See	discussions,	stats,	and	author	profiles	for	this	publication	at:	https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290533357
The	Early	Pleistocene	site	of	Kermek	in	western
Ciscaucasia	(southern	Russia):	Stratigraphy,
biotic	record	and	lithic	industry	(preliminary
results)
ARTICLE		in		QUATERNARY	INTERNATIONAL	·	JANUARY	2016
Impact	Factor:	2.06	·	DOI:	10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.032
CITATION
1
READS
103
6	AUTHORS,	INCLUDING:
Pavel	Frolov
Russian	Academy	of	Sciences
6	PUBLICATIONS			2	CITATIONS			
SEE	PROFILE
A.N.	Simakova
Russian	Academy	of	Sciences
61	PUBLICATIONS			393	CITATIONS			
SEE	PROFILE
Available	from:	A.N.	Simakova
Retrieved	on:	26	February	2016
The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern
Russia): Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary
results)
V.E. Shchelinsky a
, M. Gurova b
, A.S. Tesakov c
, V.V. Titov d, *
, P.D. Frolov c
, A.N. Simakova c
a
Institute for the History of the Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 191186, Dvortsovaya nab., 18, Russia
b
National Institute of Archaeology and Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia 1000, Soborna str., 2, Bulgaria
c
Geological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119017, Pyzhevsky, 7, Russia
d
Institute of Arid Zones SSC RAS, Southern Scientific Centre, Russian Academy of Science, Rostov-on-Don 344006, Chekhov str., 41, Russia
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Kermek
Oldowan e Acheulean transition
Early Pleistocene
Upper Kujalnik
Western Ciscaucasia
Southern Russia
a b s t r a c t
The discovery of the Early Pleistocene sites of Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka and Rodniki 1 on the Taman
Peninsula in western Ciscaucasia led to the recognition of a distinctive “Tamanian industry”, with a timerange
of 1.6e1.2 Ma, and with characteristics that are transitional between Oldowan and Acheulean
(“Archaic Acheulean”). The site of Kermek was discovered by V.E. Shchelinsky in 2008 during investigation
of the older Lower Pleistocene sediments exposed in the coastal cliff of the Sea of Azov in the
vicinity of previously studied sites.
In this paper, we present preliminary data from a multidisciplinary study of the Early Pleistocene site
of Kermek, situated near to the sites of Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka and Rodniki 1, but which is significantly
older. This site is connected with a well-studied Early Pleistocene (late Kujalnikian) fluviatile-shallow
marine sequence. These reverse magnetized deposits are characterized by freshwater and brackish
water mollusks (with Dreissena theodori), and by a small mammal fauna (with Allophaiomys deucalion),
and are dated to the latest Gelasian or early Calabrian ca. 2.1e1.8 Ma. The lithic industry from the site can
be attributed to the Classic Oldowan but with distinctive local features that include indications of
“advanced technologies” such as the manufacture of large flakes and picks. In this respect, this industry is
assumed to have been a genetic precursor of the later Early Pleistocene Tamanian industry, which has a
well pronounced Acheulean component.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The southern regions of European Russia have long been
considered among the areas of initial human occupation dating to
the Early Pleistocene. This opinion was first expressed in the mid
20th century based on occurrences of what appeared as artificially
split bones among the Early Pleistocene mammalian fauna of the
Tsimbal locality in the Taman Peninsula (Vereshchagin, 1957),
accompanied by occasional surface finds of stone tools of Early
Paleolithic appearance (Formozov, 1962, 1965). Tsimbal was
included in the list of the oldest Early Paleolithic sites of Eurasia,
dated between 1.5 and 0.78 Ma (Bosinski, 1996, 2006; J€oris, 2014).
The finds from Tsimbal have long remained unsupported by
evidence from other sites in the region. In the early 2000s several
new Early Paleolithic sites were discovered in the southern part of
Russia, which provide convincing evidence of early humans presence
and settlement in this region. These new, important records
include the early Middle Pleistocene (0.6e0.8 Ma) site of Karama, in
the northwestern part of the Altai Mountains (Derevianko et al.,
2005; Derevianko and Shunkov, 2008); the coeval site of Darvagchai
1 in east Ciscaucasia on the Caspian Lowland (Derevianko,
2006, 2009; Derevianko and Zenin, 2010); a series of Early Pleistocene
sites (Ainikab 1, 2, Mukhkai 1, 2, Gegalashur 1, 3) in the
northeastern Caucasus mountains of Daghestan (Amirkhanov,
2007, 2008); and a group of Early Pleistocene sites in the western
Ciscaucasus on the Taman Peninsula (Bosinski et al., 2003;
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shchelinsky@yandex.ru (V.E. Shchelinsky), vvtitov@yandex.ru
(V.V. Titov).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.032
1040-6182/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
Shchelinsky et al., 2003; Shchelinsky and Kulakov, 2007;
Shchelinsky, 2010; Shchelinsky et al., 2010a). These important
discoveries shed light on the earliest stages of human occupation of
Western Asia and Eastern Europe, the appearance of ancient
humans in Eurasia, their migrations routes and tool-making
activities.
Of particular importance is the discovery of Early Pleistocene
sites in the northwestern piedmonts of the Caucasus (Bosinski
et al., 2003; Shchelinsky et al., 2003) on the Taman Peninsula in
southern European Russia (Fig. 1). The area is situated in the north
Caucasus steppe climatic zone, where until recently it was difficult
to imagine any evidence of Early Paleolithic habitation.
It is therefore not surprising that, initially, a number of researchers
expressed doubts and scepticism about the authenticity
and artifactual character of the new finds. With this in mind, in
2008 an international scientific conference entitled “Early Paleolithic
of Eurasia: New Discoveries” was organized on the Taman
Peninsula. During this scientific event a visit to the newly discovered
Taman sites was organized. The site location patterns as well
as all archaeological artifacts were then observed and openly discussed
by the conference participants. At the end, all scientists
present agreed that the sites and finds were the result of human
activity, and noted their occurrence in clear paleontological and
geological contexts. Thus previous scepticism about the Taman
Early Paleolithic sites was overcome. Some scholars still do not
accept the anthropogenic character of the evidence, Doronichev in
particular (see Doronichev, 2011), probably because this new date
does not fit with his speculative view of Paleolithic development in
the Caucasus.
Three Early Pleistocene sites are currently under study in
western Ciscaucasia: Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka, Rodniki 1 and Kermek.
These sites are located close together on the northern (Azovian)
shore of the Taman Peninsula, 25 km to the west of Temryuk
city, near Za Rodinu village (Temryuk district, Krasnodar Region)
(Fig. 2). The sites are situated at the geographic boundary between
Western Asia and Southeastern Europe running along the Manych
Depression from the Caspian to the Don River and to the Sea of
Azov.
Investigation of the sites is far from complete. However, available
data are sufficient to establish their chronology, and the
techno-typological features of the stone artifacts. In particular, it
can be assumed all three sites are of Early Pleistocene age, and thus
relate to the initial stage of the Early Paleolithic. However, judging
from the available paleomagnetic and biostratigraphic data, they
belong to different stages of the Early Pleistocene (Shchelinsky
et al., 2010a,b). The best studied sites in this group are Bogatyri/
Sinyaya Balka and Rodniki 1, as they were excavated over several
field seasons.
The multi-layer site of Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka has good chronological
control. The section, known as Sinyaya Balka, hosts an
important paleontological feature (a significant quantity of fossils
of large mammals) and was designated as a stratotype locality of
the Tamanian faunal complex (biochronological unit) of Eastern
Europe (Gromov, 1948; Vangengeim et al., 1991). The occurrence of
the bones in a dislocated block of sediment has long obscured its
geological position. Excavations in the 2000s revealed the reversed
magnetisation of the sequence indicating its attribution to the
Matuyama Chron (Dodonov et al., 2008a). The dating of the site is
based on the fauna of large and small mammals, and paleomagnetic
data. In all three artefact-bearing layers of the site the fauna has a
similar taxonomic composition and belongs to the Tamanian
complex. Typical taxa of this association are Tamanian southern
elephant Archidiskodon meridionalis tamanensis, large horse Equus
cf. major, giant steppe rhinoceros Elasmotherium caucasicum, bison
Bison sp., deer Cervidae gen., antelope Tragelaphini gen., and arvicolids
Mimomys savini, Lagurodon arankae (Titov et al., 2012). Bones
of Archidiskodon meridionalis tamanensis and Elasmotherium caucasicum
strongly dominate, whereas remains of horses, artiodactyls
and other herbivores of medium size class are rare (Baigusheva and
Titov, 2008; Titov and Tesakov, 2009), which is probably influenced
by human hunting preferences.
The Tamanian faunal complex is based on materials from multiple
localities in the Sea of Azov and Lower Don regions. It is
traditionally dated between 1.1 and 0.8 Ma (Vangengeim et al.,
1991). Recently, based on the study of small mammals, it was
suggested that the age of the unit's lower boundary predates
former estimates, back to ca. 1.55 Ma. Thus the age of the Sinyaya
Balka fauna (and hence the Bogatyri site) is currently estimated as
1.2e1.5 Ma (Titov et al., 2012). The reverse magnetisation of the
Sinyaya Balka sequence may indicate its accumulation during the
Matuyama Chron (2.58e0.78 Ma). Given the traditional correlation
of the Taman faunal complex localities with the late Early Pleistocene
(1.1e0.9 Ma), the correlative interval can be formally restricted
to the Chron S1r.1r (0.99e0.78 Ma). New biostratigraphic data for
large mammals of this complex, however, may indicate an older age
of the site sediments and their correlation with Chron S1r.2r
Fig. 1. Location of the studied Early Pleistocene sites in western Ciscaucasia (Taman Peninsula, Russia).
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e192
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
(1.77e1.07 Ma) (Dodonov et al., 2008a). The southern elephant of
Sinyaya Balka assigned to Archidiskodon meridionalis tamanensis is
typical for the Taman faunal complex. Judging from its likely basal
position among occurrences of the Tamanian elephants
(Baigusheva and Titov, 2008), the age of the Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka
site may be estimated as ca. 1.5e1.6 Ma (Sablin, 2008).
Faunal and palynological evidence from Bogatyri/Sinyay Balka
revealed the existence of forest-steppe and steppe landscapes, and
mixed forests with the presence of elm, oak, hornbeam, beech and
walnut along river valleys under conditions of warm temperate
climate (Dodonov et al., 2008b; Simakova, 2009; Shchelinsky et al.,
2010a).
The Rodniki 1 site, unlike Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka, occurs in undisturbed
Lower Pleistocene strata including coastal-marine sands
and subaerial loams. Lithic artifacts were found in the basal pebble
bed containing sub-rounded gravel and boulders of various sedimentary
rocks and sandy interlayers. This layer is overlain by a
thick sandy member correlated with the Apsheronian transgression
of the Ponto-Caspian Region (Shchelinsky et al., 2010b). The small
mammal fauna of the basal bed at Rodniki 1 includes Allophaiomys
cf. pliocaenicus, Lagurodon arankae, Lagurini gen., Mimomys cf.
savini, Mimomys cf. pusillus, Mimomys sp., Borsodia sp., Ellobius sp.,
Spermophilus sp., Allactaga sp., Spalax sp. and Allocricetus cf. ehiki.
The megamammal remains are few but include fragments of
elephant teeth. The association is typical for mid Early Pleistocene
(Calabrian) in the time-range ca. 1.4e1.6 million years ago
(Shchelinsky et al., 2010a, b). This fauna is broadly synchronous
with the mammalian fauna of the adjacent Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka
site. The landscape and climatic conditions during the formation of
Rodniki 1 are similar to those of the Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka site
(Simakova, 2009).
The lithic industries of both sites are also similar (Shchelinsky,
2010, 2013a). This similarity is clearly manifested in the raw material,
the primary flaking technology, the method of tool making
and the tool categories. In fact, they form an industry with welldefined
technological and typological features, representing a
distinct entity that can be termed the “Tamanian industry”. This
industry existed in western Ciscaucasia between ca. 1.2e1.6 Ma
(Shchelinsky, 2014, 2015).
However, the cultural-stadial status of the Tamanian industry is
still unclear. Initially it seemed to meet the techno-typological
criteria of Oldowan/Mode 1 technology and to represent a local
variant/facies (Shchelinsky et al., 2010a). However, a more detailed
study of the assemblage revealed some quite developed forms of
artifacts, as well as manufacturing techniques, that can be hardly be
attributed to the petrographic and morphological characteristics of
the local raw materials.
2. Tamanian lithic industry in the context of Early Pleistocene
technocomplexes
Lithic industries attributable to Oldowan/Mode 1, now identified
not only in Africa, where they were first described (Leakey,
1971), but also in various regions of Eurasia have differing ages.
In Africa they are dated from 2.6 to 1.6 Ma, in southern and eastern
Asia from 2.0 to 0.8 Ma, and in Europe from 1.6 to 0.6 Ma (Barsky,
2009). These industries precede more developed Acheulean industries,
characterized by large flake technology and tool types
such as handaxes, picks and cleavers, although in some regions
Oldowan and Acheulean industries coexist.
The main technological and typological characteristics of the
Oldowan are well known. It is a commonly agreed that Oldowan
industries, wherever identified, are characterized by the use of local
raw materials collected by hominins exclusively in the immediate
vicinity of the sites; by very simple knapping technology aimed at
making small non-standardized flakes, and by a very limited
number of retouched tools from flakes and debris (combination of
natural fragments and knapping debris). There are, however, nuances
in the interpretation of Oldowan technology and evolution.
For some researchers, the technological simplicity of Oldowan industries
is almost absolute. These researchers assume that Oldowan
lithic technology was focused on making small flakes with
sharp cutting edges, whereas the archetypal choppers, discoides,
polyhedrons, heavy-duty scrapers and proto-bifaces (“heavy-duty
tools” of M. Leakey) are interpreted not as deliberately made tools,
but as a byproduct of making flakes (Schick and Toth, 2006).
Technological and typological changes in the Oldowan tool
manufacture and repertoire were also differently assessed by researchers.
One opinion is that during this period technological
Fig. 2. Location of Early Pleistocene sites (black dots) at the northern shore of the Taman Peninsula.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 3
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
stagnation took place, although Oldowan industries differed from
one another by variations in raw material selection and reduction
strategy. These variations were explained in terms of economic and
environmental factors (Stout et al., 2010). Other researchers believe
the Oldowan could be divided into two evolutionary stages e PreOldowan
or Archaic Oldowan and Oldowan sensu stricto or Classical
Oldowan. The oldest industries dated between 2.55 and 1.9 Ma are
attributed to Pre-Oldowan; they are characterized particularly by
the use of raw materials collected from the vicinity of the sites.
Knapping was performed by unifacial, unidirectional and rarely
centripetal removals. Multipolar and bifacial knapping was used
rarely. Cores have a small number of removals. Among the chipped
stones retouched tools made from flakes and debris are virtually
absent; core-tools or pebble tools and particularly choppers and
chopping-tools are occasionally present. Classical Oldowan industries,
younger than 1.9 Ma (the eponymous complexes of Olduvai
Gorge in Tanzania) are not fundamentally different from the
Pre-Oldowan. However, they appear more evolved. There are
more bifacial and multifacial cores, and an increasing number of
pebble tools and spheroids. A very important innovation in the
industries of this Classical Oldowan stage is a noticeable increase in
small retouched tools (end- and side scrapers and denticulates),
made from flakes and debris (Lumley et al., 2009a,b).
Oldowan/Mode 1 technology is also attested in European sites,
concentrated in karstic areas of the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain.
Here, in the stratigraphic sequence from the oldest to the youngest
strata, the researchers recorded clear signs of improvement in
stone working technology, in terms of diversity of the raw materials
used, increasing complexity of the knapping techniques and tool
fashioning (Mosquera et al., 2013; Olle et al., 2013).
Thus, the Oldowan is increasingly perceived not as a cultural
unit, but rather as a set of similar though not identical industries.
Morphologically, the stone inventory of these industries varies
depending on the quality of the available raw materials, site function,
and other factors. Of interest in this regard is the recently
proposed four-phase evolutionary model describing progressive
changes and increasing technological complexity in Oldowan industries,
and suggesting that in terms of technology there are not
always clear borders/distinction between the Oldowan and
Acheulean industries (Barsky, 2009; Carbonell et al., 1999a, 2009,
(2015)).
As noted above, the Early Pleistocene Tamanian industry of
western Ciscaucasia does not fit the technological and typological
parameters of Oldowan/Mode 1 either in its African or in its European
variants, although there are similarities between the Oldowan
and the Tamanian industry (Shchelinsky, 2014, 2015). It is
worth listing the most significant features of the Tamanian industry.
First, there is documented use of one type of raw material e
local and strongly silicified dolomite of Miocene age. However,
there was no deliberate or preferential choice of this material; quite
simply there were no other rocks within many kilometres of the
Tamanian sites. The primary dolomite is also absent in outcrops
surrounding the sites. The hominins collected dolomite on eroded
surfaces of mud volcanic sediments containing these redeposited
concretions in large quantity, and partly on the beaches near the
sites. The raw material was only in the form of platy separateness
and their various debris in different dimensions. Raw material in
the form of pebbles was absent (except for some isolated pebbles of
quartz, which served as hammerstones). Evidently, the sites' inhabitants
preferred to use the high quality fine-grained dolomite
instead of quartz. Selection of dolomite pieces was performed by
two methods: the usual sorting of naturally occurring fragments
and a specialized method of intentional splitting of large platy
pieces of dolomite into smaller fragments with subsequent selection
of the most suitable pieces in terms of size and quality. The
necessity of such operations appears to be due to the fact that the
surfaces of the dolomite fragments were often affected by chemical
weathering. As a result, the unweathered part of the dolomite was
the most suitable material for toolmaking. Splitting allowed
extraction and selection for use of the most durable and finegrained
dolomite pieces. Intentional fabrication of debris by splitting
of larger dolomite fragments is indicated by the typical relief of
the splitting surface and the patina on these surfaces, which is no
different from that on other dolomite artifacts in the same assemblages.
Dolomite debris both intentionally split and natural was
used as cores and as blanks for tools. In general, in the Tamanian
industry their manufacture and use was as important as the production
and use of flakes. However, flakes and fragments are not
the dominant element in this industry. Flakes, including those with
retouch and other secondary treatment, make up slightly more
than half of the industry.
There are many cores and large and small retouched tools of
various types, fashioned by flaking and retouching. Cores usually
show a small number of removals. They have unprepared striking
platforms and are characterized by the predominance of unifacial
unidirectional knapping. There are also bifacial and multifacial
(prismatic) cores. However, centripetal cores are virtually absent.
The flakes mostly correspond to the cores. Many are primary
(the dorsal surface is completely corticated), and semi-primary
(partially covered with cortex). Other flakes have parallel, convergent,
parallel-counter and multidirectional dorsal negatives. This
variety suggests a complex reduction sequence. Flakes are mainly
formless but there are also sub-rectangular, sub-triangular and oval
flakes. Flake butts are usually corticated. Flake dimensions are
variable. However, if we consider only intact and nearly intact
specimens, including retouched flakes, small flakes (1e5 cm long)
and large flakes (>5 cm) occur in roughly equal proportions. There
are numerous that are 1e3 cm long. It is noteworthy that among
large flakes, a representative group of very large flakes, ranging in
length from 10.4 cm to 16.5 cm, can be distinguished. Some of these
very large flakes were fashioned into macro-tools.
Macro-tools are characterized by a combination of choppers,
chopper-like scrapers, core scrapers/heavy-duty scrapers, picks and
cleavers (the definitions of core scrapers/heavy-duty scraper, picks
and cleavers follows: Tixier, 1957; Kleindienst, 1962; Leakey, 1971;
Leakey and Roe, 1994; Clark and Kleindienst, 1974, 2001; Bar-Yosef
and Goren-Inbar, 1993; Sharon, 2009; Beyene et al., 2013). Various
forms of chopper are attested in the Tamanian industry, with some
made on large flakes. Among the choppers unifacial tools predominate.
Chopping tools are rare. Abundant among the choppers
are shortened forms with a broad working edge, as well as elongated
forms with a narrow working edge. There are a significant
number of pointed choppers. Chopper-like scrapers are similar to
the choppers, but they are made on carefully removed small flakes.
Core scrapers/heavy-duty scrapers are massive with oval or round
shapes. Picks are also well represented, though they are made
mostly on fragments, and rarely on large flakes. Among the picks
the most representative are unifacially shaped specimens, while
bifacial picks are rare. The cross-sections of picks are often subquadrangular,
trapezoidal, or sub-triangular. Typical trihedral
picks are virtually absent. Cleavers are robust and found as single
specimens. A very important technological and typological feature
of the Tamanian industry is the presence of many and varied small
retouched tools made on flakes and debris. Many are well made,
standardized and typologically distinct. We can also list different
types of side-scrapers, end-scrapers, borers, “reamers” (a type of
borer), “thorned” tools, beaked, denticulates, notches, and some
other categories of small retouched tools. However, associated with
them, are also a significant number of amorphous, slightly modified
tools in the form of partially retouched flakes and small fragments.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e194
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
Given the above-mentioned technological and typological
characteristics of the Tamanian industry, it is obvious that its
cultural-chronological attribution is very difficult. It is possible to
assign it to the so-called late European Mode 1 (Mosquera et al.,
2013), making its age significantly older. However, the existence
in this industry of large flakes and such complex standardized and
typologically distinct tools as picks and cleavers contradicts such a
simplistic interpretation. It is well known that such tool types are
not attested even in the later industries of Mode 1. On the other
hand they are important for defining Acheulean (Early Acheulean)
industries usually in combination with handaxes, which first
appeared in Africa around 1.76 Ma (Lepre et al., 2011; Beyene et al.,
2013; Semaw et al., 2013). In the Tamanian industry handaxes (the
main technological marker of the Acheulean), are absent and this
fact does not allow us to attribute it to the Early Acheulean industry.
In order to better characterize this industry, we have proposed a
Fig. 3. Exposure of the Upper Kujalnikian in the coastal cliff of the Sea of Azov, and positions of Kermek and Tizdar sites viewed from the north.
Fig. 4. The culture-containing layer of Kermek in the Early Pleistocene sequence overlain by covering loams.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 5
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
new term “archaic Acheulean”. It should be emphasized that it is
not synonymous with the term “Early Acheulean”. The term
“archaic Acheulean” is promoted to define the peculiar character
of the Tamanian industry which combines technological and
typological features of both Oldowan/Mode 1 and early Acheulean
technocomplexes. Most likely it is a transitional industry between
Oldowan/Mode 1 and Acheulean.
3. Geological setting, fauna and age site of Kermek
The site of Kermek is located 1 km west of the village of
Peresyp, 0.5 km north of the village of Za Rodinu, 250 m east of the
mouth of the Sinyaya balka (gully), and 200 m west of the site of
Rodniki 1 (N 45 21.45, E 37 06.19) (Fig. 2). It was discovered during
a study of the older Lower Pleistocene sediments exposed in the
coastal cliff of the Sea of Azov near to previously studied sites
(Shchelinsky et al., 2010b).
The site of Kermek occurs on the left limb of the Tizdar brachyanticline.
The strata are monoclinally tilted with 80e90 strike
and 30e35 dip (Pevzner et al., 1998; Dodonov et al., 2008b;
Shchelinsky et al., 2010b). The sequence of Early Pleistocene
sediments is exposed along the 15e20 m high coastal cliff of the
Azov Sea for ca. 100 m (Fig. 3). It consists of interbedded bluish
clays, fine-grained light grey and yellow sands, poorly sorted and
unsorted gravels, and dark mud volcanic clays. The total thickness
is more than 50 m. The tilted sequence is unconformably overlain
by 3 m thick horizontally bedded brownish loams enriched at the
base in ferruginous rubble.
This section has been known since the early 20th century.
Gubkin and Varencov (1933) reported the Kujalnikian age of the
deposits. The section was studied in detail by field teams from the
Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Pevzner
et al., 1998; Vangengeim et al., 1991; Tesakov et al., 1999;
Tesakov, 2004). The Tizdar sequence (bottom to top) is as follows
(thickness in brackets):
1. Clays and silts bluish-grey, sandy, layered, in the upper part
with thin-walled shells of Dreissena polymorpha (>7 m).
2. Gravel of ferruginous sandstone and carbonate concretions
with abundant shells of brackish and freshwater mollusks (see
below, Tizdar 1). This bed yielded small mammal association
Tizdar 1 (1 m).
3. White sands, fine-grained, micaceous, with mollusk shells of
Dreissena polymorpha, Theodoxus sp. (0.5e1 m).
4. Black sandy unstratified clays with large calcareous concretions
of complex shape. (4 m).
5. White fine- and medium-grained micaceous and cross-bedded
sands with gravelly interbeds. The bed is locally enriched in
shells of brackish- and freshwater mollusks, plant detritus and
remains of small mammals. The Kermek site occurs at the base
of the bed, and the site of Tizdar 2 at the top (20 m).
6. White fine-grained micaceous silty sands with indistinct
bedding (10 m).
7. Black sandy clays with horizons of carbonate concretions
(>7 m).
The covering loams of the upper part of the section (Fig. 4)
yielded scarce and fragmentary remains of Mammuthus cf. chosaricus
(tooth fragment), bones of Bison sp., and an almost complete
mandible of horse Equus cf. chosaricus. This association is typical for
the Khazar faunal complex and dates to the late Middle Pleistocene.
The bed containing lithic artifacts is located between the wellstudied
paleontological localities of Tizdar 1 and Tizdar 2, above
the clay of bed 4 in the basal level of the sandy member of bed 5. In
this bed occurs an interlayering of cross-bedded sands and gravel
Fig.5.PalynologicaldiagramoftheTizdarsequence.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e196
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
ca. 1 m thick (Figs. 3 and 4). This part of the section likely originated
in a shallow off-shore setting of the brackish marine basin.
According to Taktakishvili and Semenenko, the molluskan association
of the Tizdar sequence with dominant Dreissenidae,
including Dreissena theodori Andrusov, is characteristic for the
upper part of the Kujalnikian (Tesakov et al., 1999).
The paleomagnetic samples were taken at intervals of 1 m from
clay layers at the base and at the upper top part of the section (beds
1 and 7). All of them showed reverse magnetization that does not
contradict the Late Kujalnikian age of sediments based on the
malacofaunal analysis (Vangengeim et al., 1991).
The Kujalnikian is the eastern Paratethys marine regional stage
of the Black Sea basin. Kujalnikian deposits correspond to the interval
of the magnetic polarity timescale ranging from the Gauss
Chron (early Kujalnikian) to the early part of the Matuyama Chron
(late Kujalnikian) (Pevzner, 1989). Based on the study of the most
complete natural sections in western Georgia and boreholes from
the Kertch Peninsula it has been shown that the upper boundary of
the Kujalnikian is situated between the Olduvai and Gilsa Chrons
(Pevzner, 1989). In modern terms (Roberts et al., 2010; Ogg, 2012) it
can be interpreted as placed between the main part of the Olduvai
Chron (C2n) and its upper normal subchron (“Vrika subchron”).
Thus the upper limit of the Kujalnikian is drawn inside the Olduvai.
Because the deposits of the lower and upper parts of this section
show reversed polarity, the main part of the Tizdar sequence,
bearing in mind their Kujalnikian age, likely correlate with either
the pre-Olduvai interval (C2r.1r) or, less likely, an interval within
this Chron (C2n) (Pevzner, 1989; Tesakov et al., 1999).
The dating of the site of Kermek and the whole Tizdar sequence
is thus based on clear and reliable biostratigraphic and paleomagnetic
evidence (Pevzner et al., 1998). The occurrence of the site in a
shallow marine sequence makes it possible to constrain its chronological
position using the known upper boundary ages of the
Kujalniakian regional stage of the eastern Paratethys. Therefore, the
age of the site is not younger than 1.778 Ma (top of the Olduvai
Chron) based on straightforward stratigraphic correlation. We,
therefore, dismiss the criticism of Muttoni et al. (2013) that this
correlation is unreliable.
3.1. Palynology
The Tizdar sequence was sampled in increments of 1e2 m.
Sixteen samples characterize the lower clays and silts (bed 1),
gravels of bed 2, sands (beds 5, 6), and dark clays (bed 7) (Fig. 5).
Pollen concentration is higher in the clays and lower in the sandygravelly
interbeds. All samples yielded dinoflagellata. The lower silt
member (bed 1) shows pollen of herbs (Artemisia, Asteraceae,
Chenopodiaceae). The arboreal group reaches 25% and is represented
by pollen of Pinus, Salix, Ulmus, Juglans and Liquidambar. This
assemblage indicates a predominance of meadow and step landscapes.
The upper part of the bed shows an increase in arboreal
pollen of Pinus and Betula. Pollen of Tilia, Corylus, Quercus, Carpinus
also appears. This assemblage reflects increased mesic conditions
and expansion of conifer and broad-leaved forests.
Beds 2, 5 and 6, including the Tizdar 1, Kermek and Tizdar 2 levels,
contains a diverse herbal group (up to 50e60% of the spectra) with
Chenopodiacea, Poaceae, Asteraceae, Artemisia, Polygonaceae,
Valerianaceae, Polygonaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Typha and Azolla. The
arboreal group is dominated by pine, with single pollen grains of
Tsuga, Abies, Carya, Tilia, Acer, Fagus, Liquidambar, Quercus, Carpinus
and Sorbus. The reconstructed landscapes combine meadows steppe
Fig. 6. Allophaiomys deucalion Kretzoi from Kermek and Tizdar. 1-12, first lower molars, m1; 13-21, third upper molars, M3. Scale bar, 1mm.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 7
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
and coniferebroad-leaved forests. Pollen of riparian vegetation indicates
the presence of water bodies with slow currents.
All samples from the silty and sandy part of the section showed
the presence of dinoflagellates: Systematophora spp, Spiniferites
spp., Gonyaulax digitale, Operculodinium spp., Linguladinium spp.,
Achomosphaera andalusiense, Polysphaeridium spp., Polysphaeridinium
zoharyi and Filisphaera filifera.
The composition of the pollen spectra and phytoplankton indicate
the Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene age of the silty and sandy
members of the Tizdar sequence (Powell, 1992; Bolikhovskaya,
1995).
The spectra of dark clays at the top of the studied section (bed 7)
and in the clayey interlayer in the middle part of the section contain
pollen of Acacia, Sequoia, Cedrus, Engelhartia, Platicarya, Pterocarya,
Tilia caucasica, Fagus, and other taxa. This association is characteristic
of the Miocene and Early Pliocene (Ananova, 1974; Shchekina,
1979; Filippova, 2005). These deposits also showed the presence
of a mixed Paleogene-Neogene dinoflagellate association with
Deflandrea phosphoritica, Impagidinium polidium, Operculodinium
spp., Operculodinium cf. centrocarpum, Gonyaulax digitale, Galeoacysta
etrusca, Spiniferites spp., Achomosphaera andalusiense, Systematosphora
spp., Systematophora placacantha, Hystrichosphaeropsis
Fig. 7. Brackish- and freshwater mollusks from Kermek. 1e3. Margaritifera arca Tshepalyga, 1964: 1 e T-12/MgA-2 left valve, inner side; 2. T-12/MgA-1 right valve, inner side; 3. T-
12/MgA-1, right valve external side; Kermek. 4e7. Bogatschevia sp.: 4. T-12/Bsp-1, left valve, inner side; 5 e T-12/Bsp-1 left valve, external side; 6. T-12/Bsp-2, right valve, inner side;
7. T-12/Bsp-2, right valve, external side; Kermek. 8e9. Theodoxus danubialis (Pfeiffer): 8. T-08/TD-1, coloration pattern, antiapertural view; 9. T-08/TD-1, viewed from the mouth;
Kermek. 10. Theodoxus cf. transversalis (Pfeiffer), Т-10/ТТ-1, coloration pattern, antiapertural view; Kermek. 11. Fagotia acicularis (Ferussac, 1823), T-08/FA-1, apertural view. Kermek.
12. Fagotia esperi (Ferussac, 1823), T-08/FE-1, apertural view. Kermek. 13. Limax sp.: T-08/Lsp-1, spatula. Кermek. Scale bar, 1 mm. 14e15. Dreissena theodori kubanica Krestovnikov,
1928: 15. T-08/DTk-1, right valve, external view; 16. T-08/DTk-1, right valve, internal view; Tizdar 1.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e198
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
obscura, Impagidinium spp., Homotrybium spp. and Wetzeliella spp. It
is most likely that the clay interbeds contain considerable amounts
of redeposited Tertiary pollen owing to mud volcanic activity.
3.2. Mammals
The Tizdar sequence yielded two assemblages of small mammals
(Fig. 3). The lower one (Tizdar 1) comes from the gravel layer
(bed 2) at the base of the section. The upper one (Tizdar 2) is located
upsection in the gravelly interbed at the top of the middle sandy
member of the section (bed 5). Both assemblages have similar
faunal compositions and include remains of primitive Allophaiomys
(Tesakov, 2004).
Tizdar 1 includes Soricidae gen., Leporidae gen., Spermophilus sp.,
Spalax sp., Allactaga cf. ucrainica, Plioscirtopoda stepanovi, Allocricetus
cf. ehiki, Allophaiomys deucalion, Pitymimomys pitymyoides, Mimomys
reidi, Mimomys cf. pliocaenicus, Borsodia newtoni, Lagurini gen.,
Ellobius kujalnikensis and Clethrionomys cf. kretzoii.
Tizdar 2 includes Crocidura sp., Desmana sp., Spermophilus sp.,
Spalax sp., Allactaga cf. ucrainica, Plioscirtopoda stepanovi, Apodemus
sp., Allocricetus cf. ehiki, Allophaiomys deucalion, Prolagurus (Lagurodon)
arankae, Prolagurus ternopolitanus vel Borsodia newtoni,
Pitymimomys pitymyoides, Mimomys reidi, Mimomys cf. pliocaenicus
and Ellobius kujalnikensis.
A limited assemblage of vertebrates was collected from Kermek.
Fishes (identified by S. Kurshakov, Institute of arid zones SSC RAS)
include freshwater taxa such as roach Rutilus cf. rutilus, catfish
Silurus cf. glanis and pike Esox lucius. Small mammals from Kermek
are similar to previously known associations of Tizdar with Allophaiomys
deucalion (6), Lagurini gen. (2), and Spermophilus sp. (1).
The vole Allophaiomys deucalion from the Tizdar sequence (Fig. 6)
characterizes one of the most morphologically primitive phases in
the development of rootless Microtini in Central and Eastern
Europe (Tesakov, 2004).
In evolutionary and chronological terms, the three studied assemblages
Tizdar 1, Kermek, and Tizadar 2 are correlated with the
East European regional zones MQR11 and MQR10 (Pevzner et al.,
2001; Tesakov, 2004). Tizdar 1 (MQR11) is characterized by the
co-occurrence of Allophaiomys deucalion and the latest Borsodia;
Kermek and Tizdar 2 (MQR10) show association of Allophaiomys
deucalion and the earliest rootless Lagurini, Prolagurus ternopolitanus
and Lagurodon arankae. These assemblages are referred to the
early part of the Psekups faunal complex (Tesakov, 2004) and dated
between ca. 2.1e1.8 Ma.
Remains of large mammals from Kermek are scarce and fragmentary
and include beaver Trogontherium sp., dolphin Delphinidae
gen. indet., canid Canis sp., southern elephant Archidiskodon
meridionalis cf. meridionalis, rhinoceros Stephanorhinus aff. etruscus,
giant steppe rhinoceros Elasmotherium sp., horse Equus sp., and
deer Cervidae gen. indet. This association is characteristic of the
early Early Pleistocene of southern Eastern Europe (late Middle to
Late Villafranchian) and to the Psekups faunal complex. This animal
association indicates savanna-like forest-steppe landscape
bordering a brackish water marine basin evidenced by molluskan
association and the presence of dolphins.
3.3. Mollusks
Three main associations of mollusks are known from the section:
Tizdar 1 (bed 2), Tizdar 2 (top of bed 5) (Pevzner et al., 1998;
Tesakov, 2004), and Kermek (base of bed 5) (Frolov, 2013). The main
taxa from Kermek are shown in Fig. 7.
The molluskan association of Tizdar 1 includes (identifications
by V.N. Semenenko):
Dreissena polymorpha (prevailing), D. theodori, D. cf. choriensis,
*Limnocardium (Tauricardium) squamulosum, *Pontolmyra panticapea
gurianthica, *Prosodacna sp., *Pterodacna sp., *Arcicardium
cf. arcado, Cardiidae indet., massive Unionidae, Vallensiennius cf.
kujalnicus, Viviparus sp., Micromelania sp., Melanopsis sp., Neritina
Fig. 8. Flakes (1e5) and core (6) from Kermek.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 9
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
Fig. 10. Large flake from Kermek.
Fig. 9. Flakes (1e7) from Kermek.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e1910
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
sp., Zagrabica sp. (determination of I.G. Taktakishvili), ?Monodacna
cf. subriegeli, Dreissena theodori kubanica, Theodoxus punctatolineatus,
Unio ex gr. tamanensis (identified by V.N. Semenenko).
Frolov (2013) adds Bithynia sp., Parafossarulus sp., Fagotia esperi,
Fagotia acicularis, Fagotia sp., Тheodoxus danublalis and Pisidium
spp. Asterisks indicate taxa redeposited from Kimmerian sediments
(Semenenko, pers. comm.).
The molluskan association of Tizdar 2 includes (identifications
by V.N. Semenenko):
Dreissena polymorpha, D. theodori, Viviparus ex gr. sinzovi, Melanopsis
esperi, Valvata piscinalis, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Theodoxus
sp., Unio ex gr. tamanensis, Cardiidae indet. and Pisidium amnicum
(identified by Semenenko). Frolov (2013) adds Bithynia sp., Parafossarulus
sp., Pisidium sulcatum.
The molluskan assemblage from Kermek is very similar to the
associations of Tizdar 1 and 2 (Frolov, 2013). It contains Fagotia
esperi, F. acicularis, F. sp., Theodoxus aff. transversalis, T. danubialis, T.
cf. danubialis, Parafossarulus sp., Bithynia sp., Lithoglyphus sp.,
Micromelania sp., Viviparus sp., Limax sp., Dreissena polymorpha,
Margaritifera (Margaritifera) arca and Bogatschevia sp. (Frolov,
2013).
The molluskan associations of the Tizdar sequence indicate
freshwater alluvial and brackish-water estuarine conditions with a
mosaic of rheophilic and stagnophilic conditions.
The co-occurrence of the fossil pearl mussel, Margaritifera arca
and the unionid Bogatschevia sp. was described for the Boshernitsa
molluskan complex correlated to Earlyeearly Middle Apsheronian
(early Calabrian) (Tshepalyga,1967). But the presence of D. theodori
and absence of the unionid Pseudosturia, a typical later Early
Pleistocene unionid, indicates an age close to the Gelasian/Calabrian
transition.
Fig. 11. Choppers (1e2) from Kermek.
Fig. 12. Chopper-shaped side scraper from Kermek.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 11
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
4. Artifact-bearing bed of the Kermek site
The artifact-bearing bed of the site consists of intercalated
gravelly-pebbly layers and sandy layers with abundant shells of
freshwater and brackish-water mollusks, having a maximum
thikness of 1 m (Fig. 4). Analysis of these sediments indicates that
they were formed in the beach area of a brackish-water basin with
relatively low wave action. The coarse-grained material of the layer
comes mainly from the underlying mud volcanic clays, where it is
rather numerous.
Archaeological finds from the bed are numerous and represent a
well-defined industrial complex. Morphological features, state of
completeness, as well as the archaeological and geological contexts
of these finds clearly indicate their anthropogenic origin. There are
Fig. 14. Unifacially picks from Kermek.
Fig. 13. Partial bifacially pick from Kermek.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e1912
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
not only lithic artifacts, but also numerous fragmented bones of
fossil mammals. The preservation and patina of the artifacts are
clearly different from the natural clastic material in the layer. Cultural
remains are dispersed throughout the bed, but occur mainly in
the strata of loose sand and clay pellets, rarely in the strata of
gravel. Therefore, they were not subjected to significant mechanical
alterations. The number of artifacts increases toward the bottom of
the culture-bearing bed. Often the artifacts lay directly at the bed's
contact with the underlying clay and were partially embedded
within it. The cultural remains were in general sparsely distributed.
The sporadic clusters have fuzzy boundaries. For the most part, the
lithic artifacts and animal fossils showed no signs of water rolling.
This suggests only minimal transport by wave action. The main
reason for the sparseness of the cultural remains in the bed was
likely the short duration of human activities at the site. The site was
located in a beach on the bank of a desalinated sea bay or estuary,
and probably was visited by people repeatedly.
5. Lithic industry
During an initial 30 m2
excavation ca. 400 lithic artifacts were
recovered. Analysis of this material is still in progress, but the
following general observations can be offered.
5.1. Raw material
The basic raw material was local silicified dolomite of Miocene
age. The same raw material was used by the makers of the Tamanian
industry at later sites in the vicinity. Along with dolomite, the
hominins sporadically used a black and gray-yellow flint. The raw
material was obtained mainly in the form of variably sized tabular
fragments. There was deliberate selection of fragments by quality
and size. The use of flint is documented by the presence of only
three small flakes, knapped from pebbles. For the most part, the
raw material was brought on the site, but not from very far away.
Today the same dolomite occurs in the immediate vicinity of the
site in outcrops and screes of ancient mud volcanic deposits.
5.2. Preservation of the artifacts
Although the artifacts occur in beach sediments, very few of them
have surfaces smoothed by water action. The artifacts are mostly well
preserved. This suggests the artifacts were exposed on the activity
surface for only a short time before being buried by sedimentation.
However, many artifacts were subjected to chemical weathering. The
artifacts are predominantly grayish-brown, brownish-gray, brown
and yellowish brown color with different shades of patina depending
on the structure and density of the raw material.
Fig. 15. Chopper (1) and small retouched tools (2e11) from Kermek.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 13
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
5.3. Characteristics
The composition of the artifacts suggests there was a full cycle
(chaîne) of stone knapping and shaping of tools at the site. The
lithic assemblage includes: cores, flakes and debris and tools
(Figs. 8e15). The flakes and debris represent more than half of all
artifacts. Lithic implements are mainly large (5 cm or more). Among
the small artifacts (<5 cm) flakes predominate.
5.4. Cores and flakes
The cores are quite simple. They represent dolomite debris,
flaking of which was carried out without preparation (Fig. 8, n 6).
A natural horizontal or sloping surface of a fragment covered
with cortex, or rarely a smooth fracture surface was used as the
striking platform. Similar patterns are characteristic for the
removal surfaces of cores. In other words, the cores were not
subjected to preparatory treatment, neither at the beginning nor
during the flaking process. Cores differ in the manner of their
reduction. Cores with one, two, three or more flaking surfaces are
represented in different proportions. The most numerous are
unifacial cores with one or two striking platforms, roughly
prismatic and with one negative removal. It is important to note
the presence of very large cores, intended for removals of especially
large flakes (>10 cm).
Flakes are diverse (Fig. 8, n 1e5; 9 and 10). Many of them are
broken. Whole and nearly whole specimens are mostly small, i.e.
less than 5 cm long. There are primary or cortical, half-cortical and
non-cortical flakes. Among the last mentioned there are more
flakes with parallel and convergent orientation of negatives of removals
on the dorsal side. Essentially, this corresponds to the
available cores. Flake butts (straight or angled) are unprepared on
almost all flakes. They are often corticated, rarely smooth, and only
in a few cases roughly prepared. Among the flakes larger than 3 cm,
shapeless ones predominate. However, it is important to note that
there are some flakes of more or less regular form, which are bladelike,
sub-triangular, oval and sub-rectangular, including several
with shortened proportions (Fig. 9). There are single naturally
Table 1
Modification of choppers from the Kermek site.
Groups of choppers Subgroups of choppers Total
With straight working edge With convex working edge With pointed working edge
Proportionate choppers 1 3 2 6
Shortened choppers 1 1 7 9
Elongated choppers 4 2 2 8
Total 6 6 11 23
Fig. 16. Flake with transversal retouch (K_6) used for soft material (fresh hide) scraping. The microphotos (Â100) show the use-war traces, taken at the points marked by arrows.
Photos and figure by M. Gurova.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e1914
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
backed flakes and flakes of Kombewa type. It is important to note
the presence of a series of large flakes (>10 cm) that were used as
tools (Fig. 10). The edges of some of the flakes have micro scars
indicating possible utilization and single removal negatives of
resharpening.
Along with the knapping of cores and the production of flakes,
the intentional splitting of the natural cleavage planes of dolomite
played a very important role in the industry for purposes of
obtaining suitable fragments for toolmaking.
5.5. Tools
The tools are well defined and form two groups: macro-tools
and small retouched tools.
Macro-tools are represented by choppers, chopper-shaped side
scrapers, core scrapers/heavy-duty scrapers and picks. True bifaces
are absent. There is only one atypical partial biface. All of these tools
are made on natural fragments and knapping debris.
Choppers (23 specimens) are clearly different from the cores
(Figs.11 and 15, n 1). Some have partial treatment of the lateral edges
and butt to facilitate gripping in the hand. All choppers, except one,
are unifacial. Shortened and elongated choppers with straight and
pointed working edges are the most representative (Table 1).
Chopper-shaped side scrapers (10 specimens) are shaped more
carefully in comparison with the choppers (Fig. 12). Small removals
and retouch were used for fashioning the working edge.
Picks (12) have distinctive characteristics common to such tools,
although all of them were made from “debris” (both natural
fragments and knapping debris) (Figs. 13 and 14). There are two
groups of picks: those with a pronounced butt (5) (Fig. 13) and
those with a non-pronounced butt (7) (Fig. 14). In the first group
two picks have partial bifacial treatment (Fig. 13). Three others are
unifacial. The form of the working tip is different e pointed (2),
narrow scraper-shaped (1) and narrow wedge-shaped (2). The
butts of some tools are partially treated. All picks of the second
group (7) are unifacial (Fig. 14). The shape of their working ends is
also variable e pointed (2), narrow scraper-shaped (1), narrow
chisel-shaped (1) and narrow wedge-shaped (3). Similar modifications
of picks are evident in the Tamanian industry as a whole (at
the sites of Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka and Rodniki 1) (Shchelinsky,
2013b, 2014).
Small retouched tools are numerous and fall into different
typological categories (Fig. 15, n 2e11). They are fashioned with
different degrees of skill. There are side-scrapers, end-scrapers,
beaked tools, thorned tools, and denticulated and notched tools.
These tools were made from flakes and debris (as in the case of
picks). Moreover, tools made from debris are conspicuously common.
The side-scrapers are particularly interesting. They predominate
in this group. Those made on flakes can be divided into single,
transverse, and diagonal side-scrapers. They differ from the same
tool type in the Middle Paleolithic only by the poor quality of the
flake-blanks and the rough preparation of the working edge.
The above summarizes the preliminary characteristics of the
lithic industry of the Kermek site. Unquestionably, it is less developed
in comparison with the Tamanian industry from the nearby
sites of Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka and Rodniki 1, and the industry can
Fig. 17. Flake (K_8) used for butchering (meet/fresh hide processing). The microphotos show the use-war traces (a, c e Â100) and undetermined residues (b e Â150). The arrows
indicate the points of microphotos.
Photos and figure by M. Gurova.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 15
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
be attributed to Oldowan/Mode 1 on the basis of its fundamental
technological and typological characteristics. It can be referred to
the Classical Oldowan, as envisaged by Lumley et al. (2009a,b),
which industries demonstrate a relatively high level of technological
development.
6. Functional study
The functional identification of the toolkit of the earliest hominins
is no longer an enigma. Since the pioneering work on tools
from Koobi Fora (Keeley and Toth, 1981) there have been many
stimulating studies revealing different facets of the functional
approach to the earliest lithic assemblages. These includes: methodological
and procedural aspects (Marquez et al., 2001; Borel et al.,
2014); experimental works including recognition of postdepositional
surface modification or PSDM (Asryan et al., 2014;
Lemorini et al., 2014); and residue analysis (Dominguez-Rodrigo
et al., 2001). Through the application of use-wear analysis there is
now a much better understanding of the nature and range of early
human activities. Among the traces revealed by use-wear analysis,
most common are those relating to butchery, but there is also
occasional evidence of hide and woodworking (Carbonell et al.,
1999b, 676e677; Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2001, 297; Marquez
et al., 2001, 295; Olle et al., 2013, 146, 150).
A functional study of the Kermek material represented a real
challenge because of the very early age of the site. Hitherto usewear
studies of very early sites outside Africa have been few, represented
primarily by the site of El-Kherba (Ain Hanech, Algeria)
dating to ca. 1.8 Ma (Sahnouni et al., 2013). Traces of use on the
Kermek artifacts were first observed by V. E. Shchelinsky during a
general study of the assemblage. But focused and detailed use-wear
analysis had not been carried out.
The pilot functional study was done by MG during two short
visits to the St-Petersburg lab using a Canon 450 EOS for macrophotographs
and an Olympus BH2-UMA microscope e for micrographs.
A series of 12 tools of various types were selected for usewear
observation. The study showed the excellent preservation of
the dolomite specimens and allowed some micro wear traces to be
documented and interpreted in spite of the limitations of the
available analytical equipment. There was no opportunity for a
targeted experimental study, and the referential database of
existing results was used (see the literature cited above). The
Fig. 18. Blade-like flake with partial scars (K_5) with traces of PDSM (post-depositional surface modifications). The microphotos (Â100) show polishes due to taphonomic factors.
Photos and figure by M. Gurova.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e1916
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
artifacts were subjected to simple water cleaning before observation.
The picks represented the greatest challenge because of the
massive and well exposed tips and edges. In fact, the only wear
traces were localized on the tips themselves indicating treatment of
soft material (probably hide). Use-wear traces were detected
mainly on the flake edges, which exhibited smoothing and light
polishes that could be attributed to meat and fresh hide processing
(mainly longitudinal cutting operations) (Figs. 16 and 17). Some of
the artifacts possess detectable additive particles on the edges
which were interpreted as residues, but there was no opportunity
for follow-up analyses using SEM (Fig. 17b). The clearest example of
post-depositional surface modifications PDSM was on a blade-like
flake with visible shiny polish and smoothing of the surface, dorsal
ridges and edges (Fig. 18). The results of this pilot study clearly
demonstrate the potential for a further use-wear analysis using
better technical equipment. This could be feasible in the context of
a fruitful collaboration within multidisciplinary research team.
7. Discussion and conclusions
1. The site of Kermek occurs in situ in a well-documented
geological context associated with deposits of the late Kujalnikian
regional stage of the stratigraphic framework for the Black
Sea region. Through a combination of geological, biostratigraphic
and paleomagnetic data it is dated to the Early Pleistocene,
late Gelasian to early Calabrian transition, between ca.
2.1e1.8 Ma. Thus, it is the oldest known Western Eurasian Early
Paleolithic site outside the Caucasus.
2. Apparently, the site was located on the shore of an estuary or
inlet of a desalinated sea basin. Thus, we can speak about a
“coastal” adaptation of the first humans (Shchelinsky, 2013a),
which seems to be a characteristic of the initial period of the
Early Paleolithic of the Caucasus and Ciscaucasia.
3. The lithic industry is characterized by a relatively complex
technology, including a sequence of operations. There are clearly
recognizable and distinct stages of raw material selection, primary
knapping and tool manufacturing.
- the reduction sequence involved primarily unifacial unidirectional
and convergent removals and, less frequently, bifacial
and multifacial core reduction. There are indications of a
degree of control over shape and dimensions of flakes;
- there is a wide spectrum of tools, including well made and
standardized forms. Apart from the common macro-tools
(choppers and core-like scrapers) there are distinct types of
tools such as chopper-like scrapers and picks.
- the technological and typological features of the Kermek industry
indicate that it belongs to Oldowan/Mode 1 or, more
specifically, to the Classic Oldowan;
- there are however certain features that are typical of more
“advanced technologies” e the manufacture of large flakes
and picks e which are characteristic of Acheulean industries;
- thus the Oldowan industry of Kermek can be considered as a
basal stage of the Tamanian industry, which we define as
transitional between Oldowan and Acheulean;
- a further detailed use-wear analysis of the artifacts would be
helpful in further characterizing this industry.
4. The discovery of the Kermek site has shown that the oldest Early
Paleolithic of the Caucasus and adjacent Asia Minor is not
limited to the site of Dmanisi in the southern Caucasus
(Lordkipanidze et al., 2007) and Ubeidiya in the Levant (BarYosef
and Goren-Inbar, 1993). This discovery, as well as the
recent finds of the oldest Early Paleolithic sites in the Lesser
Caucasus in Armenia (Presnyakov et al., 2012) and in the
northeastern Caucasus in the Dagestan mountains (Amirkhanov,
2007) show that in the Early Pleistocene, during the
GelasianeCalabrian transition, ca. 2.1e1.8 Ma, the first humans
appeared in Western Eurasia not only at Dmanisi, but almost
simultaneously colonized the entire territory of the Caucasus
and Ciscaucasia. At the same time, the Kermek site is the
northernmost known extent of settlement by the first hominins,
located on the border of Western Asia and Eastern Europe.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Russian Humanitarian Science
Foundation, project no. 15-01-00049-a; the program of scientific
cooperation between Russian Academy of Sciences and the
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, project “Ancient ways of settlement
of the European continent: migration processes through the Sea of
Azov Region and the Balkans. Characteristics of industries and the
development of cultural exchange between human groups”
(2012e2014); and the projects of the Russian Foundation for Basic
Research nos. 14-05-31037; 15-05-03958-a; 15-04-02079-a. The
authors are grateful to Clive Bonsall for the reading a draft of the
paper and suggesting improvements to the English.
References
Amirkhanov, Kh.A., 2007. Oldowanskie stoyanki Severo-vostochnogo Kavkaza:
Predvaritel'nyi otchet. TAUS, Moscow (in Russian).
Amirkhanov, Kh.A., 2008. Comparative typological and statistical characteristic of
the inventory of Mukhkai1 in Central Dagestan (based on the materials of 2007
excavations). In: Vasil'ev, S.A., et al. (Eds.), Early Palaeolithic of Eurasia: New
Discoveries. International Conference, KrasnodareTemriuk. SSC RAS Publishes,
Rostov-on-Don, pp. 115e116.
Ananova, E.N., 1974. Pollen of the Neogene Deposits in the Southern Russian Plain.
Leningrad University Press, Leningrad (in Russian).
Asryan, L., Olle, A., Moloney, N., 2014. Reality and confusion in the recognition of
post-depositional alterations and use-wear: an experimental approach on
basalt tools. Journal of Lithic Studies 1 (1), 9e32.
Baigusheva, V.S., Titov, V.V., 2008. The Taman faunal complex of large vertebrates of
the Azov and Lower Don regions. In: Vasil’ev, S.A., et al. (Eds.), Early Palaeolithic
of Eurasia: New Discoveries. International Conference, Krasnodar-Temriuk. SSC
RAS Publishes, Rostov-on-Don, pp. 123e124.
Barsky, D., 2009. An overview of some African and Eurasian Oldowan sites: evaluation
of hominin cognitive levels, technological advancement and adaptive
skills. In: Hovers, Erella, Braun, David R. (Eds.), Interdisciplinary Approaches to
the Oldowan. Published by Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 39e47.
Bar-Yosef, O., Goren-Inbar, N., 1993. The Lithic Assemblages of 'Ubeidiya: a Lower
Palaeolithic Site in the Jordan Valley, vol. 34. Hebrew University, Jerusalem.
Beyene, Y., Katoh, S., Gabriel, G.W., Hart, W.K., Uto, K., Sudo, M., Kondo, M.,
Hyodo, M., Renne, P.R., Suwa, G., Asfaw, B., 2013. The characteristics and
chronology of the earliest Acheulean at Konso, Ethiopia. PNAS 110 (5),
1584e1591.
Bolikhovskaya, N.S., 1995. Evolution of the Loessesoil Formation of Northern Eurasia.
Moscow State University, Moscow, p. 288 (in Russian).
Borel, A., Olle, A., Maria Verges, J.M., Sala, R., 2014. Scanning Electron and Optical
Light Microscopy: two complementary approaches for the understanding and
interpretation of usewear and residues on stone tools. Journal of Archaeological
Science 48, 46e59.
Bosinski, G., 1996. Les origines de l'homme en Europe et en Asie. Atlas des sites du
Paleolithque inferieur. Editions Errance, Paris.
Bosinski, G., 2006. Les premiers peuplements de l'Europe centrale et de l'Est.
Comptes Rendus Palevol 5, 311e317.
Bosinski, G., Shchelinsky, V.E., Kulakov, S.A., Kindler, L., 2003. Bogatyri (Sinaja Balka)
e Ein altpal€aolithiscer Fundplatz auf der Taman-Halbinsel (Russland). Ver€offentlichungen
des Landesamtes für Arch€aologie 57, 79e89.
Carbonell, E., Barsky, D., Sala, R., Celiberti, V., 2015. Structural continuity and
technological change in Lower Pleistocene toolkits. Quaternary International.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.008.
Carbonell, E., Mosquera, M., Rodriguez, X.P., Sala, R., van der Mad, J., 1999a. Out of
Africa: the dispersal of the earliest technical systems reconsidered. Journal of
Anthropological Archaeology 18, 119e136.
Carbonell, E., García-Anton, M.D., Mallol, C., Mosquera, M., Olle, A., Rodríguez, X.P.,
Sahnouni, M., Sala, R., Verges, J.M., 1999b. The TD6 level lithic industry from
Gran Dolina, Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain): production and use. Journal of Human
Evolution 37 (3/4), 653e693.
Carbonell, E., Sala, R., Barsky, D., Celiberti, V., 2009. From homogeneity to multiplicity:
a new approach to the study of archaic stone tools. In: Hovers, Erella,
Braun, David R. (Eds.), Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Oldowan. Published
by Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 25e37.
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 17
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
Clark, J.D., Kleindienst, M.R., 1974. The Stone Age cultural sequence: terminology,
typology, and raw material. In: Clark, J.D. (Ed.), Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site,
vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 71e106.
Clark, J.D., Kleindienst, M.R., 2001. The Stone Age cultural sequence: terminology,
typology and raw material. In: Clark, J.D. (Ed.), Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site,
The Earlier Cultures: Middle and Earlier Stone Age, vol. III. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, pp. 34e65.
Derevianko, A.P., 2006. The Lower Paleolithic small industry in Eurasia: migration
or convergent evolution? Archaeology Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 1
(25), 2e32.
Derevianko, A.P., 2009. Drevneyshie Migratcii Cheloveka v Evrazii v rannem
paleolite. Institute of Archeology and Ethnography Press, Novosibirsk (in
Russian).
Derevianko, A.P., Shunkov, M.V., 2008. Early Paleolithic of Altai. In: Vasil'ev, S.A.,
et al. (Eds.), Early Palaeolithic of Eurasia: New Discoveries. International Conference,
Krasnodar-Temriuk. SSC RAS Publishes, Rostov-on-Don, pp. 127e129.
Derevianko, A.P., Shunkov, M.V., Bolikhovskaya, N.S., Zykin, V.S., Zykina, V.S.,
Kulik, N.A., Ulanov, V.A., Chirkin, K.A., 2005. Stoyanka rannego paleolita Karama na
Altae. Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography Press, Novosibirsk (in Russian).
Derevianko, A.P., Zenin, V.N., 2010. Stoyanka Darvagchai 1 v Dagestane. In:
Vasilev, S.A., Shchelinsky, V.E. (Eds.), The Earliest Inhabitants of the Caucasus
and Hominid Dispersals at Eurasia. Sankt-Petersburg Centre for Oriental Studies
Publishers, Sankt-Petersburg, pp. 80e83 (in Russian).
Dodonov, A.E., Trubikhin, V.M., Tesakov, A.S., 2008a. Palaeomagnetism of bonebearing
deposits of the site Sinyaya Balka (Bogatyri). In: Vasil'ev, S.A., et al.
(Eds.), Early Palaeolithic of Eurasia: New Discoveries. International Conference,
Krasnodar-Temriuk. SSC RAS Publishes, Rostov-on-Don, pp. 138e139.
Dodonov, A.E., Tesakov, A.S., Simakova, A.N., 2008b. The Taman fauna type locality
of Sinyaya Balka: new data on its geology and biostratigraphy. In: Vasil'ev, S.A.,
et al. (Eds.), Early Palaeolithic of Eurasia: New Discoveries. International Conference,
Krasnodar-Temriuk. SSC RAS Publishes, Rostov-on-Don, pp. 135e138.
Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., Serrallonga, J., Juan-Tresserras, J., Alcala, L., Luque, L., 2001.
Woodworking activities by early humans: a plant residue analysis on Acheulian
stone tools from Peninj (Tanzania). Journal of Human Evolution 40, 289e299.
Doronichev, V.B., 2011. Le Paleolithique ancient de l'Europe orientale et du Caucase.
L'Anthropologie 115 (2), 197e246.
Filippova, N.Yu, 2005. Microphytological characteristics of Late Miocene e early
Pliocene deposits of the reference section of the north-eastern Black Sea region
(Taman). In: Modern Problems of Palaeofloristics, Paleophytogeography, and
Phytogeography. Geos, Moscow, pp. 332e343 (in Russian).
Formozov, A.A., 1962. Relative chronology of ancien Plaeolithic of the Kuban area.
Sovetskaya Arkheologiya 4, 17e27 (in Russian).
Formozov, A.A., 1965. Stone Age and Aneolithic of the Kuban Area. Nauka, Moscow
(in Russian).
Frolov, P.D., 2013. Early Pleistocene (Kujalnik)molluscan fauna of Tizdar locality
(Taman Peninsula, Russia): stratigraphy and paleoecology. In: Matishov, G.G.,
et al. (Eds.), VIII All-Russian Conference on Quaternary Research: “Fundamental
Problems of Quaternary, Results and Main Trends of Future Studies”. SSC RAS
Publishers, Rostov-on-Don, pp. 659e660 (in Russian).
Gromov, V.I., 1948. Palaeontological and archaeological implementation of stratigraphy
of Quaternary continental deposits on the territory of USSR (mammals,
Palaeolithic). Proceedings of the Geological Institute of the Academy of Science
of the USSR 64 (17). Moscow, 524 pp. (in Russian).
Gubkin, I.M., Varencov, M.I., 1933. Geologiya neftianykh i gazovykh mestonakhozhdeniy
Tamanskogo poluostrova i blizhayshie zadachi razvedki na gaz v
predelakh Tamanskogo poluostrova. Prirodniye gazy 7, 90e125 (in Russian).
J€oris, O., 2014. Early Palaeolithic Europe. In: Renfrem, C., Bahn, P. (Eds.), The Cambridge
World Prehistory, vol. III. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp. 1703e1746.
Keeley, L.H., Toth, N., 1981. Microwear polishes on early stone tools from Koobi Fora,
Kenya. Nature 293, 464e465.
Kleindienst, M.R., 1962. Components of the East African Acheulian assemblage: an
analytic approach. In: Mortelmans, G., Nenquin, J. (Eds.), Actes du IVe Congres
PanAfricain de Prehistoire et de l'Etude du Quaternaire, vol. III. Musee Royal de
l’Afrique Centrale, Belgium, Tervuren, pp. 81e111.
Leakey, M.D., 1971. Olduvai Gorge. Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960e1963, vol. 3
(Cambridge).
Leakey, M.D., Roe, D.A., 1994. Olduvai Gorge Volume 5 Excavations in Beds III, IV and
the Masek Beds, 1968e71. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom.
Lemorini, C., Plummer, T.W., Braun, D.R., Crittenden, A.N., Ditchfield, P.W.,
Bishop, L.C., Hertel, F., Oliver, J.S., Marlowe, F.W., Schoeninger, M.J., Potts, R.,
2014. Old stones' song: use-wear experiments and analysis of the Oldowan
quartz and quartzite assemblage from Kanjera South (Kenya). Journal of Human
Evolution 72, 10e25.
Lepre, C.J., Roche, H., Kent, D.V., Harmand, S., Quinn, R.L., Brugal, J.-Ph, Texier, P.-J.,
Lenoble, A., Feibel, C., 2011. An earlier origin for the Acheulian. Nature 477, 82e85.
Lordkipanidze, D., Jabhashvili, T., Vekua, A., Ponce de Leon, M.S., Zollikofer, C.P.E.,
Rightmire, G.P., Pontzer, H., Ferring, R., Oms, O., Tappen, M., Bykhsianidze, M.,
Agusti, J., Kahlke, R., Kiladze, G., Martines-Navarro, B., Mouskhelishvili, A.,
Nioradze, M., Rook, L., 2007. Postcranial evidence from early Homo from
Dmanisi, Georgia. Nature 449, 305e310.
Lumley de, H., Barsky, D., Cauche, D., 2009a. Les premeres etapes de la colonization
de l'Europe et l'arrivee de l'Homme sur les rives de la Mediterranee.
L'Anthropologie 113, 1e46.
Lumley de, H., Barsky, D., Cauche, D., 2009b. Archaic stone industries from east
Africa and southern Europe. Pre-Oldowan and Oldowan. In: Schick, K., Toth, N.
(Eds.), The Cutting Edge: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins.
Stone Age Institute, Gostport, pp. 55e91.
Marquez, B., Olle, A., Sala, R., Verges, J.M., 2001. Perspectives methodologiques de
l’analyse fonctionnelle des ensembles lithiques du Pleistocene inferieur et
moyen d'Atapuerca (Burgos, Espagne). L'Anthropologie 105 (2), 281e299.
Mosquera, M., Olle, A., Rodríguez, X.P., 2013. From Atapuerca to Europe: tracing the
earliest peopling of Europe. Quaternary International 295, 130e137.
Muttoni, G., Scardia, G., Kent, D.V., 2013. A critique of evidence for human occupation
of Europe older than the Jaramillo subchron (w1 Ma): comment on ‘The
oldest human fossil in Europe from Orce (Spain)’ by Toro-Moyano et al. (2013).
Journal of Human Evolution 65, 746e749.
Ogg, J.G., 2012. Geomagnetic polarity time scale. In: Gradstein, F., et al. (Eds.), The
Geologic Time Scale 2012. Elsevier, pp. 85e113.
Olle, A., Mosquera, M., Rodríguez, X.P., Lombera-Hermida de, A., García-Anton, M.D.,
García-Medrano, P., Pe~na, L., Menendez, L., Navazo, M., Terradillos, M.,
Bargallo, A., Marquez, B., Sala, R., Carbonell, E., 2013. The Early and Middle
Pleistocene Technological record from Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain).
Quaternary International 295, 138e167.
Pevzner, M.A., 1989. Paleomagnitnaya kharakteristika otlozheniy kujalnika i ego
polozhenie v magnitokhronologicheskoy shkale (Paleomagnetic characteristics
of the Kujalnikian and its place in magnetic polarity time scale). Byulluten
Komissii po Izuchcheniyu Chetvertichnogo Perioda 58, 117e124 (in Russian).
Pevzner, M.A., Tesakov, A.S., Vangengeim, E.A., 1998. The position of the Tizdar
Locality (Taman Peninsula, Russia) in the magnetochronological scale. Paludicola
2 (1), 95e97.
Pevzner, M.A., Vangengeim, E.A., Tesakov, A.S., 2001. Quaternary zonal subdivision
of Eastern Europe based on vole evolution. Bollettino-Societa Paleontologica
Italiana 40 (2), 269e274.
Powell, A.J. (Ed.), 1992. A Stratigraphic Index of Dinoflagellate Cysts. British
Micropaleontological Society Publication Series. Chapman and Hall, LondonNew
York, p. 290.
Presnyakov, S.L., Belyaeva, E.V., Lyubin, V.P., Rodionov, N.V., Antonova, A.V.,
Saltykova, A.K., Berezhnaya, N.G., Sergeev, S.A., 2012. Age of the earliest
Paleolithic sites in the northern part of the Armenian Highland by SHRIMP-II UPb
geochronology of zircons from volcanic ashes. Gondwana Research 21,
928e938.
Roberts, A.P., Florindo, F., Larrasoana, J.C., O'Regan, M.A., Zhao, X., 2010. Complex
polarity pattern at the former Plio-Pleistocene global stratotype section at Vrica
(Italy): Remagnetization by magnetic iron sulphides. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 292, 98e111.
Sablin, M.V., 2008. The most probable age of the Sinyaya Balka (Bogatyri) locality.
In: Vasil'ev, S.A., et al. (Eds.), Early Palaeolithic of Eurasia: New Discoveries.
International Conference, Krasnodar-Temriuk. SSC RAS Publishes, Rostov-onDon,
pp. 177e179.
Sahnouni, M., Jordi Rosell, J., van der Made, J., María Verges, J.M., Olle, A., Kandi, N.,
Harichane, Z., Derradji, A., Mohamed Medig, M., 2013. The first evidence of cut
marks and usewear traces from the Plio-Pleistocene locality of El-Kherba (Ain
Hanech), Algeria: implications for early hominin subsistence activities circa
1.8 Ma. Journal of Human Evolution 64, 137e150.
Schick, K., Toth, N., 2006. An Overview of the Oldowan industrial complex: the sites
and the nature of their Evidence//N. Thoth and K. Schick. In: Oldowan, The (Ed.),
Casa Studies into the Earliest Stone Age, Gosport, Indiana: Stone Age Institute
Publication Series. Number 1, pp. 3e42.
Semaw, S., Rogera, M., Stout, D., 2013. Early Acheulian stone assemblages 1.7-1.6
million years ago from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. In: European Society for the Study
of Human Evolution, p. 179. Abstracts. Vienna.
Sharon, G., 2009. Acheulian giant-core technology: a worldwide perspective. Current
Anthropology 50 (3), 335e367.
Shchekina, N.A., 1979. The History of Flora and Vegetation of the Southern European
Part of the USSR in Late Miocene-early Pliocene. Naukova Dumka, Kiev, p. 197
(in Russian).
Shchelinsky, V.E., 2010. Early Palaeolithic sites in the Azov Sea region. In:
Kamenetsky, I.S., Sorokin, A.N. (Eds.), Man and Antiquities: Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
Formozov in Memoriam (1928e2009). Grif and C., Moscow,
pp. 57e77 (in Russian).
Shchelinsky, V.E., 2013a. Functionalnie osobenosti oldovanskikh stoyanok na Tamanskom
poluostrove v yuzhnom Priazovie (geologicheskie i archaeologicheskie
svidetel’stva). In: Matishov, G.G., et al. (Eds.), VIII All-Russian Conference on
Quaternary Research: “Fundamental Problems of Quaternary, Results and Main
Trends of Future Studies”. SSC RAS Publishers, Rostov-on-Don, pp. 713e716 (in
Russian).
Shchelinsky, V.E., 2013b. Picki iz rannepaleoliticheskoy stoyanki Rodniki 1 na
Tamanskom poluostrove. Transactions of the Institute for the History of Material
Culture 8, 7e25 (in Russian).
Shchelinsky, V.E., 2014. The Eopleistocene Early Paleolithic Site of Rodniki 1 in the
Western Ciscaucasia. IIMC RAS, Saint-Petersburg, p. 168 (in Russian).
Shchelinsky, V.E., 2015. Oldowan traditions and their development in Early Paleolithic
of the southern Azov sea region (on the materials of the sites of the
Rodniki 1 and 4 on the Taman Peninsula). In: Derevianko, A.P., Tishkov, V.A.
(Eds.), Traditions and Innovations in Culture and History: the Program of
Fundamental Researches of Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences
“Traditions and Innovations in the History and Culture. Department historicalV.E.
Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e1918
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032
philological Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Ethnology
and anthropology RAS, Moscow, pp. 20e30 (in Russian).
Shchelinsky, V.E., Bosinski, G., Kulakov, S.A., 2003. Issledovaniya Paleolita Kubani.
Archeologicheskie Otkrytiya 2002 Goda. Nauka, Moscow, pp. 265e267 (in
Russian).
Shchelinsky, V.E., Kulakov, S.A., 2007. Bogatyri (Sinyaya Balka) e rannepaleoliticheskaya
stoyanka eopleistocenovogo vozrasta na Tamanskom poluostrove.
Rossijskaya Arkheologiya 3, 7e18 (in Russian).
Shchelinsky, V.E., Dodonov, A.E., Baigusheva, V.S., Kulakov, S.A., Simakova, A.N.,
Tesakov, A.S., Titov, V.V., 2010a. Early Palaeolithic sites on the Taman Peninsula
(Southern Azov sea region, Russia): Bogatyri/Sinyaya Balka and Rodniki. Quaternary
International 223e224, 28e35.
Shchelinsky, V., Tesakov, A., Titov, V., 2010b. Early Paleolithic sites in the Sea of Azov
Region: stratigraphic position, stone associations, and new discoveries. In:
Titov, V.V., Tesakov, A.S. (Eds.), Quaternary Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the
Southern Russia: Connections between Europe, Aftica and Asia: Abstracts of the
International INQUA-SEQS Conference. Southern Scientific Centre Publishes,
Rostov-on-Don, pp. 148e149.
Simakova, A., 2009. Palynological study of the early Pleistocene Bogatyry/Sinyaya
Balka and Rodniki sites (Taman Peninsula, Russia). In: The Quaternary of
Southern Spain: a Bridge between Africa and the Alpine Domain. Abstract
Volume and Fieldtrips Guide. 2009 Annual Meeting SEQS, Orce and Lucena,
pp. 36e37.
Stout, D., Semaw, S., Rogers, M.J., Cauche, D., 2010. Technological variation in the
earliest Oldowan from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution 58,
474e491.
Tesakov, A.S., 2004. Biostratigraphiya Srednego Pliocena e Eopleistocena Vostochnoy
Europy (Po Melkim Mlekopitayushim). Nauka, Moscow (in Russian).
Tesakov, A.S., Vangengeim, E.A., Pevzner, M.A., 1999. Nakhodki drevneysikh
nekornezubykh polevok Allophaiomys i Prolagurus na territorii Vostochnoy
Evropy. Doklady Earth Sciences 366 (1), 93e94 (in Russian).
Titov, V.V., Tesakov, A.S., 2009. Tamanian faunal Unit: reexamination of type fauna
and stratotype. In: Fundamental Problems of Quaternary: Results and Trends of
Further Researches. Proceeding of the VI All-Russian Quaternary Conference.
Siberian branch of RAS Publishes, Novosibirsk, pp. 585e588 (in Russian).
Titov, V.V., Tesakov, A.S., Baigusheva, V.S., 2012. On the Ranges of Psekups and
Taman Faunal Inits (Early Pleistocene, Southern Eastern European). Abstracts of
LVIII session of Paleontological Society (April 2-6, 2012, Saint-Petersburg).
VSEGEI, Saint-Petersburg, pp. 142e144 (in Russian).
Tixier, J., 1957. Le hachereau dans l'Acheuleen nordafricain: notes typologiques. In:
Actes du Congres Prehistorique de France, XVe session, Poitiers. Angouleme,
pp. 914e923.
Tshepalyga, A.L., 1967. Anthopogene Fresh-water Molluscs of Southern Russian
Plainand Their Stratigraphic Significance. Nauka, Moscow, p. 222 (in Russian).
Vangengeim, E.A., Vekua, M.L., Zhegallo, V.I., Pevzner, M.A., Taktakishvili, I.G.,
Tesakov, A.S., 1991. Position of the Taman faunistic complex within stratigraphic
and magnetostratigraphic scales. Byulluten Komissii po Izuchcheniyu Chetvertichnogo
Perioda 60, 41e52 (in Russian).
Vereshchagin, N.K., 1957. Mammal remains of the lower Quaternary deposits of the
Taman Peninsula. Proceedings of Zoological Institute 22, 9e49 (in Russian).
V.E. Shchelinsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e19 19
Please cite this article in press as: Shchelinsky, V.E., et al., The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia):
Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results), Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.quaint.2015.10.032