American Indian CulturesAmerican Indian Cultures
Introductory ConceptsIntroductory Concepts
* Pre-Columbian North America was characterized by
extensive linguistic and cultural diversity
­ More than 350 languages and an unknown number (1,000?)
dialects
* "Tribe" may refer to
­ Linguistic group
* Sioux
­ Three dialects
* Dakota, Lakota, Nakota
­ Seven independent bands
­ Political group
* Hopi Tribe
* Terminology
­ Native American (United States)
­ First Nations (Canada)
­ American Indian
­ Eskimo
­ Inuit
LanguagesLanguages
* Of the original languages of North America only 127 are
still spoken
­ Navajo: 130,000 speakers
­ Ojibwa/Chippewa: 51,000
­ Cree: 47,000
* More than 60 of these languages have fewer than 100
speakers
* No written form prior to European contact
­ Today most languages use the Latin alphabet
­ Cherokee uses a syllabic system developed by Sequoyah (c.
1770-1843) in the early19th century (1809-1821)
­ Most Inuit, Cree and Ojibwa groups in Canada use a syllabic
system developed by British missionaries in the mid and late 19th
century
* Languages are divided into a least seven major
language families
Cree (l) and Inuit (r) syllabicsCree (l) and Inuit (r) syllabics
Cultural RegionsCultural Regions
* North America is normally divided into eight cultural
regions
­ Each region has its own characteristic cultural adaptation or
"lifeway"
* The regions are:
Arctic Southwest
Sub-arctic Great Basin
Northwest Coast Great Plains/Prairies
Plateau Southeastern Woodlands
California Northeastern Woodlands
Cultural AdaptationsCultural Adaptations
* The adaptations in these eight regions can be divided
into two groups:
­ Hunters and Gatherers
* People who hunt animals and collect plants found in nature
* Arctic, Sub-arctic, Northwest Coast, Plateau, California, Great
Basin, Great Plains (post-1700)
­ Horticulturalists (Agriculturalists)
* Planted crops and harvested them
­ Corn (maize), beans and squash
* "The Three Sisters"
* Southwest, Great Plains (pre-1700), Northeastern Woodlands,
Southeastern Woodlands
* On the Great Plains the introduction of the horse and the
movement of peoples from the east allowed the creation
of the well known bison hunting culture
The Three SistersThe Three Sisters
Settling of the New WorldSettling of the New World
* Traditional paradigm
* Paleoindians
­ Arrived towards the
end of the last Ice Age
­ c. 12000 years ago
* Existed by hunting big
game (megafauna)
such as mammoth,
mastodon and bison
Recent ResearchRecent Research
* First inhabitants arrived earlier
* Probably marine-focused moving along
the coasts of N. & S. America
* Certainly arrived prior to 12,000 years ago
­ Monte Verde in southern Chile dates to that
period
* Now clear that there was more than one
movement into the Americas
Hunters and GatherersHunters and Gatherers
* Artic
­ Inuit/Eskimo
* Hunted primarily seals, walruses, whales and
caribou
* Nomadic people living in small groups (up to 50)
* During the winter they lived in sod or snow houses
(igloo) and in summer in skin tents
* During summer they used kayaks and boats to
move about and in winter they used dog sleds
* Known for their skills as carvers of ivory, bone and
stone
Inuit housesInuit houses
Inuit Boats: kayakInuit Boats: kayak
Inuit boats:Inuit boats: umiakumiak
Dog SledDog Sled
Ivory carvingIvory carving
Stone CarvingStone Carving
SubSub--arcticarctic
* Many different groups:
­ Cree, Ojibwa, Dene groups
* Hunted caribou, moose, birds, fish
* Gathered berries, plant roots
* Lived in lodges made from wood and
animal skins
* In winter used snowshoes
* In summer canoes
BirchbarkBirchbark CanoesCanoes
MooseMoose--skin canoeskin canoe
Preparing animal skinsPreparing animal skins
Northwest CoastNorthwest Coast
* Many different groups who shared a number of
common features:
­ Salmon fishing is the focus of their lives
­ Lived in permanent settled villages
­ Best known for their wood carving
* Dugout canoes
* Masks
* Storage boxes
* Totem poles
* Important groups include the Kwakiutl, the Haida
and Tlingit
Kwakiutl Village on Hope Island, British ColumbiaKwakiutl Village on Hope Island, British Columbia
HaidaHaida MasksMasks
CaliforniaCalifornia
* Hunted a wide range of different animals
* Staple item of diet was acorn mush
* Lived in medium-sized to large (75-500)
villages that were often permanently
occupied
* Best known for their basketry making skills
* Used money in the form of shell beads
* Major groups include the Pomo, Chumash
and Yokut
Coiled BasketsCoiled Baskets
Twined basketsTwined baskets
Shell beadsShell beads
SouthwestSouthwest
* Horticulturalists
* Best known groups are known collectively as the
Pueblo Indians
* Live in permanent towns or "pueblos"
* Best known for their pottery
* Very complex system of spirits known as
kachinas
* Other important groups include the Navajo and
Apache and the Pima/Papago Indians
Contemporary ZuContemporary Zui (L) and Hopii (L) and Hopi
(R) pottery vessel(R) pottery vessel
OrabiOrabi Pueblo (Hopi)Pueblo (Hopi)
Northeastern WoodlandsNortheastern Woodlands
* Horticulturalists
* Lived in settled villages made up of a number of
longhouses
* Each longhouse was occupied by members of a
matrilineage:
­ Female relatives, their husbands, daughters,
daughters' husbands, unmarried sons
* The status of women was quite high
* Well-known tribes include the Iroquois, Huron,
Mohicans and, Delaware
Iroquois VillageIroquois Village
Southeastern WoodlandsSoutheastern Woodlands
* Horticulturalists
* Lived in political units made up of a central large
town (Cahokia-40,000 people) surrounded by a
network of smaller towns and villages
* Central towns are marked by large, flat-topped
mounds
­ On top of these mounds were the homes of chiefs
and religious leaders
* These peoples are the direct ancestors of the
modern "Five Civilized Tribes": Cherokee,
Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw and Seminole
Cahokia (IL)Cahokia (IL)
Southeastern MoundsSoutheastern Mounds
Great PlainsGreat Plains
* Prior to the 18th century, these groups practised a lifeway
broadly similar to that of the Northeastern Woodland
Indians.
* Climax Bison-hunting Culture
­ Lasted from c. 1730 to 1880
­ Made possible by three factors
* Introduction of the horse from the south
* Introduction of firearms from the east
* Decimation of original inhabitants (Arikara, Hidatsa, and others)
from disease and the movement of groups from the east
* Many of the best known groups practiced this lifeway
including
­ Sioux, Cheyenne, Osage, Crow, and Kiowa
* Very nomadic, followed the bison herds
* Important rituals include the Sun Dance
* This culture came to an end with the near extinction of
the bison and the placing of Indians on reservations
* Paintings by George Catlin (1796-1872)
Band of Sioux Moving CampBand of Sioux Moving Camp
18371837--18391839
Sun DanceSun Dance
Buffalo chase with bows and lances (1832Buffalo chase with bows and lances (1832--1833)1833)
Crow Lodge of TwentyCrow Lodge of Twenty--FiveFive
Buffalo Skins (1832Buffalo Skins (1832--1833)1833)
TTééhh--ttóóotot--sahsah (better known as(better known as TohausenTohausen,,
Little Bluff), First Chief (1834)Little Bluff), First Chief (1834)
* "The head chief of the Kioways . . . we
found to be a very gentlemanly and
high minded man, who treated the
dragoons and officers with great
kindness while in his country. His long
hair, which was put up in several large
clubs, and ornamented with a great
many silver broaches, extended quite
down to his knees."
­ SOURCE: George Catlin, Letters and
Notes, vol. 2, p. 74, pl. 178
* When negotiating with the Whites, "he
was both shrewd and blunt. He signed
the Fort Atkinson Treaty in 1853 and
the Little Arkansas Treaties in 1865,
agreeing to settle his people on a
reservation in the Indian Territory."
­ SOURCE: Carl Waldman, Biographical
Dictionary of American Indian History to
1900, rev. ed. (New York: Checkmark
Books, 2001), p. 219.
KotzKotz--aa--ttóó--ahah, Smoked Shield, a, Smoked Shield, a
Distinguished Warrior (1834)Distinguished Warrior (1834)
* Catlin describes Smoked
Shield as "another of the
extraordinary men of this tribe,
near seven feet in stature, and
distinguished, not only as one
of the greatest warriors, but the
swiftest on foot, in the nation.
This man, it is said, runs down
a buffalo on foot and slays it
with his knife or his lance, as
he runs by its side."
­ SOURCE: George Catlin,
Letters and Notes, vol. 2, p.
75, pl. 182.
Key Dates/EventsKey Dates/Events
* Decisions of the Marshall court
­ Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)
* Establishes "trust relationship"
­ Guardian/ward
­ Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
* "Dependent, sovereign nations"
* "Trail of Tears"
­ Relocation of "Five Civilized Tribes" from the
SE to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) in the
1830s
ˇ Indian Wars
­ 1860s-1890s
* Battle of the Little Big Horn (1876)
* Massacre at Wounded Knee (1890)
* Establishment of reservations on the Great
Plains
* Suppression of Indian cultures, languages
and religions
­ Residential schools
­ Ghost Dance movement
* Wovuka (Paiute)
ˇ Dawes Act of 1887
­ Elimination of tribal ownerships and
reservations
­ Each adult head of household was allocated
160 acres, singles and orphans 80, children
40
­ Any surplus land not allotted would be open to
settlement
* Indian New Deal
­ 1930s
* American Indian Movement
­ Occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969-71)
­ Wounded Knee (1972-73)
American Indians TodayAmerican Indians Today
* Current population:
* States with the highest percentage of American in their
populations are Alaska (15.6%), New Mexico (9.5%),
South Dakota (8.3%) Oklahoma (7.9%), Montana (6.2%)
and Arizona (5%)
* Currently 562 federally-recognized tribes and more than
200 unrecognized tribes (some of these are state-
recognized)
American Indian and Alaska Native
alone or in combination
4, 453,660 1.5%
American Indian and Alaska Native
alone
2,863,001 0.97%
Contemporary IssuesContemporary Issues
* Gaming
­ Federally-recognized tribes have the right to
open gaming facilities (casinos, etc.)
­ Must sign a compact with the state
­ Currently 224 tribal governments in 28 states
­ 354 operations
­ Total revenue (2002) $14.5 billion
* 21% of all gaming revenues in the US
­ Employs 400,000 people (75% non-Indian)
ˇ Enforcement of rights granted in treaties
­ Hunting and fishing
* Whaling
­ Makah, Inuit
* Salmon fishing
­ Resource harvesting
* Wild rice
* Cultural identity
­ Appropriation
* Use of mascots and nicknames
* Economic development
­ 25% live in poverty (twice national average)
­ 60% in labor force (7.6% unemployed, 31.8% outside)
* Average in US is 71.5%
­ Unemployment rates on reservations as high as 70%