1
Section I
Overview
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1	 The cognitive linguistics enterprise: an
overview 1
Vyvyan Evans, Benjamin K. Bergen and Jörg Zinken
1	 Introduction
Cognitive linguistics is a modern school of linguistic thought and practice. It is concerned
with investigating the relationship between human language, the mind and
socio-physical experience. It originally emerged in the 1970s (Fillmore, 1975; Lakoff &
Thompson, 1975; Rosch, 1975) and arose out of dissatisfaction with formal approaches
to language which were dominant, at that time, in the disciplines of linguistics and
philosophy. While its origins were, in part, philosophical in nature, cognitive linguistics
has always been strongly influenced by theories and findings from the other cognitive
sciences as they emerged during the 1960s and 1970s, particularly cognitive psychology. 2
Nowhere is this clearer than in work relating to human categorization, particularly as
adopted by Charles Fillmore in the 1970s (e.g., Fillmore, 1975) and George Lakoff in
the 1980s (e.g., Lakoff, 1987). Also of importance have been earlier traditions such
as Gestalt psychology, as applied notably by Leonard Talmy (e.g., 2000) and Ronald
Langacker (e.g., 1987). Finally, the neural underpinnings of language and cognition have
had longstanding influence on the character and content of cognitive linguistic theories,
from early work on how visual biology constrains colour term systems (Kay & McDaniel,
1978) to more recent work under the rubric of the Neural Theory of Language (Gallese
& Lakoff, 2005). In recent years, cognitive linguistic theories have become sufficiently
sophisticated and detailed to begin making predictions that are testable using the broad
range of converging methods from the cognitive sciences.
Early research was dominated in the 1970s and early 1980s by a relatively small
number of scholars, primarily (although not exclusively) situated on the western seaboard
of the United States. 3
During the 1980s, cognitive linguistic research began to take
root in northern continental Europe, particularly in Belgium, Holland and Germany.
By the early 1990s, there was a growing proliferation of research in cognitive linguistics
throughout Europe and North America, and a relatively large internationally-distributed
group of researchers who identified themselves as ‘cognitive linguists’. This led,
in 1989, with a major conference held at Duisburg, Germany, to the formation of the
International Cognitive Linguistics Association, together with, a year later, the foundation
of the journal Cognitive Linguistics. In the words of one of the earliest pioneers in
cognitive linguistics, Ronald Langacker (1991b, p. xv), this event ‘marked the birth of
cognitive linguistics as a broadly grounded, self conscious intellectual movement.’
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 3
Cognitive linguistics is best described as a ‘movement’ or an ‘enterprise’, precisely
because it does not constitute a single closely-articulated theory. Instead, it is an approach
that has adopted a common set of core commitments and guiding principles, which
have led to a diverse range of complementary, overlapping (and sometimes competing)
theories. The purpose of this article is to trace some of the major assumptions and
commitments that make cognitive linguistics a distinct and worthwhile enterprise. We
also attempt to briefly survey the major areas of research and theory construction which
characterize cognitive linguistics, areas which make it one of the most lively, exciting
and promising schools of thought and practice in modern cognitive science. 4
2	 Two key commitments of cognitive linguistics
The cognitive linguistics enterprise is characterized by two fundamental commitments
(Lakoff, 1990). These underlie both the orientation and approach adopted by practising
cognitive linguists, and the assumptions and methodologies employed in the two
main branches of the cognitive linguistics enterprise: cognitive semantics, and cognitive
approaches to grammar, discussed in further detail in later sections.
2.1	 The Generalization Commitment
The first key commitment is the Generalization Commitment (Lakoff, 1990). It represents
a dedication to characterizing general principles that apply to all aspects of human
language. This goal is just a special subcase of the standard commitment in science
to seek the broadest generalizations possible. In contrast to the cognitive linguistics
approach, other approaches to the study of language often separate the language faculty
into distinct areas such as phonology (sound), semantics (word and sentence
meaning), pragmatics (meaning in discourse context), morphology (word structure),
syntax (sentence structure), and so on. As a consequence, there is often little basis for
generalization across these aspects of language, or for study of their interrelations. This
is particularly true of formal linguistics.
Formal linguistics attempts to model language by positing explicit mechanical
devices or procedures operating on theoretical primitives in order to produce all the
possible grammatical sentences of a given language. Such approaches typically attempt
precise formulations by adopting formalisms inspired by computer science, mathematics
and logic. Formal linguistics is embodied most notably by the work of Noam Chomsky
(e.g., 1965, 1981, 1995) and the paradigm of Generative Grammar, as well as the tradition
known as Formal Semantics, inspired by philosopher of language Richard Montague
(1970, 1973; see Cann, 1993, for a review).
Within formal linguistics it is usually argued that areas such as phonology, semantics
and syntax concern significantly different kinds of structuring principles operating
over different kinds of primitives. For instance, a syntax ‘module’ is an area in the mind
concerned with structuring words into sentences, whereas a phonology ‘module’ is
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concerned with structuring sounds into patterns permitted by the rules of any given
language, and by human language in general. This modular view of mind reinforces the
idea that modern linguistics is justified in separating the study of language into distinct
sub-disciplines, not only on grounds of practicality, but because the components of
language are wholly distinct, and, in terms of organization, incommensurable.
Cognitive linguists acknowledge that it may often be useful to treat areas such
as syntax, semantics and phonology as being notionally distinct. However, given the
Generalization Commitment, cognitive linguists do not start with the assumption
that the ‘modules’ or ‘subsystems’ of language are organized in significantly divergent
ways, or indeed that wholly distinct modules even exist. Thus, the Generalization
Commitment represents a commitment to openly investigating how the various aspects
of linguistic knowledge emerge from a common set of human cognitive abilities upon
which they draw, rather than assuming that they are produced in encapsulated modules
of the mind.
The Generalization Commitment has concrete consequences for studies of language.
First, cognitive linguistic studies focus on what is common among aspects of language,
seeking to re-use successful methods and explanations across these aspects. For instance,
just as word meaning displays prototype effects – there are better and worse examples
of referents of given words, related in particular ways – so various studies have applied
the same principles to the organization of morphology (e.g., Taylor, 2003), syntax (e.g.,
Goldberg, 1995), and phonology (e.g., Jaeger & Ohala, 1984). Generalizing successful
explanations across domains of language isn’t just a good scientific practice – it is also the
way biology works; reusing existing structures for new purposes, both on evolutionary
and developmental timescales. Second, cognitive linguistic approaches often take a
‘vertical’, rather than a ‘horizontal’ approach to the study of language. Language can
be seen as composed of a set of distinct layers of organization – the sound structure,
the set of words composed by these sounds, the syntactic structures these words are
constitutive of, and so on. If we array these layers one on top of the next as they unroll
over time (like layers of a cake), then modular approaches are horizontal, in the sense
that they take one layer and study it internally – just as a horizontal slice of cake. Vertical
approaches get a richer view of language by taking a vertical slice of language, which
includes phonology, morphology, syntax, and of course a healthy dollop of semantics
on top. A vertical slice of language is necessarily more complex in some ways than a
horizontal one – it is more varied and textured – but at the same time it affords possible
explanations that are simply unavailable from a horizontal, modular perspective.
2.2	 The Cognitive Commitment
The second commitment is termed the Cognitive Commitment (Lakoff, 1990). It
represents a commitment to providing a characterization of the general principles
for language that accord with what is known about the mind and brain from other
disciplines. It is this commitment that makes cognitive linguistics cognitive, and thus
an approach which is fundamentally interdisciplinary in nature.
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 5
Just as the Generalization Commitment leads to the search for principles of
language structure that hold across all aspects of language, in a related manner, the
Cognitive Commitment represents the view that principles of linguistic structure
should reflect what is known about human cognition from the other cognitive and
brain sciences, particularly psychology, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience,
and philosophy. In other words, the Cognitive Commitment asserts that models of
language and linguistic organization proposed should reflect what is known about
the human mind, rather than purely aesthetic dictates such as the use of particular
kinds of formalisms or economy of representation (see Croft, 1998, for discussion of
this last point).
The Cognitive Commitment has a number of concrete ramifications. First, linguistic
theories cannot include structures or processes that violate known properties of the
human cognitive system. For instance, if sequential derivation of syntactic structures
violates time constraints provided by actual human language processing, then it must
be jettisoned. Second, models that use known, existing properties of human cognition
to explain language phenomena are more parsimonious than those that are built from
a priori simplicity metrics. For example, quite a lot is known about human categorization,
and a theory that reduces word meaning to the same mechanisms responsible
for categorization in other cognitive domains is simpler than one that hypothesizes
a separate system for capturing lexical semantics. Finally, it is incumbent upon the
cognitive linguistic researcher to find convergent evidence for the cognitive reality of
components of any proffered model or explanation – whether or not this research is
conducted by the cognitive linguist (Gibbs, to appear/this volume).
3	 Cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar
Having briefly set out the two key commitments of the cognitive linguistics enterprise,
we now briefly map out the two, hitherto, best developed areas of the field.
Cognitive linguistics practice can be roughly divided into two main areas of
research: cognitive semantics and cognitive (approaches to) grammar. The area of
study known as cognitive semantics is concerned with investigating the relationship
between experience, the conceptual system, and the semantic structure encoded by language.
In specific terms, scholars working in cognitive semantics investigate knowledge
representation (conceptual structure), and meaning construction (conceptualization).
Cognitive semanticists have employed language as the lens through which these cognitive
phenomena can be investigated. Consequently, research in cognitive semantics
tends to be interested in modelling the human mind as much as it is concerned with
investigating linguistic semantics. A cognitive approach to grammar is concerned
with modelling the language system (the mental ‘grammar’), rather than the nature
of mind per se. However, it does so by taking as its starting point the conclusions of
work in cognitive semantics. This follows as meaning is central to cognitive approaches
to grammar. 5
It is critical to note that although the study of cognitive semantics and
cognitive approaches to grammar are occasionally separate in practice, this by no
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means implies that their domains of enquiry are anything but tightly linked –most
work in cognitive linguistics finds it necessary to investigate both lexical semantics
and grammatical organization jointly.
As with research in cognitive semantics, cognitive approaches to grammar have
also typically adopted one of two foci. Scholars such as Ronald Langacker (e.g., 1987,
1991a, 1991b, 1999) have emphasized the study of the cognitive principles that give rise
to linguistic organization. In his theory of Cognitive Grammar, Langacker has attempted
to delineate the principles that structure a grammar, and to relate these to aspects of
general cognition.
The second avenue of investigation, pursued by researchers including Fillmore
and Kay (Fillmore et al., 1988; Kay & Fillmore, 1998), Lakoff (Lakoff & Thompson,
1975; Lakoff, 1987) Goldberg (1995, 2003/this volume) and more recently Bergen and
Chang (2005/this volume) and Croft (2002), aims to provide a more descriptively and
formally detailed account of the linguistic units that comprise a particular language.
These researchers attempt to provide a broad-ranging inventory of the units of language,
from morphemes to words, idioms, and phrasal patterns, and seek accounts of their
structure, compositional possibilities, and relations. Researchers who have pursued
this line of investigation are developing a set of theories that are collectively known as
construction grammars. This general approach takes its name from the view in cognitive
linguistics that the basic unit of language is a form-meaning pairing known as a symbolic
assembly, or a construction (particularly in construction grammar accounts, see, e.g.,
Goldberg, 1995, for discussion).
4	 Cognitive semantics: guiding principles
In this section we consider in a little more detail the first of these two best-developed
areas of cognitive linguistics. Cognitive semantics, like the larger enterprise of which it
is a part, is not a single unified framework. Those researchers who identify themselves
as cognitive semanticists typically have a diverse set of foci and interests. However, there
are a number of guiding principles that collectively characterize a cognitive approach
to semantics. In this section we identify these guiding principles (as we see them). In
Section 5 we explore some of the major theories and research areas which have emerged
under the ‘banner’ of cognitive semantics.
The four guiding principles of cognitive semantics are as follows:
i)	 Conceptual structure is embodied (the ‘embodied cognition thesis’).
ii)	 Semantic structure is conceptual structure.
iii)	 Meaning representation is encyclopaedic.
iv)	 Meaning construction is conceptualization.
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 7
4.1	 Conceptual structure is embodied
Due to the nature of our bodies, including our neuro-anatomical architecture, we have a
species-specific view of the world. In other words, our construal of ‘reality’ is mediated,
in large measure, by the nature of our embodiment. One example of the way in which
embodiment affects the nature of experience is in the realm of colour. While the human
visual system has three kinds of photoreceptors (i.e., colour channels), other organisms
often have a different number (Varela et al., 1991). For instance, the visual system of squirrels,
rabbits and possibly cats, makes use of two colour channels, while other organisms,
including goldfish and pigeons, have four colour channels. Having a different range of
colour channels affects our experience of colour in terms of the range of colours accessible
to us along the colour spectrum. Some organisms can see in the infrared range, such as
rattlesnakes, which hunt prey at night and can visually detect the heat given off by other
organisms. Humans are unable to see in this range. The nature of our visual apparatus – one
aspect of our embodiment – determines the nature and range of our visual experience.
The nature of the relation between embodied cognition and linguistic meaning
is contentious. It is evident that embodiment underspecifies which colour terms a
particular language will have, and whether the speakers of a given language will be
interested in ‘colour’ in the first place (Saunders, 1995; Wierzbicka, 1996). However, the
interest in understanding this relation is an important aspect of the view in cognitive
linguistics that the study of linguistic meaning construction needs to be reintegrated
with the contemporary study of human nature (e.g., Núñez & Freeman, 1999).
The fact that our experience is embodied – that is, structured in part by the nature of
the bodies we have and by our neurological organization – has consequences for cognition.
In other words, the concepts we have access to and the nature of the ‘reality’ we think and
talk about are a function of our embodiment. We can only talk about what we can perceive
and conceive, and the things that we can perceive and conceive derive from embodied
experience. From this point of view, the human mind must bear the imprint of embodied
experience. This thesis, central to cognitive semantics, is known as the thesis of embodied
cognition. This position holds that conceptual structure (the nature of human concepts)
is a consequence of the nature of our embodiment and thus is embodied.
4.2	 Semantic structure is conceptual structure
The second guiding principle asserts that language refers to concepts in the mind of
the speaker rather than, directly, to entities which inhere in an objectively real external
world. In other words, semantic structure (the meanings conventionally associated with
words and other linguistic units) can be equated with conceptual structure (i.e., concepts).
This ‘representational’ view is directly at odds with the ‘denotational’ perspective of
what cognitive semanticists sometimes refer to as objectivist semantics, as exemplified
by some formal approaches to semantics.
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However, the claim that semantic structure can be equated with conceptual structure
does not mean that the two are identical. Instead, cognitive semanticists claim that the
meanings associated with linguistic units such as words, for example, form only a subset of
possible concepts. After all, we have many more thoughts, ideas and feelings than we can
conventionally encode in language. For example, as Langacker (1987) observes, we have a
concept for the place on our faces below our nose and above our mouth where moustaches
go. We must have a concept for this part of the face in order to understand that the hair that
grows there is called a moustache. However, there is no English word that conventionally
encodes this concept (at least not in the non-specialist vocabulary of everyday language).
It follows that the set of lexical concepts, the semantic units conventionally associated
with linguistic units such as words (see Evans, 2004, 2006; Evans & Green, 2006) is only
a subset of the full set of concepts in the minds of speaker-hearers. 6
4.3	 Meaning representation is encyclopaedic
The third guiding principle holds that semantic structure is encyclopaedic in nature.
This means that lexical concepts do not represent neatly packaged bundles of meaning
(the so-called dictionary view, see Haiman, 1980, for a critique). Rather, they serve as
‘points of access’ to vast repositories of knowledge relating to a particular concept or
conceptual domain (e.g., Langacker, 1987).
Of course, to claim that lexical concepts are ‘points of access’ to encyclopaedic
meaning is not to deny that words have conventional meanings associated with them.
The fact that example (1) means something different from example (2) is a consequence
of the conventional range of meanings associated with sad and happy.
(1) 	 James is sad.
(2) 	 James is happy.
Nevertheless, cognitive semanticists argue that the conventional meaning associated with
a particular linguistic unit is simply a ‘prompt’ for the process of meaning construction:
the ‘selection’ of an appropriate interpretation against the context of the utterance.
By way of example take the word safe. This has a range of meanings, and the meaning
that we select emerges as a consequence of the context in which the word occurs. To
illustrate this point, consider the examples in (3), discussed by Fauconnier and Turner
(2002), against the context of a child playing on the beach.
(3)	 a. 	 The child is safe.
b. 	 The beach is safe.
c. 	 The shovel is safe.
In this context, the interpretation of (3a) is that the child will not come to any harm.
However, (3b) does not mean that the beach will not come to harm. Instead, it means that
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 9
the beach is an environment in which the risk of the child coming to harm is minimized.
Similarly, (3c) does not mean that the shovel will not come to harm, but that it will not
cause harm to the child. These examples illustrate that there is no single fixed property
that safe assigns to the words child, beach and shovel. In order to understand what the
speaker means, we draw upon our encyclopaedic knowledge relating to children, beaches
and shovels, and our knowledge relating to what it means to be safe. We then ‘construct’
a meaning by ‘selecting’ a meaning that is appropriate in the context of the utterance.
4.4	 Meaning construction is conceptualization
The fourth guiding principle is that language itself does not encode meaning. Instead, as
we have seen, words (and other linguistic units) are only ‘prompts’ for the construction of
meaning. Accordingly, meaning is constructed at the conceptual level. Meaning construction
is equated with conceptualization, a process whereby linguistic units serve as prompts
for an array of conceptual operations and the recruitment of background knowledge.
Meaning is a process rather than a discrete ‘thing’ that can be ‘packaged’ by language.
5	 Cognitive semantics: major theories and approaches
In this section we briefly introduce some of the most significant theories in cognitive
semantics, and consider how they best exemplify the guiding assumptions discussed
above.
5.1	 Image schema theory
The theoretical construct of the image schema was developed in particular by Mark
Johnson. In his now classic 1987 book, The Body in the Mind, Johnson proposed that
one way in which embodied experience manifests itself at the cognitive level is in terms
of image schemas. These are rudimentary concepts like contact, container and
balance, which are meaningful because they derive from and are linked to human preconceptual
experience. This is experience of the world directly mediated and structured
by the human body. These image-schematic concepts are not disembodied abstractions,
but derive their substance, in large measure, from the sensory-perceptual experiences
that give rise to them in the first place.
The developmental psychologist Jean Mandler (e.g. 1992, 1996, 2004) has made
a number of proposals concerning how image schemas might arise from embodied
experience. Starting at an early age infants attend to objects and spatial displays in their
environment. Mandler suggests that by attending closely to such spatial experiences,
children are able to abstract across similar kinds of experiences, finding meaningful
patterns in the process. For instance, the container image schema is more than simply
a spatio-geometric representation. It is a ‘theory’ about a particular kind of configuration
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in which one entity is supported by another entity that contains it. In other words, the
container schema is meaningful because containers are meaningful in our everyday
experience.
Lakoff (1987, 1990, 1993/this volume) and Johnson (1987) have argued that rudimentary
embodied concepts of this kind provide the conceptual building blocks for
more complex concepts, and can be systematically extended to provide structure to
more abstract concepts and conceptual domains. According to this view, the reason we
can talk about being in states like love or trouble (4) is because abstract concepts like
love are structured and therefore understood by virtue of the fundamental concept
container. In this way, image-schematic concepts serve to structure more complex
concepts and ideas.
(4) 	 a.	 James is in love.
b.	 Susan is in trouble.
c.	 The government is in a deep crisis.
According to Johnson, it is precisely because containers constrain activity that it makes
sense to conceptualize power and all-encompassing states like love or crisis in terms
of the container schema.
Mandler (2004) describes the process of forming image schemas in terms of a
redescription of spatial experience via a process she labels perceptual meaning analysis.
As she notes, ‘[O]ne of the foundations of the conceptualizing capacity is the image
schema, in which spatial structure is mapped into conceptual structure’ (Mandler,
1992, p. 591). She further suggests that ‘Basic, recurrent experiences with the world
form the bedrock of the child’s semantic architecture, which is already established well
before the child begins producing language’ (Mandler, 1992, p. 597). In other words, it
is experience, meaningful to us by virtue of our embodiment, that forms the basis of
many of our most fundamental concepts. Again, this basis must be very broad, and it
underspecifies the semantic spatial categories that children acquire (see Bowerman &
Choi, 2003/this volume). Nevertheless, image schema theory represents an important
attempt to relate conceptual structure to the nature of embodiment. Thus, it most
transparently reflects the thesis of embodied cognition, and the first guiding principle
of cognitive semantics which holds that conceptual structure is embodied.
5.2	 Encyclopaedic semantics
The traditional view in formal linguistics holds that meaning can be divided into a
dictionary component and an encyclopaedic component. According to this view, it is
only the dictionary component that properly constitutes the study of lexical semantics:
the branch of semantics concerned with the study of word meaning. In contrast, encyclopaedic
knowledge is external to linguistic knowledge, falling within the domain of
‘world knowledge’. Of course, this view is consistent with the modularity hypothesis
adopted within formal linguistics, briefly mentioned earlier.
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 11
In contrast, cognitive semanticists typically adopt an encyclopaedic approach to
meaning. There are a number of assumptions which constitute this approach to semantics,
which we briefly outline here.
i)	 There is no principled distinction between semantics and pragmatics.
ii)	 Encyclopaedic knowledge is structured.
iii) 	Encyclopaedic meaning emerges in context.
iv) 	 Lexical items are points of access to encyclopaedic knowledge.
v) 	 Encyclopaedic knowledge is dynamic.
i) 	 There is no principled distinction between semantics and pragmatics
First, cognitive semanticists reject the idea that there is a principled distinction between
‘core’ meaning on the one hand, and pragmatic, social or cultural meaning on the
other. This means that cognitive semanticists do not make a sharp distinction between
semantic and pragmatic knowledge. Knowledge of what words mean and knowledge
about how words are used are both types of ‘semantic’ knowledge.
Cognitive semanticists do not posit an autonomous mental lexicon which contains
semantic knowledge separately from other kinds of (linguistic or non-linguistic)
knowledge. It follows that there is no distinction between dictionary knowledge and
encyclopaedic knowledge: there is only encyclopaedic knowledge, which subsumes
what we might think of as dictionary knowledge.
ii) 	 Encyclopaedic knowledge is structured
The view that there is only encyclopaedic knowledge does not entail that the knowledge
we have connected to any given word is a disorganized mess. Cognitive semanticists
view encyclopaedic knowledge as a structured system of knowledge, organized as a
network. Moreover, not all aspects of the knowledge that is, in principle, accessible by
a single word has equal standing. For example, what we know about the word mango
includes information concerning its shape, colour, smell, texture and taste. This holds
whether we like or hate mangos, and so on.
iii) 	 Encyclopaedic meaning emerges in context
Encyclopaedic meaning arises in context(s) of use, so that the ‘selection’ of encyclopaedic
meaning is informed by contextual factors. For example, recall our discussion of safe
earlier. We saw that this word can have different meanings depending on the particular
context of use. Safe can mean ‘unlikely to cause harm’ when used in the context of a child
playing with a spade. Alternatively safe can mean ‘unlikely to come to harm’, when used
in the context of a beach that has been saved from development as a tourist resort.
Compared with the dictionary view of meaning, which separates core meaning
(semantics) from non-core meaning (pragmatics), the encyclopaedic view makes very
different claims. Not only does semantics include encyclopaedic knowledge, but meaning
is fundamentally ‘guided’ by context. Furthermore, the meaning of a word is ‘constructed’
on line as a result of contextual information. From this perspective, fully-specified preassembled
word meanings do not exist, but are selected and formed from encyclopaedic
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knowledge, which is called the semantic potential (Evans, 2006) or purport (Croft &
Cruse, 2004; Cruse, 2000) of a lexical item.
iv) 	 Lexical items are points of access to encyclopaedic knowledge
The encyclopaedic approach views lexical items as points of access to encyclopaedic
knowledge (Langacker, 1987). Accordingly, words are not containers that present neat
pre-packaged bundles of information. Instead, they selectively provide access to particular
parts of the vast network of encyclopaedic knowledge.
v) 	 Encyclopaedic knowledge is dynamic
Finally, while the central meaning associated with a word is relatively stable, the encyclopaedic
knowledge that each word provides access to is dynamic. Consider the lexical
concept car. Our knowledge of cars continues to be modified as a result of our ongoing
interaction with cars, our acquisition of knowledge regarding cars, and so on (see
Barsalou, e.g., 1999).
There are two relatively well developed theories of encyclopaedic semantics. The
first is the theory of frame semantics, developed in a series of publications by Charles
Fillmore (e.g., 1975, 1977, 1982, 1985; Fillmore & Atkins, 1992). A second theory is the
theory of domains developed by Ronald Langacker (e.g., 1987).
Fillmore proposes that a semantic frame is a schematization of experience (a
knowledge structure), which is represented at the conceptual level, and held in longterm
memory. The frame relates the elements and entities associated with a particular
culturally embedded scene from human experience. Thus, a word cannot be understood
independently of the frame with which it is associated.
Langacker’s (e.g., 1987) theory of domains (like Fillmore’s theory of Frame
Semantics), is based on the assumption that meaning is encyclopaedic, and that lexical
concepts cannot be understood independently of larger knowledge structures. Langacker
calls these knowledge structures domains.
5.3	 Categorization and Idealized Cognitive Models (ICMs)
A third important theoretical development in cognitive semantics relates to George
Lakoff’s theory of Idealized Cognitive Models (ICMs), developed in his now classic
1987 book Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. Like Fillmore’s notion of a semantic
frame, and Langacker’s domains, ICMs are relatively stable background knowledge
structures with respect to which lexical concepts are relativized. However, Lakoff’s
account was less concerned with developing an approach to encyclopaedic semantics
than with addressing issues in categorization which emerged from developments in
cognitive psychology.
In the 1970s the classical theory of human categorization – so called because it had
endured since the time of the ancient Greek philosophers– was called into question.
The new ideas that contributed to this development emerged from the research of
Eleanor Rosch and her colleagues on prototypes and basic level category research (e.g.,
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 13
Rosch, 1975, 1977, 1978; Rosch & Mervis, 1975; Rosch et al., 1976). Rosch’s work on
categorization, known as prototype theory, was, in fact, less a theory of knowledge
representation than a series of findings which provided new insights into human
categorization. In so far as the findings led to a theory, Rosch proposed that humans
categorize not by means of the necessary and sufficient conditions of the classical
theory but with reference to a prototype, a relatively abstract mental representation
that assembles the key attributes or features that best represent instances of a given
category.
The claim that categories are structured with respect to prototypes, or cognitive
reference points, was based on a number of experimental findings. Two of the most
striking relate to the notion that many categories appear to have fuzzy boundaries,
and the related notion of typicality effects. In terms of fuzziness, consider the category
furniture. While table and chair are clearly instances of this category, it is less clear
whether carpet should be considered a member. Rather than having sharply delineated
boundaries as predicted by the classical view, human subjects often appear to have
difficulty judging in which categories various physical artefacts belong. Moreover, this
difficulty is influenced by context, such as the physical situation or how the object in
question is being used at a given time.
A related issue concerns the notion of prototype or typicality effects. For example,
while people judge table or chair as ‘good examples’ of the category furniture,
carpet is judged as a less good example. These asymmetries between category members
are called typicality effects.
Despite Rosch’s early claim that conceptual fuzziness and typicality effects are the
result of conceptual prototypes, in later work she retreated from this position.
‘The fact that prototypicality is reliably rated and is correlated with category structure
does not have clear implications for particular processing models nor for a theory
of cognitive representations of categories’. (Rosch, 1978: 261).
In other words, while typicality effects are ‘real’ in the sense that they are empirical
findings, it does not follow that these findings can be directly ‘translated’ into a theory
of how categories are represented in the human mind. Lakoff (1987) represents an
important attempt to develop a theory of cognitive models that might plausibly explain
the typicality effects uncovered by Rosch and her colleagues.
Lakoff argued that categorization relates to idealized cognitive models (ICMs). These
are relatively stable mental representations that represent ‘theories’ about the world.
Moreover, ICMs guide cognitive processes like categorization and reasoning. Lakoff
argues that typicality effects can arise in a range of ways from a number of different
sources. One way in which typicality effects can arise is due to mismatches between
ICMs against which particular concepts are understood.
Consider the ICM to which the concept bachelor relates. This ICM is likely to
include information relating to the institution of marriage, and a standard marriageable
age. It is with respect to this ICM, Lakoff argues, that the notion of bachelor is
understood. Furthermore, because the background frame defined by an ICM is idealized,
it may only partially match up with other cognitive models. This can therefore give rise
to typicality effects.
14	 the cognitive linguistics reader
Consider the Pope with respect to the category bachelor. While an individual’s
status as a bachelor is an ‘all or nothing’ affair, because this notion is understood with
respect to the legal institution of marriage, the Pope, while strictly speaking a bachelor,
is judged to be a poor example of this particular category. Lakoff’s theory accounts
for this sort of typicality effect as follows. The concept pope is primarily understood
with respect to the ICM of the catholic church, whose clergy are unable to marry.
Clearly, there is a mismatch between these two cognitive models. In the ICM against
which bachelor is understood, the Pope is ‘strictly speaking’ a bachelor, because he is
unmarried. However, the Pope is not a prototypical bachelor because the Pope is more
frequently understood with respect to a catholic church ICM in which marriage of
Catholic clergy is prohibited.
There are a number of other ways in which, according to Lakoff, typicality effects
arise, by virtue of the sorts of ICMs people have access to. For instance, a typicality
effect arises when an exemplar (an individual instance) stands for an entire category.
The phenomenon whereby one conceptual entity stands for another is called metonymy,
discussed later. Thus, typicality effects that arise in this way relate to what Lakoff refers
to as metonymic ICMs.
An example of a metonymic ICM is the cultural stereotype housewife-mother, in
which a married woman does not have paid work, but stays at home and looks after the
house and family. The housewife-mother stereotype can give rise to typicality effects
when it stands for, or represents, the category mother as a whole. Typicality effects arise
from resulting expectations associated with members of the categorymother. According
to the housewife-mother stereotype, mothers nurture their children, and in order to
do this they stay at home and take care of them. A working mother, by contrast, is not
simply a mother who has a job, but also one who does not stay at home to look after her
children. Hence, the housewife-mother model, by metonymically representing the
category mother as a whole, serves in part to define other instances of the category such as
working mother, which thus emerges as a non-prototypical member of the category.
Lakoff’s work on ICMs is important in a number of respects. For instance, it embodies
the two key commitments of cognitive linguistics: the Generalization Commitment
and the Cognitive Commitment. Lakoff took what was then a relatively new set of
findings from cognitive psychology and sought to develop a model of language that
was compatible with these findings. In attempting to model principles of language in
terms of findings from cognitive psychology, Lakoff found himself devising and applying
principles that were common both to linguistic and conceptual phenomena, which thus
laid important foundations for the cognitive approach to language.
5.4	 Cognitive lexical semantics
One important consequence of Lakoff’s theory of ICMs was the impetus it provided
to the cognitive semantic treatment of word-meaning, an area known as
cognitive lexical semantics. Cognitive lexical semantics takes the position that
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 15
lexical items (words) are conceptual categories; a word represents a category of
distinct yet related meanings that exhibit typicality effects. Thus, Lakoff argued,
words are categories that can be modelled and investigated using the theory of
ICMs. In particular, Lakoff argued that lexical items represent the type of complex
categories he calls radial categories. A radial category is structured with respect
to a prototype, and the various category members are related to the prototype
by convention, rather than being ‘generated’ by predictable rules. As such, word
meanings are stored in the mental lexicon as highly complex structured categories
of meanings or senses.
In this section, we briefly present Lakoff’s account of the semantics of over, which
has been highly influential in the development of cognitive lexical semantics. Lakoff’s
account was based on ideas proposed in a master’s thesis by Claudia Brugman, his former
student. The idea underpinning Lakoff’s approach was that a lexical item like over constitutes
a conceptual category of distinct but related (polysemous) senses. Furthermore,
these senses, as part of a single category, can be judged as more prototypical (central)
or less prototypical (peripheral). This means that word senses exhibit typicality effects.
For instance the above sense of over in example (5a) would be judged by most native
speakers of English as a ‘better’ example of over than the control sense in example
(5b). While the prototypical above sense of over relates to a spatial configuration, the
control sense does not.
(5)	 a. 	 The picture is over the mantelpiece.
b. 	 Jane has a strange power over him.
The intuition that the spatial meanings are somehow prototypical led Brugman and
Lakoff (1988), and Lakoff (1987) to argue that the control sense of over is derived
metaphorically from the more prototypical spatial meaning of over.
While Lakoff’s theory of lexical semantics has been hugely influential, there nevertheless
remain a number of outstanding problems that have attracted significant discussion.
For instance, Lakoff’s so-called ‘full-specification’ view has been criticized as it entails a
potentially vast proliferation of distinct senses for each lexical item (e.g., Sandra, 1998).
For example, Lakoff’s approach entails that over has, at the very least, several dozen distinct
senses. A proliferation of senses is not problematic per se, because cognitive linguists
are not concerned with the issue of economy of representation. However, the absence of
clear methodological principles for establishing the distinct senses is problematic. More
recent work (e.g., Tyler & Evans, 2001/this volume, 2003) has sought to address some of
the difficulties inherent in Lakoff’s approach by providing a methodology for examining
senses associated with lexical categories. With the also quite recent use of empirical
methods in cognitive linguistics (see Cuyckens et al., 1997/this volume), and particularly
the use of corpora and statistical analysis (e.g., Gries, 2005), cognitive lexical semantics
has now begun to make serious progress in providing cognitively realistic analyses of
lexical categories.
16	 the cognitive linguistics reader
5.5	 Conceptual metaphor theory
Conceptual metaphor theory was one of the earliest and most important theories to take
a cognitive semantic approach. For a long time in the development of the larger cognitive
linguistics enterprise it was one of the dominant theories and despite its limitations
(see Evans, 2004; Evans & Zinken, To appear; Haser, 2005; Leezenberg, 2001; Murphy,
1996; Stern, 2000; Zinken, Hellsten, & Nerlich, in press), it still remains an important
perspective.
The seminal publication is Lakoff and Johnson’s 1980 volume Metaphors we live by,
the basic premise of which is that metaphor is not simply a stylistic feature of language,
but that thought itself is fundamentally metaphorical. According to this view, conceptual
structure is organized by cross domain mappings or correspondences which inhere
in long term memory. Some of these mappings are due to pre-conceptual embodied
experiences while others build on these experiences in order to form more complex
conceptual structures. For instance, we can think and talk about quality in terms of
vertical elevation, as in (6):
(6)	 She got a really high mark in the test.
where high relates not literally to physical height but to a good mark.
According to Conceptual Metaphor Theory, this is because the conceptual domain
quality is conventionally structured and therefore understood in terms of the conceptual
domain vertical elevation. The claims made by conceptual metaphor theorists
like Lakoff and Johnson directly relate to two of the central assumptions associated with
cognitive semantics. The first is the embodied cognition thesis, and the second is the
thesis that semantic structure reflects conceptual structure.
In a more recent development, conceptual metaphors are held to be derived
from more basic ‘super-schematic’ aspects of conceptual structure known as primary
metaphors (Grady, 1997; Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). On this view, more culture-specific
metaphors such as theories are buildings as exemplified by (7):
(7)	 a.	 Is that the foundation for your theory?
b.	 The theory needs more support.
c.	 The argument is shaky.
are derived from more fundamental, and arguably universal conceptual mappings
which persist in long-term memory. The process whereby more foundational primary
metaphors give rise to more complex or compound metaphors takes place by virtue of
an integration process known as conceptual blending (Grady et al., 1999/this volume),
which is discussed further below. The account of conceptual metaphor as deriving from
primary metaphors has been further fleshed out in terms of the neural operations that
could give rise to such cross-domain mappings, as elucidated in great detail by Lakoff
and Johnson (1999).
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 17
5.6	 Conceptual metonymy
In Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff and Johnson pointed out that, in addition to metaphor,
there is a related conceptual mechanism that is also central to human thought
and language: conceptual metonymy. Like metaphor, metonymy has traditionally been
analysed as a trope: a purely linguistic device. However, Lakoff and Johnson argued
that metonymy, like metaphor, was conceptual in nature. In recent years, a considerable
amount of research has been devoted to metonymy. Indeed, some scholars have begun
to suggest that metonymy may be more fundamental to conceptual organization than
metaphor (e.g., Taylor, 2003; Radden, 2001), and some have gone so far as to claim that
metaphor itself has a metonymic basis (Barcelona, 2001).
To illustrate the phenomenon of metonymy consider the following example drawn
from Evans and Green (2006):
(8) 	 The ham sandwich has wandering hands.
Imagine that the sentence in (8) is uttered by one waitress to another in a restaurant.
This use of the expression ham sandwich represents an instance of metonymy: two
entities are associated so that one entity (the item the customer ordered) stands for
the other (the customer). As this example demonstrates, metonymy is referential in
nature. It relates to the use of expressions to ‘pinpoint’ entities in order to talk about
them. This shows that metonymy functions differently from metaphor. For (8) to
be metaphorical we would need to understand ham sandwich not as an expression
referring to the customer who ordered it, but in terms of a food item with human
qualities. As these two quite distinct interpretations show, while metonymy is the
conceptual relation ‘X stands for Y’, metaphor is the conceptual relation ‘X understood
in terms of Y’.
A further defining feature of metonymy pointed out by Lakoff and Johnson is that
it is motivated by physical or causal associations. Traditionally, this was expressed in
terms of contiguity. This concerns a close or direct relationship between two entities.
This explains why the waitress can use the expression the ham sandwich to refer to the
customer; there is a direct experiential relationship between then ham sandwich and
the customer who ordered it.
A related way of viewing metonymy is that metonymy is often contingent on a
specific context. Within a specific discourse context, a salient vehicle activates and thus
highlights a particular target (Croft, 1993).
Finally, Lakoff and Turner (1989) added a further component to the cognitive
semantic view of metonymy. They pointed out that metonymy, unlike metaphor, is not a
cross-domain mapping, but instead allows one entity to stand for another because both
concepts co-exist within the same domain. This explains why a metonymic relationship
is based on contiguity or conceptual ‘proximity’. The reason ham sandwich in (8)
represents an instance of metonymy is because both the target (the customer) and the
vehicle (the ham sandwich) belong to the same restaurant domain.
18	 the cognitive linguistics reader
5.7	 Mental spaces theory
Mental Spaces Theory is a cognitive theory of meaning construction. Gilles Fauconnier
developed this approach in his two landmark books Mental Spaces ([1985] 1994), and
Mappings in Thought and Language (1997). More recently, Fauconnier, in collaboration
with Mark Turner in a series of papers and a 2002 book, The way we think, has extended
this theory, which has given rise to a new framework called Conceptual Blending Theory.
Together these two theories attempt to provide an account of the often hidden conceptual
aspects of meaning construction. From the perspective of Mental Spaces and Blending
theory, language provides underspecified prompts for the construction of meaning,
which takes place at the conceptual level. Accordingly, these two theories exemplify
the fourth of the guiding principles of the cognitive semantics approach. We briefly
introduce some key notions from Mental Spaces Theory and then in the next section
briefly survey the more recent Conceptual Blending Theory.
According to Fauconnier, meaning construction involves two processes: (1) the
building of mental spaces; and (2) the establishment of mappings between those mental
spaces. Moreover, the mapping relations are guided by the local discourse context,
which means that meaning construction is always context-bound. Fauconnier defines
mental spaces as ‘partial structures that proliferate when we think and talk, allowing
a fine-grained partitioning of our discourse and knowledge structures.’ (Fauconnier,
1997, p. 11). The fundamental insight this theory provides is that mental spaces partition
meaning into distinct conceptual regions or ‘packets’, when we think and talk.
Mental spaces are regions of conceptual space that contain specific kinds of information.
They are constructed on the basis of generalized linguistic, pragmatic and cultural
strategies for recruiting information. However, because mental spaces are constructed
‘on line’, they result in unique and temporary ‘packets’ of conceptual structure, constructed
for purposes specific to the ongoing discourse. The principles of mental space
formation and the relations or mappings established between mental spaces have the
potential to yield unlimited meanings.
As linguistic expressions are seen as underdetermined prompts for processes of
rich meaning construction, linguistic expressions have meaning potential. Rather than
‘encoding’ meaning, linguistic expressions represent partial building instructions, according
to which mental spaces are constructed. Of course, the actual meaning prompted
for by a given utterance will always be a function of the discourse context in which it
occurs, which entails that the meaning potential of any given utterance will always be
exploited in different ways dependent upon the discourse context.
Mental spaces are set up by space builders, which are linguistic units that either
prompt for the construction of a new mental space, or shift attention back and forth
between previously constructed mental spaces. Space builders can be expressions like
prepositional phrases (in 1966, at the shop, in Fred’s mind’s eye), adverbs (really, probably,
possibly), and subject-verb combinations that are followed by an embedded sentence
(Fred believes [Mary likes sausages], Mary hopes…, Susan states…), to name but a few.
Space builders require the hearer to ‘set up’ a scenario beyond the ‘here and now’, whether
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 19
this scenario reflects past or future reality, reality in some other location, a hypothetical
situation, a situation that reflects ideas and beliefs, and so on.
Mental spaces contain elements, which are either entities constructed on line,
or pre-existing entities in the conceptual system. Mental spaces are also internally
structured by existing knowledge structures, including frames and ICMs. The space
builders, the elements introduced into a mental space, and the properties and relations
prompted for, recruit this pre-existing knowledge structure. Once a mental space has
been constructed, it is linked to the other mental spaces established during discourse.
As discourse proceeds, mental spaces proliferate within a network or lattice, as more
background knowledge is recruited and links between the resulting spaces are created.
One of the advantages of Mental Spaces theory is that it provides an elegant account of
how viewpoint shifts during discourse, which in turn facilitates an intuitive solution to
some of the referential problems formal accounts of semantics have wrestled with.
5.8	 Conceptual blending theory
In terms of its architecture and in terms of its central concerns, Blending Theory is
closely related to Mental Spaces Theory. This is due to its central concern with dynamic
aspects of meaning construction, and its dependence upon mental spaces and mental
space construction as part of its architecture. However, Blending Theory is a distinct
theory that has been developed to account for phenomena that Mental Spaces Theory
(and Conceptual Metaphor Theory) cannot adequately account for. Moreover, Blending
Theory adds theoretical sophistication of its own.
The crucial insight of Blending Theory is that meaning construction typically
involves integration of structure from across mental spaces, that gives rise to emergent
structure: structure which is more than the sum of its parts. Blending theorists argue
that this process of conceptual integration or blending is a general and basic cognitive
operation, which is central to the way we think.
One of the key claims of cognitive semantics, particularly as developed by conceptual
metaphor theorists, is that human imagination plays a crucial role in cognitive processes,
and in what it is to be human. This theme is further developed by Gilles Fauconnier and
Mark Turner, the pioneers of Blending Theory. Blending Theory was originally developed
in order to account for linguistic structure and for the role of language in meaning
construction, particularly ‘creative’ aspects of meaning construction like novel metaphors,
counterfactuals, and so on. However, recent research in Blending Theory has given rise
to the view that conceptual blending is central to human thought and imagination, and
that evidence for this can be found not only in human language, but also in a wide range
of other areas of human activity, such as art, literature, religious thought and practice,
and scientific endeavour. Fauconnier and Turner also argue that our ability to perform
conceptual integration or blending may have been the key mechanism in facilitating the
development of advanced human behaviours that rely on complex symbolic abilities.
These behaviours include rituals, art, tool manufacture and use, and language.
20	 the cognitive linguistics reader
The mechanism by which dynamic meaning-construction occurs involves, according
to Fauconnier and Turner, the establishment of an integration network, resulting
in a blend. Integration networks consist of (at least) two input mental spaces, a generic
space which serves to identify counterparts in the inputs, and a fourth blended space,
which provides the novel emergent structure not contained in either of the inputs. The
process of blending or integration resulting in the emergent structure contained in the
blended space involves a process termed compression which reduces the conceptual
‘distance’ between counterpart elements in the input spaces.
For instance, consider the following example adapted from John Taylor (2002):
(9)	 In France, Bill Clinton wouldn’t have been harmed by his affair with Monica Lewinsky.
This is a complex counterfactual which is achieved by virtue of conceptual blending.
The point of the utterance is to set up a disanalogy between what we know about the US
and the behaviours expected by American voters of their political leaders especially with
respect to marital fidelity, and the behaviours expected by French voters of their political
leaders. Yet, this disanalogy is achieved by establishing a counterfactual scenario, a
complex imaginative feat, in order to facilitate inferential work in reality, with respect to
American and French attitudes to extramarital affairs. Conceptual blending theory, thus,
represents an ambitious attempt to model the dynamic qualities of meaning-construction,
by extending the theoretical architecture of Mental Spaces theory. Its applications
are wide-ranging, including, for example, the study of the development and cognitive
structure of mathematical systems (Lakoff & Núñez, 2000).
6	 Cognitive approaches to grammar: guiding principles
Just as we have seen for cognitive semantics, cognitive linguists who study grammar
typically have a diverse set of foci and interests. Some cognitive linguists are primarily
concerned with elucidating the cognitive mechanisms and principles that might account
for the properties of grammar, as Ronald Langacker does in his highly detailed theory
Cognitive Grammar, and as Leonard Talmy does in developing his model. Others are
primarily concerned with characterizing and delineating the linguistic units or constructions
that populate a grammar; theories of this kind are called construction grammars.
Finally, cognitive linguists who focus on grammatical change set out to explain the
process of grammaticalization, whereby open-class elements gradually transform into
closed-class elements. These different paths of investigation are united by certain shared
assumptions, which we very briefly set out in this section. We thus identify the two
guiding principles that underpin a cognitive approach to grammar (as we see them).
Cognitive approaches to grammar assume a cognitive semantics, and build a model
of linguistic knowledge (‘grammar’) which is consistent with the assumptions and
findings of work in cognitive semantics. In addition to this, the two guiding principles
of cognitive approaches to grammar are:
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 21
i) 	 The symbolic thesis.
ii) 	 The usage-based thesis.
6.1	 The symbolic thesis
The symbolic thesis holds that the fundamental unit of grammar is a form-meaning
pairing, or linguistic unit (called a ‘symbolic assembly’ in Langacker’s Cognitive
Grammar, or a ‘construction’ in construction grammar approaches). In Langacker’s
terms, the symbolic unit has two poles: a semantic pole (its meaning) and a phonological
pole (its sound). The idea that language has an essentially symbolic function, and that
the fundamental unit of grammar is the symbolic unit, has its roots in Ferdinand de
Saussure’s (1857–1913) theory of language. Central to Saussure’s theory was the view
that language is a symbolic system in which the linguistic expression (sign) consists of
a mapping between a concept (signified) and an acoustic signal (signifier), where both
signified and signifier are psychological entities. While there are important differences
between Saussure’s work and the approach taken in cognitive linguistics, the cognitive
approach adopts the idea of the Saussurean symbol. In cognitive approaches the semantic
pole corresponds to the ‘signified’, and the phonological pole to the ‘signifier’. These are
both ‘psychological entities’ in the sense that they belong within the mental system of
linguistic knowledge (the ‘grammar’) in the mind of the speaker. 7
It follows that cognitive approaches to grammar are not restricted to investigating
aspects of grammatical structure, largely independently of meaning, as is often the case
in formal traditions. Instead, cognitive approaches to grammar encompass the entire
inventory of linguistic units defined as form-meaning pairings. These run the gamut
from skeletal syntactic configurations such as the ditransitive construction (expressed in
John baked Mary a cake) to idioms (like kick the bucket), to bound morphemes like the
–er suffix, to words. This entails that the received view of clearly distinct ‘sub-modules’
of language cannot be meaningfully upheld within cognitive linguistics, where the
boundary between cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar is less
clearly defined. Instead, meaning and grammar are seen as mutually interdependent
and complementary. To take a cognitive approach to grammar is to study the units of
language, and hence the language system itself. To take a cognitive approach to semantics
is to attempt to understand how this linguistic system relates to the conceptual system,
which in turn relates to embodied experience.
The adoption of the symbolic thesis has an important consequence for cognitive
approaches to grammar. Because the basic unit is the linguistic or symbolic unit, meaning
achieves central status. That is, as the basic grammatical unit is a symbolic unit,
then form cannot be studied independently of meaning. This entails that the study of
grammar, from a cognitive perspective, is the study of the full range of units that make
up a language, from the lexical to the grammatical. For example, cognitive linguists argue
that the grammatical form of a sentence is paired with its own (schematic) meaning
in the same way that words like cat represent pairings of form and (content) meaning.
22	 the cognitive linguistics reader
The idea that grammatical units are inherently meaningful is an important theme
in cognitive approaches to grammar, and gives rise to the idea of a lexicon-grammar
continuum, in which content words like cat and grammatical constructions like the
passive or the ditransitive both count as symbolic units, but differ in terms of the quality
of the meaning potential associated with them.
6.2	 The usage-based thesis
The usage-based thesis holds that the mental grammar of the speaker (his or her knowledge
of language) is formed by the abstraction of symbolic units from situated instances
of language use. An important consequence of adopting the usage-based thesis is that
there is no principled distinction between knowledge of language and use of language
(competence and performance, in generative terms), since knowledge of language is
knowledge of how language is used. The usage-based thesis is central not just to cognitive
approaches to grammar but approaches to both language change and language
acquisition which take a cognitive linguistic perspective, as represented by articles by
Tomasello (2000/this volume) and by Croft (1996/this volume).
7	 Major theories and approaches
In this section we consider some of the major theoretical approaches in cognitive linguistics
which focus on language as a system of knowledge (‘grammar’). The ultimate objective of
a cognitive theory of grammar is to model speaker-hearer knowledge of language in ways
that are consistent with the two key commitments underlying the cognitive linguistics
enterprise, the Generalization and Cognitive commitments discussed earlier. From this
perspective, language emerges from general cognitive mechanisms and processes.
7.1	 Talmy’s grammatical vs. lexical sub-systems approach
The model of grammar developed by Leonard Talmy (e.g., Talmy, 2000, Chapter 1/
this volume), assumes the symbolic thesis and, like other cognitive approaches to
grammar, views grammatical units as inherently meaningful. However, Talmy’s model
is distinguished by its emphasis on the qualitative distinction between grammatical
(closed-class) and lexical (open-class) elements. Indeed, Talmy argues that these two
forms of linguistic expression represent two distinct conceptual subsystems, which
encode qualitatively distinct aspects of the human conceptual system. These are the
grammatical subsystem and the lexical subsystem. For Talmy, while closed-class elements
encode schematic or structural meaning, open-class elements encode meanings that
are far richer in terms of content. In his research output Talmy is primarily interested
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 23
in delineating the nature and organization of the grammatical subsystem. In particular,
Talmy is concerned with establishing the nature and function of the conceptual structure
subsystem, which is to say the conceptual structure encoded by closed class elements.
For Talmy this issue is a particularly fascinating one as in principle, language could
function with a lexical or conceptual content system alone. The fact that languages
do not makes establishing the distinction in terms of the respective contributions of
the two subsystems in encoding and externalizing our cognitive representation(s) a
particularly fascinating one. Because Talmy assumes the bifurcation of the conceptual
system into two distinct subsystems, his cognitive model of grammar focuses more on
the closed-class system than it does on the open-class system.
According to Talmy, the closed-class subsystem is semantically restricted and has
a structuring function, while the open-class system is semantically unrestricted and has
the function of providing conceptual content. To illustrate the restricted nature of the
closed-class system, Talmy observes that while many languages have nominal inflections
that indicate number, no language has nominal inflections that indicate colour. For
example, many languages have a grammatical affix like plural -s in English, but no language
has a grammatical affix designating, say, redness. Furthermore, the grammatical
system reflects a restricted range of concepts within the relevant domain. For example,
the grammatical number system can reflect concepts like singular, plural or paucal
(meaning ‘a few’) but not concepts like millions or twenty-seven. Talmy accounts
for such restrictions by means of the observation that grammatical categories display
topological rather than Euclidean properties. In other words, the meaning encoded by
closed-class elements remains constant despite contextual differences relating to size,
shape and so on. For example, the demonstrative determiner that in the expressions that
book in your hand and that city encodes distance from the speaker regardless of the
expanse of that distance. As these examples illustrate, the function of the grammatical/
closed-class system is to provide a ‘pared-down’ or highly abstract conceptual structure.
This structure provides a ‘scaffold’ or a ‘skeleton’ over which elements from the lexical/
open-class system are laid in order to provide rich and specific conceptual content.
Talmy argues that while no inventory of concepts expressible by open-class forms
can ever be specified (because there is no limit to human experience, knowledge and
understanding), there is a restricted inventory of concepts expressible by closed-class
forms. Each individual language has access to this inventory, but it does not follow
that any given language will exploit all the available possibilities. Thus, one of the
major impulses behind Talmy’s work is to provide a descriptively adequate account
of the major semantic content associated with the grammatical subsystem. He does
this by identifying what he refers to as schematic systems within which closed-class
elements appear to cluster. These systems include (at least) a configurational system, an
attentional system, a perspectival system and a force-dynamics system. Thus, Talmy’s
approach represents an attempt to characterize that aspect of our cognitive representation
that is encoded by the closed-class subsystem, and to describe how that system
is organized.
24	 the cognitive linguistics reader
7.2	 Cognitive Grammar
Cognitive Grammar is the theoretical framework that has been under development by
Ronald Langacker since the mid 1970s, and is best represented in his two Foundations
of Cognitive Grammar volumes published in 1987 and 1991. This is also arguably the
most detailed and comprehensive theory of grammar to have been developed within
cognitive linguistics, and to date has been the most influential.
Langacker’s approach attempts to model the cognitive mechanisms and principles
that motivate and license the formation and use of symbolic units of varying degrees
of complexity. Like Talmy, Langacker argues that grammatical or closed-class units are
inherently meaningful. Unlike Talmy, he does not assume that open-class and closedclass
units represent distinct conceptual subsystems.
Instead, Langacker argues that both types of unit belong within a single structured
inventory of conventionalized linguistic units which represents knowledge of language
in the mind of the speaker. Accordingly, Langacker’s model of grammar has a rather
broader focus than Talmy’s.
For Langacker, knowledge of language (the mental grammar) is represented in the
mind of the speaker as an inventory of symbolic units (Langacker, 1987, p. 73). It is only
once an expression has been used sufficiently frequently and has become entrenched
(acquiring the status of a habit or a cognitive routine) that it becomes a unit. From this
perspective, a unit is a symbolic entity that is not built compositionally by the language
system but is stored and accessed as a whole. Furthermore, the symbolic units represented
in the speaker’s grammar are conventional. The conventionality of a linguistic unit
relates to the idea that linguistic expressions become part of the grammar of a language
by virtue of being shared among members of a speech community. Thus conventionality
is a matter of degree. For instance, an expression like dog is more conventional (shared by
more members of the English-speaking community) than an expression like allophone,
which is shared only by a subset of English speakers with specialist knowledge relating
to the study of linguistics. The role of entrenchment and conventionality in this model
of grammar emerge from the usage-based thesis (see Langacker, 2000, for detailed
discussion; see also Evans & Green, 2006, Chapter 4, for a review).
Symbolic units can be simplex or complex in terms of their symbolic structure.
For example, a simplex symbolic unit like a morpheme may have a complex semantic
or phonological structure, but is simplex in terms of symbolic structure if it does not
contain smaller symbolic units as subparts. The word dog and the plural marker -s
are examples of simplex symbolic units. Complex units vary according to the level of
complexity, from words (for example, dogs) and phrases (for example, John’s brown dog)
to whole sentences (for example, Geoff kicked the dog). Langacker refers to complex
symbolic units as constructions.
The repository of entrenched symbolic units is conceived by Langacker as a mental
inventory. Yet, the contents of this inventory are not stored in a random way. The
inventory is structured, and this structure lies in the relationships that hold between
the units. For example, some units form subparts of other units which in turn form
subparts of other units (for example, morphemes make up words and words make up
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 25
phrases which in turn make up sentences). This set of interlinking and overlapping
relationships is conceived as a network.
There are three kinds of relation that hold between members of the network: (i)
symbolization–the symbolic links between semantic pole and phonological pole; (ii)
categorization–for example, the link between the expressions rose and flower, given that
rose is a member of the category flower; and (3) integration (the relation between
parts of a complex symbolic structure like flower-s).
As a constraint on the model, Langacker (1987, pp. 53–54) proposes the content
requirement. This requirement holds that the only structures permissible within the
grammar of a language are (i) phonological, semantic and symbolic units; (ii) the relations
that hold between them (described above); and (iii) schemas that represent these
units. This requirement excludes abstract rules from the model. Instead, knowledge of
linguistic patterns is conceived in terms of schemas.
7.3	 Constructional approaches to grammar
Constructional approaches to grammar are based on the observation that the meaning
of a whole utterance is more than a combination of the words it contains – the meaning
of the whole is more than the meaning of the parts (Lakoff, 1977). There are (at least)
four main varieties of constructional approach to grammar. The first is the theory called
Construction Grammar that was developed by Charles Fillmore, Paul Kay and their colleagues
(e.g., Fillmore et al., 1988/this volume). While this theory is broadly generative
in orientation, it set the scene for the development of cognitively realistic theories of
construction grammar which adopted the central thesis of Fillmore and Kay’s approach.
This thesis is the position that grammar can be modelled in terms of constructions rather
than ‘words and rules’. In part, Construction Grammar is motivated by the fact that
certain complex grammatical constructions (e.g. idioms like kick the bucket or throw
in the towel) have meaning that cannot be predicted on the basis of their sub-parts and
might therefore be ‘stored whole’ rather than ‘built from scratch’.
We also briefly introduce three other constructional approaches that are set
firmly within the cognitive linguistics framework: (1) a model that we call Goldberg’s
Construction Grammar, developed by Adele Goldberg (e.g., 1995, 2003/this volume);
(2) Radical Construction Grammar, developed by William Croft (e.g., 1996/this volume,
2001); and (3) Embodied Construction Grammar, a recent approach developed by
Benjamin Bergen and Nancy Chang (2005/this volume). It is worth pointing out that
Cognitive Grammar could also be classified as a constructional approach to grammar
because Langacker also adopts a constructional view of certain types of grammatical
unit. However, Langacker defines the notion of a construction in a different way from
these models.
Cognitive Grammar and constructional approaches to grammar share another
feature in common. Both are inventory-based approaches to the study of grammar
(Evans & Green, 2006). In other words, both types of approach view the grammar as an
inventory of symbolic units rather than a system of rules or principles. This amounts to
26	 the cognitive linguistics reader
the claim that the language system does not work predominantly by ‘building’ structure
(as in generative models of grammar) but by ‘storing’ it.
Fillmore et al.’s Construction Grammar
In their 1988 paper (this volume), Fillmore, Kay and O’Connor argue in favour of
a model in which, like the lexical item, the complex grammatical construction (the
phrase or the clause), has semantic and pragmatic properties directly associated with
it. To illustrate they examine formal idioms, complex expressions which have syntax
that is unique to the complex construction of which it is part. In principle, the number
of instances of a formal idiom constructions is infinitely large. Despite this, such constructions
often have a clearly identifiable semantic value and pragmatic force. For this
reason, formal idioms pose a particularly interesting challenge to the ‘words and rules’
model of grammar. They are productive and therefore rule-based, yet often defy the
‘usual’ rules of grammar. Fillmore et al. therefore took as their case study the idiomatic
let alone construction.
In light of their findings concerning the let alone construction, Fillmore et al. argue
against the ‘words and rules’ view (which they call the ‘atomistic’ view) of grammatical
operations, where lexical items are assembled by phrase structure rules into complex
units that are then assigned compositional meaning and only subsequently subjected
to pragmatic processing. In other words, they argue against a modular view of the
language system. Instead of a model in which syntactic, semantic, phonological and
pragmatic knowledge is represented in encapsulated subsystems, the constructional
model proposes that all this information is represented in a single unified representation,
which is the construction.
In later work, for example Kay and Fillmore (1999), Fillmore, Kay and their collaborators
develop their theory of Construction Grammar further. This model is monostratal:
containing only one level of syntactic representation rather than a sequence of structures
linked by transformations, a feature that characterizes transformational generative
models like Principles and Parameters Theory. Furthermore, the representations in
Construction Grammar contain not only syntactic information but also semantic
information relating to argument structure as well as pragmatic information.
Goldberg’s Construction Grammar
The contribution of Fillmore et al. (1988) and Kay and Fillmore (1999) in developing
Construction Grammar was to establish the symbolic thesis from first principles. These
researchers observed that the ‘words and rules’ approach to grammar, while accounting
for much that is regular in language, had failed to account for the irregular, which represents
a significant subset of language. They then set out to explain the irregular first, on
the assumption that once principles have been developed that account for the irregular,
then the same principles should be able to explain the regular as trivial cases.
The next stage in developing the constructional perspective was to apply this
approach to what is regular in the grammar. Perhaps the most important development
in this area has been Adele Goldberg’s work, most notably her landmark 1995
book, Constructions (see also Goldberg, 2003/this volume). In this work Goldberg
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 27
developed a theory of construction grammar that sought to extend the constructional
approach from ‘irregular’ idiomatic constructions to ‘regular’ constructions. In order
to do this, she focused on verb argument constructions. In other words, she examined
‘ordinary’ sentences, like ones with transitive or ditransitive structure, and built a theory
of construction grammar for the argument structure patterns she found there. One of
Goldberg’s notable achievements, in addition to making a compelling case for the constructional
approach to verbal argument structure, was in showing that ‘sentence-level’
constructions exhibit the same sorts of phenomena as other linguistic units including
polysemy and metaphor relations and extensions.
Radical Construction Grammar
The Radical Construction Grammar model was developed by Croft (1996/this volume,
2001), and sets out to explore the implications of linguistic typology for syntactic theory.
Linguistic typology is the subdiscipline of linguistics that examines the structural properties
of language from a crosslinguistic perspective and describes patterns of similarity
as well as observing points of diversity. Although typological studies can in principle be
theory neutral, relying on large-scale comparisons and statistical findings, explanations
for the patterns observed are usually couched in functional terms. Functional typology is
in a number of ways compatible with the approach adopted by cognitive linguists, and
it is this link that Croft seeks to exploit in developing a model of language that marries
typological insights with a meaning-based model of language structure.
Croft argues that instead of taking grammatical universals across the world’s languages
as a starting point and building a model of language that assumes a universal
grammar (the formal approach), we should instead take grammatical diversity as a
starting point and build a model that accounts adequately for patterns of typological
variation. Croft argues that a constructional approach is best placed to provide this
type of model, since a constructional approach enables the articulation of the arbitrary
and the unique, in contrast to most formal approaches which place the emphasis on
generalization.
What makes Croft’s constructional approach ’radical’ emerges as a consequence
of the typological stance he adopts. In Croft’s theory, the existence of constructions is
the only primitive theoretical construct. All other linguistic elements, including word
classes, such as nouns and verbs, word order patterns, and grammatical relations such
as subject and object are epiphenomenal. In this way, the notion of syntax, as usually
understood, is eradicated from the picture altogether.
Embodied Construction Grammar
Embodied Construction Grammar (ECG) is a recent theory of construction grammar
developed by Benjamin Bergen and Nancy Chang, together with various collaborators.
In this model, the emphasis is on language processing, particularly language
comprehension or understanding. In other words, while the approaches we have
discussed thus far place the emphasis on modelling linguistic knowledge rather than
on on-line processing, the ECG model takes it for granted that constructions form
the basis of linguistic knowledge, and focuses on exploring how constructions are
28	 the cognitive linguistics reader
processed in on-line or dynamic language comprehension. Moreover, ECG is centrally
concerned with describing how the constructions of a given language relate to
embodied knowledge in the process of language understanding. Therefore much of
the research to date in ECG has been focused on developing a formal ‘language’ to
describe the constructions of a language like English; this formal language also needs
to be able to describe the embodied concepts that these constructions give rise to in
dynamic language comprehension. For further details see Bergen and Chang (2005/
this volume).
7.4	 Cognitive approaches to grammaticalization
The final group of theories that we mention, albeit briefly, are cognitive approaches to
grammaticalization: the process of language change whereby grammatical or closed-class
elements evolve gradually from the open-class system. Because it relates to language
change, the process of grammaticalization falls within the domain of historical linguistics.
Grammaticalization is also of interest to typologists (see Croft, 1996/this volume),
because patterns of language change can inform their explanations of current patterns
in language. A subset of these historical linguists and typologists have developed models
that are informed by cognitive linguistics, which attempt to explain the grammaticalization
process. See in particular Heine et al. (1991), Sweetser (1990) and Traugott and
Dasher (2002).
8	 Empirical approaches in cognitive linguistics
A criticism that has been levelled against cognitive linguistics, particularly early on
in the development of the enterprise, related to a perceived lack of empirical rigour.
This criticism arose in response to some of the early foundational studies conducted
under the banner of cognitive semantics. For example, while intuitively appealing,
early research on lexical polysemy networks (see Brugman & Lakoff, 1988) and early
research on conceptual metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) was largely based on
speaker intuition and interpretation. The studies on over by Brugman ([1981] 1988;
Brugman & Lakoff, 1988) and Lakoff (1987), for instance, were criticized for lacking a
clear set of methodological decision principles (see Sandra, 1998), particularly given
semantic network analyses of the same lexical item often differed quite radically from
one theorist to another (see Sandra & Rice, 1995, for a review). In recent years, the
empirical foundations of cognitive linguistics have become stronger. For example,
experimental research (e.g., Gibbs, 1994; Boroditsky, 2000) and discourse analytic
research (e.g., Musolff, 2004; Zinken et al., in press) have begun to provide an empirical
basis for drawing conclusions about conceptual metaphor. Research by Seana Coulson
(e.g. Coulson & Van Petten, 2002/this volume) has begun to provide an empirical basis
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 29
for assessing conceptual integration networks. Research by psycholinguists Sandra and
Rice (1995) and Cuyckens et al. (1997/this volume), together with cognitively oriented
corpus studies as illustrated by Gries (2005) have begun to strengthen the empirical
basis of cognitive approaches to lexical semantics, and research by Tyler and Evans
(e.g. 2001/this volume), among others, has begun to provide a sound theoretical and
methodological basis for investigating lexical polysemy. Finally, experimental work in
the area of mental simulation (Zwaan et al., 2002; Glenberg & Kaschak, 2002; Bergen,
to appear) offers experimental confirmation of the role of mental imagery in the construction
of sentential meaning. With respect to cognitive approaches to grammar,
William Croft’s (e.g. 1996/this volume, 2001) proposals concerning the integration of
typological methods with cognitive linguistic theory has strengthened the empirical
basis of constructional accounts of grammar.
Indeed, the last few years have witnessed an increase in the influence of empirical
methods from neighbouring disciplines upon cognitive linguistics, including brainscanning
techniques from experimental psychology. The increased concern with
empirical methods is attested by Gonzales-Marquez et al. (to appear), a collection of
papers emerging from a recent workshop entitled ‘Empirical Methods in Cognitive
Linguistics’.
Despite these advances, outstanding challenges remain. For example, Gibbs (2000,
p. 349) observes that many psychologists complain that work in cognitive linguistics
that attempts to infer ‘aspects of conceptual knowledge from an analysis of systematic
patterns of linguistic structure leads to theories that appear to have a post hoc quality’.
In other words, psychologists have argued that cognitive linguistic theories are not
predictive but assume without adequate evidence that the conceptual system has certain
properties in order to account for the properties of language.
For example, Blending Theory purports to be a theory about conceptual processes
but is forced to posit underlying mental spaces and integration networks in order to
account for linguistic expressions. In other words, it infers the conceptual structures that
it attempts to demonstrate evidence for rather than seeking independent evidence for
these conceptual structures (from psychology or psycholinguistics, for example). This
means that the theory cannot be empirically falsified, since it does not make predictions
about the properties of conceptual structure that can be empirically tested. Falsifiability
is a necessary property of any theory that seeks to achieve scientific rather that purely
ideological status. Accordingly, if cognitive linguistic accounts of conceptual structure
are to achieve a theoretical status beyond ideology, it will be necessary for them to
continue to develop the means by which they can be empirically tested.
9	 Achievements of the cognitive linguistics enterprise
In this final section we briefly review some of the most significant achievements of the
cognitive linguistics enterprise, as we see them.
30	 the cognitive linguistics reader
9.1	 An integrated view of language and thought
The Generalization Commitment and the Cognitive Commitment, the two key commitments
which underpin a cognitive linguistics approach, have given rise to an integrated
approach to linguistic and conceptual organization. This has been particularly evident in
cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar, the two areas we have focused
upon in this review article. Other areas, such as cognitive approaches to phonology,
cognitive approaches to pragmatics and applications of cognitive linguistics to areas
such as psycholinguistics and language teaching, while increasingly the focus of research
in cognitive linguistics, remain at this point less well developed.
9.2	 Re-examination of the empiricist thesis
The rationalist view that underpins generative approaches to language has dominated
the field of linguistics for over half a century. A notable achievement of the cognitive
linguistics enterprise has been to refocus interest on the empiricist perspective, and
thus to reopen channels of investigation into language and mind that take into account
embodiment, experience and usage while remaining firmly committed to the study of
cognitive structures and processes.
9.3	 Focus on conceptual phenomena
Cognitive linguistics has also contributed to extending the range of conceptual phenomena
studied by cognitive scientists. For example, the idea of conceptual projection or ‘mappings’,
which is addressed by the frameworks of Conceptual Metaphor Theory, Mental
Spaces Theory and Conceptual Blending Theory, attempts to model the richness and
complexity of the human imagination. Until relatively recently, it was assumed either that
the human imagination was peripheral to cognition or that it could not be systematically
studied. The cognitive linguistics enterprise has provided an approach for studying the
imagination, and has shown that language reveals systematic processes at work in human
imagination which cognitive linguists have argued are central to the way we think.
9.4	 Integration of formalist and functionalist concerns
A further achievement of the cognitive linguistics enterprise has been to integrate formalist
and functionalist concerns. While formalists are particularly concerned with developing
descriptively adequate accounts of linguistic phenomena and with modelling the
representation of knowledge of language in the mind, functionalists have been primarily
concerned with exploring the social and communicative functions of situated language
use. Cognitive linguistics, while functionalist in spirit, is concerned both with achieving
descriptive adequacy and with modelling language as a cognitive phenomenon.
	 the cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview	 31
9.5	 A final caveat
Despite these achievements, there remain, of course, other kinds of challenges for
the cognitive linguistics enterprise. Indeed, it is worth pointing out that the detailed
and precise claims made by cognitive linguists about conceptual organization, e.g.,
conceptual metaphors, are largely based on the properties of language and are therefore,
for the most part, inferential. Until we learn a good deal more about the human mind
and brain, this remains a sobering caveat for any theory that attempts to model the
cognitive representation of language.
Notes
1	 We are grateful to Michael Israel, George Lakoff and Chris Sinha for helpful comments
on an earlier draft of this paper.
2	 For a review of historical antecedents of cognitive linguistics see Nerlich and Clarke (in
press).
3	 This applies to the history of cognitive linguistics in the English-speaking academic
world. It adds to the importance of cognitive linguistics as a new ‘paradigm’ to note
that cognitive linguistic theories with very similar commitments were independently
being developed around the same time in other academic discourses, e.g., in countries
where the language of international scientific discourse is Russian (see, for example,
Bartmiński, 1993).
4	 Cognitive linguistics has by now been applied to a wide range of areas, including
non-verbal communication (e.g., gesture, sign language(s)), and applied linguistics
(including literature, and language teaching/pedagogy), as well as a by now bewildering
array of disciplines in the social and cognitive sciences, and humanities. Consideration
of such applications and areas is clearly beyond the scope of this review article,
which is primarily concerned with the theoretical and ideological underpinnings of
the enterprise and a review of some of the notable theoretical approaches. For a fuller
review, and copious references to some of the applications to which cognitive linguistic
theories have been put, see Evans and Green (2006).
5	 This centrality of meaning for cognitive linguistics is another way in which this enterprise
is necessarily ‘cognitive’, as pointed out by Talmy (2000).
6	 One objection that has been levelled at cognitive semantics is that some proponents
appear to straightforwardly equate semantic structure with conceptual structure (see
Levinson, 1997, for a critical appraisal of such a view). As Sinha (1999) observes, such
a position, if accepted, would be deeply problematic. Recent work, such as the theory
of Lexical Concepts and Cognitive Models, developed by Evans (e.g., 2006) argues for
a level of semantic structure, ‘lexical concepts’, which are distinct from conceptual
structure.
7	 Note that the adoption of such a bi-polar semiotic model is not an intrinsic, but a historical
aspect of cognitive linguistic research. In fact, many cognitive linguists argue for
a ‘triangular’ semiotics that can model the grounding of linguistic meaning construction
in the intersubjectively shared world (e.g., Sinha, in press).
32	 the cognitive linguistics reader
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