Int. J. Middle East Stud. 35 (2003), 521–545. Printed in the United States of America
DOI: 10.1017.S0020743803000229
William E. Shepard
SAYYI D QUTB’S DOCTRI NE OF JA¯ HILIYYA
This article focuses on one of the most striking ideas to come out of the radical
Islamist movements of recent decades: the doctrine of ja¯hiliyya presented by the
Egyptian activist Sayyid Qutb (1906–66) in his latest writings.
Qutb is important and interesting for more than one reason. In his last years he
penned several widely read works calling in effect for an Islamic revolution and was
executed on the grounds that he was plotting to overthrow the Egyptian government,
becoming thereby a martyr.1
Both as a writer and as a martyr he has been a major
influence on the Islamic “resurgence,” which began shortly after his death. He is
interesting also because of his own pilgrimage in life, which to a degree parallels
developments in the Muslim world as a whole. For about half of his adult life he was
an educator, poet, essayist, and literary critic of secular views. Only in 1948 did he
begin to write Islamist works, and these were comparatively moderate at first. In the
early 1950s, after a two-year visit to the United States, he joined the Muslim Brothers.
In 1954 he was put in prison, as were many of the Brothers, remaining there for most
of the rest of his life. He was released briefly in 1964–65 and then re-arrested, tried,
and executed. It was in prison, particularly after 1957, that he developed his most
radical ideas.2
One of these ideas, and the one that this article explores, is his claim that the whole
world, including that part of it that calls itself Muslim, is in a state of ja¯hiliyya.
Ja¯hiliyya has been described as the “cornerstone” on which Qutb’s most radical thinking
rests, and Qutb has been called “the exponent of ja¯hiliyya par excellence.”3
This
idea may be one of the most original ideas to appear among Islamic ideologues in the
past century, as original if not as influential as Khomeini’s vila¯yat-i faqı¯h.4
The primary focus here is on the doctrine of ja¯hiliyya itself as Qutb presented it
and understood it. Although most writers on Qutb deal with the doctrine to some
extent, I believe there is much yet to be said about its precise content and the course
of its development over time in Qutb’s writings, and this is the task I undertake here.
My comments on the social and political significance of the doctrine will therefore
be limited and tentative. I am convinced that investigation of these matters must follow
and be founded on a good understanding of the doctrine on its own terms.5
FurWilliam
E. Shepard is Associate Professor of Religious Studies, Retired, at the University of Canterbury,
Christchurch, New Zealand; e-mail: w.shepard@ext.canterbury.ac.nz.
 2003 Cambridge University Press 0020-7438/03 $12.00
522 William E. Shepard
thermore, I believe that this doctrine is sufficiently novel and interesting that it is
worth investigating in its own right, apart from its social or political effects.
The primary context for this discussion of Qutb’s developed ja¯hiliyya doctrine is
the idea of ja¯hiliyya as it appears elsewhere in the Islamic tradition and elsewhere in
Qutb’s own writings. Among other things, this will show that Qutb’s doctrine is not
as much of an innovation as is sometimes thought and will show just where the
innovation lies. We will also see that it developed later in his career than is usually
recognized. I will therefore begin with a consideration of the use of the term ja¯hiliyya
prior to his time. This will be followed by a detailed presentation of the doctrine in
its latest and most developed form. Then I will trace the development of the doctrine
through Qutb’s earlier writings. Finally, I will consider in a provisional manner the
presence or absence of the doctrine in some of the later radical movements. Regrettably,
time and space do not permit me to do the same for more moderate forms of
Islamism.
T H E T E R M J A¯ H I L I Y YA I N T H E I S L A M I C T R A D I T I O N
In English, the word ja¯hiliyya is conventionally translated “the Age of Ignorance”6
and taken to refer to the Arabian society of the century or so prior to Muhammad’s
mission. This also reflects much Arabic usage. In pre-Islamic literature, and to a
considerable degree in the Qur an, however, words from the root j-h-l mean primarily
not “ignorance” but something like “barbarism,” specifically a tendency to go to extremes
of behavior.7
The form ja¯hiliyya appears four times in the Qur an, never in the
sense of simple ignorance. The sense of extreme behavior is evident in Qur an 33:33,
“do not make a display of yourselves in the manner of the first ja¯hiliyya,” and even
more so in Qur an 48:26, “the fierce arrogance of ja¯hiliyya (˙amiyyat al-ja¯hiliyya).”
Toshihiko Izutsu interprets the second phrase as referring to “the staunch pride so
characteristic of the old pagan Arabs, the spirit of stubborn resistance against all that
shows the slightest sign of injuring their sense of honor and destroying the traditional
way of life.”8
He states further that “in the specifically Qur anic situation the word
refers to the peculiar attitude of hostility and aggressiveness against the monotheistic
belief of Islam.”9
This understanding is supported by Qur an 5:50, “Do they seek a
ja¯hiliyya judgment (˙ukm al-ja¯hiliyya), but who can give better judgment than God?”
a passage very important for Qutb’s interpretation. It is also supported by Qur an 3:
154, “a band anxious for themselves, wrongly suspicious of God with a ja¯hiliyya
suspicion (zw ann al-ja¯hiliyya),” which refers to lack of faith in God. As to ja¯hiliyya’s
temporal reference, it seems unlikely that it would have meant a historical epoch to
the first Muslims, as it was too much a living reality for them. Nevertheless, “the first
ja¯hiliyya (al-ja¯hiliyya al-u¯la¯)” in Qur an 33:33 may refer to an epoch and certainly
has been taken in this sense by later interpreters.
After the Qur anic period, however, the word seems to have come fairly quickly to
refer primarily to a historical epoch and to ignorance as that epoch’s characteristic. It
is usually thus in al-Bukhari’s hadith collection—for example, “The Quraysh used to
fast Ashura in the ja¯hiliyya” and “The best people in the ja¯hiliyya are the best in
Islam, if they have understanding.”10
The same is generally true of the classical Arabic
dictionaries.11
The earlier sense of ja¯hiliyya was never completely lost, however. In a
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 523
hadith Muhammad says to a follower, “Within you is ja¯hiliyya,” and when asked
whether “ja¯hiliyyat al-kufr or ja¯hiliyyat al-isla¯m,” says, “ja¯hiliyyat al-kufr.”12
Lisa¯n
al- Arab says that ja¯hiliyya here includes “ignorance of God of his Messenger and of
the rites of religion, boasting of ancestry, pride and tyranny.”13
For Ibn Taymiyya (d.
1328), the pre–Islamic customs continuing among Muslims of his time constituted a
“ja¯hiliyya in a restricted sense,” although in the absolute sense it had ended with
Muhammad’s mission.14
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th-century Arabian reformer, saw
the condition of other Muslims, either throughout the world or in the Arabian peninsula,
as ja¯hiliyya, and his follower, Husayn ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), used the term
explicitly.15
The early-20th-century reformist Manar commentary of Muhammad Abduh and
Rashid Rida compares tendencies found in their society with aspects of ja¯hiliyya and
states, for example, that “some geographical Muslims in this age” are “more corrupt
in their religion and morals than those concerning whom these verses were revealed.”16
Abdullah Yusuf Ali, author of the well-known translation of the Qur an and a reformist
in his commentary, comments on text, “Do they then seek after a ˙ukm al-ja¯hiliyya?”
(5:50): “The Days of Ignorance were the days of tribalism, feuds, and selfish accentuation
of differences in man. Those days are not really yet over. It is the mission of
Islam to take us away from that false mental attitude.”17
In a more revivalist vein, Abul Ala Mawdudi (1903–79) and Abul Hasan Nadwi from
the Indian Subcontinent have written of the modern world as ja¯hiliyya. They have
found ja¯hiliyya in both the Western and the communist worlds but have not applied
the label to the Islamic world in the radical way Sayyid Qutb did. Mawdudi defines
ja¯hiliyya as “every such conduct which goes against Islamic culture, morality and the
Islamic way of thinking and behaving,” and sees the Muslim world since the time of
the Rightly Guided Caliphs as a mixture of ja¯hiliyya and Islam.18
Nadwi, in his influential
book Ma¯dha¯ khasira al- a¯lam bi-in˙itw a¯tw al-muslimı¯n (What the World Has Lost
by the Decline of the Muslims),19
sees the ja¯hiliyya of ancient Greece and Rome
resurrected in modern Europe and asserts that the Muslims in many places have become
its allies and camp followers but have resisted being turned completely into a
ja¯hilı¯ community.20
Another writer who may be appropriately mentioned here is the
Palestinian Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani (1909–77), founder of the Hizb al-Tahrir. In his
view, all so-called Muslim countries were da¯r al-kufr (abode of unbelief) because
their rulers were not governing exclusively according to the shari a, but he appears
not to have used the term ja¯hiliyya in this connection.21
The same year in which
Sayyid Qutb published his most radical work, 1964, his brother, Muhammad Qutb,
published a book entitled Ja¯hiliyyat al-qarn al- ishrin (The Jahiliyya of the Twentieth
Century). In it he claimed that the whole world was in a state of ja¯hiliyya. By far the
largest part of the book, however, is devoted to an analysis of ja¯hiliyya in its European
form. Although he says that this ja¯hiliyya has swept over the Muslim world, he draws
much less confrontational conclusions from this than does his brother, leaving the
initiative in changing the situation more exclusively to God.22
References to the writings
of Mawdudi, Nadwi, and Muhammad Qutb appear in the footnotes of Sayyid
Qutb’s works, and Qutb in fact wrote an introduction to the second edition of Nadwi’s
book.23
Thus, the idea of ja¯hiliyya as a contemporary condition found among Muslims
524 William E. Shepard
did not originate with Qutb, as is sometimes suggested. It has always been present in
the tradition and has received increased attention in modern times. What Qutb did
was to take it further than others have done.
S AY Y I D Q U T B O N J A¯ H I L I Y YA , T H E F I N A L D O C T R I N E
Here we will consider the doctrine in its final and most radical form, as it appears in
Qutb’s writings mostly published in 1964 or later. The locus classicus is Ma a¯lim fı¯ altwarı¯q
(Milestones), published in 1964,24
but the same views appear in the last edition of
Al- Ada¯la al-Ijtima¯ iyya fı¯ al-Isla¯m (Social Justice in Islam), also published in 1964,25
in the later parts of his Qur an commentary, Fı¯ zw ila¯l al-Qur a¯n (In the Shadow of
the Qur an),26
and in Muqawwima¯t al-taßawwur al-isla¯mı¯ (Components of the Islamic
Conception) published posthumously.27
I shall also make brief reference to Lima¯dha¯
a damu¯nı¯? (Why Did They Execute Me?) a version of his statement to his interrogators
in 1965,28
and to the earlier book Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n (This Religion).29
The main points appear concisely and clearly in the commentary on Qur an 5:50 in
Fı¯ zw ila¯l:
The meaning of ja¯hiliyya is defined by this text. Ja¯hiliyya—as God describes it and His Qur an
defines it—is the rule of humans by humans because it involves making some humans servants
of others, rebelling against service to God, rejecting God’s divinity (ulu¯hiyya) and, in view of
this rejection, ascribing divinity to some humans and serving them apart from God. Ja¯hiliyya—in
the light of this text—is not a period of time but a condition, a condition which existed
yesterday, exists today, and will exist tomorrow. It takes the form of ja¯hiliyya, which stands
over against Islam and contradicts it. People—in any time and any place—are either governed
by God’s shari a—entirely, without any reservations—accepting it and submiting to it, in which
case they are following God’s religion, or they are governed by a shari a invented by humans,
in whatever form, and accept it. In that case they are in ja¯hiliyya and are following the religion
of those who govern by that shari a, and are by no means following the religion of God. Whoever
does not desire the rule (˙ukm) of God desires the rule of ja¯hiliyya, and whoever rejects
the shari a of God accepts the shari a of ja¯hiliyya and lives in ja¯hiliyya.30
First and foremost, as we see here, the defining characteristic of ja¯hiliyya is that it
rejects divine authority for human authority. As corollaries, it involves serving (or
worshipping31
) humans in place of God and thus deifying humans. According to Qutb,
one of the essential characteristics of deity (ulu¯hiyya) is sovereignty (˙a¯kimiyya), so
that to ascribe sovereignty to any person or institution is to ascribe divinity to him or
it, even if one does not say so and does not ascribe other aspects of divinity to him
or it. He uses the hadith about Adi ibn Hatim as a proof text for this. Adi, who had
become a Christian, came to Medina and heard the Prophet reciting, “They have taken
their rabbis and priests as lords apart from God.” Adi said, “They do not worship
them,” but the Prophet replied, “O yes! They forbid what is permissible and permit
what is forbidden, and the people obey them, and in that way they worship them.”32
Qutb comments, “This text shows conclusively that obedience in shari a or judgment
is worship.”33
Elsewhere he says that the contemporary ja¯hiliyya “is based on an attack
against God’s authority on earth and against the most distinctive characteristic of
divinity (ulu¯hiyya), sovereignty (˙a¯kimiyya), ascribing sovereignty to humans and
making some people lords over others.”34
We note here the relationship of ja¯hiliyya
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 525
to another of Qutb’s key terms, ˙a¯kimiyya.35
Ja¯hiliyya is the ˙a¯kimiyya of humans;
Islam is the ˙a¯kimiyya of God.
Second, ja¯hiliyya does not refer primarily to a period of past time or to any particular
geographical area. It is a social and spiritual condition of society that can exist at
any time and in any place. The word may be used to refer to one or more periods
appearing regularly throughout history. The period of ja¯hiliyya just prior to Muhammad’s
mission is called the Arab ja¯hiliyya. Qutb’s main concern, of course, is the
present and the fact that the present is a time of ja¯hiliyya. There are, to be sure, some
places where the word appears in the conventional historical meaning, but these are
relatively infrequent and not determinative for his thinking. Often they represent holdovers
from his earlier usage.36
Third, Qutb posits a stark contrast between Islam and ja¯hiliyya. All societies are
either one or the other, and none is both. In Ma a¯lim he defines the ja¯hilı¯ society as
“every other society than the Muslim society.”37
Ja¯hilı¯ societies may be anti-religious
or religious in diverse ways, but the only thing that really matters is what they have
in common—that they are ja¯hilı¯.38
Likewise ethically, “There are no agrarian ethics
and no industrial ethics. . . . There are no capitalist ethics or socialist ethics. There are
only Islamic ethics and ja¯hilı¯ ethics.”39
In contrast to Mawdudi’s view of the Muslim
world as a mixture of ja¯hiliyya and Islam, for Qutb here can be no compromise, no
halfway situation.40
“There is no Islam in a land where Islam does not govern. . . .
[B]esides faith there is only unbelief (kufr); apart from Islam there is only ja¯hiliyya;
other than truth there is only error.”41
Admittedly there may be some points of detail where ja¯hilı¯ ideas and practices
resemble Islamic ones, but these are mere coincidences and are rooted in completely
different principles and foundations.42
They have no ideological significance. In fact,
however, though Qutb’s rhetoric usually obscures the fact, there are points of overlap
between Islam and ja¯hiliyya worth noting. An important one is science—or, more
specifically, what he calls the “pure sciences” (al- ulu¯m al-ba˙tata), such as chemistry,
physics, and biology (but not Darwinism), “in their strictly technical and administrative
aspects.” He even gives them a measure of Islamic legitimacy by insisting that
they are historically rooted in Islamic civilization.43
This, we may note, is a strategy
commonly associated with an apologetic reformism that he usually considers “defeat-
ist.”44
Here, though, it serves his purpose.
There is a different kind of overlap between Islam and ja¯hiliyya in that there may
be traces of ja¯hilı¯ ideas and practices in an Islamic system and there may be individual
Muslims living in a ja¯hilı¯ system. The systems as such, however, are either Islamic
or ja¯hilı¯. In the former case, a vigorous Islamic society will be in the process of
eliminating the leftovers of ja¯hiliyya, while a less vigorous one is in danger of being
weakened and even destroyed by them, as has happened in recent history. Also, an
Islamic society can tolerate within it non–Muslims who accept dhı¯mmı¯ status. Such
people are ja¯hilı¯, to be sure, but the conditions of the dhı¯mma ensure that they are not
a threat to the Islamic society and its mission. These points can be understood in
terms of an organic picture of society, which Qutb often presents. A strong body can
tolerate some disease germs that would destroy a weaker body. Likewise it may tolerate
foreign substances if they are properly controlled and isolated. It is to be noted
that the idea of Islam as a “system,” which is very typical of Qutb’s thinking,45
permits
526 William E. Shepard
him to allow for overlap between ja¯hiliyya and Islam without violating the fundamental
dichotomy.
In the case of Muslims in a ja¯hilı¯ society, ja¯hiliyya, too, is an organic entity. Individual
Muslims cannot function effectively as Muslims within it, because as members of
it they will be constrained to contribute to its survival, just as individual cells contribute
to the survival of a body.46
Here the dichotomy becomes intensified, because ja¯hiliyya
in fact is not merely other than Islam but something actively opposed to it. A
ja¯hilı¯ system is a positive and dynamic entity, having most or all of the formal characteristics
of a religion, such as basic conceptions of the universe and life, ethical values,
and institutions enshrining these.47
“This ja¯hiliyya . . . has always taken the form of a
dynamic social grouping, a society, subject to the leadership of this society, and subject
to its conceptions, values, ideas, feelings, traditions, and customs. It has been an
organic society whose individuals relate to each other, support each other and cooperate
together. Therefore it has actively sought to preserve and defend its existence,
consciously or unconsciously, and to destroy any dangerous elements which threaten
that existence in any way.”48
Islam is such a “dangerous element.” By its very nature
it is dedicated to destroying what is essential to ja¯hiliyya: the servitude of human to
human. Sooner or later, ja¯hilı¯ society must fight it.49
From these basics—its rejection of divine sovereignty, its universality, and its stark
contrast with Islam, but particularly from the first50
—flow the other characteristics of
ja¯hiliyya. Rejecting divine sovereignty, it is out of tune with the divinely ordained
cosmic harmony of which the shari a is a part and clashes with true human nature
(fitwra).51
Therefore it is intellectually and morally confused and out of control. “Ja¯hiliyya
is entirely darkness: the darkness of false opinions, myths, superstitions, and misconceptions;
the darkness of uncontrolled passions and desires; the darkness of doubt,
worry, lack of guidance, alienation, and insecurity; the darkness of confused values
and shattered moral standards.”52
On the surface it may appear overwhelmingly strong,
but the eye of faith can see that it ultimately has little substance. It is characterized
by “bluster (ja ja a),” “pretense (intifa¯sh),” and “conceit (ghuru¯r).”53
It is like “bubbles”
that burst “however large and bright they may seem.”54
Ethically, ja¯hiliyya lacks what in Arabic is called insa¯niyya—which includes humaneness
as opposed to cruelty, what is human as opposed to what is sub-human or
animal, and what is universally human as opposed to what is merely ethnic or classbased.
Only when the highest sovereignty in society is given to God and not to humans
can there be true freedom and dignity for the individual human as human. Only in
this case can there be a truly inter-racial and international civilization. All ja¯hilı¯ societies
are based on considerations such as race and class. Ancient Rome was both classbased
and race-based. Modern European empires have been based on an exploitative
nationalism. Communism is based on class in reverse. In all these cases, the social
links are based on aspects of human nature that we share with animals. Only in the
case of Islamic society is the link based on creed—that is, on a higher human capacity
that we do not share with animals. Only with Islam can there be a humane civilization
(hadw a¯ra insa¯niyya). Only Islam has brought together diverse races and nationalities
on the basis of love and a sense of unity.55
Every previous ja¯hiliyya has violated the
rights of the weak in general and orphans in particular, and “we see the same in the
cities and towns of our present ja¯hiliyya when the property of orphans is still devoured
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 527
in various ways.”56
Not only in this respect but in others the lack of social justice is
rooted in the rejection of divine ˙a¯kimiyya, and a prime symbol of this is tw a¯ghu¯t
(tyrant), a word that combines the idea of an idol (receiving worship due to God) and
tyranny.57
Ja¯hilı¯ societies also put material concerns above all others, whether in a theoretical
way, as the Marxists do, limiting the fundamental needs of humans to “food, shelter,
and sex,” or in a practical way, as the Americans and others do with their consumerism.
They are also characterized by uncontrolled sexual expression, a point illustrated
for ancient Arabia by A isha’s description of the four kinds of “marriage” in the Arab
ja¯hiliyya58
and for the modern West by the Profumo affair in England in 1963 and
comparable events in the United States including open encouragement of “free” love.
This is not to say that ja¯hiliyya does not have its own moral standards. Profumo was
not condemned for violating sexual ethics but because his actions threatened state
security, while for many the justification for sexual activity is the sincere feeling of
love, whatever the marital status.59
But these are not God’s standards. Contemporary
ja¯hiliyya encourages or even compels women to abandon their families and their children
for jobs and thus to put material production above “human production.”60
“The
line of human progress proceeds in the direction of controlling animal tendencies and
restricting them to the sphere of the family and placing them on the basis of duty so
as to accomplish a human task.”61
Such a society is backward. “Societies that are dominated by animalistic values and
tendencies in this respect cannot possibly be civilized societies, however great their
industrial, economic, and scientific achievements.”62
In fact, no matter how advanced
they seem to be, ja¯hilı¯ societies are inevitably backward. Ja¯hilı¯, indeed, is the Islamic
term for “backward.”63
Only an Islamic society can properly be said to be “civilized.”
Thus, Qutb inverts the usual Western judgment on the Islamic world. However great
the moral failings of ja¯hiliyya, the emphasis in Qutb’s latest writings falls squarely on
the rejection of God’s sovereignty. By contrast, in his earlier writings moral success
or failure has greater importance in its own right.64
Although Qutb mainly emphasizes the similarities among ja¯hiliyyas, there is one
important difference. The present-day ja¯hiliyya is more sophisticated and thoroughgoing
than earlier ones. It deceives people with its science, which it borrowed from
Islam and perverted by removing it from its divine foundations.65
Early in Ma a¯lim he
contrasts the “primitive and simple form” of the first ja¯hiliyya with the present one,
which “claims the right to invent conceptions and values, laws and ordinances, systems
and institutions.”66
The present ja¯hiliyya is one of the few that has presumed to
deny the existence of God, not merely to pervert the understanding and service of
Him, while its material success tends to obscure its failings. In fact, though, its creative
period is over, and it “stands on the edge of the abyss.”67
One of the worst things about modern ja¯hiliyya is that it often masquerades as
Islam. In a dramatic and well-known passage in Ma a¯lim, Qutb insists that all existing
societies are ja¯hilı¯. Communist societies are obviously ja¯hilı¯ because they deny the
existence of God and make people serve the party. So, too, are pagan societies such
as India, Japan, and others, because they worship beings other than God. Christian
and Jewish societies are ja¯hilı¯ because of their wrong conceptions of divinity and
worship and the authority they give to human institutions. Finally, “those societies
528 William E. Shepard
that call themselves Muslim” are ja¯hilı¯. Although they do not formally worship beings
other than God, in practice they give political and social authority to others than God.
Some openly embrace “secularism” in place of religion; some “respect” religion but
give it no authority in social life; some legislate as they choose and claim that they
are following the shari a. Some give authority to “the people” or “the party.” Although
Qutb does not quite name names, he clearly has the Egypt of Gamal Abdel Nasser in
mind, as well as other contemporary Muslim countries.68
Here he succinctly outlines
the main secularist and modernist options followed by Westernizing Muslims. Those
who “respect” religion or claim to follow the shari a are particularly dangerous, for
they “put Islamic signs over the camps of depravity and decay.”69
The situation is
such that “even much of what we call Islamic culture, Islamic sources, Islamic philosophy,
and Islamic thought is the product of this [present] ja¯hiliyya.” As a result “the
Islamic world-view is not clear in our minds,” and we do not produce a generation
like that of the first days of Islam.70
In other words, ja¯hiliyya has so colonized our
minds that we fail to conceive of its alternative, much less create it. An important
cause of this is Western Orientalism, which has deceived Muslims. Wilfred Cantwell
Smith in particular is criticized for declaring Atatu¯rk’s Turkey Islamic in his book
Islam in the Modern World.71
Although Qutb is notorious for locating ja¯hiliyya in the
Muslim world, we see that to a considerable degree the West is still the driving force.
Qutb sometimes goes so far as to say that Islam does not “exist” anymore. The
eighth chapter of the last edition of Al- Ada¯la begins as follows: “We call for the
restoration of Islamic life in an Islamic society governed by the Islamic creed and the
Islamic conception as well as by the Islamic shari a and the Islamic order. We know
that Islamic life—in this sense—stopped a long time ago in all parts of the world and
that the “existence” (wuju¯d) of Islam itself has therefore stopped. And we state this
last fact openly, in spite of the shock, alarm, and loss of hope it may cause to many
who like to think of themselves as ‘Muslims’!”72
The main point is clear: Islam is not
Islam unless it governs society. Earlier editions manifest this concern, “The present
Islamic society is by no means Islamic,”73
but also say, “If the spread of the Islamic
spirit had stopped in governing circles—indeed in some of these circles but not others—it
continued operative in other aspects of the life of society and individuals . . .
right up to the present hour.”74
In now denying the “existence” of Islam, Qutb is in
part employing a forceful rhetorical device to underline his point. Denying the “existence”
of Islam effectively symbolizes both his social emphasis and the highly dichotomous
character of his later thought.
How literally should we take him on this? Perhaps the best way to understand this
“non-existence” of Islam is through the analogy of Islam as a tree, one he uses in
several contexts. The roots are its doctrine and the branches its social order.75
At
present it is cut off at ground level. It does not exist. But the roots still exist, and
from them the tree can grow again.76
In fact, Islam must now exist to some extent
even in Qutb’s terms. In Ma a¯lim he tells us that when the number of believers reaches
three, a Muslim society comes into existence,77
and this must have been the case at
the time he was writing that Islam did not “exist.” This vanguard would presumably
be the only true Muslims at the time but in them Islam would exist.78
What about the
others “who like to think of themselves as ‘Muslims’”? They hardly qualify as a
Muslims by Qutb’s criteria, and, in fact, in the last edition of Ada¯la he removes the
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 529
label “Muslim” from the apologists he calls “defeatists.”79
Still, he also avoids labeling
“so-called Muslims” individually as ka¯firs.80
This may well have been for practical
reasons, because some of these were potential recruits for the vanguard and needed
to be shocked into awareness but not overly discouraged. This also may reflect Qutb’s
view of Islam as a “practical” religion (see later). One does not label people ka¯firs
before one is in a position to execute the appropriate judgment against them.81
By that
time, Qutb may have assumed, the majority of people would have declared themselves
true Muslims, and the government would accept this, even as Muhammad himself had
done when he took charge in Mecca. There is also evidence that Qutb viewed the
nominal Muslims as occupying a similar position to that of the People of the Book in
Muhammad’s time.82
In any case, Qutb’s primary focus here is on society, not on the
individuals in it. This is perhaps why ja¯hiliyya rather than kufr is the central term.
Although he often appears to equate the two words, I think there is a subtle difference
between them that makes ja¯hiliyya more appropriate for his intentions. Kufr, as I
understand, applies in the first instance to individuals and only by extension to larger
groups. Ja¯hiliyya, by contrast, applies in the first instance to societies, and then the
adjective, ja¯hilı¯, is applied to individuals connected with that society.
How have we come to this pass? The picture of human history prior to Muhammad
that Qutb paints is one of almost universal ja¯hiliyya, briefly punctuated from time to
time by prophetic missions and the Islamic movements associated with them. By
Muhammad’s time the positive traces of these previous missions had been almost
obliterated.83
With the mission of Muhammad and the “unique Qur anic generation,”84
Islam not only reappeared but quickly reached its highest and fullest expression. It
spread and created an impressive international society noted for both its tolerance and
its learning but declined from its spiritual heights and eventually fell back into ja¯hiliyya.
“This [religion of truth] became a reality this time at the hands of the Messenger
of God (SAAS), the Caliphs, and their successors, for a long period of time, when the
Religion of Truth was dominant. . . . Then its followers gradually abandoned it under
the influence of factors internal to the Muslim societies on one hand and the long war
in various forms which its pagan and Jewish and Christian enemies waged against it
on the other.”85
The internal causes are described in Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n as “the residues of
ja¯hiliyya in the souls of the masses of people,” who had not been part of that “select
group” of the earliest Muslims, which began to drag the community down.86
They are
also seen in the Islamic philosophers and theologians who mixed pagan Greek ideas
with Islamic ones.87
The external causes are found in contemporary Zionism and “Crusaderism”—that
is, Western imperialism. How long did this process take? Qutb is not
completely clear on this, and some think that he believed that the return to ja¯hiliyya
came at the end of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. This would seem to find some
support in his assertion, quoted earlier, that Islamic life stopped “a long time ago
(mundhu fitra twawı¯la)” and also in a statement early in Ma a¯lim that the “existence of
the Muslim ummah” has been cut off for “many centuries.”88
Most of his statements,
however, indicate that he saw this as happening only with the full onslaught of Western
imperialism in the 19th century. In Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, he suggests that the community
was at its highest level for 50 years, and then at lower levels for 1,000 or more.89
Later in Ma a¯lim, he speaks of the Islamic world distancing itself gradually from Islam
and stagnating, and in the last edition of Ada¯la and in Muqawwima¯t he says that
530 William E. Shepard
Islam existed for about twelve centuries.”90
This is consistent with Qutb’s dichotomous
view of ja¯hiliyya and Islam. Where Mawdudi can see most of Muslim history as a
mixture of Islam and ja¯hiliyya, for Qutb most of Islamic history is Islam, though at
“lower levels.” Ja¯hiliyya comes only with European imperialism and Muslim capitulation
to European values.
If Qutb accepts 1,000 years of Islamic history as genuine Islam, his standards for
an Islamic society are not as purist as might sometimes appear. Speaking of the victory
of the Umayyads, he says: “the road was open to corruption.” But he does not say
that society ceased to be Islamic.91
What is evidently required is a sincere commitment
to follow divine guidance, but not total success in doing so. A Muslim society, he
tells us, is “a society that fundamentally recognizes the authority of God and appeals
to His shari a, even if it suffers from political oppression or widespread sin at times.
Thus we find the statement of the Messenger [SAWS], ‘The best form of jiha¯d is
speaking the truth to an unjust ima¯m,’ now he is called ima¯m, but he would not be an
ima¯m if he did not fundamentally recognize the authority of God and his shari a.”92
This is not, of course, to justify such a situation. In context the point is that a Muslim
society, in contrast to a ja¯hilı¯ one, does not ignore corruption and oppression but acts
to end it.93
One might ask at this point precisely how one distinguishes a ja¯hilı¯ society
from a Muslim society when the former claims to be Muslim. To my knowledge,
Qutb does not address this question in these terms. For him it was presumably not
necessary. The Egypt of his day was obviously tyrannical (in the sense of tw a¯ghu¯t) and
its Muslim apologetic transparently false. Saudi Arabia, the country laying perhaps
the strongest claim at the time to govern by the shari a, would have been patently
ja¯hilı¯ by virtue of its alliance with America.
What are the implications of all of this for action? The answer is that we must
begin where the Prophet began, with a small group (jama¯ a or ißba) of people who
have committed themselves to serve God and God alone in all aspects of life.94
The
basic creed “no god but God” must be their only motive and their whole message.
They must not mix in any other message, such as national liberation or social reform,95
and they must not try to justify it at the bar of ja¯hilı¯ values.96
They must also separate
themselves from the ja¯hilı¯ society to escape its powerful hold over their minds. This
separation is not physical but involves “mixing while keeping distinct (mukha¯lata
ma a tamayyuz)” and “emotional separation ( uzla shu u¯riyya).”97
This period of preparation
and purification is absolutely essential and may take some time. Qutb points
out that the Prophet Muhammad spent thirteen years training the “unique Qur anic
generation” in the basic creed98
before providing any social legislation or attempting
to set up a society. During this period, individuals and groups who wish to make the
same commitment will join them. At this point a new, truly Islamic, society is born;
it splits off from and confronts the old ja¯hilı¯ society. Continuing in Qutb’s own words:
“Then the old ja¯hilı¯ society in its entirety may choose to join the new Muslim society
or it may not, or it may make a truce with the new Muslim society or it may fight
against it. But the rule has been that the ja¯hilı¯ society wages relentless war, both
against the vanguard of this society in its earliest stage—when it consists of individuals
and groups—and against this society itself after it has actually been established,
as has happened without exception in the history of the preaching of Islam, from the
prophet Noah (AS) to Muhammad (SAAS).”99
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 531
This is Qutb’s version of jihad. It is consciously patterned after the actions of Muhammad
and his early followers, but it also suggests the pattern of a modern revolution,
particularly the communist revolution in Russia. It seems in line with the point
that Mawdudi makes more explicitly: “Islam is a revolutionary ideology and programme
which seeks to alter the social order of the whole world . . . and ‘jiha¯d’ refers
to that revolutionary struggle . . . to achieve this objective.”100
Although Qutb here
suggests that it is ja¯hiliyya that initiates hostilities, the fact that Islam is committed to
destroying ja¯hiliiyya and that Islam will fight when necessary to convey its message
would seem to make these hostilities inevitable. He rejects the idea, common in contemporary
apologetics, that jihad is purely defensive.101
Although Qutb does not use
the word “revolution” here, or very often elsewhere, it does seem fair to describe his
jihad as a revolutionary struggle and this passage as a call to Islamic revolution.102
We must underline the doctrinal focus of Qutb’s activism. A Muslim living in a
ja¯hiliyya society must not waste time in efforts to correct specific moral or social ills.
All such ills are rooted in the more fundamental failure to accept the sovereignty of
God. It is to change this, and nothing less, that the Muslim activist must work.103
For
this reason, Muslims at this stage must not get involved in discussion of theoretical
matters or the details of fiqh. The time for this comes only when an Islamic society
is started that has the actual power to legislate. Islam is a “practical” religion that
deals with theoretical matters only as they have a direct influence on action.104
Qutb
therefore does not seek to depict the ideal society he aims for. The focus here as
elsewhere is not on the ethical and social goals but on what we may call the “theological”
underpinnings.
In assessing the question of whether Qutb was calling for violence, we must bear
in mind that the Qutbian revolution falls into two fairly distinct stages, parallelling
the Meccan and Medinan phases of Muhammad’s career. The first of these is nonviolent,
but the second is probably violent. Insofar as we focus on the first stage,
which Qutb clearly saw as the relevant one in his time, he can be presented as nonviolent,
as he himself does in his statement to his interrogators.105
As to whether he
was engaged in a plot to overthrow the Egyptian government at the time of his last
arrest, the evidence of his writings suggests that he would have considered this quite
premature but would not have eschewed violence when the time came.106
He gives no
clear indication, however, of when the revolution would come, and indeed early in
Ma a¯lim he says that the West can be expected to be ahead of the Muslim world in
science and technology “for number of centuries at least.”107
In fact, very little in
Qutb’s description of his “revolution” is specific. There is no indication of its precise
circumstances; of how the revolutionary vanguard would be recruited, led, or organized;
or what tactics it would use. All of this would presumably be dealt with when
the time came (or was being dealt with but not written about). This, of course, makes
possible a considerable diversity of interpretation of his legacy, some of which we
will see later.
T H E E A R L I E R D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E D O C T R I N E
O F J A¯ H I L I Y YA I N Q U T B ’ S T H O U G H T
While the extreme ja¯hiliyya doctrine appears clearly only in Qutb’s latest writings, a
path of development toward it can be traced earlier. As far as I have been able to
532 William E. Shepard
determine, he rarely mentioned ja¯hiliyya in his secularist period, and when he did, he
used it in the conventional sense. For example, in his book The Task of the Poet
(1932), he mentions “ja¯hilı¯ poetry” in this sense, more or less connecting it with
bedouin poetry.108
In an article published in 1933, however, he complains that the
world is moving at too fast a pace, like an ignorant (ja¯hil) driver, and without direction;
rather than copying the West in this, the East should find its own mission and
retain its sense of certainty, its depth, and its breadth, active but not hurried.109
Here
we see in moderate terms the kinds of comments he will later make about the Western
ja¯hiliyya; indeed, the distinction East–West is a kind of precursor to the distinction
Islam–ja¯hiliyya, though with many different implications. Three articles in 1941 depict
the world of art, literature, and music in Egypt as gone mad and particularly
deplore what he calls the sick quality of popular music, though he has something
positive to say about “animal feeling” in music that one would not expect later.110
Articles in the immediate post-war period, when he was vocally critical of the ills of
Egyptian society and the machinations of Western imperialists, complain about the
debased sexual morals of Egyptian society and describe such a condition as “back-
ward.”111
France and Britain are described as “barbarous” for their actions in the Middle
East, and those in Egypt who praise them are called slaves.112
The Americans with
their materialism are no better; the struggle now is between the rising East and the
savage West, between “the shari a of God and the shari a of the jungle.”113
Other
articles call for a comprehensive program, a new mentality to renew society, and for
a new spiritual leadership.114
Here we see in secular terms some of the “ingredients”
that will go into his later ja¯hiliyya doctrine.
His earlier Islamist writings also have little about ja¯hiliyya. In the pre–1964 editions
of Ada¯la, all but one of the references to ja¯hiliyya involve conventional uses of
the term—usually the historical sense, though more often with a connotation of “barbarism”
than “ignorance.”115
The one exception is a reference in the 1958 edition to
“the ja¯hilı¯ pollution that floods the face of the whole earth.”116
All other references to
full ja¯hiliyya doctrine are in the 1964 edition. The full idea of ja¯hiliyya also does not
appear in any of the articles from before his imprisonment in 1954 that I have been
able to consult. The prominent idea at this stage is that an “Islamic bloc,” strengthened
by newly independent countries such as Pakistan and Indonesia, is taking shape as a
counter to the capitalist and communist blocs. He also believes that America, because
of its materialism, will eventually go communist.117
In three articles based on his
experience in America in 1948–50 he forcefully criticizes American materialism and
lax sexual mores.118
The stand-off between Islam and materialism in these writings
could be said to forshadow the stand-off between Islam and ja¯hiliyya later on,119
but
at this stage he is clearly far from considering the Islamic world as ja¯hilı¯. Rather, as
we have seen, the “stopping” of the spread of the Islamic spirit “has been only par-
tial.”120
He thinks the lowest point has been passed and that Islam is on the rise
again.121
One does at this stage find the kind of totalistic and dichotomous thinking that
characterizes his later ja¯hiliyya theory, though without the term. For example, in a
1952 article he states that Islam is aqı¯da and shari a, and as shari a deals with all
areas political, social, and economic, one is either a Muslim and accepts all this or is
not a Muslim, and there is no middle term.122
Likewise, in a part of his Qur an com-
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 533
mentary dating probably to the mid-1950s, he states that across the ages there are just
two parties—the party of God, based purely on creed, not blood or nation, and the
party of Satan.123
The first reference to the term ja¯hiliyya in something like the sense it was going to
have, to my knowledge, is in Qutb’s introduction to the second (1951) Arabic edition
of Nadwi’s What the World Has Lost by the Decline of the Muslims. Here Qutb notes
with approval the author’s use of the term ja¯hiliyya to describe the situation of spiritual
and moral relapse the world has suffered since the Muslims lost their leadership
of it, and he goes on to comment that “ja¯hiliyya is not a limited period of time but a
specific spiritual and intellectual condition” that arises when false values replace those
that God wants.124
This is the first element in his later doctrine that he appears to have
accepted. That Muslims suffer to some extent from this ja¯hiliyya he was presumably
also learning from Nadwi and from Mawdudi, whose works were becoming available
in Arabic about the same time.
Qutb, of course, deals with ja¯hiliyya in the earlier edition of Fı¯ zw ila¯l al-Qur a¯n
(1953–c. 1958) when commenting on the Qur anic passages that contain the word.
The commentary to Qur an 5:50, “Do they seek a ja¯hiliyya judgment?” tells us that
ja¯hiliyya may occur in any historical period and involves human legislation replacing
divine legislation, but the latter is not here described as a rejection of God’s divinity
and the stress is on a specific moral aspect of ja¯hiliyya, the partiality of all human
legislation in individual, class, or national interests as contrasted with the impartiality
of God.125
Much the same can be said of the commentaries to the other passages.126
Here, as elsewhere in this period, the focus is more on specific social and ethical
concerns than the underlying but abstract theological basis.127
We might say that in
both the earlier and later writings he perceives the sickness of ja¯hiliyya, but in the
earlier ones he wants to treat the symptoms and the basic cause together, whereas in
the later ones his attention is entirely on the basic cause.
In the writings of the early 1960s the idea of ja¯hiliyya appears more or less prominently,
but still not fully developed. There is some reference to ja¯hiliyya in Ha¯dha¯
al-Dı¯n (1961), as we have seen. Through most of this book the main point is that the
first “wave” of Islam has receded but has left “traces” that can be found even in the
West—for example, in the idea of a single humanity and the development of international
law, a point that can also be found it his writings during the 1950s.128
Hence,
the task should not be quite so difficult in the “second wave” as it was in the first,
because the first had to work purely from the resources of human nature (fitwra)
whereas the second also has the resources of these “traces.”129
In the last chapter,
however, he warns activists not to become overconfident because of this, for in many
respects the present ja¯hiliyya is worse that the first, being more complex and based
on science. Humanity is in general farther from God than before. Most are still dazzled
by a godless science, and “this century may end” before they get over this.130
The
concept of ja¯hiliyya here seems similar to that in the later writings, but it comes at
the end of a book that is on the whole rather more optimistic.
Two books published probably in 1962, Al-Mustaqbal li-Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n (The Future
Belongs to This Religion)131
and Khaßa¯ iß al-taßawwur al-Isla¯mı¯ (Characteristics of the
Islamic Conception),132
are mainly concerned with showing the weakness of Western
developments and refuting Western thought. The word ja¯hiliyya appears only a few
534 William E. Shepard
times in them. In Khaßa¯ iß al-taßawwur there is a forceful description of contemporary
society as having characteristics that are, in effect, ja¯hilı¯, though without the name.133
At the end of Mustaqbal we are told that “with all of the ja¯hiliyya around us” we are
in a similar position to the Prophet Muhammad and that the struggle will be bitter,
but this is followed by the point that we must come to know contemporary civilization
well enough to know what to choose from it.134
In all of these books, ja¯hiliyya is still
seen mainly as Western, for all the effect it has on the Muslim world.
To sum up, the sense that what he was later to call ja¯hiliyya consists of immoral
and excessive behavior, not mere ignorance, was already strongly present even before
his Islamist period. The sense of ja¯hiliyya as the definitional opposite of Islam, as a
trans-historical reality, and as a reality found among Muslims, he appears to have
gotten from Nadwi and Mawdudi in the early 1950s. The strong sense of dichotomy
between truth and falsehood, good and evil is present in his early Islamist writings—
indeed, even before—but is not usually attached to the idea of ja¯hiliyya. Only in the
latest writings, published in 1964 or after, though some are probably available from
about 1962,135
do we find the shift of focus from the moral to the theological, the
extreme dichotomizing which excludes any mixture of Islam and ja¯hiliyya, and the
idea that ja¯hiliyya has become so omnipresent that Islam no longer “exists.” It is also
only in these writings that ja¯hiliyya becomes a central category of Qutb’s thinking, a
forceful symbol that pulls the various strands of this thinking together. These are
precisely the novel elements in his theory. I have seen little awareness in the literature
on Qutb of just how late in his career all this happened.136
I do not wish to speculate here at any length on the factors that led Qutb to this
position, but a few words are in order. One obvious factor is the brutality he and his
fellow Muslim Brothers experienced in prison in a supposedly Muslim society. Also
important would have been the isolation of prison life. Qutb suffered from the brutality
of the prison guards and engaged in intense discussion with like-minded immates
but had little opportunity for the more ambiguous experiences of normal life. This
would go some way toward accounting for the abstract character of his late work and
its highly dichotomized view of the world.137
Even more important, perhaps, was his
disappointment with Nasser’s regime. Initially, Qutb, like many others, had had high
hopes for this regime; when it turned persecuter, the shock was all the greater. Moreover,
this regime undertook many of the social reforms for which Qutb had called.
Obviously, the reforms themselves were not enough if they were not rooted in properly
Islamic conceptions and intentions—hence, Qutb’s shift from the moral to the
theological dimension. Not only Egypt but also the newly independent Muslim countries,
in which Qutb had expressed hope in the early 1950s, had not achieved a particularly
good social record and had moved in a secular rather than an Islamist direction.
Moreover, America’s strength was greater than he had forseen; it was not going to go
communist, and its moral and political influence was spreading. Under these conditions,
the seeds of the ja¯hiliyya doctrine, planted by Mawdudi and Nadwi, grew into
their final, hard-line form. Hamid Algar rightly sees Qutb’s ja¯hiliyya doctrine as “encapsulating
the utter bleakness of the Muslim predicament.”138
From another angle, the ja¯hiliyya doctrine can be seen as an extreme logical extension
of Qutb’s earlier ideas: his dichotomous thinking, his stress on the comprehensiveness
of Islam, and his insistence on its social and political application. But it took
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 535
the circumstances of his life to push them to this extreme. We must also give some
“credit” to the Marxists for the form, if not the content, of his doctrine. Undoubtedly,
his characterization of the struggle between Islam and ja¯hiliyya owes something to
their ideas about the revolutionary struggle between communism and capitalism.
At a different level, the modern state itself, as it has developed in Egypt and elsewhere
over the past century, is a major factor. Qutb’s totalistic and systemic view of
Islam and ja¯hiliyya undoubtedly reflects the increasing control of the state over society
and the totalistic claims of many modern ideologies. The fact that in his earlier
writings Qutb finds Islam operative outside of the “governing circles” but later finds
that Islam no longer “exists” may reflect the increasing control over society wielded
by the Nasserist state. Gilles Kepel states that “the totalitarian state now represented
the model of ja¯hiliyya.”139
Still, the state as such is not the focus of the ja¯hiliyya
doctrine. It is not just the state but the whole of society that is ja¯hilı¯. It is not enough
to topple an unbelieving (ka¯fir) ruler; society must be profoundly reoriented. Qutb
hardly gives us the details of this, but presumably the most a putsch could do would
be to start a long process of change. If this were not carried out, society would quickly
revert to ja¯hiliyya.140
At still another level, we must mention the Qur an itself, in whose “shadows” Qutb
spent so much of his later life and whose authority he claims. Like the Qur an, Qutb
sees ja¯hiliyya not as a past epoch but as a present reality. Like the Qur an, Qutb’s
ja¯hiliyya is closer to “savagery” than to “ignorance,” although ignorance does seem
to play somewhat more of a role for Qutb than for the Qur an itself, given the place
of science and the presence of atheism in the present ja¯hiliyya. If, following Izutsu’s
view, we say that the implicit opposite of ja¯hiliyya in the Qur an is Islam, then Qutb
follows this but makes it very explicit and elaborates it further. He gives it a “systemic”
character that it hardly has in the Qur an. Also, the term ja¯hiliyya is more
central for Qutb in his last stage than it is in the Qur an, where it appears only four
times. It would seem that Mawdudi’s mixture of ja¯hiliyya and Islam could be equally
well derived from the Qur an and better accords with the hadith “Within you is ja¯hiliyya.”
In all, we can say that Qutb has sharpened and updated the Qur anic concept
and developed it in a particular direction. His view can be said to be one legitimate
interpretation, though not the only one. Here Qutb is a good example of what “fundamentalism,”
in the sense of the effort to draw guidance directly from the scripture, is
and can be.
S I N C E S AY Y I D Q U T B
It is not possible here to investigate adequately the extent to which others have followed,
developed, or criticized Qutb’s doctrine of ja¯hiliyya. I shall, however, make a
few comments about some of the better-known radical groups and movements. Qutb
is generally agreed to have had a major influence on the radical groups in Egypt in
the years following his death. The best known of these are the so-called Takfir waHijra
(roughly, “Excommunication and Emigration”), which kidnapped and killed a
former minister of awqaf in 1977; the so-called Military Academy Group, which
attempted a coup in 1974; the Jihad group, which assassinated Anwar Sadat in 1981;
and the Jama a al-Islamiyya, whose activities caused so much turmoil in the 1990s.141
536 William E. Shepard
For only the first of these groups does the idea of ja¯hiliyya appear to have been
significant. Shukri Mustafa, the leader of Takfir wa-Hijra, had been arrested in 1965
in the same wave of arrests as Sayyid Qutb and spent much of his time in prison
reading Qutb and Mawdudi. He founded the group after his release in 1971, and it
continued until repressed by the government in 1977. This group explicitly described
the society around it as ja¯hiliyya and withdrew physically as well as mentally from it
as much as possible.142
As with Qutb, their strategy was a long-term one, but circumstances
and miscalculation led them into a premature confrontation with the state.
They followed the main lines of Qutb’s ideas, with two or three major exceptions.
The degree of withdrawal was greater than what Qutb seems to have intended, as was
the high degree of control wielded by Shukri Mustafa. Also, the group’s view that
defectors were apostates who should be punished and even killed goes beyond anything
Qutb wrote. However, Shukri’s view that Friday ßala¯t is illicit in a ja¯hiliyya
society goes beyond what Qutb explicitly says but could perhaps be derived from it.143
These things give the group a “cult” appearance144
that does not seem to fit Qutb’s
thinking, but Qutb’s vagueness in details makes it hard to rule them out as one legitimate
interpretation of his ideas, just as his own concept of ja¯hiliyya cannot be ruled
out as one interpretation of the Qur an.
None of the other three groups appears to have made much of the term ja¯hiliyya,
and their actions indicate that they did not accept Qutb’s conception of ja¯hiliyya or
his analysis of the situation posed by it. For them the problem was not with society
as a whole, which was fundamentally religious and Islamic, but with the anti–Islamic
rulers. Hence, activities directed at removing these rulers made sense. The founder of
the Military Academy Group had probably been a member of Nabhani’s Hizb al-Tahrir
al-Islami, and his conception of the situation accords with Nabhani’s.145
Members of
the group believed that Egyptians “are basically the most religious of all Islamic
peoples” but betrayed by “God-fearless” leaders. Therefore, with the right leadership
they would be in the best place to start a worldwide Islamic revival.146
The members
of the Jihad group appear to have had essentially the same analysis of the spiritual
and political situation. In fact, they expected the assassination of Sadat to spark a
popular revolution.147
The booklet Al-Farı¯dw a al-Gha¯ iba (The Neglected Duty), which
is the best-known statement of their position, does make a point similar to one of
Qutb’s when it criticizes those who think the proper approach is to establish benevolent
societies or political parties, or gain important positions, on the grounds that they
would be subject to and in effect supporting the unbelieving state.148
Qutb, as we have
seen, says that as members of ja¯hiliyya, Muslims will contribute to its survival just as
individual cells contribute to the survival of a body. The booklet, however, contains
only a few instances of the word ja¯hiliyya and most of these are in quotations from
the Qur an, the hadith, or medieval scholars.149
I have had little opportunity to study
the statements of the Jama a al-Islamiyya, but the literature on the group suggests a
similar approach.150
What these groups seem to get from Qutb is the idea that the most
immediate danger comes from within Islamic society, not from without, but their
analyses and solutions are much more simplistic than his, and their discourse is that
of kufr, not ja¯hiliyya.
By the time of Sadat’s assassination, of course, there had been a popular Islamic
revolution in Iran, which had undoubtedly influenced the hopes of the Egyptian radi-
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 537
cals. Certainly, those who made the Iranian Revolution had a high opinion of Qutb,
but I have seen no evidence that his concept of ja¯hiliyya played a significant role in
their discourse either during the revolution or in the years before it.151
Khomeini seems
hardly to have used the term, and the revolution could be said to have demonstrated
the absence of ja¯hiliyya among the people, because it was they who mounted it.152
Iran since the revolution would seem to fulfill Qutb’s primary requirement for an
Islamic society: not perfection by Islamic moral standards but a sincere and credible
commitment on the part of its leaders to rule by the shari a, although he certainly
would have had problems with some of the distinctively Shi i aspects of the revolution,
as have many Sunni Islamists—in particular the doctrine of vila¯yat-i faqı¯h.153
Still, the fact that there are regimes that claim to govern by the shari a—whether Iran
or, more recently, the Sunni Islamist regimes such as Pakistan under Zia al-Haqq,
Sudan since 1991, and Afghanistan under the Mujahidin and the Taliban—must affect
any discourse about ja¯hiliyya.
In view of recent events, it seems appropriate to make a few comments about
Hamas in Palestine and Usama bin Laden. The position of Hamas seems to be similar
to that of the three Egyptian groups discussed earlier, with the difference that, however
tense their relationship with the secularist Palestine Liberation Organization, the main
enemy is clearly external: the State of Israel. The Hamas Covenant does perhaps echo
Qutb, however, when it says that the movement finds itself “in a time when Islam has
disappeared from practical life” and all values have been overturned while oppression
and injustice prevail.154
The only appearance of the word ja¯hilı¯ or ja¯hiliyya is, interestingly,
in a contrast between Islamic art and ja¯hilı¯ art.155
Although Bin Laden has been reported as claiming that Afghanistan under the
Taliban was the only Islamic state, his criticisms are directed principally at Saudi
Arabia, and the main enemy is external to the Muslim world: the United States.156
In
fact, Bin Laden virtually reverses the argument in Al-Farida al-Gha iba. There it is
the enemy near at hand—that is, the rulers of Egypt—who must be dealt with before
the enemy further away (Israel). Bin Laden states that the greater enemy, the United
States, must be dealt with before the lesser enemy, dissention and corruption among
Muslims. The term ja¯hiliyya hardly appears in the sources available to me. In the one
place where it is clearly present, it is used in the traditional historical sense, and the
section conveys a strong sense of tribal pride:
I say to you, William [Perry, American Secretary of Defense], that: These youths love death as
you love life. They inherit dignity, pride, courage, generosity, truthfulness and sacrifice from
father to father. They are most delivering and steadfast at war. They inherit these values from
their ancestors (even from the time of the Ja¯hiliyya, before Islam). These values were approved
and completed by the arriving Islam as stated by the Messenger of God (God’s Blessings and
Salutations be upon him): “I have been sent to perfect the good values” (Sw ahw ı¯hw Al-Ja¯mi al-
Saghir).
“When the pagan King Amr ibn Hind tried to humiliate the pagan Amr ibn Kulthum, the latter
cut off the head of the king with his sword rejecting aggression, humiliation and indignation.
“If the king oppresses the people excessively, we refuse to submit to humiliation.
“By which legitimacy (or command) O Amr ibn Hind, do you want us to be degraded?!
“By which legitimacy (or command) O Amr ibn Hind do you listen to our foes and disrespect
us?!
“Our toughness has, O Amr, tired the enemies before you, never giving in!”157
538 William E. Shepard
Here if anywhere is fodder for those such as Muhammad al- Ashmawi, who claim
that the extremists themselves are ja¯hilı¯!158
This admittedly sketchy survey suggests that these radicals share with Qutb a
strongly dichotomous sense of a struggle between extreme good and extreme evil and
a sense of the “other” as a powerful, almost all-pervasive force that must be fought
with extreme measures and extreme commitment, but that they mostly have not accepted
his doctrine of ja¯hiliyya. Perhaps this is because the doctrine is too pessimistic.
Activists prepared to risk or sacrifice their lives in the cause look, I think, for more
immediate returns than Qutb’s doctrine offers them. They want to believe that killing
the ka¯fir ruler or toppling the ka¯fir regime will bring in the Islamic society in short
order. The ja¯hiliyya doctrine promises them a much longer struggle. Many radicals
have undoubtedly hoped that the imposing ja¯hili society could be toppled with one
blow, as the Twin Towers were. The ja¯hiliyya doctrine would remind them that, although
the Twin Towers may symbolize the ultimate weakness of ja¯hiliyya, the actual
ja¯hiliyya has been provoked but not really weakened by the destruction of this symbol.
Qutb came to his ja¯hiliyya doctrine only after the failure of Islamism in the early
1950s. It may be that only if and when the current wave of violent activism fails some
of the radicals will turn to Qutb’s doctrine for the more profound, if starker, guidance
that it offers. Meanwhile, those Islamists who do not follow the radical path may find
uses for the doctrine that are beyond the scope of this article to speculate on. As
long as Qutb’s works are read, the doctrine has the possibility of appearing in as yet
unpredictable ways.
C O N C L U D I N G T H O U G H T S : T H E J A¯ H I L I Y YA D O C T R I N E
A S FA I T H
Almost fifty years ago, Wilfred Cantwell Smith penned the following words, which
have not lost their validity:
The fundamental malaise of modern Islam is a sense that something has gone wrong with
Islamic history. The fundamental problem of modern Muslims is how to rehabilitate that history,
to get it going again in full vigour, so that Islamic society may once again flourish as a
divinely guided society should and must. The fundamental spiritual crisis of Islam in the twentieth
century stems from an awareness that something is awry between the religion which God
has appointed and the historical development of the world which He controls.”159
All of the figures and ideas discussed here manifest this malaise and crisis in one
way or another, but Qutb’s ja¯hiliyya doctrine manifests it in a particularly profound,
radical, and systematic form. As mentioned earlier, it underlines the “utter bleakness
of the Muslim predicament.” At the same time, it involves an extreme form of faith
in God. Other doctrines, including Qutb’s earlier views, rely on faith but also find
more tangible reasons for hope. They discern specific weaknesses in the regime, evidences
of support among the people, signs of an “Islamic bloc” internationally, or
“traces” of Islam in ja¯hiliyya. Qutb’s late doctrine has little of this. Its main pillars of
hope besides God are essential human nature (fitwra) and the weaknesses of ja¯hiliyya.
But fitwra is almost as much a matter of faith as God, and it is only faith in God and
fitwra that permit one to believe that the weaknesses of ja¯hiliyya are greater than its
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 539
strengths. Ultimately, it is a matter of faith in God alone—sola fide—though not quite
in Luther’s sense. Such a faith perhaps takes fullest measure of the crisis, but such a
faith is for only the few. This is part of the doctrine’s originality, but this also limits
its appeal to those made impatient by the crisis.
N O T E S
Author’s note: An earlier version of this article was presented as a paper at the annual conference of
the American Research Center in Egypt, Chicago, 23–25 April 1999. I am grateful to the editor and the
unnamed referees whose critical comments have stimulated and clarified my thinking on this subject.
1
See Yvonne Haddad “The Qur anic Justification for an Islamic Revolution: The View of Sayyid Qutb,”
Middle East Journal 37 (1983): 14–29, and idem, “Sayyid Qutb, Ideologue of Islamic Revival,” Voices of
Resurgent Islam, ed. John Esposito (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), chap. 4. Olivier Carre´,
Mysticism and Politics: A Critical Reading of “Fi Zilal al-Qur an” by Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966), trans.
from French by Carol Artigues (Leiden and Boston: Leiden, 2003), a major study of Qutb’s Qur an com-
mentary.
2
For biographical material see, among others, The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 3:400–404, s.v. “Qutb, Sayyid” (Sharough Akhavi); Charles
Tripp, “Sayyid Qutb: The Political Vision,” in Pioneers of Islamic Revival, ed. Ali Rahmena (London: Zed,
1994), chap. 7; Gilles Kepel, Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and the Pharoah, trans. J. Rothschild
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), chap. 2; Emmanuel Sivan, Radical Islam: Medieval Theology
and Modern Politics, enlarged ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), chap. 2; Ahmed
S. Mousalli, Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: The Ideological and Political Discourse of Sayyid Qutb
(Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1992), chap. 1. The best-known Arabic biography is Salah Abd
al-Fattah al-Khalidi, Sayyid Qutb, Al-Shahı¯d al-Hw ayy (Amman: Maktabat al-Aqsa, 1981). See also Adil
Hamuda, Sayyid Qutb, Min al-Qarya ila¯ al-Misnaqa: Ta˙qı¯q wa¯tha¯ iqı¯, 3rd ed. (Cairo: Sina li-l-Nashr,
1990); and Sharif Yunus, Sayyid Qutb wa-al-ußu¯liyya al-isla¯miyyah (Cairo: Dar Tibah, 1995).
3
Kepel, Muslim Extremism, 46; Youssef M. Choueiri, Islamic Fundamentalism (London: Pinter Publishers,
1990), 123.
4
Of course, neither Qutb nor Khomeini would recognize his doctrine as novel. In both cases, they take
terms and ideas already existent in the tradition and extend them in ways that they consider a return to the
true meaning of the texts but others perceive as new. Khomeini’s innovation was to include political power
within the scope of the idea (see, e.g., Olivier Roy, “Islamists in Power,” in The Islamism Debate, ed.
Martin S. Kramer [Tel Aviv: Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern Studies and African Studies, 1997],
72).
5
The different approaches are complementary, but I believe that religion should be studied first from
the inside, and then from the outside. Roxanne Euben appropriately calls for “interpretations . . . that . . .
make central the explication of the subjects’ meanings without concluding that there is no perspective
adequately distant from them from which to criticize the actors’ account of their own experience.” See
Roxanne Euben, Enemy in the Mirror: Islamic Fundamentalism and the Limits of Modern Rationalism
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), 45.
6
“The Age of Ignorance” is the title of my article on this subject in the Encyclopaedia of the Qur an
(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001), 1:37–40. See this article for further discussion of ja¯hiliyya.
7
I. Goldziher, Muslim Studies, vol. 1 (Halle 1889–90), trans. C. R. Barber and S. M. Stern (London:
Allen & Unwin, 1967). T. Izutsu, Ethico-religious Concepts in the Quran (Montreal: McGill University
Press, 1966).
8
Ethico-religious Concepts, 31.
9
Ibid., 35. The words ja¯hiliyya and isla¯m are not specifically set against each other in the Qur an.
10
M. M. Kahn, trans., Sw a˙ı¯˙ al-Bukha¯rı¯, 3rd rev. ed., 9 vols. (Chicago: Kazi Publications, 1976–79), 3:
65, 4:461.
11
The first definition of jahl in Lisa¯n al- arab is “the opposite of ilm,” and its first definition of ja¯hiliyya
is “the time of the fatra” (usually the period between the prophets Jesus and Muhammad). Later, the earlier
meanings or usages are mentioned or at least suggested: Muhammad ibn Mukarram ibn Manzur (d. 711
H), Lisa¯n al- arab, (Beirut, 1966), 11:129–30.
540 William E. Shepard
12
See, for example, Tabari on Qur an 33:33: Al-Tabari, Ja¯mi al-baya¯n an tawı¯l al-Qur a¯n, 3rd ed.
(Cairo, 1954–68), 22:5.
13
Manzur, Lisa¯n al- arab, 11:130.
14
Ibn Taymiyya, Kita¯b Iqtidw a¯ ßira¯t al-mustaqı¯m mukha¯lafat aß˙a¯b al-ja˙ı¯m, in M. A. Memon, Ibn Taymiyya’s
Struggle against Popular Religion (The Hague: Mouton, 1976), 145–46.
15
Esther Peskes, Muhammad b. Abdalwahhab (1703–92) im Widerstreit. Untersuchungen zur Rekonstruktion
der Fru¨hgeschichte der Wahhabiya (Beirut: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993), 369–84 (English summary).
16
Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida, Tafsı¯r al-Qur an al-˙akim, repr. ed. (Cairo: Dar al-Manar,
1947–54 [1907]), 6:422.
17
Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur an: Text, Translation, Commentary, 3rd ed., (United States: McGregor
and Werner, n.d.), 259.
18
For the quote, see Abul Ala Mawdudi: The Meaning of the Qur an, ed. A. A. Kamal, trans. Ch.
Muhammad Akbar (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1975), 10:106 (comment on Qur an 33:33). In A Short
History of the Revivalist Movement in Islam (English trans. [Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1972]), Mawdudi
writes of ja¯hiliyya re-entering Islam after the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, but it never completely
overpowered Islam, and “Muslim people all over the world have always been morally superior to nonMuslim
communities” (ibid., 31; cf. 5–27, 30, 53, 78, 90). He also writes of the “getting together of Islam
and un-Islam in the same body politic” (ibid., 27).
19
Abul Hasan Nadwi, Ma¯dha¯ khasira al- alam bi-in˙itw a¯tw al-muslimı¯n (What the World Has Lost by the
Decline of the Muslims), 2nd ed. (Cairo: Matba at Da¯r al-Kita¯b al- Arabı¯, 1951); The full copy available
to me is the 7th ed. (Beirut: Da¯r al-Kita¯b al- Arabı¯, 1982). See also the English translation by Muhammad
Asaf Qidwai, Islam and the World (Lahore: Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, 1961).
20
See esp. Nadwi, Ma¯dha¯ khasira, 263–77; Qidwai, Islam, 180–94.
21
See Suha Taji-Farouki, A Fundamental Quest: Hizb al-Tahrir and the Search for the Islamic Caliphate
(London: Grey Seal, 1996), chaps. 1 and 3.
22
Muhammad Qutb, Ja¯hiliyyat al-qarn al- ishrı¯n (The Jahiliyya of the Twentieth Century), 1st ed. (Cairo:
Maktabat Wahbah, 1964).
23
Nadwi, Ma¯dha¯ khasira, 8–11; pp.12–16 in the 7th ed.
24
Sayyid Qutb, Ma a¯lim fı¯ al-twarı¯q (Milestones) (Cairo: Maktabat Wahbah, 1964) and later reprintings.
The edition available to me is ibid. (Beirut: Daˆr al-Shuruˆq, 1973). Hereafter, this edition is cited as Ma a¯lim.
See also Sayyid Qutb, Milestones (Kuwait: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations,
1978). Hereafter, this translation is cited as Milestones.
25
Idem, Al- Ada¯lah al ijtima¯ iyyah fı¯ al-Isla¯m (Social Justice in Islam), 6th ed. (Cairo: Matba at Isa alBabi
al-Halabi, 1964). The reprints by Dar al-Shuruq are of this edition, and hereafter the Dar al-Shuruq
printing of 1974 is cited as Ada¯la. See also William Shepard, Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation
and Critical Analysis of “Social Justice in Islam” (Al- Ada¯lah al-ijtima¯ iyyah fı¯ al-isla¯m) (Leiden: E.
J. Brill, 1996). This translation also gives the readings of the previous editions (1949–58) where they differ
from the last, as they often do on ja¯hiliyya. Hereafter, this work is cited as Social Justice, with chapter
and paragraph numbers. Only this translation is given for citations of earlier editions.
26
Sayyid Qutb, Fı¯ zw ila¯l al Qur a¯n (In the Shadow of the Qur an), 6 vols., 10th ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq,
1982). The commentary was published beginning in 1953. After completing it, the author revised the first
thirteen parts and one sura in the fourteenth (out of thirty parts). All of the material from Zw ila¯l in this
article illustrating the final form of the doctrine is drawn from the revised parts. Some of these were
published before 1964, but I do not know the precise dates. It is worth noting that, of the passages quoted
in this article, the commentary to Qur an 5:5 (vol. 2, pt. 6, 904) is the first to present the full doctrine. As
I have not yet had the opportunity to study all of Zw ila¯l, I cannot be certain that this is the first appearance
of the full doctrine.
27
Idem, Muqawwima¯t al-taßawwur al-isla¯mı¯ (Components of the Islamic Conception), 4th ed. (Beirut
and Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 1988).
28
Idem, Lima¯dha¯ a damu¯nı¯? (Why Did They Execute Me?) (Al-sharikah al-sa u¯diyyah li-l-abhath wa-ltaswiq,
n.d). At the end of the text appears “Military Prison, 22 October 1965.” Sharif Yunus states that
this text is supposed to be Qutb’s statement to the military court on his arrest in 1965, but it is not found
in his government file: Yunus, Sayyid Qutb, p. 154, fn. 5.
29
Sayyid Qutb, Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n (This Religion) (Dar al-Qalam, 1961). To my knowledge, this is the first
edition. The versions available to me are ibid. (Beirut: Al-Ittihw a¯d al-Isla¯mı¯ al- A¯ lamı¯, 1978) and the English
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 541
translation This Religion of Islam (Kuwait: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations,
n.d.).
30
Zw ila¯l, 2:904. For a slightly different translation of this passage, see Sivan, Radical Islam, 23–24.
31
Ubu¯diyya in Qutb’s usage means both service and worship; cf. the biblical usage, “serving” God, or
other gods, or kings or other humans.
32
Ma a¯lim, 62–63; Milestones,107–108.
33
Ma a¯lim, 63.
34
Ibid, 8, Milestones, 15.
35
Unlike ja¯hiliyya, ˙a¯kimiyya is a neologism. It is commonly said that Qutb got the term from Mawdudi,
but in fact the term appears to have been coined by Mawdudi’s Arabic translator. See Sharough Akhavi,
“The Dialectic in Contemporary Egyptian Social Thought,” International Journal of Middle East Studies
29 (1997): 396, n. 7.
36
For example, Ma a¯lim, 27; Milestones, 47; Ada¯la, 190, 200, 224 (the latter two of these are in passages
unchanged from earlier editions).
37
Ma a¯lim, 88; Milestones, 148.
38
Zw ila¯l, 4:1945; Milestones, 173–75; Ma a¯lim, 105–106.
39
Ada¯la, 268; Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 145 (translation modified).
40
Ma a¯lim, 149–50; Milestones, 242–44. Contrast Mawdudi’s view given earlier and in n. 18.
41
Ma a¯lim, 147; Milestones, 239.
42
Ma a¯lim, 148, 151–152.
43
Ma a¯lim, 126–31; Milestones, 203–10; cf. Ada¯la, 270–74, Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 152–65.
44
Ada¯la, 94–95; Social Justice, chap. 5, para. 5, 8.
45
See William Shepard, “Islam as a ‘System’ in the Later Writings of Sayyid Qutb,” Middle Eastern
Studies 25 (1989): 31–50.
46
Ma a¯lim, 49–50; cf. Milestones, 84. (This translation lacks two paragraphs found in the Arabic text
and referred to here.)
47
A religion in Qutb’s later writing has the structure of taßawwur, manhaj, and nizw a¯m (Shepard, “Islam
as a ‘System’”). Ja¯hiliyyah systems also seem to have such a structure, though it is not stated quite so
clearly—for example, taßawwur (in the plural, “conceptions”) in the following quotation, mana¯hij shaytwaniyya
(satanic methods) in Ma a¯lim, 75; Milestones, 127.
48
Ma a¯lim, 47–48; Milestones, 82. Cf. Zw ila¯l, 3:1559.
49
Ma a¯lim, 77–78; Milestones, 132–33.
50
Zw ila¯l, 2:950.
51
Ma a¯lim, chap. on sharı¯ a kawniyya; Milestones, chap. 6.
52
Zw ila¯l, 2:863.
53
Ma a¯lim, 131; Milestones, 211.
54
Ada¯la, 247, 256; Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 48, 77.
55
Ma a¯lim, 51–54; Milestones, 86–92; Ma a¯lim, 107–108, Milestones, 176–78; cf. Ma a¯lim, 52, 111, 145;
Milestones, 87, 181–82, 236.
56
Zw ila¯l, 1:576.
57
For example, Zw ila¯l, 3:1330–31. Ellis Goldberg has a good discussion of Taghut in “Smashing Idols
and the State: The Protestant Ethic and Egyptian Sunni Radicalism,” Comparative Studies in Society and
History 33 (1991): 3–35, esp. 15–18.
58
Ma a¯lim, 27–28; Milestones, 48–49. These four were: (1) a man asks a woman’s guardian for her hand
in marriage and provides a mahr, the kind that became standard among Muslims; (2) a husband arranged
for his wife to become pregnant by a man of good lineage; (3) a group of men had intercourse with the
same woman and after she gave birth she would state who was the father; (4) many men would frequent
a prostitute, and if she gave birth, an expert in determining resemblances would decide who was the father.
Qutb gives the source as Sw a˙ı¯˙ al-Bukha¯rı¯, Kita¯b al-Nikah.
59
Ma a¯lim, 113–14; Milestones, 184–85. John Profumo, who was secretary of state for war, a noncabinet
position, got involved sexually with Christine Keeler, who was also involved with the naval attache´
at the Russian Embassy. When rumors began to circulate, he first denied them but then confessed and
resigned his seat in Parliament in June 1963. This raised doubts about security service and almost caused
the fall of the government.
60
Ma a¯lim, 112; Milestones, 183; cf. Zw ila¯l, 1:235 ff.
542 William E. Shepard
61
Ma a¯lim, 114; Milestones, 185.
62
Ma a¯lim, 113; Milestones, 184.
63
Ma a¯lim, 54, 108–12; Milestones, 91, 178–82.
64
Shepard notes the “increased theocentrism” of the last edition of Ada¯la (Social Justice, xxiv–xxxi.)
65
Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 94; This Religion, 97.
66
Ma a¯lim, 8; Milestones, 15. Cf. Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 92–93; This Religion, 95–96.
67
Ma a¯lim, 3–4.
68
Ibid., 89–93; Milestones, 148–55; cf. Zw ila¯l, 4, 1945–47. In his statement to his interrogators, he moderates
his position slightly: “[s]ocieties in Muslim lands find themselves in a condition very similar to the
condition of the ja¯hilı¯ societies at the coming of Islam”: Lima¯dha¯, 33.
69
Ada¯la, 297; Social Justice, 353 (last edition only).
70
Ma a¯lim, 17–18; Milestones, 32.
71
Ada¯la, 248, 293; Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 46; chap. 9, para. 25, 27 (last edition only).
72
Ada¯la, 244; Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 32.
73
Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 5; cf. chap. 7, para. 343.
74
Ibid., chap. 8, para. 22, cf. para. 9, “The stopping [of the Islamic spirit] has only been partial; it never
has been complete.”
75
Ma a¯lim, 31–32; Milestones, 55. Cf. Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 36–37; This Religion, 36–37.
76
For example, “The ja¯hiliyya of the twentieth century which undertakes to crush the remaining roots
of this religion”: Zw ila¯l, 3:1649. Cf. Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 37; This Religion, 37.
77
Ma a¯lim, 118; Milestones, 191.
78
This would seem to be the answer to Kepel’s question, “Qutb had left his definition of ja¯hiliyya openended.
Were the iniquitous prince and his bureaucracy its sole representatives, or was the entire society
thus condemned? In other words, could any individual still be considered a Muslim?”: Kepel, Muslim
Extremism, 57.
79
“Some Muslims” becomes “Some,” and “Muslims” becomes “defeatists”: Social Justice, chap. 5, paras.
4, 8.
80
In his statement to his interrogators, Qutb says, “We did not declare people kafirs, as this would be
slanderous, but we say that they have become ignorant of the true meaning of the creed”: Lima¯dha¯, 37.
See also Muhammad Qutb in Muqawwima¯t, 13 (editor’s introduction), and Yunus, Sayyid Qutb, 221.
81
Yunus, Sayyid Qutb, 271–72.
82
For example, Qutb makes explicit comparisons with Muslims who seek devices to get around the
commands of religion with Jews who did so in Muhammad’s time: Zw ila¯l, 2:892. These comparisons are
not in the earlier edition: Fı¯ zw ila¯l al-Qur an, lst ed., (Cairo: Isa al-Babi al-Halabi, n.d. [1953–58?], pt 6,
62). Qutb told his followers that they should consider meat slaughtered by nominal Muslims as meat
slaughtered by people of the Book: (Yunus, Sayyid Qutb, 269, citing Ali Ashmawi, “Ana wa-l-ikhwan
wa-l-nizam al-khass”, Al-Musawwar, 14 May 1993, Al-halqah al-sadisah, no. 3578.
83
Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 65; This Religion, 67; cf. Muqawwina¯t, 25–26, 99.
84
The title is a chapter of Ma a¯lim.
85
Zw ila¯l, 3:1644; cf. Ma a¯lim, 160; Milestones, 208.
86
Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 64; This Religion, 66.
87
For example, Ma a¯lim, 14; Milestones, 26.
88
Ada¯la, 248; Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 31. Ma a¯lim, 5; Milestones, 11. Cf. “The Muslim umma has
vanished from existence . . . for a long period (dahran twawı¯lan): Ma a¯lim, 6; Milestones, 12. Akhavi, “The
Dialectic,” 381–82, n. 26, adduces Ma a¯lim, 5, as well as a statement of Muhammad Amara to claim that
Qutb sees everything since 661 as ja¯hilı¯. This leads him to find contradictions in Qutb’s writing that are
not there if the period of Islam is longer.
89
Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 37, 46, 64; This Religion, 37, 47, 66; cf. Zw ila¯l, 209.
90
Ma a¯lim, 129–30; Milestones, 208; Muqawwima¯t, 62; Ada¯la, 247–48, Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 49.
91
Ada¯la, 218; Social Justice, chap. 7, para. 234; cf. paras. 188, 219. By contrast, the earlier editions
(1949–58) describe the victory of the Umayyads as “the disaster that broke the back of Islam”: ibid., chap.
7, para. 235, fn. to para. 234. In the earlier editions, however, there is no return to ja¯hiliyya, and Islam
still exists today: for example, ibid., chap. 8, para. 9.
92
Zw ila¯l, 2:949.
93
Ibid., 2:948–49. Cf. Ada¯la, 185–86; Social Justice, chap. 7, para. 88.
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 543
94
Ma a¯lim, 86–87; cf. Milestones, 145 (but part of the Arabic text is missing from the English translation)
where the term jama¯ a is used; cf. Zw ila¯l, 3:1644, where ißbah appears.
95
Ma a¯lim, 23–31; Milestones, 42–54.
96
Ma a¯lim, 159–61; Milestones, 259–62.
97
Ma a¯lim, 161; Milestones, 263, and Ma a¯lim, 17; Milestones, 31.
98
Ma a¯lim, chap. on Tw abı¯ at al-manhaj al-Qur a¯nı¯; Milestones, chap. 2.
99
Ma a¯lim, 88 (my translation, cf. Milestones, 147).
100
Abul Ala Mawdudi, Jihad in Islam (Kuwait: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations,
1981), 5.
101
Ma a¯lim, 55–82; Milestones, 93–140.
102
He does use thawra for Muhammad’s movement in Ma a¯lim, 22–23; Milestones, 41; cf. Zw ila¯l, 2:1005.
103
Zw ila¯l, 2:950–51.
104
Ma a¯lim, 38–45; Milestones, 66–77.
105
Lima¯dha¯, 46.
106
Versions of the events vary, as Kepel mentions (Muslim Extremism, 31). Hamuda (Sayyid Qutb, 176–
77) and Yunus (Sayyid Qutb, 256–59) state that the secret organization Qutb was leading was preparing for
violence in self-defense, but this could include assassinating political leaders and destroying installations.
107
Ma a¯lim, 7; Milestones, 12. In Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n he speaks of the end of the century (93, 94; This Religion,
96, 97). See n. 130.
108
Sayyid Qutb, Muhimmat al-Sha ir fı¯ al-Hw ayah wa-Shi r al-Jı¯l al-Hw adit¯h (The Task of the Poet) (Cairo:
Dar al-Shuruq, n.d.), 62–63. The original edition was published in Cairo by Matba at al-Talabah in 1932.
109
“Al- alam yajrı¯” (The World Runs), Al-Risa¯lah 2 (15 September 1933), 12–14.
110
“Al-dhawq al fannı¯ fı¯ mißr wa-usturat naha¯r al-junu¯n,” Al-Risa¯lah 9, 393 (13 January 1941), 37–38;
“Firaq li-muka¯fi˙at a¯l-ghina¯ al-marı¯d,” ibid. 9, 395 (27 January 1941), 94–96; “Al-funu¯n wa-dw ama¯ ir alshu
u¯b,” ibid., 9, 399 (24 February 1941), 211–12.
111
“Suw war min al-jı¯l al-jadı¯d,” ibid., 13, 622 (3 June 1945), 1309–10; “Sw ara¯ßı¯ . . . !” ibid. 14, 683 (5
August 1946), 856–58; “Suq al-raqı¯q,” ibid., 14, 685 (19 August 1946), 911–13.
112
“Ha¯dhihi hiya faransa,” ibid., 13, 624 (18 June 1945), 632–33; “Lughat al- abı¯d,” ibid., 15, 709 (3
February 1947), 134–36.
113
“Al-dw amı¯r al-amrı¯ka¯nı¯” ibid., 14, 694 (21 October 1946), 1155–57.
114
“ Adalu¯ bara¯mijakum aw insahabu¯ qabl fawa¯t al-awa¯n,” ibid., 13, 627 (9 July 1945), 723–24; “Qiya¯datu¯na
al-ru˙iyyah,” ibid., 15, 705 (6 January 1947), 27–29.
115
See Social Justice, chap. 1, para. 27; chap. 6, para. 112; chap. 7, paras. 67, 160, 172, 179, 234 for the
occurrences in the first four editions, to 1954. All of these refer to ja¯hiliyya as a historical period except
chap. 6, para. 112 (“ignorant”), and chap. 7, para. 67 (translated “barbarous”, but the historical reference
is implicit). Occurrences added in the 1958 edition are found at chap. 8, paras. 180, 223.
116
Social Justice, chap. 8, paras. 180, 308.
117
Sayyid Qutb, Na˙w Mujtama Isla¯mı¯, 6th ed. (Cairo and Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq, 1983), 17–45; Social
Justice, chap. 9, paras. 12–20. See also some of his articles in the Cairo literary magazine Al-Risa¯la,
including “Al-kutlah al-Isla¯miyya fı¯ al-mı¯za¯n al-duwalı¯” (19, 949 [1 September 1951], 1021–24); “Al-tw.
arı¯q ila¯ al-kutla al-tha¯litha ” (20, 976 [17 March 1952], 293–95); “Ghu¯ba¯r ˙awla al-kutlah al-isla¯miyyah”
(20, 981 [21 April 1952], 433–35); “Al- a¯lam al-isla¯mı¯ ˙aqı¯qah wa¯qi ah” (20, 966 [7 January 1952], 10–12).
118
“Amrı¯ka alladhı¯ raayt: Fı¯ mı¯za¯n al-qiya¯m al-insa¯niyyah,” Al-Risa¯la, 19, 957 (5 November 1951),
1245–47; ibid., 19, 959 (19 November 1951), 1301–306; ibid., 19, 961 (3 December 1951), 1357–60.
These are reprinted in Salah Abd al-Fattah al-Khalidı¯, Amrı¯ka min al-Dakhil bi-manzar Sayyid Qutb (Mansura:
Dar al-Wafa and Jedda: Dar al-Manara, 1987), 97–123.
119
Cf. Ada¯la, 292; Social Justice, chap. 9, para. 12.
120
Social Justice, chap. 8, para. 19 (1949–58 eds.).
121
See “Al-quwwa al-ka¯mina fı¯ al-isla¯m.” Al-Risa¯la 19, 963 (17 December 1951), 1413–14; “Al- alam
al-isla¯mı¯ ˙aqı¯qa waqi a,” ibid., 20, 966 (7 January 1952), 10–12.
122
“Al-shu u¯b al-isla¯miyyah taz˙af,” ibid., 20, 979 (7 April 1952), 377–79.
123
On Qur an 29:46–47, see Zw ila¯l, pt. 5, 2745 ff. (This part was not revised; cf. n. 26.)
124
Nadwi, Ma¯dha¯ khasira, 9–10.
125
Zw ila¯l, 1st ed., pt. 6, 67–68.
126
See Zw ila¯l, 5:2860–61, on Qur an 33:33; Zw ila¯l, 6:3329, on Qur an 48:26. Neither the commentary on
544 William E. Shepard
Qur an 3:154 in the earlier edition (Zw ila¯l, 1st ed., pt. 4, 51–52) nor that in the later edition (Zw ila¯l, 2nd ed.,
1:495–97) shows all of the distinctive characteristics of the later doctrine.
127
This point is also illustrated by the fact that the earlier editions of Ada¯la have material on the specifics
of social legislation that are eliminated from the last edition: Social Justice, l–li, chap. 8, paras. 270–318.
128
Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 90; This Religion, 92; cf. Na˙w, 42–43.
129
Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 36–38, 42–47, 61–62, 74–91; This Religion, 37–39, 44–48, 63, 76–93.
130
Ha¯dha¯ al-Dı¯n, 93, 94; This Religion, 96–97. See n. 107.
131
My copy was published in Beirut by Al-Itti˙a¯d al-Isla¯mı¯ al- A¯ lami in 1978. The English translation
is Islam: The Religion of the Future (Kuwait: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations,
n.d.).
132
Originally published under the title Khaßa¯ iß al-Taßawwur al-Isla¯mı¯ wa-Muqawwima¯tuh (Characteristics
and Components of the Islamic Conception), 1st ed., pt. 1 (Dar Ihya al-Kutub al-Arabiyya, 1962). My
copy is the 8th ed. (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 1983). The English translation is The Islamic Concept and its
Characteristics, trans. Mohammed M. Siddiqui (Indianapolis: American Trust Publications, 1991). This is
now known as Khaßa¯ iß al-taßawwur al-isla¯mı¯, because the second part was published as Muqawwima¯tuh
al-taßawwur al-isla¯mı¯ (Components of the Islamic Conception) posthumously.
133
Khaßa¯ iß al-taßawwur 77–78; Islamic Concept, 72–73. For other appearances of the word ja¯hiliyya in
Khaßa¯ iß al-taßawwur, see 7, 24, 39, 85.
134
Mustaqbal, 116–18; Future, 125–27. For appearances of the word ja¯hiliyya, see also Mustaqbal, 9,
21, 23, 115; Future, 11, 25, 29, 124.
135
The passage in Zw ila¯l quoted earlier (see n. 26) as a prime example of the late doctrine may have been
published around 1962. According to Sivan and Kepel, parts of Milestones were circulated in unpublished
form after 1962: Sivan, Radical Islam, 26; Kepel, Muslim Extremism, 30.
136
An extreme example would be the statement that Qutb began to develop the ja¯hiliyya theory in the
late 1940s in the article titled “Ja¯hiliyya” in The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 2, 353.
137
Sivan, Radical Islam, 25–27; Kepel, Muslim Extremism, 28–29. Hamuda, Sayyid Qutb, chap. 6, esp.
130–31; Mousalli, Radical Islamic Fundamentalism, 36.
138
Sayyid Qutb, Social Justice in Islam, trans. John B. Hardie, rev. trans. and intro. Hamid Algar
(Oneonta, N.Y.: Islamic Publications International, 2000), 8.
139
Kepel, Muslim Extremism, 46.
140
Ellis Goldberg (“Smashing Idols”) argues that political power and the state have been central concerns
of both Puritans and Islamists. To his question, “Is Sunni radicalism an argument about the state, rather
than merely a response to a particular set of social conditions?” (p. 33), I would say that Qutb’s ja¯hiliyya
doctrine is a response to a particular set of social conditions rather than merely an argument about the
state, but that the state is an extremely important part of these conditions.
141
For these groups I have relied, among others, on Kepel, Muslim Extremism, chaps. 3, 5, 7; Sivan,
Radical Islam, chap. 4; Saad Eddin Ibrahim, “Anatomy of Egypt’s Militant Groups: Methodological Note
and Preliminary Findings,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 12 (1980): 423–53; idem, “Egypt’s
Islamic Militants”, MERIP Reports 103 (1982): 5–14; and The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic
World, s.v. “Takfı¯r wa al-Hijrah, Jama¯ at al-” (J. J. J. Jansen; 4:179–80); “Jama¯ at Isla¯miyah” (Ibrahim
Ibrahim; 2:354–56); “Jihad Organizations” (As ad Abu Khalil; 2:375). Takfı¯r wa-Hijra is the name popularly
given to the group that called itself Jama¯ at al-Muslimı¯n. Takfı¯r refers to the fact that the group
considered society to be ka¯fir, and hijra refers to their withdrawing from society following the model of
the Prophet’s hijra. The Military Academy Group (Jama¯‘at al- Askariyya al-Faniyya) called itself Munazw zw amat
al-Ta˙rı¯r al-Isla¯mı¯ (Islamic Liberation Organization). Jiha¯d and the Jama¯ a al-Isla¯miyya are closely
related and come out of the matrix of the Jama¯ a¯t al-Isla¯miyya, a term referring to a number of groups,
initially on university campuses in the 1970s.
142
See the quote from Shukri Mustafa in Abdel Aziz Ramadan, “Fundamentalist Influence in Egypt: The
Strategies of the Muslim Brotherhood and the Takfir Groups,” in Fundamentalisms and the State, ed. M.
Marty and R. S. Appleby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 158.
143
Kepel, Muslim Extremism, 74–76.
144
Jansen describes the group as “a case of cult formation”: Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic
World, 4:179–80.
145
Ibrahim, “Anatomy,” 435; Kepel, Muslim Extremism, 93; Taji-Farouki, Fundamental Quest, chap. 1.
Sayyid Qutb’s Doctrine of Ja¯hiliyya 545
146
Ibrahim, “Anatomy,” 431; cf. 442, also 435 and passim. Kepel states that his disciples did not agree
that all society represented ja¯hiliyya, but that “the iniquitous prince alone blocked the spread of an Islamic
mode of society” (ibid., 93).
147
Kepel, Muslim Extremism, chap. 7.
148
Translated in J. J. G. Jansen, The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat’s Assassins and Islamic Resurgance
in the Middle East (New York: Macmillan, 1986), 183–85. My Arabic text lacks publication information
and is probably a copy of the Amman text mentioned by Jansen at the top of p. 3.
149
The Neglected Duty. I have located six instances of the word ja¯hiliyya, two from the Qur an, two from
hadith, and one each from Ibn Kathir and Ibn Taymiyyah (corresponding to pp. 166, 167, 172, 174, 175,
197 in Jansen’s translation).
150
In an issue of their newssheet, of which I have a copy, the writer says the people of Egypt would vote
for Islam if Mubarak gave them the chance: “Al-jaza¯ ir bayn zayf al-dı¯muqra¯twiyya wa-l- ada¯ li-l-isla¯m,”
Al-Jama¯ a al-Isla¯miyya, Sha ba¯n 1412.
151
Sivan states that it is Qutb’s earlier Islamist thought that has had influence in Iran: Emmanuel Sivan,
“Sunni Radicalism in the Middle East and the Iranian Revolution,” International Journal of Middle East
Studies 21 (1989): 1. This accords with what I know of the matter.
152
The index to Algar’s collection of his writings and statements, however, gives only one instance of
the word ja¯hiliyya, and the meaning here is traditional: R. M. Khomeini, Islam and Revolution: Writings
and Declarations of Imam Khomeini, trans. H. Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981), 333.
153
See Sivan, Radical Islam, chap. 7, for a discussion of the problems between Sunni and Shi i radical
Islamists. See also his “Sunni Radicalism.”
154
Mitha¯q Hw arakat al-Muqa¯wamah al-Islamiyyah—Filastwı¯n (Hamas)/Covenant of the Islamic Resistance
Movement—Palestine (HAMAS), Palestine, 18 August 1988/1 Muharram 1409, n.p., art. 9. The statement
in Article 12 that “patriotism (watwaniyya) . . . is part of the religious creed” would hardly seem to accord
with Qutb’s late thinking.
155
Ibid., art. 19. In her study of Hamas’s ideology, Muslim Palestine: The Ideology of Hamas [Amsterdam:
Harwood, 1998], Andrea Nu¨sse makes a number of references to Qutb’s ja¯hiliyya but also indicates that
Hamas has not yet followed it (p. 173).
156
My sources for Bin Ladin are quite limited. The following comments are based on his “Declaration
of War,” 12–14 October 1996; available from: http://msanews.mynet.net/scholars/laden; his “fatwa,” the
“World Islamic Front’s Statement Urging Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders,” 23 February 1998; available
in Arabic from http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/fatw2.htm and in English from http://www
.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/wif.htm; and various media reports. The statement that the Taliban has
the only Islamic state is made in an interview with Hamid Mir on 9 November 2001, published in Dawn
(Karachi) and reprinted in the Christchurch Press, 12 November 2001.
157
“Declaration of War,” pt. 2, with some corrections in spelling and wording. Amr ibn Kulthum, in fact,
has left us one of the most striking examples of the pre–Islamic use of the root j-h-l: “Let no one act
fiercely (yajhalanna) against us, for we shall be fiercer than the fierce (fa-najhalu fawqa jahli al-ja¯hilı¯na).”
See Al-Zamakhshari, Al-Kashshaf an haqa¯ iq al-tanzı¯l wa- uyu¯n al-aqa¯wı¯l fı¯ wuju¯h al-tawı¯l, vol. 3 (Cairo:
Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi, 1966), 99.
158
Ma a¯lim al-isla¯m (Cairo: Sina li-l-Nashr, 1989), 17–19, 79–82. Ashmawi and many others have labeled
the extremists Khawarij.
159
Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Islam in Modern History (New York: New American Library, 1957), 47–48.