhclorical figures from reflecting the affections of a text to actually arousing them, from being an image to being a source oflhe affection. The actiones arc 10 be expressed in actuality or "properly" (proprie: Kircher) rather than only "seemingly" (vider;: Bunneister's Itypolyposis). Not surprisingl). it is also Kircher who first highlights the figures' role as affectionexpressive devices and moves the concept of the musical Figure" lehre fully into the Baroque world of moving the listener. SusenbrotU5 (Epitome p.I04) Similitudo ol'o(wmo; Homoeosis. est cum aliquid ex re dispari simile ad rem quampiam traductur. Vd, est quando res cum re ex simililUdine confertur. Kircher (Mlislirgia L.S. p.145) OI-lOiWOl~ assimilatio est periodus h3rmonica. qua actiones rerum proprie exprimuntur. uti dum periodi singularum vocum diversa refenmt. uti iIIud: (Tympanizant. Cythariz.ant. pulsalll nobis fulgent stolis coram summa Trinitate) in hac cantilena basis Tympanum grave referet. coeterae voccs omnis generis instrumenta. Janovka (Clal'is p.56) Assi.milatio eSI Periodus harmonica. qua actiones rerum seu verborum proprie exprimulllur, ut dum periodi singularum \"ocum diversa refenmt. prout intextu iIIo: tympaniz.ant. cythariz.ant. (ulgenl stolis coram summa Trinitate. In hac cantione Bassus t)1npanUm grave referret. c3eterae voces onmis generis instrumenta. The simifill/door nomoeO!ii.~ occurs when something is transferred from it s conte.~t to a different but similar one. Or it occurs when one thing is associated with another because of their likeness. '''ehomoiosis or os.Timilolio is amusical passage through which the attributes of a certain thing are actually expressed. for example when individual voices in a passage depict di fferent elements as in the text "1}'mpan;:am. C"ylharizol1l. pulsolll nobi.f fillgenl slQlis C"Qrtlm lllmmil Trinilale:' 1n such a composition the bass represents the .....eighty tympanl/m .....hile the other voices represent aU kinds of other instruments. The ossimifalio is a musical passage through which the attributes of a cenain thing or word are actually expressed. for example when individual voices in a passage depict different elements as in the text "tymptmi:alll. C"ylnori:am. ["'gem stalis coram summll Trinita/t." In such a composition the hass represents the weighty tympunum while the other voices represent all killds of other instruments. ASYNDETON: an omission of the appropriate conjunctions in a text. O/utsis 209 The only musIc treatise which mentions the asyndeton is AhJe's Musicalische Sommer·Gesprdche. In that work. AhJe does not provide or discuss musical examples of the figures but rather demonstrates the various possibililies ofapplying rhetorical figures to music by rearranging and modifying the text. He demonstrates the asyndeton by citing the text 10 be sel to music and omitting all of its conjunctions, undo In this conlexl. the asyndeton is not a musical bUl rather a rhetorical figure which a composer might employ in arranging a text for his composition. Walther omits this figure in his Lexicon, presumably because he did not consider it to be of musical significance. Other terms mentioned by AhJe but likewise omined in Walther's Lexicon are synonymia andpolysyndefOIl . In contrast. figures such as epiphora or epizeuxis, also defined as purely rhetorical figures by both AWe and Walther. were included in the Lexicon because of the possibility of their musical application. Gottsched (Redekullst p.278) Asyndeton. Ein Mangel der BindewOrter. Ahle (Sommer-Gespn'Jche p.17) Und I wlin er das wortlein "und" davon l!isset l auch eill AS)Tldeton. AUXESIS. INCREMENTIlM: passage which rise by step. As)·ndeton. A lack of conjunctions. And should he omit the little word "and," an asyndeton results. succeSSive repetitions of a musical In both music and rhetoric the auxesis or incremenlum is understood as a growth through repetition, reflecting the literal meaning ofthe ternls (growth, increase. offspring). Quintilian and Susenbrotus mention the possibility of an incremental intensification even beyond the superlative (e.g., being beneT than the best). As his musical ex.ample demonstrates, Bunneister lU1derstands the figure as a repeated noema (conjunctis solis concordantiis). Unlike other repetitions of the noema (such as analepsis-a repeated noema at the same pitch, and mimesis-a repeated noema at different higher or lower pitches), the auxesis is characterized by an incremental rise in pitch of a repeated noema. Walther is the only other author to include the auxesis or incrementum as a musical-rhetorical figure. Like Burmeister, he defines itas a continually rising repetition 210 auxesis of a musical passage but does not restrict it to the noema. Beginning with Kircher the musical device previously described by the terms auxesis or incrementum is identified as a climaT or gradatio. Although earlier rhetorical and musical Figurenlehren (Quintilian and Susenbrotus, Bunneister and Nucius) included the climax, it was not Wlderstood as an expression of incremental growth. Rather, the climax or gradatio was described as an ascending or descending stepwise progression without requiring growth or increasing intensity, reflecting the literal meaning of the terms. L Kircher's description of climax with the auxesis definition (incremental growth) is then perpetuated by all subsequent authors. A similar development can be observed in the rhetorical Figurenlehre. In past musical scholarship, this differentiation between the alLTesis and climax has been frequently overlooked. Attempts have been made to blend the various Figurenlehren into one homogeneous doctrine of musicalwrhetorical figures, particularly by writers such as Brandes and Unger. Subtle and indeed substantial differences in the concepts and defmitions ofthe various authors were ignored in order to create an artificial teaching of the figures. Not only did this result in a misconceived musical Figurenlehre. but the dynamic changes in the general emphasis of the concept throughout the Baroque era were not obsen'ed. Only by tracing the usages and definitions of the various terms is it possible to present the developments ofthe musicalwrhetorical figures, as disparate as the concepts may at times appear. Quintilian (lnstitlltlo VIII.iv.3f..8) incremenlum est potcntissimum. cum magna videnlur ctiam quae infcriora SlVlt. Id aut WlO gradu fit aut plwibus et ptrvcnit non modo ad summum sed interim quodanunodo supra summum ... ul apud Verilium de Lauso: "quot pulchrior alter non fuil, excepto Laurentis corpore Turni." Summum est enim, "quo pulchrior, alter non fuit." huic deinde aliquid superpositum....Crescil oratio minus Rpcrte, sed llescio an hoc ipso efficacius. cum citra distinctionem in contcxtu et cursu semper aliquid priore maius insequitur. 1. See Climax. The incremen/um is a mOSI powerful fonn lof amplification]: insignificant things are made to appear important. This is effected through either one or several sleps and can be carried nOI only to the highest degree, but at limes even beyond ii, as in Virgil's description of Lausus: "for no one was fairer, except LaurentiS Tumus.'· The superlalive is expressed with "for no one was fairer." which is then further heightened.... The oration can be heightened less obviously but perhaps more effectively with an Wlbrokcn Susenbrotus (fop/rom£' p.74) Incr"'"I~'1llum Au:\esis. est quoties gradibus aliquot pcrYellltur. non modo ad sumnllllll. sed intellill quodammodo supra summum Burmeister (I" /,u"",cma/llnr) A1Lxesis eSI hmmolllae, uui eidemque texllli insenienlls. incrcmentwlI. Burmeister (MrlSlca Poe/iea p.6 1) Auxesis fit. quando HamlOnia sub uno eudelJJ(lllc I",xtll semel. bis. len'e. & UlterillS f"'petiTO. eonjllnclis solis COlleordallliis. crescit. & insurgil. Exemplulll est in Orlandi. Veni in hortum, ad leXULln: cum Arommibus me-is. Hoc Omamcmo omnes fere callIiones. in qui bus textus repetitur. ita, Ullextus repetitionent, non FugatJI. exigat. SUlit rcplctae. -.- • ~ t=r~ I 1 'id~ .--. •~ C,m 11 ' '0 - rna - ti - bus me ""!:=." iV I ~ & . IIT 0~~I• • rI L I11 \Vahh",r (I <'.Ticoll) Auxesis heissct: \\ elUl ein Modulus. oder eine Melodie z" cy· bis drCYlllahl wieder- - 211 series. in which each expression is con· tinuously followed by a stronger Olle. The iIlC1'f!nrelllllnr or auxl'Sis occurs when something is advaJlced by step, not only to its highest degree. but at times in a way e\'en beyond that. The l/!/.T('sis signifies a growth in the composition while using one and the same t~"t . The auxesis occurs when the harmonia grows and increases wilh a single. two-- fold. Iltrcefold. or further repetition ol1ly of combined consollances [noemaJ using one and the sallie text. An example is found in Orlando's Velli ill horfllm at the text "cum Aromatibus meis.'· All compositions in which the text is repeated. but nol in Ihe fonn of a fugue, abound with this figure. II Cum a-ro-ma -ti- busme- is. ISU• j I 3 JlJ JIJji-". ± Ftt JI,J liT • PF III II The m~rcsis occurs when a passage or a melody is repeated twice or three times, 212 holt win:I. aOO dabey imme!' h6hc:t Slti- g~. bombus while al the same lime. however. always rising higher. BOMBUS, BOMBI, BOMBILANS: four identical notes In rapid succeSS10n. The bambus and its grammatical/musical derivatives are considered ornaments or Manieren rather than musical-rhetorical figures. A series of bombi is referred to as bombi/ons. Walther maintains that the tenn bomblls originally meant a movement ofthe hands resembling the sound ofswanning bees, thereby explaining the Gennan tcnn for the ornament: Schwiirmer. Although the "swarming" notes might prove useful in depicting the text, Walther restricts the figure to instrumental music. Should this occur in vocal music, Walther mentions that it is called ,rillo. The tenus trillo and tremolo were frequently interchanged. Printz defines tremolo as rapidly alternating notes and trillo as a "trembling" embellishment on one pitch.I It is this understanding oftrillo which Walther refers to when he applies the bomblls to vocal music. Printz (Phrynis Mytifenoeus pt.2, p.50) Die einfachen bleibenden Figuren seyn I so in vier gesch.....inden in einer Clave bleibenden Noten bestehen: Sie werden Bombi oller Schwemler gennenet. Walther (Lexicon) Bomba, Bombus also hieP ehemahls diejenige kiinstliche 8ewegung der IUnde. wodllrch ein hannonisches. und den Dienen lihnliches 8ausen gemacht wurde. ... Anjetzo .....ird die aus vier geschwinden Notfln bestehende. und in einem The simple stationary figures aTe those .....hich consist of four npid notes on one pitch. TIley are cailed bambi or Schwer- mer. A bombo or bomblls formerly signified an anfo! movement of the hands which resulted in a beelike harmonic humming. . . . Nowadays a figure consisting of four rapid notes on one pitch (as in fig.3, no.7). that is a SchwtJrmer, is thus called. I. In his definition of tremolo, Walther also mentions that the device is at times referred to as "mo.See 1'remolo. cae/entia dU";II$c,da 213 Claw bleibende und wit Tab.lIl No.7 aussehende Figut also. d. i. Schwlirmer genenne[. ... Oiese Fig ur wird in der Vocal-Music nicht georauchl. so sie abet vorkommt. bedeutet sic: nUT tin trilla. Printz (Phl)"Uif ,\/) lile/!Gcus pt.2. p.65) Figura Bombilans is! I .....enn lauter schwemlende Figuren z.usammen geselZt werd{'!l. Ex. gr. Walther (u xicolI) Figura bombilans is!. .....enn lauter schwrumende Figuren zusammen gesetzt .....erden. s. Bombll$. ... This figure is not used in vocal music. but should il appear there. Signifies only a rn'llo. Ajigllro bombifons occurs .....hen numer_ ous bombi are linked together. AjiguI"'{J bombifons occurs when numerous bombi aTe linked together. See bom- b",. CADENTlA DURIUSCULA: a dissonance In the pre-penultimate harmony of a cadence. This figure is enc:ounlered only in Bemhard's Tractatus. rn keeping with his concern to legitimize the use of various dissonances inadmissible in the SlY/liSgravis. Bernhard explains the dissonances as part ofthe cadential material. an explanation which can be traced back to the very beginnings of polyphonic music. In Bernhard's first example, a subdominant seventh is heard over the bar line. In his second example, a major sev• enth is created on the fourth beat of the first bar. These durillscil/IIS or "hard" harmonies give the figure its name. The figure is no longer mentioned in his laler Bericht, where Bernhard abandons the classification of the figures according to style. Indeed, the second example can be explained equally well through the "ansitus irregularis. 214 Bernhard ( Troelalus p.82) Cadentiae Duriusculae sind, weichI' etwas seltsame Dissonantzen VOT denen beyden Schlup-Noten annehmen. Solehe werden fast nur in Solidniis lUld meistentheils in Arieo und Tripeln angetroffen. Da abeT d nige in Inehrstimmigen [Sachenj gefunden wUrden, so werden die Ubrigen Slimmell demlapen gesetzt. doll solchc keine Miphelligkeit spUhren lassen. ~ . ~ , calabasis Cadell/iae dul'izjsculae are cadences in which some rather strange dissonances precede the fmal two nOles. Such ca. dences occur almost exclusively in vocal solos and are most often found in arias and in triple meter sections. Should they occur in polyphonic works, however, the other voices must be set in such a manner that they do not allow any sense of dis. agreement. ~ ~ CATABASIS, DESCENSUS: a descending musical passage which expresses descending, lowly, or negative images or affections. The catabasis is used to depict musically either a descending or a lowly image supplied by the text, thereby creating the implied affection. The figure is first mentioned specifically by Kircher. However, as with its contrasting counterpart, the anabasis, the vivid musical expression of descending or lowly images had been linked to the concept of the musical-rhetorical figures since its inception. I In his definitions of the figures, Kircher emphasizes their role in expressing not only the text but also the associated affections: While Bunneister's hypotyposis was to be used to make the text or events "seem" (videri) present, Kircher's figures are to actualize the intended affection. The catabasis,like so many other musical-rhetorical figures, is called to do more than simply reflect the text: it is simultaneously image and source of the affection. In his definition of the figure , Walther mentions that the term is also used to describe a chromatically descending theme orsubjectum catabatum.This would coincide with the description of Bernhard's passus duriusculus. 1. See Anabasis, H)potyposis. Kircher (ftfw,urgia L8, p.14S) Catabasis sive descensus periodus harmonica est. qua oppositos priori affectus pronunciamlls servitutis. humilitatis, depre.,sionis affectibus. alque infimis rebus exprimendes, lit ilIud Massaini: Ego aUlelll hmniliatus stun nimis, & iIlud Massellt ii: descendenmt in infemulll vivemes. Janovka (Om'ls p.56) Catabasis sive Descensus est Periodus harmonica, qua oppositos Anabasi affectus pronunciamus, uti: servilUlis, humi· limtis, depressionis, infimarum denique verum. UI in textu: ego autern humiliatus sum mml s. Vogt (t o/lclm'e p.150) Catabasis descensus cum vox descendit, ut cum textu descendit ad infernos. Walther (Lexicoll) Catabasis, vonl(ct"t"ctpctlvW, descendo, ist ein hamlOnischer Periodus, wodurch etwas niedriges, gering· und verltchtliches vorgestellt wird. z.E, Er ist hinunler gefahren. Ich bin sehr gedemUthiget. u.d.g. Daher heisset auch ein Ton-Weise, oder auch dUTch Semitonia ordenllich, und ohne eiuigen Spnmg herunlerwetts steigendes thema, ein SubjeClulll Calaba- tum. Spiess (Traclatus p.155) Cantabasis [sic}, Descensus, Abfahrt. Heip! in der Music, wann die NOlen oder Sing-Stimmen, laut des Texts, mit den WOTten absteigen, v.g. Descendit ad in- fernos. calaba.ris 215 The cUlnbasis or desce//SI/S is a musical passage through which we express affections opposite 10 those of the anabasis, such as servitude and humility, as well as lowly and base affe{:tions. as in: "I am, however. greatly hwnbled" (Massainus), or in "The living have descended into hell" (Massentius). The catabasis or descensus is 9 musical passage through which we express affections opposite 10 those oflhe anabasis, such as servitude. humility, lowliness, baseness. and lastly truthfulness. as in the text: "I am. however, greatly humbled," The calabasis or descensus occurs when Ihe voice descends, as in the tex!: "He descended inlo hell." The calabasis. from ka/abaino, descenda, is a musical passage through which lowly, insignificant, and disdainful things are represented. for example: "He has descended," "I am greatly humbled," and similar texts. For that reason a phrase or a theme which descends in semitones by step and without any leaps is called a s//bjecfllm cafabafum. The catabasis, descensus, or descenl occurs in music when the notes or voices descend wilh the words, according to the text, AS for example in "He descended inlO hell:' CATACHRESIS: see FAUX BOURDON CELERITAS: see TRANSnV S 216 circillalio CERCAR DELLA NOTA: see SURSUMPTlO ClRCULATIO,ClRCULO,KYKLOSIS: a series of usually eight notes in a circular or sine wave fonnation. The circulat;o (c;rclI/o, circofo) is formed by positioning two opposite (rising and falting: i/Uendells and remittens) circllli me::; adjacent to each other in such a way that, were the 1\\'0 "half-circles" to be superimposed, a circle ofnotes would result. The figure is defined both as a textexplanatory musical-rhetorical figure as well as a simple ornament (figura Simplex, Mallier). This difference is further emphasized through the use ofboth Greek or Latin (Kircher, Janovka) and Italian tenninology, Customarily, classical tenninology is reserved for the musicalrhetorical figures while Italian is used for embellishing ornamentation and figurations. Only Kircher and lanovka explicitly correlate the cil'clliatio with the expression ofcircular ideas or motion in the music's text. As a symbol of perfection, the musical circle has a long tradition ofexpressing not only circular concepts but also the eternal, infinite, and complete, ultimately symbolizing God. L Like virtually all of Kircher's figures, the circulalio is understood as a fonn of hypotyposis. 2 The remaining authors simply describe the motif's construction without referring to any text-expressive content. Even Walther, who frequently quotes lanovka in his LexicolI, does not mention the text-interpretive nature ofthe figure. FurthemlOre, he only defines the Italian term. While I. W. Kirkendate, "Circlilalio-Tradition, A/llria Laclans, and Josquin as Musical Orator." Acla Musicoloxica 56 (1 984), 69. In this exhaustive study of the musical circle' s long history, Kirkendale points out that already "Hucbald understands by "circlill/s" a short group of notes which ends on the note with which it began, such as might be notated by the torculus neume." Ibid.. 70. n.S. The suggestion that this musical device is to be linked with the rhetorical figure Cirellfll! (circllfa I'helorica?) or the quile unrelated reddilio is questionable. even though the tt nns may be related. Furthermore. there is no reason to believe that Nucius in his definition of "omplexio was describing the musical cirCl/lalio and not in fact a musical equivalent of the rhetorical comp/oio . While the circulotio is a short motir which returns to its beginning note. the compll!.lio is a longer musical passage or phrase (Nucius says HUl'nroll /a) which opens and doses with the same material. See Conrpluio. 2. In a similar vein. Kircher definesjilga also as a texHxpressive musical_rhetorical figure which can be used to depict a pursuit or flight. rellecting the litm l meaning or the figure. circllfalio 217 Vogt calls the fi gure by a Latin tenn, circlIlus, he includes it in his list of Figllrae simplices and not among his text-expressivefigurae ideales. Even though circular or infinite concepts are frequently expressed through a circlI/ario, such a content is not frequently associated with the figure itself. Most writers (aside from Kircher and lanovka) explain the circlilo as a fonnation out oftwo opposite circuli met:i. While Vogt, Spiess, and Manheson describe the circulo mezzo in accordance with Printz's defmition. Walther's definition is based on Brossard, a description which agrees with Printz's groppo rather than circulo mezzo. tn his definition ofgroppo, Walther explains that Brossard does not differentiate between circulo me==o and groppo, both being four-nole arching figures wilh common first and third rather than second and fourth notes. L Nonetheless. Walther's definition of the eight-note circulo is in agreement with that of the other authors, even though he describes it as two circuli mezzi. Mattheson deflncs onJy the circulo mezzo, but he adds a fifth note to the figure, presenting in fact an entire half-circle. In Spiess's example, two ascending and two descending circuli met::; rather than one ofeach kind are adjoined, resulting in a figuration which does not agree with other circuli. Kircher (Ml/5l1rgia L.8. p.14S) Kud(,)(Jl<; sive circulatio est periodus harmonica. qua vO~'es quasi in circulum agi videntur. servitque verbis actionem circularem exprimeatibus. uti iIIud Philippe de Mome: Surgam et circumibo Civitatem. Jano\'ka (C!OI'is p.56) Cin:ulatio est Periodus hannonica. qua voces quasi in circulum agi videntur, servit que verbis actionem circularem exprimentibus. ut in hooce textu: surgam et circu[ml ibo civitatem. I. See Groppo. The lc)'kltMis or circZlfalio is a musical passage in which the voices appear to move in circular motion, and serves as an expression or words with a circular molion or content, as exemplified by Philippe de Monte in the text; '" will arise and surround the ciIY." The circl/lotio is a musical passage in which the voices appear to move in circular mocion, and serves as an expression of word! with a circular motion or content. as in the text: "I will arise and surround the city." 218 circulatio Printz (PhrytliJ MYlllenueus VI.2, p.49) Circulo Mew formiret im Schreiben einen halben Krei~ f Wld bestehet in vier gescltwinden ordentlich-gehmden NOlen I deren andere und "i«dle einerley I die elSie Wld dritte unterschitdliche Stellen haben. Er ist entwedcr lntendens. so anflinglich auffsleiget I oder Remittens, so anflinglich absteiget. :----- Printz (Phrynis Mytilenaeus pt.2, p.64) Circulo ist I wenn zween Circuli meri also zusammen gestzt werden I dajl Reminens dem Intendenti folge in def nechsten untern I oder Intendens dem Remittent; in def nechsten obem Clave. The circilio me:o forms a half.circle in musical nOlation. and consists of fout rapid notes moving by step. in which the second and founh nOles are on the same pitch while the first and third notes have different pitches. It is either infendens. beginning with ascending notes, or rem". lem, beginning with descending nOles. The cirCII/O occurs when IWo circuli me:; are combined in such fashion that the remiflens follows the inffmdens one step lower or the imendens follows the remillens one step higher. ~fr FFJ JJJI JJJJ rr rr II Vogt (COIlc/Ol'f! p.148) Alia vocatur circulus, ul. Walther (LexieOl1) Remlttens Circolo, ein Circul oder Cre»l; also heisset I .) die An des doppelten C) oder 0 . 50 man noch in allen Musicalien naeh dem clavi signala gesetzt antrim. 2.) wenn zween Circoli mew also xusammen- und alleinander gehlLnget werden, daj), 50 sie Uber einander gesetzt werden sohen, sie einen vollkommencn Circul darstellen wOrden. II Another [figure simp/ex) is called circu· flU, for example: The circolo is a circle, and occurs: (I) as a fonn of a double CO or O. which is still encountered in old compositions as a time signature after the clef; (2) when two circoli mtr.zi are combined and fol· low each other in such fashion that, should they be superimposed upon each other, they would visually represent a complete circle. Circulo rncuo ist cine aus vier Noten be5tehende. ulld die Gestalt cines halben Circuls \·orstelJende Figur. ciN;III(IIio 219 A til·clllo me;::o is a figure which con,im offOUT notes and visually represents the fornl of a half-circle. ~'F IrrrFII [EmFfE]1 • Printz abeT ... nertnet dergleichen Figur. deren CfSh! ulld drille Note einetley, die ~w()1e und vierdte aber wtgleiche Siellen haben. r in Groppo. Mattheson tIlIpeJfmeisler p.116) Der sogenanntc Halb-Circkel, Circolo mC1.zo. ist f~st dieser Art; doch elwa urn die Helfte kleiner. als der Groppo, Wenn die Gestalt der Noten, die gleichsam cincn halbcn Ci rckel vor Augen slelle!. betrachtet wird. Eigentlich ist es eine sol· ehe Figur. dadurch aus wenigen GrundNOlen gewisser lIlaassen ihTer mehr, und kleinere gcmaeht werden. Spiess (Traclotll.f p.156) Ci rculo, ein Circul- oder Creij)-Figur, bestehend aus 8. geschwinden Nolen; wird also gCllC1I1lI. weil sie gjeiciuam ein Circul fOl11lin. Ascenden! Descendens So sie aber 4. Noten hat, wird sie Cireulo Mezzo oder Halbcircul.FiguT benanlSet, wie NlIlll.ll ausweiset; allwo auch der Unterschcidl zwischen einem Groppo, llJld einelll Circulo Meuo sich lIu$seret. Printz, however, calls the same figure. whose first and third notes hl",e the same pitch while the second and fourth nOles have different pitches. a groppo. The so-called half-circle or circ% me:;zo is very similar 10 yet half as large as the Rroppo. It occurs when tile fonnation of the notes depicts a half-circle, as it were. In fact. it is the kind of figure through which numerous smaller notes are fonned oul of a few fundamental notes. The circulo is a circle figure which consists of eight rapid notes. It is thus called because il fonns a circle. as it were. Mezzo Should the figure consist offOUT notes, it is called a drcuJo mezzo or half·circle figure. as illustrated in no. I I. This also illustrates the difference between a groppo and a eircl/fo mezzo. 220 climax CLIMAX. GRADATlO: (I) a sequence afnotes in one voice repealed either at a higher or lower pitch; (2) two voices moving in ascending or descending parallel motion; (3) a gradual increase or rise in sOUlld and pitch, creating a growth in intensity. A gradual shift in the definition of climax or grado/io throughout the seventeenth century is evident in both rhetoric and music. Quintilian and Susenbrotus use the term to describe a stepwise construction (climax. gradus: step. rung, ladder) of an oration in which a point is repeated and explained before proceeding to the next one. Although the series of expressions might be of increasing intensity. this is certainly not necessary. Such an incremental intensification is termed auxesis or illcremen· film. Gottsched no longer differentiates between the two rhetorical devices and therefore uses the terms increment"", and gradalio inlerchangeably. Reflecting the eighteenth.century emphasis all affective expression, he highlights the aspect of incremental growth in intensity. Gottsched thereby brings the elements ofgrowth (auxesis. inCremell!lIm) and graduated progression (clima-c, grado/io) together in the one figure. A similar development in the musical definitions of the climax or gradatio can also be observed. Bunneister. Nucius. and Thuringus define the figure simply as a graduated progression. parallel to the definitions of Quintilian and Susenbrotus. Bumleister describes the climat as the repetition of a certain sequence of notes at higher or lower pitches. 1 Nucius and Thuringus define two voices moving in ascending or descending paraliel motion-at thirds or tenths-as a climat or gradalio. The use of the tenn gradalim in reference to simple step\v1Se melodic motion is encountered in most treatises ofthe time without any reference to growth or intensification.2 The similarity between Bunneister and I, In his H)pomllcmullim Bunneister describes the po/iflogia as a repetition or a theme at various pitches in different voices. In his later MlIsic(I Poelica he places limitations on these repetitions: they must occur in only one voice and at the same pitch, It is also in thls treatise that Burnleister introduces the new figure climax. which repeats a theme at different pitches but in the same voice. thereby assuming in part the role of the old climax. 2. Similarly. Charles Butler described one of the forms of consecutiofl (the progression rrom one interval 10 another) with the ternl GrOO"lioll: "nut the continued Consecution of other Concords is allowed, as weU ascending and descending. as immorant in the sanle place: especiaUy of thirds and si;dhs in (I) Gradation. and (2) dim(/:( 221 Nucius's definitions is reinforced through their common choice of a musical example which demonstrates the figure. the motet Maria Magda/ella by Clemens. Both early-seventeenth-century rhetorical and musical definitions reflect the literal meaning of the tenns: both climax and gradlls simply mean "step." In fact. the verbal root of climax (klino: lO bow, turn away) suggests a downward rather than an upward or intensifYing malion. In Kircher's Musurgia Universalis the climaxlgradario is described as an affection- and text-expressive device for the first time, in accor· dance with Kircher's general understanding of the musical·rhetorical figures. Intensification takes precedence over graduated progr~ssion. This interpretation is then adopted by all subsequent authors. Only Walther's Lexicoll still includes the older definition. With his tennino· logical interests. Walther gathers together the diverse definitions of a term, including those which may no longer be current. He defines elima.;-.;Igradatio first according to Ahle, second according to Nucius and Thuringus. third according to Burmeister but limiting the repetitions to ascending ones, and finally as an upwards·modulating canon. Scheibe and Forkel introduce the dynamic concept ofcrescendo into their definitions of the grada!io, applying the device on a much larger scale than previous authors had done. As such it becomes an appropriate descrip· tion of the famous Mannheim Crescendo. The combination ofthe auxesis and climaT by Baroque authors has led to some confusion regarding the understanding of the two terms. Unlike Walther, some contemporary wrilers have chosen to define the terms together with only one definition. Any diverging definition of the terms is then described as "somewhat of an aberration."I Furthermore, in focusing on only one definition, the possibility of tracing a term's terminological development and providing insight into tbe historical Context and developing aesthetic of musical concepts is severely hin· dered. sometime in Skipping:· The Principles ofMlIslt. 51. I. Unger regularly makes this mistake. resulting in numerous misunderstandings and questionable descriptions of figures. exemplified in his discussion of GrOOmia. alU;l'sis. climax (Beziehungen. 11). Instead of following the development ofthe tenns. Unger seeks to match iI certain compositional device with a tenn. thereby frequently disregarding the figures' diverse tenninology and their ongoing development. 222 Quintilian (lnsti/u/io IX-iii.S4) Gradatio, quae dicilur )()'.il'a~ ... repelil enim quae dicta sun! d. priusquam ad aliud descendat. in prioribus mistit. Susenbrotus (Epitome 1'.84) Gradatio )(,l.i)1a{. est quullI consequentia membra, ab iisdem ordiwltur est, quoties ita per gradus oratio distinguitur, ut dietio finiens particulam pmecedcntcm, inchoet sequcntem. hoc modo. Nam quae reliqua spes libertatis manet, SI iIIi! et quod libet. licet:et quod Iicet, possunt: et quod po$sunl. audenl: et quod l udent, faciunt: et quod fseiunt. nobis molestum non tst? Gottsched (RedekwlSl 1'.280) Endlich ktimmt noch Gradal;o oder Cli· malt, da man Slufenweise von cinem Wort auf t in anders. und von diesem noch auf ein stArkers fortschrcitet. Gottsched (Redekll1l$1 1'.284) lncrementullI s. Gradatio. Wenn man stufcnweisc von einer geringem Sache zu einer grollem hinauf steiget. Gottsched (Dichlkunsl 1'.344) Man merke also ZUlli XXX. das Aufstei· gen (Gradalio), wenn mall gleichsam stuffenwcisc von riner gcringcn Sache zu ctwas hGheml fonschreilCC. Wid also immer was wichligcrs ugt. Burmeister (MuJica Poe/ica p.63) Climal( eSI, quae per gradu5 intervallorum similes sonos repelil. ut hoc el(emplum indicat. 0-'*01 climax The gratia/lo. also called climru, ... repeats what has already been said and •before proceeding 10 something else • •dwells on that which preceded. A grada/io or climax occurs when consequent phrases begin with the same words that ended the preceding phrase, frequently altering the case endings. Or it occurs when an oration is construcl~ by step in which a word which ends a phrase begins the following one, for example: For the remaining hope abides in freedom, and if it should please them, it is permitted; and whalever is permined, they consider; and whatever they consider, they dare; and whatever they dare, they do; and whatever they do, does it not trouble us greatly? And finally thcre is the grodotio or cli· max, through whieh one progresses by step from one word to the ncxt, and from this 10 a yCC more forceful one. IncrememUnI or Gradatio. When one progresses stepwise from 8 weak expression 10 a stronger one. The next figure is the grada/io, through which one progresses by SlepS from. weak expT6Sion to. stronger one, thereby expressing thoughts of conlinually greater imponance, The climax repeats similar notcs but on pitches one step apart. as indicated in Ihe following example: Nucius (MI/fices I'oe/;cae p.Gr) Quid eSI (lima...? Clun per Arsill & Thesin. binae ,"oces similiter gradiunlllr. ut cum Disc8mLlS & Basis in multis Decimis. aut Basis & Tenor in pluribus tertiis procedunl. Huius ligurae usus circa finem Hannoniac potissimum spectatur. ubi audirorem a\'ide finem e)(pectantem, adhuc detinere sllIdemus. lll\lrin£u~ ,0Pllsclllllm p,125) Quid est (limax? Quae & grlKlalio dicitur. CSI cum per Arsin & Thesin. binae voces similiter gradiuntur. & cum Discanlus & Aasis ill multis Dccimis. & Basis & Tenor in pl uribus teniis procedunt: Hllius f igurae usus circa fillem harmoniac potissin1Um spcctalur ubi audhorem Hvide ti nelll &spectantem. adhllc detincre 5\tujcmus. Kircher (,I/I/surg/(! L 8. p.145) Vocatur Cl illl ~)( sive gradatio. estque pcriodus hannon ica gradalim asccndens adhiberiquc sole!, in affectibus amoris divini & desideriis patriae ooclestis. ul mud Orlandi. (Qttemadmodum desiderat ccr\'us ad fonles aquarum), AhIe (SnIHrII"r·Ct'ofpfllche p.l 7) ~et er aber: jauChlct und singel l singet und rtihrnel l liihmet IUld lobet: so ist es cine Climax Janm'ka «('/a"IS p 55) Climax si\'c Gradatio est Periodus Harmonica gradmim ascendens, adhiberique SOlei in affectibus amods divini. & desideriis Patriae Coeleslis. ut intextu fieret:qllemadrnodUJll desideral cervus ad fontes aquarulll. ita &c. VOgI (Com.-/tH'e p I~ I) Clima.... Gradual;s ascellSus. Figura est COmlllUllis. climax 223 What is a climax? It occurs when two voices progress upwards or downwards in parallel motion. for example when the soprano and bass proceed in parallcl lenlhs or the bass and tenor in parallcl thirds. The use of this figure is most fre. qucnt at the end of a composition. 10 which we strive to engage the listener who eagerly awails the conclusion. What is a climax? This figure, which is also called Xrodafio, occurs when two yoiccs progress upwards or downwards in parall~1 motion. for example when the soprano and bass proceed in parallel tenths or the bass and tenor in parallel thirds, The usc of this figure is most frequent at Ihe end of a composition, to which we strivc to engage the listener who eagerly awaits the conclusion. The cUmru or graJat;o is a musical passagc which aseends by step, and is often used in affections of divine love and yearning for the heavenly kingdom, as in Orlando's Qllemodmodllm desiderat ur,'/IS ("Like as Ihe hart desiret.ll the waterbrooks. so longeth my soul after Thee, 0 Lord:') But wcre he to write: Rejoice and sing I sing and glorify I glorify and praisc; then it is a cI/1mu. See Kircher for translation. The dima.T is a widcly used figure which ascends by step. 224 Walther (Lexicon) Climax, oder Oradalio, d(JI(t~. ist 1) eine Wort-Figur wenn z.E. gesetzt wird: Jauchut und singel. singel und rilhmet. rOhmet und lobet. 2) dne Noten-Figur. wenn nemlich zwo Stimmen per Arsin & Thesin. d.i. auf- WId Wlterwerts gradatim Tertzenwc:isc: mit c:inandc:r fortgehen. 3) wenn cine: Clausul mit und ohne Cadentz etlichemahl immediate oach einander immer urn tin Ton h6her Mgchrachl wird. 4) d6rffie auch diesen Nahmen derjenigc: vierstinunige Canon verdienen, welcher, so om zwo Slimmm von vorne wiedenun anheben. allacil urn einc:n Ton hoher stcigel, da inzwischen die andem beyden Slimmen noch im vOOgen tiefTem Tone 5ich aufhallen, wId dennoch zusammen klingen. Scheibe (Cri/iJcher Mllsicus p.697) Dn Aufstcigen, (Oradllio), wenn man gleichsam stufenweise voo einem schw!ichern Satze zu hOhem SlI.tzen fortschreitel, und also den Ausdruck der Sache, oder die Stiirlce der Musik irruner wicht;get lUld naclulrticklicher machet.... Wie schOn iSI es nicht. wenn der Anfang nur ganz schwach und fliellend ist, die Folge aOO immer hoher sleig!, und wenn daraus endlich die sl!l.rkste Melodic und Hannonic tnlsteht? Oicses rllhret und setzet die aufmerksamen Zuh6rer in Verwunderung. Forkel (Geschichte der MUJik p.58) Eine der scMnsten und wirksamsten Figuretl ist die Gradation (Steigerung). Man steigt gleichsam slUffenweise von schwlchem Sitzen zu sllIrkem fort. und drllckt dadurch eine inuner zunehmende Leidenschaft aus. Die gew6hnliche Art, sie in der Tonsprache auszudrOcken, ge,chicht durch das crescendo, womit man einen Satz: vom ge1indestell Piano an, bis zu dem silirksten Fortissimo fortfilhrt. Eine bessere Art ist es, wenn die-se Steigerung durch besllndigen allmllhlichen Zuwachs an neuel! Gedanken und climax The climax or grat/ario is: (1) a word fig. ure, for example when the- words art' SCI as follows: Rejoice and sing, sing and glorify. glorify and praise: (2) a musical figure which occun when two voices progress upwards and doy,TlwaJ"ds by step in parallt'llhirds; (3) wht'n a passage wilh or without a cadence is immediately rept'aled several times at progressively higher pitches; (4) this term can also be given to a four·part canon in Which, as the first two voices ne-enlt'r. each timt' one note higher, Ihe otht'r two voices reo main in the previous kt')' and yet still har- momze. The ascensiOIl (gradario) occurs when one progresses by step from a \"eak passage to stronger ones, thereby gradually increasing the importanct' and emphasis of the expression or music.... Is it not dt'lightful when the music begins most teTlt3tivt'iy and, becoming progressively stronger and higher, finally evolves into the most powerful melody and harmony? This moves the attentive listener and causes wonder and amazement. Ont' oftht' most delightful and effecti\'t' figures is the gm/alio (intensification). This i! a stepwise progression from wea1.:erpassages to stronger ones. tllereby t'xpressing an always increasingly powerful affection. The conventional musical expression ofthis figure employs the crescendo, progressing from the quietest piano to the strongest/orlissimo. A superior form of the grooulio is achieved when this intensification combines a crescendo with I gradual and continuoUS growth in new idus and modulations. Mooulationen bewerksteJligt, und dann nli! der ersten An \ erbunden wird. COLORATURA: see VARlATJO comp/exiQ COM.M1 SSURA: see TRANsrrus 225 COMPLEXIO. COMPLEXUS, SYMPLOCE: a musical passage which repeats its opening phrase at its conclusion. The first musical reference to this figure appears in a rhetorical text without specifying a distinct musical device. In describing the symp/oce, Henry Peacham the Elder mentions that the figure is "pleasant to the eare, which of some is called the Rhetoricall circle, and of others the Musicall repetition." At the end of the Baroque, Gottsched also commenls on the musicality of this rhetorical figure, stating that "it is particularly pleasing in musical pieces." As Peacham indicates, the rhetorical symploce or complexio is a combination of two other figures, the ana· phoro and the epiphora. While anaphora signifies a common beginning ofa number ofsubsequent sentences, epiphora signifies common end· iogs ofthe same. The symp/oce or complexio ("combination, swnmary"; from syn-, COII-, cum·, with, together; and p/eclare or pleko, to weave) weaves the two figures together into a new fomlation: common opening and closing words or phrases in a nwnber of subsequent sentences or passages. TIle distinction between this figure and the epana/epsis, which signifies the repetition of the opening word(s) at the close of one sentence, is not maintained in the musical Figurenlehrel1.t Bunneisler is the first to mention symploce, but he does not define it as a figure. Rather it is a compositional error which occurs through the "simultaneous placing of the disparate signs of a flal and a sharp [in a Chordj, thereby disturbing the nature of the perfect consonances by I. See EpOlIQ/epsfs. Epanodip/osu. 226 CQlllpiexio mixing the properties ofone hannony with that of another.'" Burmeister is driven by a concern to clearly identifY musical phenomena, both figures and other compositional devices. with familiar and suitable vocabulary. The use ofrhetoncal tennino\ogy to identify musical devices besides the ornameflla is recognized and commended by a fellow Kanfor, Statius Olthoff.2 Bunneister's choice of terminology is governed chiefly by a tenn's literal or general meaning rather than its specific rhetorical content. In choosing the term symp/oce he wishes to underscore not the interweaving of two distinct figures of repetition (the specific content) but rather oftwo harmonic species indicated by disparate accidentals. Nucius, Thuringus, and Walther employ the Latin tenn comple:cio to identify a certain musical·rhetorical figure of repetition. Their defini. tion. however, is not identical to the classical rhetorical understanding of the term but rather. like Gottsched's, describes complexio as the repetition ofa passage's opening at its close.lbe specific reference in their definition that this musical device occurs "in imitation of the poets," indicates that Gottsched was not the first rhetorician to describe the compfexio with an epal1afepsis definition. Kircher, and after him Janov· ka, define the complexus. as they call it, with a divergent and more affective definition, a practice also to be observed in their definitions of repetitio and climax. However, it is not clear what is meant by their description of the figure. The reference to a musical passage in which all voices appear to "conspire as if they were one voice" may indicate a unison passage within a composition.} This would portray a literal rather than rhetorical meaning ofthe term. II is not likely that this refers I. "Symploke cst Disparmorum enunciandorum ~ aut t & II appositio vel aetn vel potentia pemlixt8. omnem consonantiarum perfectarum, rum etiam suatn ipsius natllram invertens, uniusque eoneentus naluram naturae alterius complieans" (MUjica poerica. 30). In using both sharps and flats as aecidentals in one hannony. the composer woutd be m.ixing major semilones (consisting of 5 conunata) with minor semitones (having 4 commala). nlis procedure is tater defined by Bernhard as a figure called consonalliia impropria. See also Apotomia. 2. See above. 115f. 3. In his discussion of expressive composition in the srY/lu rhealra/is, Bernhard also suggests that the repetition of a text might occur "in unisOllO where elegance this allows" ("Die Wiederhohlung de-s Textes soli entweder gamicht. oder nur an den Onen, wo es die Zierligkeit zul!tPt im Unisono gebraucht werden"). Tractatu$. ch.35. §8. comprl!xio 227 to a homophonic passage, similar to a noema. The specification that the figure is used "0111~ in aH'ectiolls of machination" seems to preclude the interpretation of complexus as the "pleasant and soothing" device which Burmeister and Thuringus describe.I After Kircher's and Janovka's unorthodox definition of complexus, epallalepsis becomes the preferred ternl for this figure ofrepelilion. ln addition. Vogt also introduces the term epalladiplosis to describe tbe same device. In his Le\"icoll. Walther defines all three terms with similar definitions. retlel"ling his intent to catalog and define all known tenns irrespecti\·e of possible contradictions or duplications. SusenbrolUs (Eplfoll/e p.54 ) COInplexio. :E\J~ :tAol(~ est cum orationis alicuius membra idem principium eundemque finem sortitmlllf. Peacham (Gardell of Eloqllellce p.43) Symploce is a forme of spe-ech which maketh llIany !llelllber~ or clauses following to have the same beginning & the sallie ending which the first had going before. comprising both the last omam~ltS /anaphora and epiphora] in one. . . . nlis figure may serve 10 any affection. and is a singulm omllment. pteasant 10 the care. which or SQlne is called the Rhetorical! circle. and of others Ihe Musical! repetition. Gonschcd (Redelmn.ft p.280) Sympioce. Wenn Anfmlg Ilild Ende vieler aufeina.nder folgcnder Abslil1e einerley sind. Goltsched (DichlkllllSl p.324) Himler (repetitio1 gehoren dcnn auch die WiederhollUlgcn. d~ man in ganzen Slrophen die efMcn Zeilen lind WCiner. am Ende derselben noch einl'l1al brauchet. Welches sonderlidl in 1lIlisikalischcn The comp/e.lio or symp/oce occurs when subsequent parts of an oration are given the same beginning and ending. S...mploce. When a number ofsubsequent passages have the same beginnings and endings. Another form of the repetitio consists of a repetition of the opening lines and words of a stanza at its conclusion. This can be called a symp/oce, and is particularly pleaSing in musical pieces. I. See ./I,IOl'ma. Unfortunately. I have not sm•.'ceeded in locating the Clemens motet A~lilenl/ll R('ge.~ (Psahn 2.2 ) referred to by Kircher. which would no doubt help e1arify Klrcher' s understanding of the Cf)mJl/e."IS. 228 n)lurle.l i o Stilc\..en angenehm flillt. und SYOIplo\:t hel~en kwm . }lucius (Mlj.!tn!s P()t'llcae p 03) Quid est Cumplexio~ Cum Hllulloniae initium in fine repetituf. ad imitationem poet3rUm qUI saepe uno eodemque \"Ocabulo versum incipiwlI & c1audul1l' \II Egl7. Ambo llorentes aetatibus. Arcades ambo. Huius Sehematis mulla sunt Exempla Musiea. ut in Al!eluja sllrTe:.:it pastor bonus. hem in Noe. No/' & iterum l"oe: Vitam quae faciunt Ja..obi Vae, . Thuringus (Gpl/sclllllm p.125) QUId est Comple-..:io? Cum harmomac milium mline repetitur. ad imltationem poetanun, qui SIICpe lU10 eodemque \'OC3bulo versUl11 incipillnl & daudunt . Kircher (MII,wrgill L.8. p 145) LIIIIIl AU!';,... si\'e Complexus est periodus harmonica. qua voces quasi in unum 5; conspirare \'identllr. adhibertque solct ill aff~tibus machinat ionllm. lit Illud Clementis non Papa. Astitcrllnt Reges terra adversus D0111inlll11, & ad.versus Christum eius. Janovka (Om'is p.55) Complexus dicitur Periodlls harmonica. qua voces in unum conspirare videm llr. adhiberiquc sole. in llffectibus machinaHonum. II! si textus sit il1e: AstilerUlll Regc~ terra adversus Dominllm. et adn:rsus Chnstuill elUs. \\'311h('r t/lrican) (ompk-..:in heisset: wenn der Anfang eines h:mnonischen Sat7.es am Ende wie· derholt wild. ad imitationcm del Poeten. "clthe Offters mit einem Wtlrle eim:n \'ers anfaugeu. und mit del11selben allch Illedennn schlilssen Z E. Crescit amor 1I11l1llUl. quantum ipsa pecunia crescit \Vhat is ~ romp/('xw? It o..curs \,II Cn th~ beginning of a IWl"IllO/lill is re p~ atc<.1 .It the eud. in l!l1l1ation of the poets, Ilh" frcq\lcntl~ bcgill and end a verse 1\uh L"'~ same \'ord. :IS in. "Bolh in the flol\ er <11 life, Arcadians bOlh." TIlCre afe 111.1il\ musit'al examples of .his figur('. sut'h a, Allr/II/.1a SUperflU8 ist Sexla minor addito Selnitonio majore. ulld beSlehet in dec· gleichen clavibus. II CONTRAPOSITIO: see ANTITHESIS Regarding both diminished and aug· mented fourths and fifths. it has already been mentioned above (ch.14 no.5) thai these are accepted as consonant in middle voices. . . . The augmented sixth and diminished third are only admitted in the slylus Iheatralu. discussed below. The tenia dejiciens [diminished third] is an interval which is not quite a minor third, and is written as follows: ~.. ~ .. II I... ije II Examples of how it is used: It::: ... 2'= a: The sex/a sliperjlua (augmented sixth] is • minor sixth with an added major semi· tone, and is wrinen as follows: 234 coria CORTA: athree-note figure in which onenote'sduration equals the sum of the other two. The corta, which simply means "short" in Italian, is a concise rhythmic figure which belongs to the species of ornamental figurae simplices (Vogt). The term does not refer to the duration ofthe entire figure, as this could be the same as the bombus or circulo mezzo. Rather, it refers to the number of notes employed to construct the figuration. Neither the term nor any accompanying definitions suggest an expressive Content or application ofthe figure. However,due to the inherent rhytlunic drive of a series of cortae, it is frequently used in compositions which wish to express agitated or joyful affections. The corIa also forms the basis of Printz's suspirans, where the one longer note is subdivided into a rest and a note of equal value to the other two. Printz (Phryn;s Mylilenaeu.r pt.2, p.54) Figura Con a bestehet aus dreyen geschwinden Noten I deren doch eine so lang ist I als die Uhrigen beyde zugleich. Walther (Lexicon) Figura corta bestehet aus drey geschwinden Nolen, deren tine aHem so lang ist, als die ilbrigen heyde. Spie5s (Troctolu$ p.156) Cuna, kunze, kleine, geringe, wird sie vermuthlich darum genennet, wei! diese Figur nicht aus 4. oder mehrem, wie alle andere Figurae. sondem nur aus 3. Noten bestehet. II The figura cOria consists of three rapid notes, one of which has a duration equal to that ofthe other two combined. The jigllro carla consists of three rapid notes. one of which has a duration equal to that of the other two. The CIIno, meaning short, smail. slight. is probably called such because it con· sists of only three rather than of four or more notes, like all the other figurae [simp!ice..r]. Recta Inversa Aequivalentes ~rU DEMINUTIo: see TRANsnvS t/imillllffo 235 D ESCENSUS: see CATABASIS D lABASIS: see METABASIS D HIo'U1,nJTIO, MEIOSIS: (I) various elaborations of longer notes through subdi\'ision into notes of lesser duration; (2) a restatement of thcmatic material in proportionally shorter note-values. The dimil1l1fio has a long musical as well as rhetorical tradition. In both disciplines it is a fonn ofelaboration which can lead to a fault ifexaggerated. QuintiJian uses the Greek term meiosis to describe such a fawt, but indicates that the device can be used appropriately as a figure, Susenbrotus points out that the dimifliltio is an understated elaboration of something or someone for the purposes of expressiveness or decorum, Erasmus describes it as a "plentitllde of words. Sometimes it has the sa\"{)r of hyperbole as in 'shorter than a pygmy, ,,,1 The musical diminillio originates in eleventh-ccntwy florid organum, in \\hich the melismatic dllpilim is regarded as a diminlltio on the camus jirmus. In the early-founeenth-century treatise De diminutiolle contrapunet; (CS HI. 62ff.), the anonymous author explains how to set nwnerous notes in the counterpoint against one note of the canlUS jirmlls. Gradually the practice of diminut;o was expanded to incorporate the embellishment of a melodic line in counterpoint. During the Renaissance, the practice of diminllfio "is not merely arabesque embellishment, but now also serves as a means ofexpressing the text and the affection.,,2 Diminutio continued to refer to both an improvised addition to a composition and a consciously composed fonn of elaboration. The preferred terms for these embellishments are the Italian passagio and coloratllra. Whi le Praetorius does not presen! a systematic Figurenlehre, he does define various associated tenns in his writings, including diminlltio. Both he and Walther give coloratura as an altcmativc ternl.J Unique to PraeI. Sonnino, Ifandbook, 95. 2. H. Engel. "Diminution." MlIslk I" Geschichle IlIId Gegenwarl 3: 493. 3. In his defi!lilion of'·arialio. Bernhard lists pouagio and c%ra/lira as alternalive terms. The lem! dil'isiOlles or dil'isiolls is also used to refer to ornamentalion. In his /'1t'T"i.~ '\(l'lilellaell' (pI.2, 47) Printz uses the Gemlan translation of this term, leuheilzlIIg, in defining the ,·arimiones. 236 diminutio torius is the distinction between the diminlll;ones, which move by step (gradarim) using the embellishments accenflls, Iremulo (defined as a trill), groppo, and tirata. and the passagi. which use ornaments moving by leap. step, or remaining on the same note. Although Walther also distinguishes between the diminllriones which move by step and those which move by leap, this differentiation is not renected in his tcmlinol. ogy. Under the diminutio (or coloratura) he lists all of the various figurae simplices. Spiess defines dimilllftio and variatio separately in his treatise. The diminutio can occur through an embellishment orlhe notes (diminurio nOlarum) or the theme (diminutio subjecti oder ,hemafis). In his example of diminutio nalarum, Spiess only uses embellishments which move by step and fill in the span between the intervals of the original melody, suggesting an adoption ofthe Praetorius understanding. This example, like those ofhisfigurae simp,'ices, is only melodic. The diminutio subjecli is not simply the ornamentation ofa given melody but is an embellishment of the subject or theme through additional. fastermoving voices. Spiess illustrates this in a two-part setting in which the upper voice is a figurated counterpoint thematically based on the accompanying theme. He mentions that diminulio subject; is also known by the Italians as soggelo sminuito. in the definition ofthis teoo in his Lexicon, however, Walther fails to make Spiess's differentiations, citing the tenns diminillione and double as alternatives. I Spiess describes the variatio. on the other hand, as a device which can use both the diminUlio and all ofthejigurae simplices. in fact, he defines all hisfigurae Simplices under the tenn variatio. Similarly, Vogt describes a variatio as a combination ofjigurae simplices.1 Besides referring to the art of ornamentation, dimim/tio is also used to describe the proportional diminution of the note values of a theme.) In his definition of imitatio, Spiess again refers to the diminllfio. Here 1. "Sminuito, diminuin, kleiner gemaeht, d.L wenn an stott einer grossen lind langen Note, etliche kleinere und kiirtzere geselzt werden: ist also eben so viel, als' Diminutione. Double." 2:See Variatio. 3. The schema/oides is another figure which can signify metricRI diminution. Funhennore. Scheibe explains that the porQ/wmasia. an altered repetition of a theme, can also be used to repeat the music "with a changed or slower beat or with notes of double duration." See Po"ollonlosia, &hemalOides. diminlllio 237 he mentions that, in contrast to freer imitation, "the progressions and leaps of the subject are presented through the diminution figures with fasler notes but always in strict imitation.'" This kind of metrical or durationai diminution. widely used in Baroque fugal technique, has its orieins in medie\'al mensural notation, where it "is used chiefly in order 10 i~Hroduce into perfect prolation short groups ofdupiets.,,2 lbis change in time signature would result in a reduced duration ofthe notes, thereby efkcting a dimilllllio. lt is this understanding ofthe tenn which Walther appends to the end of his definition. This "early practice," as Walther calls it. is frequently encountered in canzona composition, where the theme is sectionally treated under varying time signatures. Durational dimil1llfio is also an important device in sixteenth-century imitative polyphony. where the counterpoint to a theme could introduce the subject in proportionally reduced note durations, thus combining both fonllS ofdiminufio. One ofthe finest examples ofthis technique is fOlmd in 1. S. Bach's Canollische Variatiolle" fiber Von Himmel Hoch (BWV 769,4: Calion per augmentatiollem). The soprano line is both a strict diminution of the bass line, as well as a figurated or embellished additional voice. Quintilian (/llstifillio v m .iiUO) Vilari debet et ~E (WOle;. cum sermoni deest aliquid. qoo minus plmw sit: quanquam id obscurae potillJ quam inomatae orationis eSI "ilium. Sed hoc quoque, cum a prudemibus fit, schema did solec. SusenbrOlus (I:.pilome p.81) Diminutio J.lE(W(JU;. est qua personam vel nostram aut rem aliquam venustatis, sive modesliae ~ut contemptus, interim «iam persuadende ae miligandi gratia txtenuamus. Praetorius (~)'IIt(JKma Musicllm llIp.232) FUrs ander mup tin S~ger rechte - 1. See Mime.fis . The meiosis oUght to be avoided. It is a fault which consists of an inadequate form of expressioo, the oration characterized more by obscurity than a lack of ornaments. But should it be employed prudently, il is considered to be a figure. The diminutio or meiosis occurs when we weaken the description of a person or thing for the sake of charm, modesty. contempt, or at times even persuasiveness or appeasement. Second [in addilion 10 a good voice]. the 2, Willi Apel. The NOIalion o/PoI)'PhOtllc Music (Cambridge: Mediaeval Academy orAmerica. 1953), 151. 238 dimimuio Wissenschaffi haben I die Diminutiones (so sonSlcll in gClllci.n Coloraturen gellennet werden) lieblich und Apposite zu fonniren. Dimintnio abeT isl l wertn cine gr6ssere Nota in viel andere gesthwilldc: und klc:inc:re Noten resolviret und gebrochen wird. Dieser sind nun wlIc:rschiedliehe: Ar1en und Modi: Deren elliche Gradatim nacheinander folgmde I geschehen: als I Ae<:ell\us. Tremulo. Grupp; und Tirala. Walther (Lexico,,) Diminutio iSl eben was Colorarura. wenn man nemlich cine: gro~e Note in viel 1.:16ne zerthtilet. Es sibt deren vielerley Arten. als: I) gradatim gchende, dergleichen die Trilli, Tremoli. Tremoletti, Gropp;, Circoli mezzi, Fioretti, Tirllle, Ribattuti di g01a, u.s.f. sind 2) Sahuatim eingerichtete. nemlich um eine Ten, Quart, Quint. II.S.C. springende. EhemahJs hiep auch Diminutio. wenn def Tact urn den dritten Theil. oder UIll die Helffte gcschwinder, als ordinait gewOhnlich, gegeben wurde. Spiess (Trot /a/lis p.156) Verkleinerung, Vermindenmg, hat ein doppelte BedeuUlu~ in der Music: cine wird genenuet Diminutio Notarum. die andere Dinlinutio Subjecti oder Thematis. Die erste geschiehet, wann aus einer Nota eines gr(Isseren Valoris, v.g. aus einer Noten eines ganlZen oder halben Tacts mthrere und k1einere gemacht werden. Diminutio Subjecti oder Themati!, welches die Italiliner Soggeto Sminuito nennen, ist. wann das Subjectum, so in langgU1tigen Noten bestehct, durch andere neben-Stimmen dutch kleinere Noten mit· und fongefilhret wird; welches meistens zu geschehen pflegt. dll das Musicalische Stuck vollstimmig zu Ende getrieben wird. singer must possess the expertise to ap. propriately and graciously execute the diminllliones. otherwise generally called coloroturen. Diminlllio signifies a dis. solving or breaking up of a longer note into nUlllerous faster and smaller notes. and can occur in various fonus and methods, including in successive stepwise fashion. as for example the accell/us, tremulo, gruppi, and lirulQ. The din/inulio has the same meaning as co/(xolllra, namely the division of a long note into numerous shorter ones. This can be accomplished either through the many stepwise ornaments, such as trilli, tren/o, li, tremo/el/i, groppi, d rcoli me::i,jiorelri, lira/e, ribottUfi di gola, and similar figures, or through figures which leap by a third, founh. fifth. etc. Previously, diminulio also referred to the acceleration of the established IOCIUS by a third or a half. Diminution or reduction has a twofold musical meaning: one is called dimimllio notanlm, the other diminlltio subjecl; Of themalis. The first occurs when a longer note such as a half or whole note is divided into numerous shoner notes. Diminll/io subjecti or IhflmQlis. called soggeto sminuito by the Italians, occurS when a subject which consists of longer notes i5 accompanied and extended by shorter notes in the other voices. This usually occurs when a composition is being concluded with a full·voiced tex· ture. dis/db"ti" 239 OlminullO Subiectl Subjectum DISTRIDUTIO: a musical-rhetorical process in which individual motifs or phrases of a theme or section of a composition are developed before proceeding to the following material. Only toward the end of lhe Baroque era does the distributio fmd a place among the musical-rhetorical figures. II is firslmentioned by Mattheson as a figure of amplification which, together with mimesis and expo!itio, can be used in fugal composition.I None of the figures are explained, however. suggesting their general fami liarity and wide-spread use. While the rhetorical mimesis and expolitio signify methods of varied and embellished repetition, the distribll/io is used to subdivide the general argument into its particulars and discuss each one individually. Both the rhetorical expolilio and distriblllio can make use of further figures, and can therefore be considered processes of elaboration or amplification as much as individual figures.2 JUSI as distriblltio and expolitio are absolutely fundamental to the rhelorical process. being indispensable to the con/walio and cOl1jirmalio, so too are they essential in musical composition. In singling out these figures. Mauheson not only points to fundamental musical-rhetoricaldevices but to the process offugalcomposition itself. Having established the musical-rhetorical compositional steps of inventio. disposilio. and e/ocllfio. complete with all the accompanying I. Capellmei.I/f.'I". 244 Of interest is TIluringus's use of the word ,/isln'blliio in his definition offilga ("Quid est fuga? Est ... artificiosa distributio"), suggesting a much earlier link between the rhctorical and musical compositional devices. See Fuga. 2. "Expolilio. when we abide still in one place. and yet seem to speake diverse things. many times repeal ing one sentence. bllt yet with other words. sentences, exomation. and figures" (H. Peacham. Gm'dell of Eloquf.'lIce. 193). "Distriblltio is a g~.e~all word. comprehending diverse special kindes. .. the first distriblltion is by dlVtslOn of the generall Idiaresis or divisioj. the second by panition of the whole [Partilio]. the third by CllIlIller8tion of the subjects (enumerlltioj. There are besides divers other figures which are kinds of distribution, but yet diffcring from these three" (123). 240 distriblilio structural devices, the rhetorical disrribll/io can also be transferred to the musical context. It is Scheibe and Forkel who elaborate on the musical disrriblltio. Both authors point to various methods of "dissecting" a theme. Scheibe highlights thematic fragmentation both of a fugal theme and of a concerto's or aria's opening material (proposirio). Forkel discusses the distributio Wlder the dispositio or arrangement ofa musical composition, rather than under elocutio, the residence of the musical-rhetorical figures. Expanding on the distributio' s concept of going from generalities to particulars, he includes the elaboration on a chord or hannan), in addition to thematic fragmentation. Indicative ofhis Enlightenment. even romantic aesthetic, is Forkel's description of this device as an "individualization of general sentiments." Not only a fugal subject bm even a simple chord can be considered a general musical expression. lbis is lent beauty and vitality through the process of individualization, for "the individualization [of general expressions] is nothing but a form of dislributio." He also indicates that the distributio can make use of various other musical devices or figures, including synonymous expressions, various descriptions, and exchanges. I Susenbrotus (Epitome p.96) Distriblltio ll€ptaIlO~, Est cum genus vel totum vel subiectum, per enumerationem specierum, partium sive accidentium dilatamus. Gonsched (RedekulIsl p.282) Distributio. Wenn man was vielfache5 in seine Theile zerg\iedert, urn seinem ~er einen ausfUhrlichen Begriff von der Sache Zll geben. The diSfributio or merismas occurs when we completely or paniatly extend the geIIUS through an enumeration of the species, the parts, or the sections. Dislriblllio. When a multifarious thought is subdivided into its parts in order \0 provide the reader with a thorough understanding of the argument. l. In using the lenn Verse/zullg. it is unlikely thai Forkel is referring to Janovka's technical understanding of hyperbalOlI. In his discussion of the Fig uren for den Versfand, which he equates with rhetorical-grammatical figures and musical. cootrapwltal intricacies, he makes various disparaging remarks on the ineffectiveness of such "musical inversions" (Allgemeille Geschichle der Mllsik. 54, n.29). Scheibe translates hyperbotoo with "Versetzung" but lends it a much more general and affcctive defmition. Forkel undoubtedly was thinking of Scheibe's hyperba/oll in bis discussion of the contrapuntal devices, as Scheibe also related his h}perbu/oll to fugal technique. See Hyperba/oll. distributio 241 Qllecdoche lnteltectio, est quoties aliud ex alio quocwlque modo intelJigitur. Vel cum ex llllO plum inleltiglmtur: III. Romanus praelio victor. pro Romani vie!ores. Vel ex pane tOlllln: ut mucro pro gJadio. tecum pro domo, Retroque: ut ingens Some use the term fynecdoche when something is suppressed but nonetheless assumed in the context of the speech. A word might he understood through an· other word, which is called an ellipsis when it leads to a fault in the oration. The s)71ecdoche occurs when the omitted word is clearly Wlderstood out ofthe conlellO! of the other words. The ec/jpsis signifies an omiSSIon of words or pans ofspeech which the correct construction requires. In this figure the omined word or clause is ascertained either through the established usage of paS! authors. that is, through the consen· sus of the learned ones' usages, or through the other words in thai clause of the oration. According to Mancinel1us, the omission of a word is called an ec- lips!:;. The :;)'lIecdoche or ;rrtellectio occurs when one thing is Wlderstood in one way or another through something else: when the plural is understood out ofthe singu. Jar. as in Roman victor instead of Roman "ictors: when the whole is underslood out 248 ellipsis avertice pontus, id est. procella et unda ponti: et fontemque ignemque fercbant. id est, partem fontanae aquae. Vel ex species genu! ... Vel cum ex materia Tes confecta signific8tur ... Vel ex prae<:edentibus sequeotia.. .. Breviter quoties aliud ex alia intelligitur, Gottsched (Rede/wns/ p.27S) Ellipsis. Die etwas ausHi!}t, so sich abeT leicht verstehen l!ipt Gottsched (Dichikunsl p.319) Die IV. ist das Verbei!}en, (Ellipsis) oder Abbrechen einer Redensatt. die man nur anhebt, abeT nicht vOllig endiget. Sic enlstehl. wenn der Affet:1 so heftig is!. dall der Mund und die Zunge den geschwinden Gedanken der Seele nicht folgen kann, und also mitten in einem Satze abbrechen. und dem neuen Gedanken des Geisles pllSlzHch folgen mup. Bernhard (Tractatus p.84) Ellipsis isl cine Auslapung der sons! erforderten Consonantz. Und rOOTet entweder her BUS Verllndenmg der S)'lloopation oder des Transitus. Ellipsis so aus der Syncopation herrilhret, ist gar gebrauchlich wo die Quarta durch die draufffolgende Tertie in denen Cadenliis solte resolviret werden, und 1) entweder die Tertie gar ausge1a~en, oder 2) an deren Stelle eine andere Consonantz genommen wird. ~~ ..... Si .~ V ~ Ellipsis aus dem Transitu henilhrend ist eine Verschweigung der Consonantz so in Transitu fUr der Dissonantz sonst of lhe part, as in blade instead ofsword or roof instead ofhouse; or conversely, as in a huge sea instead ofslonn and waves ... ; when the genru is understood out of the species. the product OUI of the raw material, the following out of the preced_ ing. in short, when anything is llllder_ stood out of something else. The ellipsi.f omits something which IS nonetheless easily understood. The next figure is the suppression or ellipsis, consisting of breaking off a manner of speech which one only begins but does 1I0t completely finish. It occurs when the affection is so vehement that the mouth and tongue cannot keep up with the rapid thoughts of the soul, therefore breaking off in the middle of a sentence and suddenly continuing with the new thought. The ellipsis is an omission of an otherwise required consonance. arising from an altered syncopario or transitllS. An ellipsis arising out of a syncopotio commonly occurs in cadences where a fourth should resolve to a third, but instead the third is either omitted altogether, or another consonance takes its place. SolIe also stehen: s: !== ,Ii . I An ellipsis arising out of a (rami/us is the suppression of a consonance which is nonnally required before the passing diserfordert wird. ~ Bernhard (Bendll p.151) Ellipsis heipel /\up lapung lind ist eine Vcrsehweigung ciner Consonans. Und geschichel alltf zweyedey Weise I) wenn an smd der COllsonanz d ne pausa stehe! und darauf einc Dissonanz folget. ~ ~ ""Vnd wenn in einer Cadenz die Quarta durch die Tertia nitht re50lviret wird, sondem stehen bleibe!. Al/}: ~ -~ "~ Walther (I'raecepra p.154) Ellipsis, 1st eine Auslapullg oder Verschweigullg einer Consonanz welches geschicht I) welln an stan der Consonanz eine Pause stehel. und auf diese cine Dissonanz folget 2) Wenn in einer Caden]. die -Ita durc\l die 3tia nieht resolviret wi rd. sundem unbeweglieh liegen bJeibel. Walther (I,exICun) ~lJipsis [lat.] i).AElI.IH<:; [gr.1 von tA).e(TCW. pzaetemlitto. defido; ist eine ellips;y 249 sonance of a lransitus. SoIte also stehen: ""Ellipsis means omission and signifies a suppression ofa consonance. It occurs in two ways: when a pausa replaces a consonance and is followed by a dissonance: E . solte slehen. '" "'"or when in a cadence the fourth is not resolved by the third but rather remains stationary, as follows: "" The ellipsis is an omission or suppression of a consonance which occurs (1 ) when a poWia replaces a consonance and is followed by a dissonance; (2) when in a cadence the fourth is not resolved by the third but rather remains stationary. The ellipsis, from eUeipo orpraelemrillo, deficio, is an omission or suppression of 250 Auslftssung oder Verschweigung tiner Consonanz. und ent5tehet, wenn an stall dieser doe Paust gesetzt wird, worauf tine Dissonam: folge\. Scheibe (Crj/ischer Musicus p.687) Die IlIlt iSI das VerbciPen. (Ellipsis.) oder das Abbrechen tines Satzes, den man nUT anhebel, abeT nichl v611ig eo· diget. Sit geschieht auf zwcyerley An. Ersllich, wenn man in dem heftigstm Affecte und mitlen in e;nem angefangcuen Salze unvennulhet abbricht und stille hih, endlich aber mit einem ganz fremden Gedanken aufs ncue wieder an· hebt. Oder auch, wenn man am Schlusse tines Salus den gew6hnlichen Schlupton verl!ndert. und in einen ganz fremden lmd unerwarteten Accord nUll. Dieses letztere nennen die Componislm: das Ausfliehen def Cildenz. Je hefiiger abeT der Affect isl. oder seyn 0011, desto fremdef mull auch der Accord seyn. in den man die gewtlhnliche Cadenz ver!lnden. Die mle Art dieser Figur isl die schOnSle, und erforden wegen des Abbrechens, und weil man zugleich dem ganz.en Satze Einhall thun mull, viel Geschicklichkeil, Feuer und SUlrke so wold in der Melodie, als Harmonie. Forltel (Gesch/chle de,. Musik p.56) Eine auffaJlende Art von Aeu~erung ciner EmpfioolUlg is! die, wenn sie, nachdem sie nach und nach zu einem hohen Grad von Stlrke angewachsen, auf einmal pl/;)tzlich stille stehl, und abbrichl. Diese Figur wird Ellipsis genannl. Die KWlst, die diese Art von Aeu~erung ausdrilcken wilL mu~ sie daher so in ein Bild zu bringen suchen, da~ dadurch der Gang der Leidenschaft fur die Einbildungskraft gJeichsam sichtbar werden kann. Sie kann es auf zweyerley Art bewerkstelligen. nemlich 1) wenn ein nach und nach loU einer gropen Lebhaftigkeit angewachsener Satz unvennuthet abbricht, sodann aber mil einem ganz verlindenen Gedanken aufs neue wieder ellipsis a consonance and occurs when a pause is substituted for a consonance which is followed by a dissonance. The next figure is the suppression or ellipsis, or the breaking off of a passage which one only begins but does noc completely finish. It occuJ's in two forms. First, one can suddenly break off and remain silent in the middle of a passage in a vehemenl affection. Or one can alter the expected ending notes of a passage and proceed to a completely foreign and unexpected chord. This second method composers call evading the cadence. The more vehement the affection, the more foreign the chord must be which alters the expected cadence. The first fonn of this figure is the more congenial one and, because of the abrupt silence and interruption of the emire passage, requires great facility, imagination, and power both in the melody as well as in the har- mony. A nocable fonn of expressing a sentiment occurs when its exprenion is suddenly suspended and broken off after a gradual and successively intensifying growth. This figure is called dfipsis. The art expressed by this device must seek to illuminate the path of the affections for the imagination, as it were. This can be achieved by two methods: first, when a gradually intensifying passage which has grown to great vehemence is unexpectedly interrupted, only to resume anew and proceed with an entirely altered thought. This fonn of ellipsis is found in the following Bach sonata: anflingt. und weiter fongeh!. Von dieser Art is! folgende Ellipsis in eineT Bachischen Sonate' 2) Wenn ein ebenfal1s nach und nach sehr lebhaft gewordener Sail'. bis l'.Ueiner Ar1 VOI1 Cadenz fongeflihn wird. anstatt aber diejenige Cadenl'. l'.Il machen, die 5ich aus der \'orhergehendcn Modulation hane erwar1en lassen. in ein e sogenannte ausfliehende Cadenl'. flil lt. und dadurch den Faden def Modulation abreipt, z.B. Je hefiiger aber die Empfindung ist, deren Lauf schleunig unlerbrochen werdell 5011. deslo fremder lind entfemter mup auch die Cadertz seyn. in welche die gewi:ihnliche verlinuen wird. emphasis 251 Second. it ocx;urs ""'hen a likewise gradually intensifying passage progresses to a foml of cadence but. instead of proceeding to the expected cadence based on the preceding hamlOnies. proceeds 10 a so called evaded cadence. and thereby breaks the thread of the modulations, as in the following example: The more intense the sentiment which is to be abruptly interrupted, Ihe more foreign and remoce must also be the cadence which replaces the expected one. EMPHASIS: a musical passage which heightens or emphasizes the meaning of the text through various means. The rhetorical emphasis is similar 10 the ellipsis or synecdoche. I In both I. Scaliger (Poelice_~ /ihn' seplem, Heidelberg 158 I) even lists the emphasis Wlder eclipsi:.-, Sonnino. Hm,dbook, 200. 252 cases the oration wishes to convey more significance than is literally expressed. While the ellipsis signifies a certain omission. the empllasis highlights an additional yet unspoken connotation of the text. The emphasis enters musical treatises as a figure relatively late.This can be explained by the fact that the discipline of musica poelica in general might be understood as a fonn of emphillis: it is the role of music to heighten or explain the meaning of the text above and beyond the literal meaning of the words. Music is to add the additional emphasis which the text on its own cannot provide. Early Baroque authors of musical treatises would find it redundant to include this figure. On the other hand, those writers who sought to mirror a rhetorical Figurenfehre in their musical treatises either omit the figure (Scheibe) or supply the tenn with a definition not entirely based on the rhetorical fi gure (Mat· theson), Vogt is the first musician to include the tenn in a list of musical figures, His comment that the figure can be executed by the singer without it being written into the composition suggests that Vogt may have had an accentlls or similar ornament in mind. Although he mentions the accentllS under his ornamental figurae simplices. vogt may have wanted to highlight the figure's text·expressive potential. He therefore includes it in his list of musical·rhetoricalfigurae ideales, supplying it with an appropriate rhetorical tenn which reflects its function: to highlight and emphasize the text.I Spiess also limits the figure to an emphasis of particular words. Although he advises the composer to carefully set the words to be emphasized and the singer to execute them equally carefully, Spiess does not go into greater detail regarding the musical setting or the devices to be employed. Mattheson devotes the entire eighth chapter of his Capellmeister (part 2), Vom Nachdruck;n der Me/odie, to the use of the emphasis. A variety of devices are regarded as part of the emphasis, including the correct stress of words and syllables, the use of appropriate ornamentation, and effective repetition of both text and music. Above all, the emphasis is to heighten the meaning ofthe entire text, "as though it were I. Vogt furthc:nnore describes the polysynthelQll, another of hisjigurae ideales, as a successively repeated emphasis. The understanding of the emphasis as an an:elllliS would be most appropriale in that definition as well. See Polys)'lIdeIOtl. 253 pointing out the intended affection. illuminating the sense and meaning of the work." Mattheson wishes to clearly distinguish between the accenfllS and the emphasis, which suggests that the two devices were conunon1y not only associated but equated. Rather than emphasizing the content of the entire text, the accentus focuses on the accentuation of specific words. Through clarifYing and interpreting the text, the musical emphasis points beyond the text itself. adding a significance which the words on their O\\TI cannot provide. Herein lies both the commonality between the rhetorical and the musical figure, as well as the essence of a mus ica poe/iea. Quinlilian (/lI lllllIlio VIII.iii.83) Vicina praedict~e sed mJlplior vinus est i~