ForPreview
Only
Time, tense and viewpoint shift across languages: A
Multiple-Parallel-Text approach to “tense shifting” in a
tenseless language
Journal: Cognitive Linguistics
Manuscript ID COGL.2018.0039.R3
Manuscript Type: research-article
Keywords: linguistic relativity, Mandarin, tense, time, translation
Abstract:
The paper discusses the role of tense and time from a cross-linguistic
perspective by comparing English (a tensed language) and Mandarin (a
language without formal tense marking). Multiple translations of the
same literary piece are used to test the correspondence between the
tense, the perfective aspect and temporal adverbials. In English, tense
marking is found to work with at least two language-specific stylistic
means, clause interpolation and inversion, to create a mixed narrative
viewpoint. In Mandarin, neither the perfective aspect nor temporal
adverbials, i.e. constructions that invoke TIME, are systematically used
across the renditions, which shows the Mandarin system’s overall
indifference to TIME in managing viewpoint in discourse. The Mandarin
renditions, in addition to an overall indifference to TIME, feature
consistent and frequent use of reduplication as the system’s distinctive
viewpoint strategy. The paper concludes with a discussion of the
cognitive consequence of a language using an obligatory marking system
to piggyback the function of viewpointing narratives.
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
ForPreview
Only
1
Time, tense and viewpoint shift across languages:
A Multiple-Parallel-Text approach to “tense shifting” in a tenseless language
Wei-lun Lu
Masaryk University
wllu@med.muni.cz
Abstract
The paper discusses the role of tense and time from a cross-linguistic perspective by comparing
English (a tensed language) and Mandarin (a language without formal tense marking). Multiple
translations of the same literary piece are used to test the correspondence between the tense, the
perfective aspect and temporal adverbials. In English, tense marking is found to work with at
least two language-specific stylistic means, clause interpolation and inversion, to create a mixed
narrative viewpoint. In Mandarin, neither the perfective aspect nor temporal adverbials, i.e.
constructions that invoke TIME, are systematically used across the renditions, which shows the
Mandarin system’s overall indifference to TIME in managing viewpoint in discourse. The
Mandarin renditions, in addition to an overall indifference to TIME, feature consistent and
frequent use of reduplication as the system’s distinctive viewpoint strategy. The paper concludes
with a discussion of the cognitive consequence of a language using an obligatory marking system
to piggyback the function of viewpointing narratives.
Keywords: linguistic relativity; Mandarin; tense; time; translation
1. Introduction
Time and tense in narratives is an issue that has remained at the center of scholarly
attention in cognitive narratology, poetics and stylistics. The past tense, a specific grammatical
category used to code the relation between the time of speech and the time of the verbalized
event, has been generally recognized as the default tense of story-telling, whereas the present
tense, which expresses an action being performed either at the time of speech or habitually,
involves a shift in narrative viewpoint (Fleischman 1990; Fludernik 2012; Verhagen this issue).
Tense use affects the conceptualization of the plot in terms of viewpoint; the past tense invokes a
distal viewpoint, from which the narrator reports the event and takes more responsibility for the
narrated content, while the present tense suggests a close-up view, reflecting a higher degree of
immediacy and a higher tendency for the reader to hold the character’s consciousness
responsible for the content.1 In particular, when the present tense is used in narrating a past event
(the so-called historical present), that introduces a consciousness displaced from the narrated
world into the ‘here-and-now’ of the conceptualizers. In cognitive linguistic terms, use of the
1 The question of “who is responsible for the narrated content” has been an issue that receives attention in
cognitive linguistics (see e.g. Sanders, Sanders and Sweetser 2009). However, cross-linguistic research is still largely
lacking in the field.
Page 1 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
2
historical present involves a shift in Base Space (Fauconnier 1997:77), moving the conceptual
anchor point from the space of narration to a Story Space embedded in the narration.2
However, the above contrast between the default past tense narration and the historical
present, and the consequent alternative construal of the same story plot when a different tense is
used, only make sense from the perspective of a language which marks a temporal relation
between the time of speech and the time of the verbalized event by means of tense. However,
there are languages which do not mark such temporal relation, a typical example being Mandarin
(Li and Thompson 1981; Lin 2012; Shi and Huang 2016). In such tenseless languages, other
TIME-related constructional means are reported to help communicate the temporal relation
between the time of speech and the verbalized event. For instance, in Mandarin, the temporal
status of the verbalized event can be expressed by temporal adverbials, or by the perfective
aspect, which encodes the completion of the verbalized event with respect to a certain temporal
reference point (Shi and Huang 2016:54). Following that, a broader theoretical question naturally
arises: Do tenseless languages use TIME-related constructions that help communicate the
temporal relation between the time of speech and the time of the narrated event, for the purpose
of managing the narrative viewpoint, in any way that could be considered [analogous or similar]
to the way in which tensed languages use tense marking to show narrative viewpoint?
This leads to an even broader question that will be of theoretical linguistic and narratological
interest: to what extent does human language rely on the concept of TIME (invoked by TIMErelated
constructions) to convey narrative viewpoint, and how much similarity and variation is
there in this respect among different languages?
2. Methodology and scope
The above question is of a cross-linguistic nature and is a central question of comparative
stylistics—when we see a stylistic pattern in Language A composed of a certain linguistic feature
that is missing in Language B, how is the same stylistic effect achieved in Language B? To
properly address the comparative nature of such an inquiry, one needs a research methodology
that can provide suitable contextualized data across languages, and that is where the Multiple
Parallel Text (MultiParT) approach comes in (Lu and Verhagen 2016; Lu, Verhagen and Su
2018; Lu, Shurma and Kemmer, Submitted). MultiParT is a method that has been used to study
cross-linguistic stylistic differences, using multiple translations from the same source into the
same target language. The rationale behind the initiative is that past research on stylistic tools in
language has been methodologically based on either introspection or use of mono-lingual
texts/corpora. However, as language production is usage-based (Barlow and Kemmer ed. 2000)
and heavily influenced by all sorts of context, there has been no way of studying the crosslinguistic
aspect of viewpoint by controlling for the same linguistic, physical and social context,
while keeping the language production contextualized. In view of this problem, use of parallel
texts (translations) constitutes an efficient methodological opportunity for studying viewpoint
tools across languages in a contextualized way—if one sees the author and the translator(s) as
equally sensible text producers, then by keeping identical most other contextual factors,
2 What is introduced here about the historical present is the standard view in literature. However, there is certainly
disagreement in the field. Interested readers are referred to, for instance, Nijk (this issue) and Stukker (this issue)
for dissenting views.
Page 2 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
3
including the linguistic, physical, and social context, production mode and genre, one may
empirically study the viewpointing options in a passage of narrative where all text producers try
to get across highly similar (if not identical) messages. However, such use of multiple parallel
texts (or translations) in studying viewpoint has received only limited attention in the field (but
see Tabakowska 2014 for another earlier attempt in this regard).
The languages chosen here for comparison are English and Mandarin—for two reasons.
English is a typical tensed language, where viewpoint phenomena have been widely investigated.
In comparison, Mandarin is a typical tenseless language where some (though limited) work has
been done on viewpoint. For instance, Hagenaar (1996:295) points out that “in Chinese, verb
tense cannot serve to distinguish free indirect speech from direct speech as it sometimes can in
Indo-European languages.” The author goes on to suggest using personal pronouns, adverbs,
modal particles, and aspectual marking as possible identifiers of free indirect speech in
Mandarin. On a cross-linguistic level, Hagenaar’s pointing to aspectual markers as viewpoint
constructions in Mandarin narratives echoes Li and Thompson’s (1981) observation that
Mandarin Chinese does not use verbal affixes to mark the temporal relation between the speech
event and the situation in question. Hagenaar’s observations are further substantiated by
scholarly observations that in many situations the Mandarin perfective aspect, for example the
use of 了 le and 过 guò, serves the semantic function of expressing a past event or prior
experience (Lin 2012; Liu 2014; Shi and Huang 2016:54). Naturally, given the close connection
between the past (in relation to the speech event) and the perfective aspect in Mandarin, two
hypotheses can be proposed: First, in a tenseless language (Mandarin being a typical one), if
TIME is also an element crucial to narrative viewpoint management like it is in tensed languages
(English being typical), then when the narrative viewpoint is managed by tense shifting in the
English source text, the target text(s) will use the perfective aspect (another specific grammatical
category), or else lexical adverbial constructions that invoke TIME, to suggest a similar
viewpoint. Second, since the functional connection between the past tense in English and the
perfective aspect in Mandarin is understood to be close, use of the perfective aspect (or TIMErelated
lexical constructions) in Mandarin translations should be largely (if not completely)
consistent, given the fact that there is one common source text.
To test the hypotheses, three literary passages written originally in English by two
different authors are examined in comparison to their Mandarin translations. Two of the passages
are by Charles Dickens (one from Great Expectations, the other from David Copperfield), and
the third passage is from John Updike’s short story “A&P.” In each of these original passages,
the narrative viewpoint is managed mainly (though not exclusively) by a shift in tense. Works by
two different authors and from two different national varieties of English were chosen to ensure
methodological rigor— to see whether the target translation phenomena occur in writings
exhibiting different varieties of the source language. Special attention is paid to the viewpoint
constructions in the corresponding Mandarin passages. The Mandarin texts used were 5 different
published translations of Great Expectations, 9 of David Copperfield, and 2 of “A&P”.
Page 3 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
4
3. Patterns in the English texts: The interplay of tense-shifting and other viewpointing
strategies
Below, I provide a detailed analysis of the three English excerpts. I will allot more space
to the ones produced by Dickens, as these two have many more translations in Mandarin and are
slightly richer in viewpoint strategies.
A close examination of the excerpts shows that although tense shifting is an important
viewpoint strategy in English narratives, it actually works in an intricate way with other
linguistic strategies to create the stylistic effect of mixing narrative viewpoints.
The first passage is taken from Chapter 56 of Great Expectations, where there is a shift
from the historical present to the past tense, reflecting a smooth viewpoint transition from a
proximal (character-responsible) to a distal (narrator-responsible) one.
(1) The whole scene starts out again in the vivid colours of the moment, down to the
drops of April rain on the windows of the court, glittering in the rays of April sun.
Penned in the dock, as I again stood outside it at the corner with his hand in mine,
were the two-and-thirty men and women; some defiant, some stricken with terror,
some sobbing and weeping, some covering their faces, some staring gloomily about.
There had been shrieks from among the women convicts, but they had been stilled, a
hush had succeeded.
The excerpt starts out taking the Story Space as the Base Space, a move reflected by the use of
the historical present marker -s in starts, the stylistic effect of which is strengthened by use of
perceptual deixis (Stockwell 2002:45). Perceptual deixis refer to those elements that invoke an
immediate perception of a participant in the narrated scene, manifested here by the perceptual
content from in the vivid colours to the rays of April sun. The viewpoint structure in the second
sentence is mixed, in the sense that the vividness resulting from taking the Story Space as the
Base Space is continued via use of inversion (Bolinger 1977; Dogeloh 1997; Chen 2003), which
allows the narrator to embed himself in the narrated universe and to adopt a character’s
perspective, and also more perceptual deixis—from some defiant to some staring gloomily
about—which offers the reader a less-mediated access to the perceptual content of the character
back in the Story Space. In addition, the sense of immediacy in the second sentence is
substantiated by the existence of four present participles, invoking an internal perspective
(Langacker 2008:120) on the event narrated. However, the use of the past tense stood creates
incoherence in the viewpoint configuration, in that it triggers a distal narrative viewpoint. The
combination of the past tense and the other stylistic devices thus creates a mixed viewpoint.
Continuing the viewpoint transition starting with stood, the third sentence continues with the past
tense and reflects a typical distal viewpoint, attributing the responsibility to the narrator as the
subject of consciousness (Pander Maat and Sanders 2001; Sanders, Sanders and Sweetser 2012).
Note that the use of tense marking collaborates with two crucial structural elements in
creating the mixed viewpoint: inversion and interpolation. Inversion is certainly important—the
preposing of the preverbal constituent invokes a proximal viewpoint by first presenting the
perceptual content (penned in the dock) as a continuation of the viewpoint in the first sentence.
Page 4 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
5
The continuation of the proximal viewpoint would be undermined if the second sentence were
not inverted, as in (1b):
(1b) The whole scene starts out again in the vivid colours of the moment, down to the
drops of April rain on the windows of the court, glittering in the rays of April sun. The
two-and-thirty men and women, as I again stood outside it at the corner with his hand in
mine, were penned in the dock; some defiant, some stricken with terror, some sobbing
and weeping, some covering their faces, some staring gloomily about. There had been
shrieks from among the women convicts, but they had been stilled, a hush had succeeded.
(constructed)
The other important structural element that works with tense shifting to create the mixed
viewpoint is the interpolation of the adverbial as-clause in the past tense. The set-up of the
viewpoint structure in (1) not only uses the second sentence as a subtle transition from a
proximal viewpoint to a distal one, but also embeds a distal viewpoint within the sentence
boundaries right in the middle. The viewpoint structure becomes different in (1c), where the asclause
is not interpolated:
(1c) The whole scene starts out again in the vivid colours of the moment, down to the
drops of April rain on the windows of the court, glittering in the rays of April sun. As I
again stood outside it at the corner with his hand in mine, penned in the dock were the
two-and-thirty men and women; some defiant, some stricken with terror, some sobbing
and weeping, some covering their faces, some staring gloomily about. There had been
shrieks from among the women convicts, but they had been stilled, a hush had succeeded.
(constructed)
From a comparison of (1) with its constructed counterparts, it is clear that the viewpoint shift is
achieved not only via a shift in tense, but also via the collaboration of inversion and
interpolation, both specific to English.
The second example is taken from Chapter 9 of David Copperfield, where the narrative
viewpoint shifts from a narrator-responsible one to a character-responsible one. This passage is
also hallmarked by the use of different tenses, but this time moving from past to present.
(2) If the funeral had been yesterday, I could not recollect it better. The very air of the
best parlour, when I went in at the door, the bright condition of the fire, the shining of
the wine in the decanters, the patterns of the glasses and plates, the faint sweet smell
of cake, the odour of Miss Murdstone’s dress, and our black clothes. Mr. Chillip is in
the room, and comes to speak to me.
Page 5 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
6
In this excerpt, there is a gradual shift in the narrative viewpoint, from a distal take to a close-up
one, with the use of tense invoking the global shift in construal. The first sentence of (2) is in
past tense, giving the narrator the narrative responsibility (manifested by use of had and could).
Immediately following that is a group of noun phrases that show the reader what the character
sees in the room (again perceptual deixis), inviting the reader to enter the character’s
consciousness. However, a remnant of the narrator’s distant viewpoint remains, signaled by the
only use of past tense went in the clause inserted among the full host of noun phrases. Note that
the position of the when-clause (which contains the only prompt for the narrator’s consciousness
went) has to be interpolated, in order to create a mixed viewpoint, as shown in (2). The analysis
here echoes Lu and Verhagen’s (2016) analysis of Alice in Wonderland, which identifies clause
interpolation as an important stylistic strategy of the English language that helps create a smooth
transition of narrative viewpoint. The constructed (2b), following the canonical clause order in
English, does not have the same stylistic effect as (2).
(2b) If the funeral had been yesterday, I could not recollect it better. When I went in at
the door, the very air of the best parlour, the bright condition of the fire, the shining of
the wine in the decanters, the patterns of the glasses and plates, the faint sweet smell of
cake, the odour of Miss Murdstone’s dress, and our black clothes. (constructed)
In addition to the position of the tensed when-clause, the viewpoint effect in (2) is inextricable
from the procedural establishment of an ad-hoc constructional schema introduced by the author’s
repetitive use of [N] – [of] – [N]. When the reader encounters that particular sentence, the
emphatic construction very, at the first instance, gives a sense of immediacy (hinting at a
character-responsible viewpoint), but immediately following that, the narrative viewpoint
switches back to a distal one, invoked by the past tense. The narrator, however, goes on to heap
on noun phrases with the same structure, so that an ad-hoc schema is created and gradually
entrenched as the reader moves along. The analysis here is reminiscent of Lu’s (2018) discussion
of how the ad hoc schema [N] – [PREP] – [N] creates a persuasive effect in Martin Luthur
King’s rhetorical masterpiece “I Have a Dream”. Though used in different genres and different
modes of communication, the cognitive effect of ad hoc schema construction in discourse is
expected to be similar.
It must, however, be noted that the analysis here does not amount to saying that the [N] –
[of] – [N] construction is one that represents the character’s viewpoint. Rather, the structure
simply serves as a bedrock of the mixing viewpoints. It does so by hosting various perceptual
deictic elements, ranging from THE AIR OF THE FIRST PARLOUR to THE ODOUR OF MISS
MURDSTONE’S DRESS, so that the viewpoint effect in this passage can be fleshed out by the
interruption of the chain of the character’s sensory contents linguistically elaborated by the [N] –
[of] – [N] structure. This kind of viewpoint effect is undermined when part of the perceptual
deixis is hosted by a structure other than [N] – [of] – [N], as it is in (2c).
Page 6 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
7
(2c) If the funeral had been yesterday, I could not recollect it better. The best parlour’s
air, when I went in at the door, the bright condition of the fire, the shining of the wine in
the decanters, the patterns of the glasses and plates, the faint sweet smell of cake, the
odour of Miss Murdstone’s dress, and our black clothes. Mr. Chillip is in the room, and
comes to speak to me. (constructed)
Note that the ad-hoc pattern is not merely structural but also constructional, since on a discoursenarrative
level, the noun phrases all suggest a character-responsible viewpoint, which means that
viewpoint-wise, a schematic commonality can be sought also at the semantic-functional pole of
the construction. Therefore, the insertion of the when-clause that contains the past tense
interrupts not only the creation of the structural pattern at the phonological pole, but also swings
the narrative viewpoint at the semantic pole.3
Examining a third passage, from John Updike’s short story “A&P,” reveals how tenseshifting
works in a different setting. Example (3) is taken from the first sentence of the opening
paragraph in the story:
(3) In walks these three girls in nothing but bathing suits. I'm in the third check-out slot,
with my back to the door, so I don't see them until they're over by the bread. The one
that caught my eye first was the one in the plaid green two-piece.
Quite similar to (1) and (2), the tense shift from the present to the past in (3) is the stylistic
strategy that takes the main responsibility for invoking a shift from a character-responsible
viewpoint to a narrator-responsible one. The passage starts with the present tense, providing
access to the character’s consciousness, with the character’s voice strengthened by the inversion
of the adverb in to the very front of the sentence. Compare (3) with the non-inverted (3b), where
the canonical word order triggers a more distal viewpoint.
(3b) These three girls walks in in nothing but bathing suits. I'm in the third check-out slot,
with my back to the door, so I don't see them until they're over by the bread. The one that
caught my eye first was the one in the plaid green two-piece. (constructed)
The point of the discussion so far is that although shifting between tenses is a key component in
managing viewpoint in English narratives, in actual use, it does not stand alone but collaborates
with other linguistic strategies to achieve a global mix of viewpoints. Such generalization is
substantiated by an in-depth analysis of works by two representative authors from different
varieties of the English language.
3 The argument presented here is similar to Nikiforidou’s (2012) take on the Past + now construction and Lu and
Verhagen (2016) on combination of typography and conjunctions, bringing constructional analysis “all the way up”
to the discourse level.
Page 7 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
8
4. Lack of neat cross-linguistic correspondences and the distinctive pattern of the
Mandarin renditions
A close examination of the Mandarin translations does not prove the hypothesis stated above
(that we expect to see corresponding TIME-related constructions where tense shifting takes place
in the original). Neither the perfective aspect nor TIME-related adverbials are properly4 and
consistently used across the translations, which means that the concept of TIME is not truly
relevant throughout the passages examined. Specifically, no Mandarin passage out of the total of
16 employs the perfective aspect in places where the past tense is used in English. In addition,
only 5 out of 16 contain a temporal adverbial that corresponds to the tense into which the English
switches (either past time or present time). These are not high enough numbers to prove the
validity of the hypothesis.
As we go deeper into the data, 2 out of 16 passages actually use the perfective aspect, but
only in places where the present tense is used in English, as in the combination of zǒu-le-jìn-lái
in (4).
(4) 三个 只 穿著 游泳衣 的 姑娘
sān-ge zhǐ chuān-zhe yóuyǒngyī de gūniáng
three-CL only wear-IMP swimsuit LINK lady
走了进来。 我 站在 三号 收银台 旁，
zǒu-le-jìn-lái wǒ zhàn-zài sān-hào shōuyíntái pang
walk-PFV-in-come I stand-
LOC
no. 3 cashier next to
背对著 门， 所以 等 他们 走到 放
bèiduì-zhe mén suǒyǐ děng tā-men zǒu-dào fàng
back-IMP door so until they walk-PFV lay
面包 的 柜台 时 才 看到。 首先
miànbāo de guìtái shí cái kàn-dào shǒuxiān
bread LK counter when PRT see-PFV first
引起 我 注意 的 是 那个 穿著
yǐnqǐ wǒ zhùyì de shì nà-ge chuān-zhe
raise I attention LK LK that-CL wear-IMP
4 One temporal adverbial is found within the 9 translations of (1), but it is not a rendition that faithfully reflects
what happens in the source text. The translation uses a Space Builder of the past time (当时 dāngshí ‘back then’)
in a passage where the English original uses the present tense. This shows that the translator is probably
insensitive to the tense switch to the present and sticks to the default past tense narration, using a past adverbial
to provide access to the character’s consciousness.
Page 8 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
9
绿色 方格 两截 游泳衣 的 姑娘。
lǜsè fānggé liǎngjié yóuyǒngyī de gūniáng
green plaid two piece swimsuit LK lady
“Three ladies who only wear/wore swimsuit walk(ed) in. I stand/stood next to cashier
no.3, back towards the door, so until they walk(ed) to the counter where the bread is/was
laid, I see/saw (them). First what catch/caught my attention is/was the lady with green
plaid two piece swimsuit.” (Yang’s translation in 2015)
In (4), the perfective aspect 了 le is attached to the verbal process of 走 zǒu ‘walk’, to encode the
completion of the action with respect to a reference point (the girls’ entrance to the shop). In this
instance, le is also part of the resultative construction (in the sense of Shi and Huang 2016:18),
serving to introduce the state of the girls (i.e. being in the shop) which results from the action of
walking. In any case, the perfective aspect in this particular example does not concern the
temporal relation between the time of speech and the time of the narrated event, nor does it
concern the shift of the narrative viewpoint. In both Mandarin renditions of (3), the perfective
aspect modifies the action of the girls (zǒu ‘walk’), which is elaborated in the English text in the
present tense, creating a different construal from the English one.
In addition to the lack of neat correspondence between TIME-related constructions
between the English and the Mandarin versions, none of the Mandarin translations of (2)
interpolates the rendition of the when-clause in between the stack of the noun phrases. Almost all
translations follow the canonical Mandarin clause order by putting the when-clause sentenceinitially.
Excerpt (5) is a typical case.
(5) 我 一 走进 那间 最好 的 客厅，
wǒ yī zǒu-jìn nà-jiān zuì-hǎo de kètīng
I as soon as walk-enter that-CL best LK best parlor
屋 里 的 气氛 就 迎面
wū lǐ de qìfēn jiù yíng-miàn
house in LK atmosphere PRT towards-face
扑来： 旺旺 的 炉火， 瓶 中
pū-lái wàng-wàng de lúhuǒ píng zhōng
spring-come blazing-RED LK fire bottle in
闪闪 发光 的 葡萄酒， 杯盘
shǎn-shǎn fāguāng de pútao-jiǔ bēipán
shine-RED radiate LK wine dishes
的 式样， 糕饼 的 微微 甜 香，
de shìyàng gāobǐng de wéi-wéi tián xiāng
LK style cake LK faint-RED sweet aroma
Page 9 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
10
默德斯通 小姐 衣服 上 的
mòdésītōng xiǎojiě yīfú shàng de
Murdstone Miss clothes on LK
气味， 以及 我们 穿 的 黑色
qìwèi yǐjí wǒ-mén chuān de hēisè
smell and we wear LK black
丧服。 齐力普 先生 也 在 那里，
sāngfú qílìpǔ xiānsheng yě zài nàlǐ
mourning apparel Chillip Mr. also LOC there
并且 走过来 和 我 说话。
bìngqiě zǒu-guòlái hàn wǒ shuōhuà
and walk-come with I speak
“As soon as I walk(ed) into that best parlor, atmosphere comes/came springing towards my
face: blazing fire, shining wine in bottle, style of dishes, and slight sweet aroma of cakes,
smell on Miss Murdstone’s clothes, and black mourning apparel we wear/wore. Mr. Chillip
is/was also there, and comes/came walking to speak to me.” (Wang and Wang’s translation
in 2001)5
As can be seen in (5), the content in the protasis in the English original (the character walking in
at the door of the best parlor) is rendered at the very beginning of the sentence, instead of being
inserted in between the series of sensory contents perceived by the character. Therefore, the
mixing of narrative viewpoints that we witnessed in (2) is not rendered in its Mandarin
counterpart due to the conventional sequence of the protasis and the apodosis in Mandarin.
So far, we have discussed the various viewpoint constructions that do not, and cannot, get
across from the English to the Mandarin versions. However, it is also important to note that the
Mandarin renditions do exhibit a clear pattern of their own—13 out of the 16 passages employ
reduplication to express a character-responsible viewpoint. Among the 13 passages, the 9
translations of (2) consistently utilize the strategy to show the vividness of the character’s
sensory experience. Readers are referred again to (5) for illustration. In (5), 3 tokens of
reduplications are used to increase the immediacy of the character’s reported perceptual content
(of how the fire burns fiercely, of how the wine gives out a bright light, and of how the sweet
smell of the cake is barely perceptible). In Mandarin, mono-syllabic words and di-syllabic lexical
constructions may be reduplicated to increase the degree of liveliness and vividness of a scene,
with the resultant pattern AA for a mono-syllabic construction or AABB for a disyllabic AB
construction.6
5 In the free translation, I choose to provide both possible tenses, to reflect the tense-unspecified nature of
Mandarin and to show that the passage may be open to different tense interpretations.
6 Reduplications in Mandarin are of two basic semantic types, increasing and diminishing (Melloni and Basciano
2018). What is found in my data all belong to the former type, which intensifies the property invoked by the base
Page 10 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
11
Beyond Excerpt (5), other typical examples identified in the 9 renditions of (2) include 淡
淡 dàn-dàn ‘weak-RED’ (based on 淡 dàn ‘weak’), 微微 wéi-wéi ‘faint-RED’ (based on 微 wéi
‘faint’), 清清楚楚 qīngqīngchǔchǔ ‘clear-RED’ (based on 清楚 qīngchǔ ‘clear (in terms of
vision or memory)’), among others. In addition, the Mandarin renditions are highly consistent in
using reduplication for a character-responsible viewpoint effect: among the 9 Mandarin
renditions of (2), 3 versions use 3 tokens of reduplications, 2 versions 2, and 4 versions 1.
Reduplication is also fairly consistently used in the Mandarin renditions of (1), with 4 versions
out of 5 using at least 1 reduplication to express the vividness of the narration.7
In addition to the typical reduplication of AA and AABB listed in Melloni and Basciano
(2018), still another constructional pattern of reduplication is identified in the parallel texts
studied—the pattern ABAC, with B and C being synonymous or at least semantically related.
Examples include 各式各样 gè-shì-gè-yang ‘every-type-RED-kind’ and 有声有色 yǒu-shēngyǒu-sè
‘have-sound-RED-color’. This is a type of morphological means that has not been
discussed in the literature of viewpoint research.8
It is also worth noting that reduplication is a highly productive morphological mechanism
that may bear an ideophonicizing function (Liu 2012). According to Liu, most Mandarin
ideophones can be reduplicated, but on top of that, general content words may also be
reduplicated to become temporary ideophones. I believe that Liu’s observation is relevant to the
above various reduplications identified in the Mandarin renditions. In addition to the tense
shifting, the English originals adopt perceptual deixis (expressions about the perceptive
participants in the scene) to construct a character-dominant viewpoint, and when rendering the
perceptual deixis, a Mandarin speaker may naturally reduplicate not only the inherent
ideophones but also selected content words that are only peripheral in the domain of PERCEPTION,
to provide the reader with easy access to the character’s consciousness.9
To show that reduplication is indeed an important stylistic strategy in Mandarin, compare
the constructed (5b), which is a version of (5) without reduplication. In (5b), the narrative
viewpoint is not as strongly character-dominant as that in (5), although the series of perceptual
deictic elements still allows the reader to access the character’s consciousness to an extent. In
(5b), the narration reads less vividly and lacks a sense of immediacy.
form. I believe that the ideophonicizing function of reduplication (Liu 2012) cited later in this paper may overlap
with the intensifying function of reduplication.
7 Reduplication is not present in the translations of (3). I suspect that use of reduplication is related to the extent of
ideophonicity of the narrated content in the original. Examples (1) and (2) both contain a richer description of the
sensory content perceived by the character than (3).
8 ABAC is a pattern of reduplication that has received little attention even in the field of Chinese Linguistics, let
alone in viewpoint research. The pattern is mentioned only in passing in Lai (2006:491) and Lin (2015:869), for
instance.
9 One might wonder about the semantic-relatedness between 声 and 色 in 有声有色 yǒu-shēng-yǒu-sè ‘havesound-RED-color’.
The semantic relation may not seem straightforward, but if one considers the concepts (that is,
SOUND and COLOR) against the domain of PERCEPTION and the tight connection between reduplication and
ideophones in Mandarin, it is not terribly surprising that the two constructions are attracted to the ABAC pattern
together.
Page 11 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
12
(5b) 我 一 走进 那间 最好 的 客厅，
wǒ yī zǒu-jìn nà-jiān zuì-hǎo de kètīng
I as soon as walk-enter that-CL best LK best parlor
屋 里 的 气氛 就 迎面
wū lǐ de qìfēn jiù yíng-miàn
house in LK atmosphere PRT towards-face
扑来： 旺盛 的 炉火， 瓶 中
pū-lái wàngshèng de lúhuǒ píng zhōng
spring-come blazing LK fire bottle in
闪耀 发光 的 葡萄酒， 杯盘
shǎnyào fāguāng de pútao-jiǔ bēipán
shine radiate LK wine dishes
的 式样， 糕饼 的 些微 甜 香，
de shìyàng gāobǐng de xiēwéi tián xiāng
LK style cake LK faint sweet aroma
默德斯通 小姐 衣服 上 的
mòdésītōng xiǎojiě yīfú shàng de
Murdstone Miss clothes on LK
气味， 以及 我们 穿 的 黑色
qìwèi yǐjí wǒ-mén chuān de hēisè
smell and we wear LK black
丧服。 齐力普 先生 也 在 那里，
sāngfú qílìpǔ xiānsheng yě zài nàlǐ
mourning apparel Chillip Mr. also LOC there
并且 走过来 和 我 说话。
bìngqiě zǒu-guòlái hàn wǒ shuōhuà
and walk-come with I speak
“As soon as I walk(ed) into that best parlor, atmosphere comes/came springing towards
my face: fire that blazes/d, wine in bottle that shines/d, style of dishes, and aroma of cakes
that is/was weak, smell on Miss Murdstone’s clothes, and black mourning apparel we
wear/wore. Mr. Chillip is/was also there, and comes/came walking to speak to me.”
(constructed)
Page 12 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
13
In addition to reduplication, the MultiParT approach also helps one identify with confidence
another viewpoint strategy specific to the target language, which introduces a different construal
of the narrated content. In particular, a perceptual deictic element, 在我（的）眼前 zài wǒ de
yǎn qián ‘LOC my LK eye front, (lit. in front of my eyes)’, is found to occur in all translations of
(1) that invoke the character’s consciousness. The construction is not in the English original at
all, and creates a different construal of the narrated scene throughout the Mandarin renditions by
introducing the presence of the narrator as an additional conceptual content, as shown in
Example (6).
(6) 现在， 所有 这一幕 又 栩栩如生
xiànzài suǒyǒu zhè-yī-mù yòu xǔ-xǔ-rú-shēng
now all this-one-scene again lively-RED-like-life
地 出现 在 我 眼前。 4 月
dì chūxiàn zài wǒ yǎn-qián… sìyuè
LK appear LOC my eye-front April
温暖 的 阳光 伏 在 法庭 的
wēnnuǎn de yángguāng fú zài fǎtíng de
warm LK sunlight lie LOC count LK
窗户 上， 可 同时， 也 有 4 月
chuānghù shàng kě tóngshí yě yǒu sìyuè
window LOC but meanwhile also have April
晶莹 的 雨点 打 在 上面。
jīngyíng de yǔdiǎn dǎ zài shàngmiàn
crystal LK rain drop hit LOC LOC
Now, all this scene appears/appeared in front of my eyes very lively. Warm April
sunlight lies/lay on the window of the court, but meanwhile, there are/were crystally
transparent April raindrops hitting on (the window). (Xu’s translation in 2012)
In (6), as well as in the other translations of (1), the use of 在我（的）眼前 zài wǒ de yǎn qián
‘LOC my LK eye front, (lit. in front of my eyes)’ performs the cognitive stylistic function of
putting the narrator onstage as an object of conceptualization (Langacker 2008:77), thus bringing
more of the reader’s attention to the narrator’s existence, pinning him down for the narrated
content than when the narrator remains linguistically implicit and thus offstage, as is the case in
the English original. Accordingly, due to the consistent use of perceptual deixis, all the Mandarin
renditions of (1) invoke an objective construal of the narrator, which is different from the English
original, and as a consequence, creates a more narrator-responsible viewpoint.
Page 13 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
14
Overall, the Mandarin renditions consistently offer a more or less different type of
vividness from the English original, in two major respects: on the one hand, the Mandarin
renditions typically lack corresponding viewpoint strategies identified in the English original,
such as TIME-related constructions (be they the perfective aspect or temporal adverbials) and
clause interpolation. On the other hand, Mandarin systematically imposes on the narrated scene
its own stylistic strategies, including reduplication and additional perceptual deixis. As a result,
the renditions take on different types of vividness, in the sense that they intensify the ideophones
(or even ideophonicize perception-related content) and give the narrator an objective construal
that is not present in the original.
5. Discussion and concluding remarks
From this analysis, it is clear that in the English language the viewpoint strategies that work with
tense shifting include at least ad hoc schema construction, clause interpolation and inversion, the
latter two of which are not present in the Mandarin renditions of all the English passages and are
language-specific. Tense shifting works with the three strategies in a sophisticated way to create
a language-specific stylistic effect of mixing viewpoints. But in addition to not having tense
marking, Mandarin also lacks clause interpolation and inversion in its standard10 constructional
toolkit for viewpointing narratives. Instead of using the perfective aspect or TIME-related
expressions as hypothesized, the investigated passages use reduplication and perception-related
lexical constructions, the former being specific to Mandarin, and the latter changing the
subjectivity of the narration when introduced into the renditions. Use of parallel texts allows us
to identify an additional constructional pattern in Mandarin, ABAC, used for introducing a
character-dominant narrative effect—a viewpointing tool which has not yet been discussed in the
literature.
Another theoretically relevant point discovered through comparison of these two
typologically different languages concerns whether and how they use obligatory grammatical
strategies to viewpoint discourse. On the one hand, English uses tense marking, which is an
obligatory system, to piggyback the cognitive-stylistic function of viewpoint management,
meaning that the language makes an obligatory distinction between narrative viewpoints across
sentences, given the grammatical fact that each sentence in English contains at least one tensed
verb or auxiliary. On the other hand, Mandarin resorts to optional constructional means such as
reduplication and perceptual lexical constructions for a similar stylistic purpose. Mandarin’s use
of non-obligatory strategies for viewpointing narratives means that its users are not required to
make a strict and clear viewpoint distinction in each sentence, although such non-obligatory
viewpoint strategies do appear (but only frequently) for the purpose of viewpoint management.
At the cognitive level, the grammar-driven viewpoint operation is also very different
between the languages—in English, the switching between mental spaces is always explicit
(given the obligatory dichotomous distinction between past/non-past in English) and has to be
marked sentence by sentence. But the Mandarin system does not require its speakers to make a
dichotomous distinction between mental spaces, and it is absolutely fine for a Mandarin sentence
to go without any single viewpoint strategy, leaving the space distinction unspecified and based
10 It is important to note that some translators simply follow the clause order in the source language without
creating the viewpoint effect (Lu and Verhagen 2016).
Page 14 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
15
on context, as suggested by Hagenaar (1996). Following such a line of thinking, the present
study is theoretically relevant not only to viewpoint research but also to the issue of linguistic
relativity. A language that has an obligatory tense marking system and uses that to manage
viewpoint in narratives (English being a typical example) requires its speakers to make clear
distinctions between viewpoints, and so in such languages we can talk about mixing of different
viewpoints. In contrast, speakers of a language that does not use an obligatory constructional
means to manage viewpoint (Mandarin being typical) are not required to make such clear
distinctions, so if a stretch of discourse does not invoke one single clear viewpoint, it is usually
underspecified rather than mixed. Of course, empirical research in this direction is needed to
confirm this implication.
The analysis also provides solid evidence for the usefulness of the MultiParT approach in
cross-linguistic viewpoint research. First, it pinpoints the utter lack of the perfective aspect and
the random use of TIME-related expressions across all the Mandarin renditions of (1) and (2), and
even identifies a consistent mismatch between the perfective aspect and the present tense in (3)
and both its renditions, which shows exactly why our hypothesis, following what has been
reported in previous literature, was incorrect. Second, MultiParT helps identify contextualized
language-specific viewpoint strategies, such as the perception-based lexical construction, in all
renditions of (1) and reduplication in all renditions of (2), which allows us to make a confident
enough generalization of what viewpoint construction to expect in a certain language in a
particular context. Thirdly, MultiParT also allows one to identify the lack of optional, though
possible, viewpoint strategies in a certain language in a particular context, such as the complete
lack of clause interpolation across all Mandarin renditions of (1) and (2).
Finally, it must be noted that the present study is based on works by only two
representative authors, each from a major national variety of English, thus allowing for an
investigation only of those two particular author’s style, so that recurrent stylistic strategies (such
as inversion, the interpolation of adverbial clauses and the stacking of lexical constructions with
structural similarity) can be identified as relevant. Further research on works by more
representative authors who wrote in English should be done in order to identify a wider variety
of stylistic means that corroborates with tense shifting in the English language. However, I
believe the confined scope does not undermine the generalizability of the present research but
rather gives it an analytical depth—if one does not see a connection in the target language
between TIME and viewpoint hypothesized in the sets of renditions of works by the authors from
different varieties of English, then it is obvious that TIME is not what speakers of that particular
target language care about when expressing viewpoint. The fact that the recurrent viewpoint
strategies in the two authors’ style do not appear at all in any rendition in another language, and
in fact are replaced by other means specific to the target language, proves exactly that viewpoint
management is radically (in the sense of Croft 2001 and Verhagen 2012) language-specific.
Acknowledgement
The completion of this paper was partially sponsored by “Employment of Best Young Scientists
for International Cooperation Empowerment: Cognitive Linguistics” (CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0037)
and by “The Language of Death in Contemporary Taiwan: Evidence from Condolatory Idioms,
Presidential Eulogies and the Self-introductions of Undertakers” (RG002-N-15). I would like to
Page 15 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
16
thank Joseph Lennon for editing and proofreading the manuscript and the reviewers for valuable
comments. All remaining errors are my responsibility.
References
Barlow, Michael and Suzanne Kemmer (ed.). 2000. Usage-based models of language. Chicago:
CSLI Publications.
Bolinger, Dwight. 1977. Meaning and form. London: Longman.
Chen, Rong. 2003. English inversion. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Croft, William. 2001. Radical Construction Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dancygier, Barbara and Eve Sweetser (eds.). 2012. Viewpoint in language: A multimodal
perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dorgeloh, Heidrun. 1997. Inversion in Modern English: Form and function. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publishing.
Fauconnier, Gilles. 1997. Mappings in thought and language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Fleischman, Suzanne. 1990. Tense and narrativity: From medieval performance to modern
fiction. London: Routledge.
Fludernik, Monika. 2012. Narratology and literary linguistics. The Oxford Handbook of Tense
and Aspect, ed. by Robert I. Binnick, 75-101. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hagenaar, Elly. 1996. Free indirect speech in Chinese. In: Theo A.J.M. Janssen & Wim van der
Wurff (eds.), Reported speech. Forms and functions of the verb, 289-298.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Lai, Hui-ling. 2006. Iconic coding of conceptualization: Hakka reduplicative constructions.
Language and Linguistics 7.2:483-499.
Langacker, Ronald W. 2008. Cognitive Grammar: A basic introduction. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Lin, Jo-wang. 2012. Tenselessness. The Oxford Handbook of Tense and Aspect, ed. by Robert I.
Binnick, 669-695. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lin, Hui-shan. 2015. Chengdu reduplication: An Optimality Theoretic analysis. Language and
Linguistics 16.6:843–872.
Liu, Danqing. 2012. Ideophonic reduplication of content words in Mandarin Chinese: A category
shift and its typological background. Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 41:39-79.
Liu, Danqing. 2014. Lun yuyan kucang de wujinqiyong yuanze (On the principle of maximum
Page 16 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
17
utilization of linguistic inventory) 论语言库藏的物尽其用原则. Zhongguo Yuwen 中国语文
362:387-401.
Lu, Wei-lun. 2018. A Cognitive Grammar approach to leadership rhetoric: Schemata and
categories in “I Have a Dream”. Analogy, Copy, and Representation: Interdisciplinary
Perspectives, ed. by Christoph Haase and Anne Schröder, 47-55. Bielefeld: Aisthesis Verlag.
Lu, Wei-lun and Arie Verhagen. 2016. Shifting viewpoints: How does that actually work across
languages? An exercise in parallel text analysis. In Barbara Dancygier, Wei-lun Lu, Arie
Verhagen (ed.). Viewpoint and the Fabric of Meaning: Form and Use of Viewpoint Tools
Across Languages and Modalities, 169-190. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Lu, Wei-lun, Arie Verhagen and I-wen Su. 2018. A Multiple- Parallel- Text Approach
for Viewpoint Research Across Languages: The Case of Demonstratives in English and
Chinese. Expressive Minds and Artistic Creations, ed. by Szilvia Csábi, 131-157. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Lu, Wei-lun, Svitlana Shurma and Suzanne Kemmer. Submitted. Use of multiple parallel texts in
contrastive cognitive poetics: A Cognitive Grammar analysis of word formation in
“Jabberwocky”. Submitted to Journal of Literary Semantics.
Melloni, Chiara and Bianca Basciano. 2018. Reduplication across boundaries: The case of
Mandarin. In Olivier Bonami, Gilles Boyé, Georgette Dal, Hélène Giraudo and Fiammetta
Namer (eds.), The lexeme in descriptive and theoretical morphology, 325-363. Berlin:
Language Science Press.
Nikiforidou, Kiki. 2012. The constructional underpinnings of viewpoint blends: The Past + now
in language and literature. In B. Dancygier & E. Sweetser (eds.), Viewpoint and perspective in
Language and Gesture, 177-197. Cambridge University Press.
Nijk, A.A. This issue. Bridging the gap between the near and the far: Displacement and
representation.
Pander Maat, Henk and Ted Sanders. 2001. Subjectivity in causal connectives: An empirical
study of language in use. Cognitive Linguistics 12.3: 247-274.
Sanders, Ted, José Sanders and Eve Sweetser. 2009. Causality, cognition and communication: A
mental space analysis of subjectivity in causal connectives. In Ted Sanders and Eve Sweeter
(eds.) Causal categories in discourse and cognition, 19-59. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Sanders, José, Ted Sanders and Eve Sweetser. 2012. Responsible subjects and discourse
causality: How mental spaces and perspective help identifying subjectivity in Dutch backward
causal connectives. Journal of Pragmatics 44, 191-213.
Shi, Dingxu and Huang Chu-ren. 2016. Syntactic overview. In Huang Chu-ren & Shi Dingxu
(eds.), A Reference Grammar of Chinese, 14-66. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stukker, Ninke M. This issue. Genre as a factor determining the viewpoint-marking quality of
verb tenses.
Page 17 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
18
Tabakowska, Elżbieta. 2014. Lewis Carroll’s Alice in grammatical wonderlands. In Chloe
Harrison, Louise Nuttall, Peter Stockwell & Wenjuan Yuan (eds.), Cognitive Grammar in
literature, 101–116. Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Verhagen, Arie. 2012. Construal and Stylistics – within a language, across contexts, across
languages. Stylistics across Disciplines. Conference Proceedings. CD-ROM. Leiden.
Verhagen, Arie. This issue. Shifting tenses, blending viewpoints, and the nature of narrative
communication.
Translations used
Dickens, Charles. 1959. Dàwèi Kēpōfēiěr 大衛‧科波菲爾 (David Copperfield, Dǒng Qiūsī 董
秋斯 Trans.). Hong Kong: Jiànwén Publishing 建文書局.
Dickens, Charles. 1993. Dàwèi Kǎobófēiěr 大衛‧考勃菲爾 (David Copperfield, Sī Guǒ 思果
Trans.). Taipei: Linking Publishing 聯經出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 2000. Dàwèi Kǎopōfēiěr 大卫‧考波菲尔 (David Copperfield, Lǐ Péngēn 李
彭恩 Trans.). Beijing: Beijing Yanshan Press 北京燕山出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 2001. Dàwèi Kēpōfēiěr 大卫‧科波菲尔 (David Copperfield, Wáng Huìjūn
and Wáng Huìlíng 王惠君、王惠玲 Trans.). Kuitun: Yīlí Rénmín Publishing 伊犁人民出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 2003. Dàwèi Kēpōfēiěr 大卫‧科波菲尔 (David Copperfield, Kāng Zhènhǎi
and Liú Lú 康振海、刘芦 Trans.). Beijing: Zhōngguó Zhìgong Publishing 中国致公出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 2006. Dàwèi Kēpōfēiěr 大卫‧科波菲尔 (David Copperfield, Sòng Zhàolín
宋兆霖 Trans.). Hong Kong: China International Culture Press 国际文化出版公司.
Dickens, Charles. 2009. Dàwèi Kēpōfēiěr 大卫‧科波菲尔 (David Copperfield, Shǐ Dōngméi 史
东梅 Trans.). Changchun: Northern China Women & Children Publishing House 北方妇女儿童
出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 2010. Dàwèi Kēpōfēiěr 大卫‧科波菲尔 (David Copperfield, Zhāng
Shǎowén, Yè Míngyáng and Zhū Xiǎoqín 张少文、叶明杨、朱小琴 Trans.). Changchun: Jilin
Publishing Group 吉林出版集团.
Dickens, Charles. 2011. Dàwèi Kǎopōfēi 大卫‧考坡菲 (David Copperfield, Zhāng Gǔruò 张谷
若 Trans.). Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 1990. Yuǎndà Qiánchéng 远大前程 (Great expectations, Wáng Kēyī 王科一
Trans.). Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 2001. Yuǎndà Qiánchéng 远大前程 (Great expectations, Hú Zégang 胡泽刚
Trans.). Haikou: Nánfang Publishing 南方出版社.
Page 18 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
ForPreview
Only
19
Dickens, Charles. 2001. Yuǎndà Qiánchéng 远大前程 (Great expectations, Luó Zhìyě 罗志野
Trans.). Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 2004. Yuǎndà Qiánchéng 远大前程 (Great expectations, Yè Zūn 叶尊
Trans.). Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.
Dickens, Charles. 2012. Yuǎndà Qiánchéng 远大前程 (Great expectations, Xú Pàn 徐畔
Trans.). Harbin: North China Literature and Art Publishing House 北方文艺出版社.
Updike, John. 1986. “A hé P” (“A&P”, Yǔ, Níng 雨宁 Trans.). In Xiǎoshuō Jiànshǎng 小说鉴
赏, ed. by Wàn Zhǔ 万主. Beijing: Zhōngguó Qīngnián Publishing 中国青年出版社.
Updike, John. 2015. “A&P” (“A&P”, Yáng, Xiàngróng 杨向荣 Trans.). In Gē Yǔ 鸽羽 (Pigeon
Feathers and Other Stories). Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版
社.
Page 19 of 19
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cogl
Cognitive Linguistics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60