OUTLINE OF JAPANESE WRITING SYSTEM 1. THE ORIGIN OF CHINESE CHARACTERS !>■ 50a 2. INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE CHARACTERS TO JAPAN P- 53a 3. CHINESE CHARACTERS IN JAPANESE P' 57a 1. THE ORIGIN OF CHINESE CHARACTERS 1.1 The Birth of a Pictographic Script 1.2 Formation of Chinese Characters 1.1 The Birth of a Pictographic Script Until recently, it was believed that the earliest examples of Chinese characters were those found in oracle bones used in divination rites dating back to the eighteenth century b,c. However, excavations made in China in 1986 have shown that at thai time the Chinese characters had already had a history of 1200 years, which means that the Chinese script first appeared almost 5000 years ago. The earliest characters were simple pictures of the things they represented. Although all the principal writing sys terns of the world began with pictures, these were in almost all cases simplified to abstract symbols that were eventually used for their sound values, giving rise to the major alphabet systems of the world. This happened everywhere but in China, where the primary function of the characters has always been to express both meaning and sound, rather than just sound. Typical Pictographs Early Forms Modern Character Meaning * tree, wood ->n ft woods &§i -*** forest f root, origin O — Q 0 sun d- A moon w bright 111 mountain m bird ft island The table shows examples of early character forms and their modern counterparts. The earliest characters were pictographs, which were simple pictures of things. Pictographs may be combined to form new characters, especially characters that express complex or abstract ideas. Thus 'tree' is combined with ^ to give ft 'woods' while three trees give jfi 'forest'; a line added to the bottom of a tree gives which means 'root' or 'origin'; and so on. OUTLINE 50a The shapes of the characters underwent 1.2 Formation of Chinese a great deal of change over the several Characters thousand years of their history. Many Tradjtionai[Vi Chinese characters are calligraphic styles, character forms, and c]assified imo six categories known as typeface styles have evolved over the ^ rikusho in,roduced some 1900 years; furthermore, the character forms years ago m ,he Chintse c|assic dictio. were simplified as a result of various Ian- nafy fo^M'? setsum0n kaiji, these guage reforms in China and Japan. The have p,ayed , central role in Chinese lex-chart below shows various forms and icography. The (irst four categories are styles for the characters £ and £. based on the charactcr formation proc. ess; the last two are based on usage. Character Forms and Styles Tortoise shell writing Bronze inscription Seal style R i Ancient square style Square style # Semicursive style Cursive style <*? a- Simplified handwritten abbreviation 4h S Ming typeface -k m Gothic typeface A m Traditional form -k m Alternative form — — Handwritten abbreviation Modern Chinese 1. Pictographs shdkei moji) are simple hieroglyphs that are rough sketches of the things they represent. Example: «>(mod ern @ moku) 'eye'. 2. Simple Ideographs (Jli^X^ shift moji) suggest the meanings of abstract ideas, such as numerals and directions. Example: H son 'three1. 3. Compound Ideographs kaii moji) consist of two or more elements each of which contributes to the meaning of the whole. Example: fa kyu 'rest' (person A resting under a tree jfc). A. Phonetic-Ideographic Characters (fep'X^f keisei moji) consist of one element that roughly expresses meaning (usually called the radical), and another element that represents sound and often also meaning. Example: J? ke' 'stem, stalk' consists of -«-'plants' and ^ kei 'straight', i.e., the straight part of a plant. 5. Derivative Characters (fojiS/-^ tencho moji) are characters used in an extended, derived, or figurative sense. Example: re/ changed from its original meaning 'command, order' to 'person who gives orders' to 'administrator, governor'. 6. Phonetic Loans (JMf&X'-^ kasha moji) are characters borrowed to represent words phonetically without direct relation to their original meanings, or to characters used er- 51a OUTLINE roneously. Example: " to originally referred to an ancient sacrificial vessel, but is now used in the borrowed sense of 'bean'. The great major it y of characters are phonetic-ideographic (type A above). for example, originally a picture of an eye pierced by a needle (^jf"), represented a slave blinded by his master to keep him from escaping, but later changed to 'ignorant masses' or 'people' in general. As a phonetic-ideographic clement in the formation of other characters, it represents the sound min and has a basic meaning of 'sightlessness' or 'darkness'. For example, Be (abbreviated to R;) is combined with H 'sun' to give § 'darkness, dusk'; |g 'sleep' consists of an eye ([]) in a state of sightlessness (B;). An interesting example is i$ 'marriage', which consists of ^ 'woman' + @ 'darkness'. According to one theory, this is because wedding ceremonies were held at night. In this way, a basic unit like K contributes its shape, its reading, and its meaning to the formation of other characters. The table below shows several groups of characters that share the basic clement @ 'eye': Typical Atom in Periodic Table of Chinese Characters Atom Formation Molecule Reeding Basic Meaning Compounds !i -><□>—► @ ->@ moku eye + Jl (legs) íl ken see m m m « s + ^ (tree) so face each other a s p m m s + L (object) ft choku straight m ft i ss m + -t-(slraight) m i ,£> (heart) S5 toku virtuous ÁÉf. ft§ 6S i + fy (visor) m jun shield m m & Groups of characters sharing the same "molecule" element are closely interrelated. They share three important features: (1) they share a basic element of the same shape, (2) they have more or less the same reading, and (3) they share a meaning on the character formation level. Chinese characters thus consist of logically interrelated parts that form :i systematic body of symbols to express meaning and sound. In addition to the six traditional categories, there is a seventh one limited to a 1 , Another theory claims that in China's less enlightened days a man would go out in the stealth of night and kidnap a woman (&) to make her his wife. This savage practice was abandoned, but stays on as a reminder of the curious customs of a bygone age. 2 . A full discussion of such groups can be found in kiw$ no seihekken ('Re- discovering Chinese Characters'), Shodensha (flffeji), 1987, by Jack Halpern, which intro-duces a method of ordering these groups in a scheme catted the "Atrjmic Theory of Chinese Character." 52a OUTLINE small number of characters coined in Ja pan. When ihe Japanese could not find an appropriate character to represent a particular word, they sometimes created new characters, called BJf kokuji 'na tional characters', on the model of the Chinese ones. Most of these have only kun readings (Japanese-derived pronunci ations); some, such as (fjj do 'work', have both on (Chinese-derived pronunciations) and kun readings, while others, such as sen 'gland', have only on reading. In rare instances, as in the case of a character created in Japan was "exported" back to Chinese. 2. INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE CHARACTERS TO JAPAN 2.1 Early Stages 2.2 On and Kun Readings 2.3 Classification of On Readings 2.4 Special Uses 2.5 Language Reforms 2.1 Early Stages In the early centuries of the Christian era, the Japanese did not have a writing system of their own. As the Japanese began to interact with the Chinese, thej adopted Chinese institutions and adapted them to their own needs. Chinese charac ters were introduced to Japan via the Ko rean peninsula in the fourth century a.d. In the next two centuries, Chinese books on philosophy and Buddhism were brought to Japan and studied by the Jap anese aristocracy. Initially, the Japanese used the characters for writing in authentic Chinese or a hybrid Japanese-Chinese style. A good example of the latter is the rS^^d ko-jiki (Ancient Chronicles) written in 712. Since the Japanese did not have their own script, they soon began to use the characters to write the Japanese language as well. In the early stages, they employed the characters purely for their phonetic values. For example, the native Japanese word yama 'mountain' was written t^SS, with the first character representing ya and the second ma This method of writing is referred to as 7/31 man' yogona because it was used extensively in the JJOfeig; man'ydshii, an eighth-century anthology of Japanese poems. Because oF the markedly different Unguis tic structures of Chinese and Japanese, the Chinese characters were not well-suited for writing Japanese. Whereas classical Chinese is basically a monosyllabic language with no inflected words, Japanese is a polysyllabic language with various elements attached to the stems of words to express grammatical meanings. 2.2 On and Kun Readings These circumstances led to an extremely interesting method of writing Japanese; the Chinese characters were used for their meanings. The characters were used to write words of Chinese origin, or to write native Japanese words with Chinese characters representing the same or similar meanings. The grammatical elements continued to be written phonetically, but eventually the characters used for their phonetic values were simplified, giving rise to two sets of syllabic scripts, hiragana and kalakana, in which each character represents a syllable. For example, the character an 'peaceful' gave rise to the hiragana character e, whereas p5f e was simplified to the kata-kana character T a (See Appendix 4). Characters used to represent meaning were pronounced in two ways; (1) the HiKfr on'yomi or 'phonetic reading' and (2) the IJI|g£A kun'yomi or 'explan atory reading'. This phonetic duality of the Chinese characters is fundamental to the nature of the Japanese script. Let us briefly examine how it arose. 53a OUTLINE In the first method, which is often caller] the "Sino-Japanese reading" or "Chinese-derived pronunciation," the characters represent Chinese-derived words or word elements. This method of reading the characters will be referred to as the on reading. The reading assigned to each character was a rough approximation of the original Chinese pronuncia tion. For example, the character lb 'mountain' was assigned (he reading son based on its old Chinese pronunciation (modern Chinese is shan). On readings are found more frequently in compound words (e.g. j^ili reman 'mountain range') than in independent words (e.g. % t$n 'heaven'). Since the Japanese often had native words to express the meanings represented by Chinese characters, they began to associate the characters not only with Chinese words but also with purely Japa nese words, til 'mountain', for example, was used to represent the native Jap anese word yama 'mountain' with no regard to its Chinese-derived reading san This method of reading the characters will be referred to as the kun reading. Originally, the kun reading was a kind of explanation assigned to a character that was used to interpret its meaning in a Chinese text. In other words, it was a native Japanese word that was essentially a translation of the concept represented by the Chinese character. Over the years, certain words became so well established as the translation for a given character that they were considered to be the standard reading or readings for that character. In this manner, ill acquired the reading yama, which eventually became established as its standard accepted pronunciation along with its on reading san. A distinctive feature of Chinese characters as used in Japanese is their multiple readings. Since the characters entered Japan over different historical periods and originated from different geographical regions, many characters have acquired several on and/or kun readings. In extreme cases, a character may have more than 100 readings (?£. has over 200). On and kun readings may be combined in four possible ways: on-on, kun-kun, on-kun, and kun-on. Unfortunately, there is no reliable rule for determining if a character is to be read in the on or kun, or for deciding which of several possible readings to select in a particular instance. A rough guideline is that on-on or kun-kun readings are used in compounds, and kun readings in independent words, but there are many exceptions. For example, maiasa 'every morn ing' is an on-kun compound, though 8| has the kun reading goto and $1] the on reading cho. 2.3 Classification of On Readings Traditionally, on readings are classified into four types: 1- kan'on 'Han reading', the most frequent and the most productive on reading, was introduced to Japan during the seventh and eighth centuries. It is based on the pronunciation current during the Tang Dynas ty in northwestern China. Example: ft K° 2. JSf| goon 'Wu reading', which is commonly assumed to originate from the Wu region in the lower Yangtze River area near Shanghai, was introduced up to the sixth and seventh centuries along with Buddhist writings. It is used mostly in Buddhist terms. Example: ft gyo 3. JH'if toon 'Tang reading' was intro duced between the thirteenth century and the Edo period. It is based on the pronunciation current in the Song Dynasty and after, and is used mostly OUTLINE for borrowed words and technological terms. Example: ft 4. Riffle1 kan'yoon 'popular reading' developed as a result of erroneous pronunciations that came into popular use and gained general acceptance. Example: jft ritsu During the compilation of this dictionary, several types of on readings that cannot be classified under the traditional categories were found. (The terms used to describe these categories were coined by the editor.) 1. c^es chuon ' modern Chinese reading' is an on reading based on modern Chinese. JJ, for example, is pronounced chan in such words as —iU ichan 'a game of mahjong', on the basis of its Mandarin pronunciation yizhuSng. 2. ftfs gaion 'foreign reading' is an on reading derived from foreign languages other than Chinese. For example, \\\\ sen is pronounced sento in the sense of 'cent'. Particularly interesting is a growing trend to create readings based on English, such as jfij j$ haiteku 'high technology'. 3. ffj^ waon 'Japanese reading' is an on reading assigned to kokuji (charac-ters coined in Japan) on the model of Chinese characters. For example, ftj 'to work' is a character coined in Japan but has a "Chinese-derived" reading of do, which is the reading of its principal component 'move'. 2.4 Special Uses In addition to the standard on and kun readings, there are a few special ways in which characters can be used. The most important of these arc: I. ateji 'phonetic substitutes' re- fers to characters used phonetically with little or no relation to their meanings. These are often used to transliterate Sanskrit Buddhist terms, such as Hf-£$i sshura 'Asura' (fight ing demon), and other foreign words such as $#5giS kurabu 'club'. 2. ^^3l| jukujikun 'special reading' refers to a reading of a word consisting of two or more characters assigned to a single word on the basis of its meaning without direct relation to the normal readings of each constituent character. For example, A A 'adult' consists of A 'big', normally pronounced dai or okii, and A 'human being', normally pronounced jin or hito. but together they function as a single unit pronounced otona. 2.5 Language Reforms Shortly after World War II, the Japanese government implemented language reforms aimed at limiting the number of characters and simplifying their forms, among other things. At the same time, kana orthography underwent extensive reforms to reflect actual pronunciation. For example, the sound kyO was historically written by such combinations as * •? and * but is now written J >$ -?. Large-scale language reforms also took place in China to limit the number of characters and drastically simplify their forms. As a result, many modern Chinese forms are totally different from their corresponding traditional and modern Japanese forms. For example, the traditional form of U hatsu 'start; emit' was simplified to 56 in Japanese but to .£ in Chinese. We will not dwell on China, but briefly examine the language reforms that took place in Japan. In 1946, a list of characters known as SffliU'-^ t6V° kanji was published, in which the number of characters was limited to 1850. Various amendments and additions followed in the ensuing years. In 1948, for example, 55a OUTLINE an appendix listing 881 characters to be learned in the first six years of compulsory schooling was published, and the number of readings of many characters was reduced. In 1949, the forms of many characters were greatly simplified, while in 1951 a supplementary list of 92 characters was approved for use in personal names, bringing the total to 1942. In spite of these changes, there was much dissatisfaction among the public, who wanted the number of characters in creased. In 1973, more characters for genera! use were added, while in 1976, 28 name characters were approved, followed by an additional 54 in 1981 and 118 in 1990. Meanwhile, cultural organi zations and the public at large pressed for greater freedom in the use of Chinese characters in general, as a result of which an expanded list of 1945 characters known as 'ffiftiM'^'- Joyc kanji was published in 1981. This brought the total number of name characters to 2229. The general trend to increase the number of characters took place in the schools as well. In 1977, the number of characters to be learned during the six years of compulsory schooling was increased to 996, and in 1989 this number was again increased to 1006 in line with the Ministry of Education's policy to place greater emphasis on reading and writing. Currently (early 1990), the most important official lists approved by the Japanese government as part of the postwar language reforms are: 1. Jpyo Kanji The %M&%!fL joyd kanji hyd, or "List of Characters in Common Use," is an official list (published in 1981) of 1945 characters widely used in the mass media, government and general publications, and education. 2. Education Kanji The ^^SIM'^K OUTLINE % ^ gakunenbetsu kanji haitohyo. Or "List of Characters Classified by School Grade," is an official list of 1006 characters that must be learned in the first six years of compulsory schooling. The list, which is commonly referred to as |5C^T?^'-f: kyoiku kanji ("Education Kanji"), was promulgated on March 15, 1S89. Although it has become official on this date, it will not be fully implemented until 1992. During the transition period, the old list of 996 characters published in 1977 will be used alongside with the new one. The number of characters taught in each grade is as follows: Grade 7977 List 1989 List First 76 80 Second 145 160 Third 195 200 Fourth 195 200 Fifth 195 185 Sixth 190 181 Total 996 1006 The principal change introduced in the new list was the moving of 60 characters from higher to lower grades. For example, fourteen third grade characters have become second grade characters. In addition, twenty new characters were added to the list, while ten characters were deleted, as shown below: Additions (20) m t!f 3f s ffi *L BS * * m Deletions (10) See Appendix 10. Joyo Kanji List for a full listing of the Education Kanji. 56a 3. Jinmei Kanji The A%8iMT- /'«-meiyd kanji. or "Name Characters," is an official list (published in 1981) of 166 characters approved for use in personal names in addition to the Joyo Kanji list. In April 1990. 118 name characters were added, bringing the total to 281. (There was not enough time to incorporate these changes into the present edition.) The promulgation of the Joyo/Toyo Kanji lists made it necessary to adopt various measures to ensure their smooth implementation. One problem was that it became impossible to write certain common words that included characters not in the official list. To soK'e this problem, the government published a list of simpler characters and words, called [u| H^iSS'^t-i-SSS^Jl d6on "o kanji ni ycru kakikae, that may be used to replace the characters not in the list. These characters, which we will call phonetic replacement characters, have the same sound, and, often, the same (or a similar) meaning as the characters being replaced. The latter will be called phonetically replaced characters. Fur example, the character (phonetically replaced character) in ijgS? renkei 'connection, linking, contact' was replaced by $ (phonetic replacement character), which has the same on reading and is similar to it in meaning, so that the word is now written jjf In addition to the 170 phonetic replacement characters appearing in the aforementioned list, there are many others which are in common use but do not appear in the list. For example, /fjj replaces in the word jpjsfi konton 'chaos', 3. CHINESE CHARACTERS IN JAPANESE 3.1 The Japanese Script The Japanese writing system is composed of two syllabic scripts, called ^Ffjjt & hiragana and ft'tK^ katakana. and thousands of Chinese characters, called kanji. The three scripts basically have different functions. Hiragana is used mostly to write grammatical elements, such as inflectional verb endings, and sometimes for writing native Japanese words. For example, in Qtz the kanji ^, represents the stem of the verb miru 'see' and /- fa is a verb ending for forming the past tense. The kana endings attached to a kanji base or stem are called i^^ffii$j okuri-gana Katakana is used mostly to write Western loanwords, such as ~f ') V V— purinta 'printer', and onomatopoeic words, such as i]-j £ kachitto 'with a dick'. Kanji are used to write the core of the Japanese vocabulary. This includes words, especially nouns, of Chinese origin and words coined in Japan on the Chinese model, such as tLlSft sanmyaku 'mountain range', as well as native Japanese words, such as ill yama 'mountain'. Kanji have three basic properties: form, sound, and meaning. Each charac tcr may be pronounced according to its Chinese derived on reading, or one of several native Japanese kun readings, and each reading may have numerous meanings associated with it. A running Japanese text consists of a mixture of kanji and kana, with the latter normally outnumbering the former. For example: £ *fl A £ fctf 3 ; £ t; J: o T £ Kanji o kumiawaseru koto ni yotte tasu no jukugo ga tsukuridasemesu. 3.1 The Japanese Script 3.2 Functions of Kanji 3.3 Word-Formation 3.4 Meaning of Kanji Numerous compound words can be formed by combining Chinese characters. 57a OUTLINE In the above sentence, particles such as & o (object marker), as well as verb endings-waseru in SLfc-ni-JtirS kumiawaseru 'combine'), are written in hiragana, whereas nouns, such as Sft|§ jukugo 'compound word', are written in kanji. Hiragana characters serve as natural borderlines that help the reader segment the text into meaningful units. For this reason, a Japanese text is easier to read than a running Chinese text, which consists of Chinese characters only. 3.2 Functions of Kanji One of the most important characteristics of Chinese characters is their ability to convey meaning. Just how they do this is the subject of a vast literature full of conflicting theories. Chinese characters have been described by such terms as tomographic (symbols for words), ideographic (symbols for ideas), and morpho-graphic (symbols for morphemes). Scholars disagree over the precise terminology and function of the characters. According to one extreme view, the characters convey meaning phonetically and their ideographic nature is nothing but a myth. According to another view, the characters can convey meaning directly; hydrophobia (Greek) aquarium (Latin) waterwhee! (Anglo-Saxon) In Knglish. the relationship between the above words is somewhat obscured by the fact that the concept of water is expressed in three different written forms, i.e., hydr, aqua, and water. In Japanese, on the other hand, although ^ has different phonetic forms, i.e., an on reading of sui and a kun reading of mizu, it has only one graphic form, i.e.. The kanji thus provides a visual link that transcends the different pronunciations. This ability of kanji to represent a OUTLINE that is, with little or no dependence on their pronunciations. Alphabetic symbols, on the other hand, are one step removed from that which is ultimately represented because they normally stand for the sounds of speech, which are in turn associated with meaning. Various other theories take intermediate positions between these two extremes. The whole question is highly controversial, but it is generally accepted that, whatever linguistic units the characters actually correspond to, their essential nature is to convey both meaning and sound, not just sound. Another important characteristic of Chinese characters is their high productivity. By combining a stock of a few thousand characters, countless compound words are generated. fj$ sen 'war', for example, is combined with other characters to form numerous compound words related to war, such as ^ ^ sen'yu 'comrade-in-arms' and many others. Chinese characters in Japanese function much the same way as Latin and Greek roots do in English. Each character has one or more distinct meanings, and often functions as a highly productive word-building element. given meaning with little or no dependence on their pronunciations is perhaps one the most distinctive features of the Japanese script. A further characteristic of Chinese characters is their semantic transparency. As each component of a compound word conveys a distinct meaning, the meaning of the resulting word is often self-evident. For example, iff ?hC'> "like 4-strangeness + heart (mind)" means 58a S3tC^' kyösuibyö ?K Keife" suizokukan l£ mizuguroma fea r-watcr-illness water-family-building water-wheel 'curiosity', tllSlfJE "little + blood + illness" means 'anemia', and fSfJF^fSffli "closed + place +■ fear + illness" means 'claustrophobia'. Once the meanings of the components are known, relatively little effort is needed to learn these words. Finally, Japanese has a large number of homophones (words thai sound the same but are written differently). K6ki and kiko, for instance, represent about a doz en words in common use, and (here are many more less frequent ones. Since each character has a distinct form (and meaning), kanji serve to distinguish such words from each other. Thus, kiko 'mechanism' is easily distinguished from 'returning to the harbor*. In summary, the principal features of the Japanese script are: 1. The Japanese writing system con sists of three scripts, each of which has a different function. Each kanji has a form, sound, and meaning. 2. One of the most important characteristics of kanji is their ability to convey meaning. 3. Kanji can be combined with each other to form numerous compound words. A. Kanji provide a visual link that transcends their different pronunciations. 5. Compound words are often semant-ically transparent; that is, their meanings are more or less evident from their components. 6. Since each character has a distinct form (and meaning), kanji serve to distinguish homophones from each other. 3.3 Word-Formation Languages differ in the processes by which they form new words. The Japanese language is agglutinative; that is, it forms words by putting together basic el- ements, called morphemes, that retain their original forms and meanings with little change during the combination process. A morpheme is a distinctive linguistic unit of relatively stable meaning that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts. As a rule, each Chinese character represents one morpheme. Compounding and derivation are among the most important word-formation processes in Japanese. Compounding consists of combining two or more words or word elements having their own lexical meaning (having a substantial meaning of their own) to produce a new unit that functions as a single word. Since the Chinese characters arc extremely productive in their ability to generate new words, compounding plays a major role in Japanese word-formation. By combining a stock of a few thousand characters, hundreds of thousands of compound words are created. Traditionally, a compound word is considered to be a combination of two or more free words, such as headwaiter, which consists of head and waiter. In Japanese, a compound may be any combination of free words, combining forms, and affixes that together function as a single word. The resulting compound is distinct from, but related to, its constituent components. For example, the compound iS'^rjf?! zdsen'jo 'shipyard' consists of the free word iaflfi 'shipbuilding' (it 'make; build' + Jfe 'ship') followed by the suffix fVf 'place' (see features of this dictionary § 7.1 Character Functions for more details). Derivation refers to creating a new word by adding to a stem a word element such as a suffix that expresses grammatical meaning but has no lexical meaning. For example, the noun kuro 'black' is combined with the adjective-forming suffix V* / to form the adjective IftV1 kuroi 'black'. Derivation should not be confused with inflection, which consists 59a OUTLINE of adding word endings or modifying the form of a word in order to indicate various grammatical functions, such as tense. The resulting word is another form of the original word, not a new word in itself. For example, the last syl lable of the verb j$%> kaetu 'to return' is inflected to yield ftj§ rl kaere, the imperative form. Inflectional word endings in Japanese are usually written in hi ragana. The precise distinctions between compounding, derivation, and inflection in volvc complex theoretical problems that need not concern the nonspecialist. 3.4 Meaning of Kanji As we have seen above, kanji may be read in one of two ways: the on reading and the kun reading. For each reading, a character may function as an independent word (any free word that can be used on its own) or as a word element (bound form used only in combinations). Since a character may have a different sense associated with each reading and each function, the meaning of a character can be said to operate on four distinct but related levels: 1. as an on independent word (as ffj mei 'discernment' in jtJiGQ^ sen ken no mei 'foresight') 2. as an on word element (as 1$ 'clear, obvious' in $]E6T& meikaku na 'clear, distinct') 3. as an independent kun word (as F$ §lv akarui 'bright, light') 4. as a kun word element (as -^fjlt 'end' in ,g,f$ 11 imiake 'end of mourning'). Each character may have numerous meanings on one or more of the four levels, and the levels may interact in a complex way. On each level, the characters may be combined in various ways, such as bound ( free, bound -\~ bound, free + free, etc., and may have several, sometimes a dozen or more, different meanings. Each character may have several on and kun readings, and each reading may have several derived words associated with it, which in turn have many meanings; or the character may function as a word element with one or more meanings. In some cases, on each level the meanings are totally different; in others, they may be similar but not quite the same. Often there is partial overlapping of some meanings but total inequality of others. For example, the on word element ill san and the independent kun word as well as iun word element ill yama share the meaning 'mountain', but the on word element san also means 'Buddhist temple', as in j£lL| honzan 'head temple', a meaning which is not shared by yama. Generally, the more common a character is, the more numerous are its meanings and the more complex is the relationship between them. An extreme example is _h 1° UP1 6° UP'- This dictionary lists a total of 114 meanings for Ji, subdivided into 16 subentries. It has 27 meanings as an on word element, 3 meanings as an independent on word, 17 meanings for 5 kun word elements and 87 meanings for 9 independent kun words. Although _h is a very long entry and is hardly typical, many characters do have more than ten meanings. * * * The Japanese script is now in a state of flux, and is being constantly adapted to the needs of the times. In this brief outline we have only touched upon its most important aspects, especially the role of Chinese characters, to the extent deemed necessary for using this dictionary effectively. 60a OUTLINE FEATURES OF THIS DICTIONARY PART I: GENERAL FEATURES 1. FINDING p. 65a 2. UNDERSTANDING p. 67a 3. READING p. 78a 4. WRITING p. 84a PART II: ADVANCED FEATURES 5. DISCRIMINATING p, R7a 6. REFERRING p. 96a 7. OTHER ADVANCED FEATURES p. 98a The primary aim of this dictionary is to serve as an effective reference tool to help the learner of Japanese gain an in-depth understanding of kanji. Its many features meet the needs of a broad range of users—the student, the reader, the writer, the educator, and the schol ar. See the introduction for a full discussion of dictionary aims. The aim of the sections that follow is to show how to make effective use of the features of this dictionary. To take full advantage of these features, keep in mind that although this dictionary is an efficient tool for looking up unknown characters and their meanings, using it merely as a means for locating items in isolation will deprive the user of access to the wealth of information it presents. To derive maximum benefit from the dictionary, remember that the meanings of characters and words form a network of closely-linked, interrelated units. In order to see how individual characters and words relate to one another, you should (1) consult relatively large parts of an entry at the time, such as all the meanings in a given section, and (2) occasionally consult other relevant entries by using the extensive network of cross-references. Since this dictionary is a work of refer ence, it should not be used in isolation, but in conjunction with other learning aids such as readers and textbooks, or as a supplement to a classroom program. Although the study of kanji is a time-consuming task that requires diligence, we arc confident that application of a systematic approach with the help of this dictionary as a reference tool will lead to satisfactory results. The features of this dictionary are classified into six broad categories, which are briefly described below: 1. FINDING: A new indexing system makes this dictionary an efficient tool for finding characters with great speed and facility. The user has a choice of six methods of look ing up entries. 2. UNDERSTANDING: Many features en able the learner to gain an in-depth understanding of the meanings and functions of kanji. These features clearly show how a few thou sand building blocks are combined to form the countless compounds in Japanese. 3. READING: This dictionary is a convenient tool for reading Japa nese because it enables the user to quickly look up a large variety of character readings, styles, forms, 61a FEATURES and meanings. 4. WRITING: This dictionary is an excellent manual for writing because of the full guidance it provides on stroke order, stroke counting, and calligraphic styles, and the various features that help the student compose texts with clarity and precision, 5. DISCRIMINATING: This dictionary serves as an effective learning aid because of the complete guidance it provides for discriminating be tween easily confused characters such as synonyms, homophones, and orthographic variants. 6. REFERRING: A wealth of supplementary data and an extensive network of cross-references make this dic- tionary an invaluable tool for referring. The first four categories, described in fakt t: general featukes below, are general features useful to the beginner and advanced student alike. The last two categories, described in 1*art ii: advanced features on p, 87a, are advanced features that arc particularly useful to the advanced student and scholar. For convenience of explanation, some advanced features are treated in i'art i, accompanied by appropriate comments indicating their status as advanced features. The most important features are summarized in the chart below, which provides an overview of how this dictionary can benefit the learner of Japanese. CHART OF DICTIONARY FEATURES FEATURES BENEFITS I. FINDING 1. Quick lookup method 2. Cross-references 3. Six lookup methods: by pattern by scanning by reading by radical by meaning directly 4. System of guides 5. Finding compounds and words 6. Readable layout and design 7. Extensive cross-reference network A new indexing system makes this dictionary an efficient tool for finding characters with great speed and facility. The user has a choice of six methods of looking up character entries, while the cross-references at incorrect locations practically eliminate dead-end searching. Moreover, a system of guides facilitates the speedy location of entries, and a readable layout and extensive cross-reference network quickly lead to a wealth of useful information. 2. UNDERSTANDING 1. Core meanings 2. Character meanings 3. lnterreiatedness of meaning 4. Logical ordering of senses 5. Importance of character senses 6. Explanatory glosses 7. English equivalents A number of unique features enable the learner to gain an in-depth understanding of the meanings and functions of kanji in Japanese. The core meaning, a concise keyword that defines the most domi nant character meaning, is followed by detailed meanings grouped in a manner that allows them to be conceived as an integrated unit. Numer- 82a FEATURES FEATURES BENEFITS 8. Supplementary information 9. Cross-references in equivalent 10. Numerous compounds and examples 11. Compounds with entry character in all positions 12. Compounds ordered by sense 13. Compound formation 14. Character functions 15. Labeling system 16. Synonym articles 17. Usage notes 18. Radicals 19. Character etymology ous compounds and examples, supplemented by articles describing how they are formed, illustrate each meaning in a wide range of contexts. To help the student learn new words, the function of each character as a word or word element is indicated, accompanied by various glosses and cross-references. A system of labels provides practical guidance on function, usage, status, and orthography, clearly distinguishing frequent meanings from rare and archaic ones. Since the degree of importance is indicated for each character sense, the beginner and advanced student can use the dictionary with equal ease. Understanding is further enhanced by articles show ing the distinctions between synonyms and homophones and by char acter etymologies. 3. REARING 1. Looking up unknown characters 2. Looking up unknown compounds 3. Numerous character forms 4. Entries for nonstandard forms 5. Easily confused forms 6. Calligraphic and typeface styles 7. Numerous character readings 8. Importance of readings 9. Full romanization 10. Chinese forms and readings The dictionary is a convenient tool for reading both contemporary and prewar Japanese because it enables the user to quickly look up a large variety of character readings, styles, and forms as well as the meanings and readings of unknown characters and compounds. Easily confused forms are cross-referenced, while all Japanese words and examples are romanized in a manner that shows their formation. Moreover, the Chinese form and reading are given for each character. 4. WRITING 1. Stroke order diagrams 2. Stroke order principles 3. Three calligraphic styles 4. Stroke-count data 5. Stroke counting The dictionary is an excellent manual for writing the characters because of the full guidance it provides on stroke order, stroke counting, and calligraphic styles. This enables the student to write the characters in the proper form and propor- FEATURES FEATURES BENEFITS principles 6. Kana orthography 7. Okurigana affixes 8. Okurigana rules 9. Orthographic variants 10. Synonym articles LI. Usage notes tion and is a prerequisite for study ing calligraphy. Other features help the student write with clarity and precision by showing the fine distinc tions between orthographic variants, homophones, and kanji synonyms, and by providing full guidance on kana orthography. 5. DISCRIMINATING 1. Synonym articles 2. Synonym headwords 3. Synonym keywords 4. Cross-references to synonyms 5. Simple kanji thesaurus 6. Usage notes 7. Orthographic labels 8. Cross-references to homophones 9. Examples in usage notes 10. Supplementary notes 11. Easily confused forms 12. Orthographic variants The dictionary provides complete guidance for discriminating between easily confused characters, which serves as an effective learning aid. It shows the precise differences and similarities between kanji syno nyms, homophones, easily confused forms, and orthographic variants so as to help the student understand shades of meaning and write with clarity and precision. This is enhanced by a network of cross-references, which helps quickly locate any member of a homophone or synonym group and also serves as a simple kanji thesaurus. 6. REFERRING 1. Eleven appendixes: • Kanji patterns • Strokes counting • Writing kanji • Kana and roman-ization • Okurigana rules • Radicals • Historical tables • Place name abbreviations • Core meanings by frequency • Joyo Kanji list • Kanji synonyms 2. Extensive cross-reference network 3. Frequency statistics 4. Character grade A wealth of supplementary data and an extensive network of cross-references make this dictionary an invaluable tool for referring. Elev en appendixes give the advanced student, the educator, and the scholar quick access to a valuable source of reference data. Frequency statistics and other data help the teacher com pile graded lessons. 64a FEATURES The above features are described in detail in the sections that follow. The intro duct ion to each section presents an overview, and discusses the nature of the problems faced by the learner. Various cross-references direct the user to other relevant sections, especially to the guide to the dictionary on p. 159a, which is abbreviated to "guide." Whereas the guide deals mostly with format and presentation details, the aim here is to show how and why the information is useful, with emphasis on the practical needs of the learner. To distinguish dictionary features and technical terms specific to this dictionary, they are set in sanserif boldface when necessary. PART I: GENERAL FEATURES The purpose of part t is to describe in detail the features of this dictionary that are useful to both the beginner and advanced student. The advanced features are described in part ii: advanced features on p. 87a. For convenience, the chart on p. 62a summarizes the most important features, 1. FINDING 1.1 Finding Entry Characters 1.2 Finding Words 1.3 Design Features 1.4 Cross-Reference Network The lack of an efficient scheme for ordering Chinese characters has long posed a major obstacle to learners attempting to look up entries in character dictionaries. The main problem is that one cannot look up a character without already knowing something about it, such as its radical or reading. Neither the traditional radical system, nor the various alternative systems, have achieved the speed and simplicity required to meet the practical needs of dictionary users. Another problem is that current and past character dictionaries lack a systematic cross-reference network that directs the user's attention to closely-related characters. This dictionary serves as an efficient tool for finding items with great speed and facility. The following features are designed to attain this end: Summary of Features General Features 1. A quick method for looking up characters by patterns. 2. Cross-reference entries at incorrect locations. 3. Six lookup methods: by pattern, by scanning, by reading, by radical, by meaning, directly. 4. A system of guides for speedy location of entries, 5. Finding compounds and independent words. 6. A readable layout and design. Advanced Features 7. An extensive network of cross-references. 65a FEATURES 1.1 Finding Entry Characters 1.1.1 Quick Lookup Method A major feature of this dictionary is the new scheme it introduces for looking up char iu-iiTs with speed and facility. In addi tion, a cross-reference system practically eliminates dead-end searching by plac ing characters at locations where they might be mistakenly looked for. See system of kanji indexing by patterns on p. 106a for details. 1.1.2 Six Lookup Methods We hope that the user will familiarize hirmherself with the new classification scheme (SKIP) introduced here, since it offers a speedy and efficient lookup method. Although we have departed from the traditional method of ordering characters, we have not overlooked the needs of the traditionally oriented user. This dictionary offers six different methods of locating entries, which are listed below. This allows the user to choose the lookup method most appropriate to the situation or most suited to his or her personal preferences. 1. By pattern: the Pattern Index al lows characters to be quickly located from their geometrical patterns. See system of kanji indexing by patterns on p. 106a for details. 2. By scanning: a powerful shortcut allows characters of high stroke-count to be located almost instantaneously without counting strokes. See system of kanji indexing by patterns § 3.2 SCAN Method for details. 3. By reading: the On-Kun Index lists the characters alphabetically by both their on and kun readings. See On-Kun Index on p. 1895 for details. 4. By radical: the Radical Index lists the characters by their traditional radicals and additional strokes. See How to Use the Radical Index on p. 1929 for details. 5. By. meaning: the List of Kanji Synonym Groups arranges the characters in semantic groups listed alphabetically by their headwords. See Appendix II. List of Kanji Synonym Groups on p. 1824 for details. 6. Directly: a direct method allows characters to be located from their geometrical patterns without the use of any index. Sec system of kanji indexing by patterns § 3.1.3 Direct Method for details. 1.1.3 System of Guides The various guides in the outer corners and margins of the page facilitate the speedy location of character entries. These are of six kinds: the pattern guide, the subsection guide, the margin guide, the subgroup guide, the entry number guide, and the page number. See system of kanji indexing by patterns §2.8 SKIP Guides and guide § LI Guides for details. 1.2 Finding Words Each sense of a character or subentry headword is normally accompanied by numerous compounds and examples, which are grouped under the senses which they illustrate. To find a com pound or example, follow the procedure below: 1. Locate the entry for the first character of the desired compound, word, or word element by one of the methods described in § 1.1.2 Six Lookup Methods. 2. Look for on compounds in the compounds section, independent on words in the independent section, kun words and compounds in the kijn section, and words having special readings in the special readings section. If you do not know the type or the reading of your compound or word, scan through these sections until you locate it. 66a FEATURES 3. Within each section, the compounds and examples are arranged according to a scheme described in guide §21. Compounds and Examples. It is not 4. necessary to know all the details of this scheme since the number of com pounds or words within a given grouping is often small enough for Example: FIND THE COMPOUND fffi, zankoku the desired item to be quickly located by visual scanning. If you cannot locate a compound at the entry for its first character, took for it at the entry for its second or third characters. STEP I STEP 2 STEP 3 Locate the entry for the first character of at £S 943. Since #£fiK is an on compound, look for it in the compounds section. #JiS!i& 'cruel' is found under sense 0 'ruthless', which is the sense that it illustrates. Example: FIND THE COMPOUND ft-^fe tabemono STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 Locate the entry for the first character of at f£ 2075. Since ft^fe is a kun compound, look for it in the kin section. Since tSt^ttel is an example of look for it under the subentry ta(beru), where it appears among several other compounds. 1.3 Design Features An additional feature of the dictionary that helps the user find items is its readable layout and typographical design. Computer phototypesetting technology was used to achieve a harmonious blend of a wide range of type sizes, styles, and identifying labels. Thanks to the consistent use of such typographical devices, the organization of the entry is mostly self-explanatory, leading the user quickly and directly to the desired item. 1.4 Cross-Reference Network An extensive network of cross-references directs the user to a wealth of information useful to both the learner and the educator. See § 6.2 Cross-Reference Network for details. 2. UNDERSTANDING 2.1 Character Meaning 2.2 Core Meaning 2.3 Character Meanings 2.4 Compounds and Examples 2.5 Compound F'ormation 2.6 Advanced Features The learner of Japanese must not only learn the complex shapes and many readings of numerous characters, but must also understand their meanings in the formation of compound words. Fail ure to do so would result in enormous in efficiency, since one would face the laborious task of memorizing countless words as unrelated units. The most important feature of this die tionary is the in-depth manner in which it treats meaning. Past works have large- 67a FEATURES ]y limited their treatment to character Forms, readings, and compound words. This dictionary includes many unique features that enable the learner to gain a full, systematic understanding of the meanings and functions of each character. The most important of these are listed below: Summary of Features General Features 1. Core meanings given by concise English keywords. 2. Clear, complete, and accurate character meanings. 3. [nterrelatedncss of meaning. 4. Senses ordered in a logical manner. 5. Importance of character senses. 6. Explanatory glosses. 7. English equivalents. 8. Supplementary glosses and notes, 9. Cross-References in equivalent. 10. Numerous compounds and examples. 11. Compounds with entry character in alt positions. 12. Compounds and examples ordered by sense. 13. Compound formation and etymology. Advanced Features 14. Functions of characters as words or word elements. 15. System of labels. 16. Articles discriminate between kanji synonyms. 17. Usage notes discriminate between homophones. 18. Detailed information on radicals. 19. Character etymology. 2.1 Character Meaning The meaning associated with a single character may be quite complex, for the following reasons: 1. A character may have meanings on as many as four distinct but interrelated levels; i.e., as an on word element, as an on free word, as a kun word element, and as a kun free word. 2. The levels may interact in a complex way, from partial or absolute equivalence to total nonequi valence. 3. On each level a character may have several, sometimes numerous, meanings. 4. On each level a character may have a variety of grammatical and other functions. Since a character may thus have a large number of meanings that interact in a complex way and, furthermore, since the range of meaning represented by a single character may branch out into apparently unrelated directions, it would be burdensome to memorize the many meanings and usages of each character without understanding their interrelationships. This is not unlike trying to learn the English vocabulary without knowing the meanings of such prefixes as un- in unmarried and semi- in semiannual. In this dictionary, we have made every effort to present meanings in a manner that helps the learner understand these relations. The core meaning, a concise English keyword that defines the most dominant meaning of each character, is followed by clear, complete, and accurate character meanings arranged in an order and format that show how com- FEATURES pound words are formed from their constituents. The character meanings consist of sense division numbers, various labels and glosses, the English equivalent, and cross-references, and are followed by numerous compounds and examples that illustrate each sense. When neces sary, these are supplemented by compound formation articles that show how compound words are formed from their constituent parts. The precisely-worded equivalents and the system of labels show how each character functions as a combining form, a prefix, a suffix, an abbreviation, a counter, etc. The meanings of free words (independent on and kun words) are distinguished from those of word elements by treating them in separate sections. The compounds section treats on word elements, while the independent section treats independent on words. The kun section treats both independent kun words and kun word elements, and in eludes various labels and typographical devices to distinguish these categories. Thanks to this arrangement, the meanings and functions of a character on each of the four levels can be easily distinguished from each other. These features, which enable the user to gain a systematic, in-depth understanding of character meanings, are described in detail below. To properly understand the material covered here, it is desirable to first read the outline of japanese writing system on p. 50a. 2.2 Core Meaning 2.2.1 Concise English Keyword A unique highlight of this dictionary is the presentation of a core meaning or meanings. This is a concise English keyword that provides a clear grasp of the central or most fundamental concept linking the principal senses of a character into one conceptual unit. This is the first character dictionary in any language to present such a feature, which has been praised by scholars and educators as a powerful learning aid. Consider the following four ideas: (1) fix, (2) detain, (3) reserve, and (4) pay attention to. On the surface, they appear to have little in common with each other; in fact, they represent four senses associated with one of the core meanings of as shown below: ^ Core Meaning: |>KEEP 2580 O cause to remain in a given place or condition: © keep in place, keep from moving, keep in position ® keep in custody, detain @ keep for future use, leave behind G) keep in mind, pay attention to By grasping that the central concept, or core meaning, represented by 1hJ is keep, it is immediately clear that such seemingly unrelated ideas as "pay attention to" and "detain" are merely variants of a single basic concept. Seen from this point of view, that is, as an expansion from a core or central concept, the four ideas are integrated into a single conceptual unit. The core meaning is useful to the learner in five ways: 1. It serves as a concise English keyword that conveys the character's most fundamental or most important meaning. 2. It shows how the principal meanings of a character are linked to each other as well as to a single central concept; that is, it serves as the central pivot that links the various meanings into an integrated conceptual unit. The core meaning provides a visual reinforcement of the basic notion that links or relates the various senses to 69a FEATURES one another. 3. It provides the user with an instant grasp of the meaning and function of the character as a word-building element. This is because (a) the core meaning usually represents the sense that is used most frequently in the formation of compounds, and (b) the part of speech of the core meaning often reflects the grammatical function of the eharacter as a word element. 4. It is easy to memorize. Since the core meaning conveys the essence of the character in one concise thought, it leaves a lasting impression upon the mind. 5. It enables the user to grasp the fine differences and similarities between kanji synonyms. Let us consider how this helps the user understand the meanings of £f£ Core Meaning: ►BREAK 11BO O© [original meaning] break, smash © break through, penetrate © break out (of jail), escape Q break the enemy, defeat ©© (act contrary to) break (as a prom ise), breach, violate © break with (the moral conventions), be exceptional Q break down, go to pieces, go broke It is obvious at a glance that the core meaning break conveys the essential meaning of £f£ in one concise, easy-to-remember keyword. Without it, it would be most difficult to perceive such widely differing notions as "penetrate" and "escape" as variants of the same central concept. The repeated use of break in distinct, but interrelated, senses reveals both the differences and similarities between the various senses, and makes it easy to perceive them as an integrated unit. Furthermore, comparing the core meaning of fi£ with those of the other members of the synonym group listed in the synonyms section, such as if! break down, break off, split, E£ crush up, and j$ crumble, clearly reveals both the differences and similarities between these characters, and helps the learner understand their different shades of meaning (see §5.1.2 Powerful Learning Aid for details). In addition, for the convenience of the learner and the developer of teaching materials, an appendix lists the core meanings in order of frequency of occurrence. See Appendix 9. ('ore Meanings Arranged by Frequency for details. In conclusion, the core meaning is a powerful learning tool. It may be perceived as a highly-concentrated thought package that leaves a lasting impression on the mind. It promotes a quicker and fuller understanding of the meaning of each character, and makes the principal senses of the character easier to memorize by linking them to one fundamental concept. The core meaning appeals to the learner's powers of association without resorting to monotonous role memorization. Consequently, it should prove to be of enormous value to the student of Japanese. See guide § 9. core Section for format details. 2.2.2 Theoretical Considerations Because of the very important role that the core meaning plays as a feature of this dictionary, it may be of interest to the user to know some of the underlying theoretical principles. The core meaning is not an objectively observable linguistic unit. Rather, it is a psychological unit, a basic notion of a character's meaning that conveys, in the FEATURES famous linguist Edward Sapir's words, its "conceptual kernel." Linguistically, it is not normally possible to isolate any sense of a word or character that will, by a process of logical deduction, make it possible to derive all its other senses. Often, it is not even possible to trace the origin of each sense historically and show how the individual senses relate to the character's original meaning. The core meaning is thus not necessarily the original meaning of the character, though it often is. The core meaning is often the direct, psychologically most dominant, mean ing—the meaning that might occur to a native speaker if presented with the character in isolation. However, psychologi- cal dominance is not the only factor, since the popular meaning associated with a character by the average Japanese may differ considerably from the linguistic facts. Even more important is its ability to show the interrelated ness between the various senses and its frequency of occurrence (although in exceptional cases the core meaning may be archaic—see guide §24.2 Etymological Labels). The table below shows the relationship between the senses of bright, the English term representing the core meaning of r#], the on word element 41] mei, and the independent kun word fJFjSl,'1 aka-rui. English term repre- Typical words and word elements represented by l|fj: senting core meaning of ty Hf] mei HJfSl* akarui BRIGHT O© [original meaning] bright, O bright, light O full of light brilliant, light © (of colors) bright, light © light (color) © brilliant in color © (of cheerful disposition) bright, cheerful ©© light © clear, uncorrupt © glorious, splendid (!) be lighted ©© clear-sighted, bright, discern- ing, intelligent, wise © (of cheerful dis- © promising © eyesight position) bright. 0© (free from doubt) clear, lu- cheerful cid, distinct, evident, obvi ous, explicit, manifest © (full of promise) © cheerful © make clear, clarify, throw bright, promising light on. prove, demonstrate 0 (unclouded) clear, transparent, © be well versed in © intelligent, smart translucent © [also prefix] next, the coming (day or year) © Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 a,d.) 71a FEATURES The English term for the core meaning of a character may be viewed as the center of a circle representing that term's area of meaning. Another circle or cir- cles represent the area of meaning of the words or word elements that can be written with that character, as illustrated in the diagram below: The core meaning is often given by the English term (in this case bright) for which the area of overlap is greatest, Al though the meanings of a Japanese word (as f^j5t,> akarut) or word element (as V§\ mei) may differ from those of the English term in various details, the central concept they represent is essentially the same. That is, the differences are in the meanings lying toward the outlines of the circles, rather than towards their centers, ti^ mei and bright, for instance, perfectly coincide in their most basic meanings, such as 'brilliant in light', but other senses, such as 'Ming Dynasty', are totally different and thus fall out of the area of overlap. The core meanings were established by performing an exhaustive analysis of the lexical meaning and word-building function of each character. Each meaning component was carefully analyzed and compared with those of the other members of the same synonym group in order FEATURES to determine the most precise English term for conveying the meaning, function, and subtle nuances of the character in contrast with those of other closely related characters. Based on a firm theoretical foundation, the core meaning is a highly useful abstraction and effective learning aid. 2.3 Character Meanings 2.3.1 Interrelatedness of Meaning One of the principal objectives of this dictionary is to provide the user with a clear understanding of the meanings and functions of each character. The manner in which the character meanings are presented greatly contributes to this end by showing the interrelatedness of meaning between individual character senses. Four features are designed to achieve this aim: 1. The repeated appearance of a core meaning in the English equivalent 72a shows how the various senses of the character resemble and differ from each other by providing a visual link between them. See § 2.2 Core Meaning for details. 2. The overall organization and ordering of senses in a manner that shows their inlerrelatedness. See § 2.3.2 Order of Senses for details. 3. The subdivision of meanings by a system of sense division numbers, let ters, and semicolons establishes a logical hierarchy between (hem. See guide § 20.4 Sense Division for tit-tails. 4. The explanatory glosses, which show how the various senses differ from one another. See §2.3.4 Explanatory Gloss for details. These devices show both ihe differences and similarities between ihe senses; they help integrate the senses so that the user can learn them as a structured unit, rather than as an arbitrary list. 2.3.2 Order of Senses Traditional ly, Chinese character dictionaries present character senses historically. Meanings appear in chronological order, beginning with the original meaning of the character. Although this approach may be of great value to the scholar, it is not necessarily the most useful one lo the learner. The historical approach has two major drawbacks: (1) it does not normally re fleet contemporary usage, since archaic and old senses often appear first, and (2) the order of presentation does not promote an understanding of how the meanings are interrelated. An alternative method of ordering senses is the statistical approach. An inherent difficulty with this approach is the lack of data on the frequency of occurrence of specific senses. Even if such data were available, this would not be a use ful system because it is based solely upon frequency of occurrence and ignores the semantic relationships between individual senses. This dictionary makes a significant departure from traditional character dictionary lexicography by presenting meanings in a manner sometimes referred to as the psychologists approach; that is, the meanings are presented in a cogent order that clearly shows their interrelatedness. An English keyword (usually a core mean ing) representing a dominant sense of the character serves as the basis of organization, and the various senses are grouped in clusters in a manner that allows them to be conceived as a logically-structured, psychologically integrated unit. In the example below, the various senses of cluster around the core meaning take, which is the central concept that links them together: ifü-ä ioru Core Meaning: ►TAKE Arbitrary List Expansion from Core Meaning seize remove, delete kill eat, have subscribe to, buy harvest, reap charge (g take, take hold of b take off, take away © take a life (g> take a meat, have, eat (e take (in) a newspaper, magazine, etc, (J) take in crops (gi take money for 73s FEATURES Although has several distinct senses, they are presented in a manner that clearly shows their differences and similarities. This manner of presentation greatly facilitates understanding and reduces the burden of memorization. On the other hand, if the senses were arranged as shown in the left column, they would appear to be an arbitrary list of unrelated items, rather than as a structured unit. See also guide §20.3 Order of Senses. 2.3.3 Importance of Character Senses Most existing character dictionaries are based on classical Chinese sources, and thus often list rare and archaic meanings. Since they do not normally include labels or other devices to distinguish these categories, the user has no way of knowing whether a meaning is common, rare, archaic, or obsolete. This could be a serious obstacle to the learner, especially the beginner, who may waste time and effort in learning advanced meanings. A useful feature of this dictionary is the indication of the degree of importance of each character sense. Although meanings are given up to the advanced level and beyond, various typographical differences and temporal labels indicate the degree of importance for different types of users. The devices used for indicating degree of importance establish a hierarchy of relative importance between the individual senses of a specific character; they do not aim to be an absolute mea sure of the importance, or of the frequency of occurrence, of a character sense in relation to other characters. The degree of importance is divided into four levels, listed below in descending order of importance. See also guide § 20.5 Importance of Character Senses for an illustration of the four levels. Level I Core Meaning The most important sense, which is essential for the beginner, provides a basic understanding of the character (see § 2.2 Core Meaning). Level 2 Boldface Equivalent Signifies that the importance or frequency of occurrence of a character sense as an on word element is sufficiently high to merit study by the learner at the beginner to intermediate levels. These are the most useful character meanings to the learner, the ones that are essential for a practical course of self-study or a classroom program. Level 3 Lightface Equivalent Signifies that a character sense as an on word element is sufficiently important to merit study by the learner at the intermediate to advanced levels or by the scholar. Although these meanings are not so frequent, they are current in contemporary Japanese and should be learned by the student interested in acquiring standard proficiency in the language. 74a FEATURES Level 4 Temporal Labels Less important senses, such as rare, archaic, and obsolete ones, are indicated by the temporal labels. These are of primary interest to ad vanced students and scholars (seeguide §24.3 Temporal Labels), The indication of degree of importance allows the user to easily distinguish between basic, advanced, rare, and ar chaic meanings. For the beginner, this es tablishes a hierarchy of importance for learning the senses of most frequent oc currence. For the advanced student and scholar, it isolates the more unusual senses that may be useful in reading classical literature or conducting research. This manner of presentation enables both the beginner and the advanced stu dent to use the dictionary with equal ease, and helps the compiler of leaching materials to prepare graded lessons. This dictionary thus serves both as practical learning tool and as a useful teaching aid. 2.3.4 Explanatory Gloss In order to improve the user's understanding of character meanings, the English equivalents are often accompanied by explanatory glosses. These are of two kinds: (1) the subject guide phrase and (2) the explanation or definition. The subject guide phrase is a brief parenthetical phrase that restricts the range of application of the equivalent to a specific domain, such as the typical or only subject of an intransitive verb. The explanation is a description, rather than a translation, of the meaning or grammatical function. The definition resembles a full lexicographic definition in a monolingual dictionary. The primary function of these glosses is to restrict, explain, define, supplement, or clarify the meaning conveyed by the equivalent. Their secondary function is to eliminate any ambiguity that might arise from equivalents that have more than one sense in English. This is especially effective in character entries in which the core meaning is repeatedly used as the first word of the equivalent in different senses in order to show how the individual character senses interrelate: II O© I original meaning" f'pull toward ont)r-j draw, pull, haul, tugj- (extend in length} draw out, stretch explanatory gloss equivalent 6© (.cause in move, as by leading) draw (toward), draw in, call in © draw a person to act: entice, induce, seduce In the example, the word draw is used in different senses, while the glosses in parentheses pinpoint its precise meaning as an equivalent of 5|. Thus, while the repeated use of the core meaning shows the similarity between the senses, the explanatory glosses show the differences between them. SeeGUlDE § 20.6 Explanatory Gloss for format details. 2.3.5 The Equivalent Equivalent refers to synonymous or nearly synony- 75a FEATURES mous words or phrases that are an English translation of the meaning of a Japa nese word or word element (see example in §2.3.4 above). The equivalent, which is the most important part of the charac ter meaning, is presented in a manner that enables the learner to get a full understanding of each character's mean ing and function. A system of sense division numbers, semicolons, and commas is used to present the equivalent in a log ical and organized manner. The equivalent shows how the character meanings are related to each other through a core meaning or keyword, as well as how the meanings are related to the meanings of other characters belong ing to the same synonym group. See §2.2 Core Meaning and §5.1 Discriminating Synonyms for details. It may include various parenthetical adjuncts, as in "follow (a person's instructions)," that indicate a typical object of a transitive verb, or in other ways help clarify or supplement the meaning. See also guide §20.7 The Equivalent. 2.3.6 Supplementary Information The supplementary gloss supplements the equivalent by restricting its level of formality or social context, by describing its grammatical function, or by occasion ally providing encyclopedic information such as dates, places, and so on: 400 ® jusu. 5ft-> utau recite, sing used esp. in reference to traditional Japanese songs Furthermore, supplementary notes pro vide additional information on usage, or thography, character readings, etc. See guide § 20.8 Supplementary Gloss and guide § 19.2.2 Supplementary Note for details. 2.3.7 Cross-References An equivalent or supplementary gloss is sometimes followed by various cross references, which direct the user to other locations in the dictionary for further useful information. See guide §20.9 Cross-References for details. 2.4 Compounds and Examples 2.4.1 Numerous Compounds and Examples Compound or compound word refers to a combination of two or more words or word elements having their own lexical meaning that together function as a single word. Example is a word other than a compound, or a phrase or sentence, which usually illustrates the use of a free word. A compound or example consists of a Japanese word or phrase, a romanized transcription, and an English equivalent: Compound: kinkoyaburi safe cracking, safecracker Example: p£SS£ I" o yeburu break a door The ability of characters to be combined with each other to form countless compound words is one of their most important functions. Numerous compounds and examples normally illustrate each character sense. Their aim is twofold: (1) to provide high-frequency, max imally useful examples for understanding the meanings and functions of each character as a component of compound words, and (2) to enable the reader to look up unknown compounds. Unlike other character dictionaries, the compounds are not restricted to those in which the entry character occurs in the initial position, but include also those in which it appears in the medial or final positions. For example, the entry character Dj; in the example in § 2.4.2 below appears in the initial position in suiso but in the final position in e£t#; kosui. This arrangement helps illustrate the word-building function of the entry character in a wide variety of contexts. FEATURES 76a 2.4.2 Order of Compounds Tradi tionally, character dictionaries arrange the compounds within a character entry by stroke order or by reading. Such sys terns are geared to help the user locate a compound quickly. The ordering in this dictionary is more complex, since the primary emphasis is on helping the learner understand character meanings. The compounds and examples are grouped to gether under the meanings which ihey il lustrate. The compounds and examples in main entries are subdivided into groups according to the following criteria: by section, by subentry, by sense, by position of entry character, and by type. This arrangement is fully explained in guide §21.3 Order of Compounds, but it is not necessary for the genera! user to know all the details. The important point is that the compounds and examples illustrating a particular sense (main sense or subsense) are all listed together under the same main sense: OO bio* on, play on a wind instrument £ original meaning] blow, breathe out £ff taiaů playing wind instruments k?^'lTi> kosw suru inspire, inculcate, advocate jfc^TS suimei suru blow (a wtiistle>| 6 brag, boast, exaggerate; make public 'ftRTi luicho swu make public, announce This formal has two important advan tages: (1) it enables the user to know the specific sense in which the entry charac ter is used within each compound, that is, its meaning and function as a word e! ement, and (2) it makes it easy to infer the meanings of other compounds formed along a similar pattern but not found in the dictionary. When this ar rangement does not make it sufficiently clear how a specific compound is formed, the formation or etymology of that compound is explained separately (see § 2.5 Compound Formation). 2.5 Compound Formation The formation of a compound word is normally self-evident from the manner in which the compounds are grouped by meaning (see § 2.4.2 Order of Compounds for details). When this is not obvious, that is, when the relationship between the components is not clear, it is shown in one of three ways: 1. A compound formation article de- scribes the etymology (origin or development) of the compound and or ex- plains how its constituent characters contribute to the meaning of the whole: m 41 ■ .Vlfti sufu announce, introduce; j original meaning, now archaic, open one's heart 2.6 Advanced Features A number of features are particularly useful to the advanced student or scholar wishing to gain a deeper understanding of each character: 1. The indication of function for each character meaning, which helps the user learn new words more effective ly. See §7.1 Character Functions for details. 2. A system of labels provides practi cal guidance on the style and usage associated with each sense. See §7.2 System of Labels for details. 3. Understanding is enhanced by synonym articles that show the precise distinctions between kanji synonyms (such as $1] conjecture and % cuess). See § 5.1 Discriminating Synonyms for details. 4. To help the student understand the differences between closely related words, usage notes show the precise distinctions between homophones, or words that are pronounced alike but written differently. See § 5.2 Discriminating Homophones for details. 5, To help the learner gain a deeper understanding of character meaning, the dictionary gives the etymology of characters and compound words and presents detailed information on radicals. See § 2.5 Compound Formation and § 7.3 Character Etymology for details. 3. READING 3.1 Quick Lookup Method 3.2 Character Forms and Styles 3.3 Character Readings 3.4 Romanuation Reading kanji involves three distinct, but closely interrelated, mental processes: (1) recognizing and decoding the form of the character, (2) identifying the reading of the character, i.e., deciding which of the several on and kun readings applies to the word in question, and (3) associating the character with a particu lar meaning. Since kanji can be combined with each other to form countless compound words, the ability to read the characters benefits the student by accelerating his or her progress in learning new vocabulary items. In fact, there is a limit beyond which the student of the spoken language cannot progress without acquiring a firm knowledge of the written language. The student learning how to read Japanese faces several difficulties. First is the large number of Chinese characters in comparison with alphabetic systems. Although the total number of characters that exist or have existed is said to be about 80.000, only several thousand of these have been used at any one time. To read contemporary Japanese, a knowledge of about 2000 characters is adequate for most purposes. A second problem is the complex shape of the characters and the large variety of character forms and styles. A third difficulty FEATURES 78 a is thai each character may have several readings, and there is no reliable way to determine which reading applies in a par ticuiar instance. This dictionary presents ten features that make it a convenient reference tool for reading' both contemporary and prewar Japanese. The features listed below General Features Advanced Features 3.1 Quick Lookup Method A major feature of this dictionary that makes it convenient for the reader is a new scheme for looking up characters with great speed. This enables the user to easily locate unknown characters, compounds, and their meanings. See system of kanji indexing by patterns on p. 106a for details. 3.2 Character Forms and Styles This dictionary presents a wide variety enable the user to quickly and efficiently look up a large variety of character readings, styles, and forms as well as the meanings and readings of unknown characters and compounds. This is the first character dictionary for non-Japanese users to present such a wide range of character forms and styles in a single volume. of character forms, calligraphic styles, and typeface styles needed for reading contemporary and classical Japanese. This includes the standard form, three kinds of nonstandard forms, the Chinese form, the three principal calligraphic styles, and the Ming and Gothic typefaces. The character forms are presented in a logical order, and various symbols and typefaces distinguish one category from another, as illustrated below: Summary of Features 1. A new scheme for looking up unknown characters, 2. Looking up unknown compounds. 3. A wide range of character forms, 4. Separate entries for nonstandard forms, 5. Easily confused forms, 6. Calligraphic and typeface styles. 7. A wide range of character readings. 8. Indication of the importance of readings. 9. All Japanese words and examples are romanized. 10. Chinese forms and readings. 79a FEATURES Standard form (Ming typeface) Semicursive style Traditional form Nonstandard form Cursive style m se* r 3- & ® m Chinese form 3019 REX I REKK1' TfF~ FFF F ß ffcffifö Square style The character form is a theoretical construct—an abstraction based on various shapes that, in theory, has no physical identity. In the chart below, it is repre" sented by thin strokes without embel lishmenls. When a character is actual ly printed or written as a visual sign, it appears in a specific calligraphic or type face style, such as the square style or the Ming typeface. A difference in calli- graphic or typeface style is considered a difference in design, rather than a difference in character form. Tor example, jjjj and fjf, the Ming and Gothic typeface styles of are different styles of the standard form, whereas (fg and M:, the traditional form and handwritten abbreviation, are considered different forms of it. Character Forms and Typeface Styles Character Form Standard Form Nonstandard Forms (Ming typeface) Modern Chinese Ming Gothic Traditional Alternative Handwritten M m m — jee r m Calligraphic Styles Character Form Square Semicursive Cursi ve Ü 3.2.1 Character Forms Character form (^-f£ jitei) refers to the skeletal framework or delineation of the figure formed by a character. To ensure high accuracy and avoid duplicating the mis- takes of existing works, the character forms in this dictionary were researched and methodically checked by experts. Three kinds of character forms are given: 80a FEATURES 1. The standard form is the form given for characters in the official Joyri Kanji and Jinmei Kanji lists (ap proved characters). It is widely used in the mass media, government publi cations, education, literature, and so on. The ability to recognize this form is essential for reading contemporary Japanese. 2. The nonstandard form refers to a variant form other than the standard form of approved characters, and to a variant form other than the tradi tional form of unapproved characters. Nonstandard forms are of primary interest to advanced students. Three kinds of nonstandard forms are given: The traditional form {JE'-^ seiji) is the full unsimplified form (orthodox form) introduced by the Chinese die tionary f$t£ffc koki jiten in 1716. This was the standard form used in all publications in both China and Japan before language reforms were implemented, and is still the current standard in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and among overseas Chinese. This form is also used in certain publica tions in Japan, especially classical literature. A knowledge of this form is essential for reading prewar publica tions and classical Chinese. The alternative form itaiji) is a variant form other than the traditional form. This includes the ftf-^ zokuji, the "vernacular form," W&'^ ryakuji. the "simplified form," and other character forms that are neither standard nor traditional but exist, or have existed, alongside the standard and traditional ones. The list of alternative forms is not exhaus live, but all important ones, both past and present, have been included. The handwritten abbreviation (5|E Wtyty nissha-ryaku/i) is a simplified character form used in handwriting. This is not a different calligraphic style, nor is it a simplified variant in which the strokes have been run together (($ I'f-' kuzushiji)—\t is a different character form in its own right. The handwritten abbreviation is restricted almost exclusively to handwriting, but may occasionally be found in print or on signboards. The nonstandard forms are listed along with their core meanings as scp arate entries at their own SKIP loca tions with a cross-reference to their corresponding standard forms. This is convenient when reading prewar literature, as it eliminates the need for looking up the standard form. 3. The Chinese form is described in § 7.4 Chinese. See guide §3.1 Character Forms and guide §27. Nonstandard Entries for format details. 3.2.2 Easily Confused Forms The great majority of characters have distinct graphic forms that are easily distinguished from each other. Some characters, however, are so similar in form that they are often confused by the learner and even by the native speaker. For example, j£ mi 'not yet' closely resembles matsu 'termination', % hei 'currency' closely resembles hei 'evil practice', etc. Such characters are often unrelated in meaning and pronunciation but are very similar in form. To aid the learner, they are identified by a cross-reference in the note section: ^ I »OTE | 506 *do not confuse with ^ 3505 See also §5. Discriminating and guide § 19.2,2 Supplementary Note. 81a FEATURES 3.2.3 Calligraphic Styles Calligraphic stylB shotai) refers to the various styles of handwriting. Characters in the three principal calligraphic styles are given. The cursive and semi-cursive styles were written by expert calligraphers specifically for this dictionary. For the square style, a typeface based on handwriting was used or special fonts were made when unavailable. Calligraphic styles are of primary interest to advanced students. 1. The square style (rrViU kaisho) is the standard handwritten style used for official and formal purposes, education, and whenever clarity and un-ambiguity are required. Each stroke is written separately to produce a clearly legible form. The square style is similar to the Ming typeface, but differs from it in various details. 2. The semicursive style (^r'Jf gyo sho), the most widely used calligraphic style, is used in wriling letters, persona) memos, and the like. The strokes are loosely joined togeth er in a smooth movement of the brush or pen. 3. The cursive style (JpCjjJ sosho) is used mostly for artistic effect, and is no longer very common. The character form is greatly simplified and the strokes are joined in a continuous smooth movement of the brush or pen to achieve great writing speed. See guide § 3.2 Calligraphic Styles for format details. 3.2.4 Typeface Styles Typeface style (Efjjjiljft insatsutai) refers to a uni- If n») 212 KO GYO AN i{ku) -iki okona(u) form style or design of the character type. The two principal typeface styles are given: 1. The Ming typeface (ITfj^JJft mincho tai) is the standard, most common kanji typeface in Japan. It is characterized by thick vertical strokes, thin horizontal strokes, and triangular serifs at the ends of horizontal strokes. The Ming typeface originated in carved woodblocks that were used for printing during the Ming dynasty in China (1368-1644 a.d.). This type face is similar to the square style, but differs from it in various details. 2. The Gothic typeface (d U y ? ft goshikkutai), which is used in all compounds and examples, is the Japanese equivalent of boldface. Characterized by thick smooth strokes and clean edges, this is the second most common kanji typeface in Japan: 3019 See guide § 3.3 Typeface Styles for format details. 3.3 Character Readings A distinctive feature of Japanese is that each character may have one or more readings. This refers to one of several sequences of speech sounds associated with a character; that is, to the Chinese-derived pronunciation, or on reading, and the native Japanese pronunciation, or htn reading. The entry-head data presents all contemporary readings, as well as important historical and archaic ones when necessary: g) ^-J xing h^ng yu(ku) -yu(ki) -yuki -i(ki) FEATURES The readings are presented in a logical order by type of reading and degree of importance. Various symbols and typefaces distinguish approved readings from unapproved ones, on from kunt and oth er categories. The pronunciation of each reading is given by the romanized tran scription, with parentheses indicating kana endings (akurigana). 3.3.1 Kinds of Readings Seven kinds of character readings are given. The first three are of interest to all users; the last four are of primary interest to the intermediate and advanced student. 1. The principal reading shu- yomi) is the most common or repre tentative character reading, and is used in this dictionary as a key for classifying characters in various lists and indexes. 2. The on reading (oi^A on'yomi) is the Chinese-derived reading of a character. The entry-head data lists all approved on readings and a wide range of unapproved ones, from the traditional $S|J kan'on 'Han reading' and £=-|j goon 'Wu reading' to the unconventional ^t-t? gaion 'foreign reading'. Although approved readings arc distinguished from unapproved ones, the other categories are not marked in any special way since this is not a historical dictionary. 3. The kun reading (jH|££A kun'yomi) is the native Japanese reading of a character. All approved kun readings and a wide range of unapproved ones are given, with okurigana shown in parentheses. Hyphens distinguish words from word elements. 4. Special readings (?k^i|JI) jukujikun) that can be isolated as independent readings in their own right, such as |>*j boko in flQ£I dekoboko 'uneven-ness, etc.', are similar to ordinary readings and are so treated. Technically speaking, such readings are not really "special," but they are so marked because that is how they are classified in the Joyo Kanji list. See also § 7.1.6 Special Readings. 5. The unapproved reading (J&^k ufHH hyogoi onkun) is an on or kun reading not listed in the Joyo Kanji list but sufficiently common to merit inclusion in the dictionary. The dislinc tion between approved and unap proved readings applies only to characters in the Joyo Kanji list. Although the treatment of unapproved readings is not exhaustive, a sufficiently wide range of readings has been included to meet the needs of the advanced student. 6. The name reading nanori) is used only in the writing of person al, family, and place names but not in ordinary words. Many ordinary on and kun readings, such as ill yama in ill t$ yamamoto, can be used to write names, but the name readings are used exclusively in names. Name readings are given for all characters in the official Jinmei Kanji list. See also §7.1.7 Names. 7. The Chinese reading is described in § 7.4 Chinese. SeeGUiOE §4. Character Readings for format details and ovtline of Japanese writing system §2. Introduction of Chinese Characters to Japan. 3.3.2 Importance of Readings The relative importance of readings is shown by distinguishing unapproved readings from approved ones by a superscript solid triangle * . This establishes a hierarchy of importance between the readings, and enables the beginner and intermediate student to ignore the unapproved readings while concentrating on the more important approved ones. 83 a FEATURES 3.4 Romanization Some educators maintain that it is best to avoid romanization and use kana to indicate pronunciation. In this diction ary. we have adopted romanization in order to make it accessible to users who cannot read kana, such as complete beginners, students of Chinese, or researchers and linguists using the dictionary for reference. There are three important systems for romanmng Japanese: the Hepburn sys tem (^s.t^ySC hebonshiki), the Kunrei system kunreishiki), and the Nippon system {B nipponshiki). The system adopted here is the Hepburn system, with the slight modifications introduced in Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary (see Appendix 4. Kana and Romanisation for de tails). Although this system has some built-in problems that make it less than ideal for pedagogical purposes, we have adopted it because it is the best known and most widely used system, and be cause English speakers, the primary tar get of this dictionary, find it particularly easy to learn. All Japanese words and examples are followed by romanized transcriptions showing their pronunciations. Romaniza-tion is also used for character readings, subentry headings, and so on. Roman ized transcriptions are set in easy-to read sanserif typeface in order to dis tinguish them from other explanatory matter. Word division in romanized transcriptions closely reflects the function of, and the semantic relationship between, word and sentence components, as shown below: —K^^PCDit^f fk-ki tnsrn no muspB maid less warrior, match for 11 ihousand See gui be § 29. Romanization for format details. 4. WRITING 4.1 Stroke Order 4.2 Calligraphic Styles 4.3 Stroke Counting 4.4 Kana Orthography 4.5 Advanced Features There arc two aspects in learning how to write Japanese: (1) learning how to write the characters, and (2) learning how to compose texts. The serious student will no doubt want to learn how to write the language. The ability to write kanji will make it easier to memorize them and will provide preliminary knowledge for the study of calligraphy. The student learning how to write Japanese faces several difficulties: the large number of characters and their complex shapes and many variations; the need to learn the correct stroke order; a high degree of variation in kana and kanji orthography; and the large number of easily confused homophones (words sounding alike but written differently). This dictionary presents eleven features that make it an excellent guide for writing. The first five features help the student write the characters in the proper form and proportion; the last six aid the student compose texts with greater clar ity and precision. 84 a FEATURES Summary of Features General Features 1. Detailed stroke order diagrams. 2. An appendix on stroke order principles. 3. The three principal calligraphic styles. 4. Stroke-count data. 5. An appendix on stroke counting principles. 6. An appendix on kana orthography. 7. Indication of okurigana affixes. 8. An appendix on okurigana rules. Advanced Features 9. Detailed information on orthographic variants. 10. Articles discriminate between kanji synonyms. 11. Usage notes discriminate between homophones. 4.1 Stroke Order To write a character in the proper form and proportion, it is important to learn the correct stroke order (SEKfl hitsujun or ?JJ||fi kakijun). A knowledge of stroke order is essential for learning how to write the characters and is a prerequi site for studying calligraphy. It is also an effective way to master stroke counting. The following information is given on stroke order: 1. Stroke order diagrams, in which the last frame shows the full character in the standard square style, are given: it ' * 2391 i i " > ' • » » Thoroughly researched for accuracy, these diagrams were prepared by experts specifically for this dictionary. For the convenience of the user, the order of writing is presented stroke by stroke, regardless of the number of strokes. Unlike other reference works, no attempt has been made to save space by cross referencing to other entries. If there is more than one way to write the character (e.g. only the standard stroke order is shown. See also GUIDE §6. Stroke Order Dia- gram. 2. A knowledge of the stroke order principles should enable one to write most characters correctly without referring to the stroke order diagrams. These are explained in detail in Appendix 3. How to Write Kanji. 4.2 Calligraphic Styles Calligraphy is a highly developed art form with a long tradition in both China and Japan, but it is not necessary to learn it to be able to write Japanese. Though this dictionary is not a manual on calligraphy, it does help the user interested in the subject by (1) presenting the three main calligraphic styles, i.e., the square, semicursive, and cursive styles, and (2) by providing detailed guidance on stroke order, a knowledge of which is a prerequisite for studying calligraphy. Calligraphy is of primary interest to advanced students. See §4.1 Stroke Order and §3.2.3 Calligraphic Styles for details. 4.3 Stroke Counting To write the characters correctly, the student must be aware of where one stroke ends and the next one begins; in 85a FEATURES other words, he or she must know how to count strokes. The ability to count strokes is also essential for using charac ter dictionaries effectively. The following guidance is provided on stroke count ing; 1. The reference data box gives the stroke-count data for the entry char acter. The stroke-count of nonslan dard entries can be determined from the margin guide. See guide §7,3 Strokes for format details. 2. The principles of stroke counting arc explained in Appendix 2. How to Count Strokes, along with charts to help speed up the counting process. 3. Difficult to-couni characicrs are cross-referenced at incorrect stroke-count locations (see SYSTEM OF KANJI INDEXING KV PATTERNS § 2.6 CrOSS- References for details). 4.4 Kana Orthography One difficulty faced by the student of written Japanese is its variable kana orthography; that is, the variation in the kana endings, called okurigana (i^Ol/x ^j), that are attached to a kanji base or stem. For example, yuki- 'bound for' is written either * or ^j, depending on editorial policy or personal preference. This dictionary provides the following guidance on kana orthography: 1. The kana systems and kana orthography are described in Appendix i. Kana and Romaniz&tion. 2, The entry-head data indicates in parentheses the standard okurigana affixes of kun readings in conformity with the official rules published by the Ministry of Education. The compounds and examples throughout the dictionary also conform to the official rules when applicable. Important nonstandard variations are shown when necessary. 3. The official rules for affixing okurigana are explained in detail in Appendix 5. Rules for Okurigana. 4.5 Advanced Features A number of features are particularly useful to the advanced student learning how to write Japanese; 1. The dictionary provides full guidance on orthographic variants (such as koeru 'replace' and kaeru 'exchange'). This helps the student write with greater precision. Sec §5.4 Discriminating Variants for details. 2. This dictionary helps the student write with greater clarity and preci sion by showing the distinctions be tween kanji synonyms (such as jflfj conjecture and cuess). See §5.1 Discriminating Synonyms for details. 3. A characteristic of Japanese that may pose considerable difficulties to the student is the large number of homophones, or words that are pronounced alike but written differently (such as jjfj < aku 'open' and ^ < aku 'become vacant'). This dictionary helps the student write with greater precision by showing the differences and similarities between such words. See § 5.2 Discriminating Homophones for details. FEATURES PART II: ADVANCED FEATURES The purpose of part ii is to describe in detail the features of this dictionary that are particularly useful to ihe advanced student and scholar. Beginners may safely skip ihis section. The general features are described in part 1: general fea. tithes on p. 65a. For convenience, the chart on p. 62a summarizes the most imporlanl features. 5. DISCRIMINATING 5.1 Discriminating Synonyms 5.2 Discriminating Homophones 5.3 Discriminating Forms 5.-1 Discriminating Variants Each kanji in Japanese may have one or more forms, readings, and meanings. If the forms, readings, or meanings of one character resemble or are interchangeable with those of another, confusion may arise. Four kinds of problems may occur: 1. Identity or similarity in meaning (synonyms), e.g., Jf5 kei 'shape' and iK" f6 'form'. 2. Identity in sound (homophones): identical reading but different form and/or meaning, e.g., |jfl< eku 'open' and & ^ aku 'become vacant'. 3. Similarity in form, e.g., %i mi 'not yet' and ~£ matsu 'termina tion'. 4. Interchangeability of form (orthographic variants); interchangeable forms that are identical in reading and/or meaning, e.g., jfc ki 'rare' and fjfi ki 'rare'. A unique feature of this dictionary is the in-depth manner in which it treats the differences and similarities between similar, identical, or interchangeable items like the above. The various features listed below make the dictionary an excellent guide for discriminating between such easily confused items, thereby helping the student understand shades of meaning and write with clarity and precision. Summary of Features 1. Articles discriminate between kanji synonyms. 2. Synonym headwords. 3. Synonym keywords. 4. Cross-references to synonyms group members. 5. Simple kanji thesaurus. 6. Usage notes discriminate between homophones. 7. Orthographic labels. 8. Cross-references to homophone group members. 9. Examples in usage notes. 10. Supplementary notes. 11. Discrimination of easily confused forms. 12. Detailed information on orthographic variants. 87a FEATURES 5.1 Discriminating Synonyms The words of a language form a closely-linked network of interdependent units. The meaning of a word or expression cannot really be understood unless its relationships with other closely related words are taken into account. The student of a foreign language is often faced with choosing between words of similar, but not identical, meaning. In English, for example, such words as kill, murder, and execute share the meaning of 'put to death', but they differ considerably in usage and connotation. The ability to dis tinguish between such words not only al lows one to gain a fuller understanding of their individual shades of meaning, but also helps the student write with greater clarity and precision. A special feature of this dictionary, pre sented here for the first time, is the complete guidance it offers for the precise distinctions between kanji synonyms, or characters of similar meaning. Since a proper understanding of the meanings of each character is essential for the effective mastery of the Japanese vocabulary, this will be of considerable benefit to the serious student. The kanji synonyms serve as a powerful learning aid for the following reasons: 1. They show the differences and similarities between closely-related characters. 2. They act as a network of cross-references for quickly locating any synonym group member. 3. They act as a simple kanji thesaurus. 4. They provide the educator with a valuable source of reference data. Below is a description of the various features designed to achieve these aims. 5.1.1 synonyms Section The synonyms section lists groups of kanji synonyms along with their English keywords in a single synonyms article for the principal senses of each main entry character: 164 >> MANSERVANT O I. myself familiar first person pronoun used by men in addressing inferiors or peers bokutachi we 0 [original meaning] manservant, servant, menial chiiboku faithful servant jOboku servant, attendant kaboku manservant, house boy "PQt geboku servant, your humble servant ii^d koboku public servant synonyms headword-Kanji synonym- Synonym keyword -Cross-reference- Synonym group- synonyms i first person pronouns ft I (.pulitt) -► 1115 ft i iintirmte') -? 110 5 I ttUgaxt) -.2407 Ť i (pompous) -* 1983 Hi I {pompous) 2042 A i (orrAíiíf) — 3184 ffifc imperial. we—* 949 g self -» 3525 ft self -«3548 S ONESELF -* 3380 Si one's pehson -> 3553 |S|| underling —* 1751 jtt|slavej-' 187 E retainehPT30681 follower -* 415 f£ attendant — 88 88a FEATURES The SYNONYMS section consists of the following elements: 1. Kanji synonyms or synonyms as used here basically refers to two or more characters, usually on word elements, that share a basic meaning, or whose meanings are included in that of a more general term. For example, %L and fi£ above share the meaning 'ľ, whereas fo[ and E£ are included in the meaning of the headword servants. Sec guide § 15.3 Semantic Relationships for details. 2. Synonym group refers to a group of two or more kanji synonyms. The synonyms section for a particular entry character includes all the members of that group, except for the entry character itself. Since most characters have more than one sense, it follows that a given character can belong to more than one synonym group; that is, a different group may exist for each principal sense of a character. In the example above, fll belongs to the first person pronouns group for sense O and to the Servants group for sense © 3. The SYNONYMS headword, which appears at the beginning of each synonym group, is a concise English word or phrase selected to express the semantic relationship {usually the shared meaning) between the members of that group. In the example above, the headword servants is a general lerm thai includes the meanings of all the group members. For example, both slaves and retainers are kinds of servants. The numbers preceding the headwords point to the sense number to which that group corresponds. 4, The synonym keyword following each group member is a concise English equivalent that most aplly represents the particular character sense relevant to that group. Small capitals indicate that the keyword is identical with the character's core meaning. In establishing the keywords, the denotation, connotation, and range of application of each character were carefully analyzed and compared so that the keywords reflect the fine differences between group members while enabling the user to quickly grasp the meaning of each. 5. The cross-reference consists of an arrow —> followed by a numeral that refers to the entry number where that character appears as a main entry. The kanji synonyms thus act as a network of cross-references for quickly locating any member of a synonym group from any of the others. By consulting these entries and studying their character meanings and compounds, the user can acquire a fuller understanding of each group member. See guide § 15. synonyms Section for format details. 5.1.2 Powerful Learning Aid As we have seen, the synonyms headwords show how the members of a synonym group resemble each other, while the keywords show how they differ from each other. Together, they serve as a powerful learning tool. Let us see how this helps the learner gain an in-depth understanding of the character 89a features ^ ►BREAK n so \ COMPOUNDS I O0 [original meaning] krkak. smash © break through, penetrate 9 break out (of jail), escape 6 break the enemy, defeat ©© (act contrary tu) krk a k (as a promise), breach, violate © break with (the moral conventions), be exceptional O krkak down, go to pieces, go broke I synonyms J OO break fj£ rkeak down -»756 iff break off -+253 fiJÄ crack -> 1816 split — 2687 crush up -* 1134 crumble -* 2296 penetrate u I'l til- I ma I I-. • 2460 >2 pass through-* 3108 © win m win -1005 £ overcome -* 204(5 6E conquf.r — 293 In the above table, the core meaning and English equivalents show that the centra! concept represented by ffi is break. Referring to sense OO of the svnonvms section, which corresponds to sense OO of the compounds section, we find the headword break, which indicates the meaning shared by the group members. By comparing the individual keywords, such as i$! break down, iff break off, and ^ split, we can see how they differ from each other. Study ing the core meaning, English equiva- lents, headwords, and keywords together, rather than in isolation, provides a good understanding of the distinctive features of each group member. To gain an even deeper understanding, turn to the entry numbers indicated by the cross-references, where detailed character meanings and illustrative examples for each group member appear. The table below brings these together for ready reference; FEATURES Basic Concept BREAK Character Keyword English Equivalent Typical Compounds fifc ha BREAK break, smash hakai suru break (down), destroy, wreck $ kai BREAK DOWN break down, destroy, smash; (of a dam) burst ff't$S"f5 tekai suru collapse, be destroyed, crumble iff setsu BREAK OFF (separate through the application of a sudden bend ing force) break off (as a branch), break (a bone), snap (in two), split ff-jjf kossetsu bone fracture $!|& waru crack © crack, break ffi split, chop (wood) 3 •> -f%L tflj Z> koppu o waru crack [break] a glass retsu SPLIT © (separate or become separated into pieces) split, tear, crack (I) crack, fissure haretsu explosion, bursting jfc sai CRUSH UP crush up, break into pieces, smash ttiEfTtfvS hasai suru crush, smash, crack to pieces CRUMBLE crumble, collapse Bil$'f£> hokai suru co\-lapse, crumble, break down, cave in Comparing the meanings and examples for each group member shows their subtle differences in connotation (nuances) and range of application. For example, whereas EHJ means to break in general, jjf implies the application of a sudden force to such things as branches and bones, J$ denotes breaking into small pieces, and so on. See also §2.2.1 Concise English Keyword. 5.1.3 Simple Kanji Thesaurus The synonyms sections and Appendix 11. List of Kanji Synonym Groups make it possible to use this dictionary as a simple kanji thesaurus. This helps the student composing texts in Japanese select the word most appropriate to the context so as to achieve greater clarity of expression, and, to a limited extent, makes it possible lo locate characters from their meanings (see Appendix 11 for details). Consulting the entries for the various members of a synonym group will often lead to many words that are synonymous or closely related to the meaning expressed by the synonyms headword. There are two ways to do this: (1) consulting the cross-references in the synonyms sections, and (2) consulting Appendix 11, which lists the synonym groups alphabetically by their headwords. For example, to find Japanese synonyms for break, consult the entries for eaeh group member indicated hy the cross-references (entry numbers) in the synonyms section for Jf£ (or in the break group in Appendix 11), where such w-ords as gifJg!; hakai 'breaking (down)', $i$f- hasai 'crushing', fjjjf^f hokai 'col lapse', etc., can be found. Admittedly, consulting several entries in this way is a laborious task. However, since the thesaurus function of this dic- 91a FEATURES tionary is only incidental (o its main pur pose as a learning aid, this is only to be expected. The synonym data appearing here will, in fact, serve as the basis for the first kanji thesaurus ever compiled, as well as for various software applica tions and computer-aided research on kanji semantic fields. * * * In conclusion, studying the meanings of closely related characters together, rather than as isolated units, stimulates the interest of the learner and increases learning effectiveness. Moreover, the kanji synonyms help the student write with greater precision, and provide the educator and scholar with a valuable source of reference data, 5,2 Discriminating Homophones One characteristic of Japanese is the ex istence of a large number of homophones, or words that are pronounced the same but written differently and usually differ tng in meaning. Kdki and kikd. for in stance, each represent about a dozen words in common use, and the only way to distinguish between such compounds as kikd 'mechanism' and jfkfg kikö 'returning to the harbor' is through the characters. This is not unlike principal and principle in English, which are pronounced the same but have different meanings depending on their spellings. Although on homophones like the above may occasionally cause confusion in the spoken language, they are easily distinguished in the written language. Since each character has a distinct form and meaning, and since the meanings of on homophones are normally unrelated to each other, such words are not likely to be confused as long as they are written tn kanji. On the other hand, the abundance of kun homophones is a source of confusion to Japanese and non-Japanese alike. Not only can each character have many kun readings, but many kun words con be written with a bewildering variety of characters. In extreme cases, such as the word sasu, a kun word can be written in dozens of ways, though only several of these are in common use. Unlike on homophones, the majority of kun homophones are often very close or even id en tical in meaning and thus easily confused. Study the table below: Easily Distinguished Easily Confused hash! no baru bridge $t end, edge 3§ chopsticks ±S go up (steps, a hill) climb, scale |t-£ ascend, rise (up to the sky) Although the meanings of some kun homophones, such as hashi in the above table, are far apart and easily distin guished, in many other cases the differ ences may be subtle and a source of con fusion. For example, noboru can be written in the three ways shown in the table, which are closely related and easily con- fused. Another problem with kun homophones is their variable orthography. Two or more characters are often partially or completely interchangeable in some senses but not in others. For example, f$if j§ tokeru and felt-Si tokeru are inter- 92 a FEATURES changeable in the sense of 'melt, thaw' but not in the sense of 'come loose', which is always written On the other hand, the meanings of some homo phones are identical or are so similar that no meaningful distinction can be made between them. For example, yawarakai 'soft, subdued; gentle' is written %hfrl* or (fct>/5>v» with exactly the same meaning. This is similar to the variant spellings of such English words as judgment and judgement, which are identical in meaning. A further difficulty is that the distinc tions between independent iun words do not necessarily apply to word elements. For example, although Z> kaeru 'exchange' is supposedly distinguished from kaeru 'replace', the word ryögae 'exchange of money' is written jftiU, not iä5}$!, as might be expected. Because of these complications, students, especially students learning how to write Japanese, are often at a loss when attempting to select a character for a particular context. For many iun homophones, a universally-accepted orthography simply does not exist. Theoretically, the choice of character should be based on meaning, but in fact it is often governed by personal preferences. To compound these difficulties, the complex problems inherent in iun homo phones have been mostly ignored by ex isting reference works. Even dictionaries for native Japanese speakers often disagree over the correct character for a particular meaning- In extreme cases, the meanings of a group of homophones are lumped together in a single article without any indication of how to differentiate between them. To summarize, homophones in Japanese present the following difficulties: 1. There are many homophones in Jap- anese. 2. The differences between homo phones are often subtle and confus-ing. 3. There are numerous orthographic variants. 4. Usage is sometimes contrary to expectations. 5. Writing in Japanese often involves uncertainty over orthography. 6. The treatment of homophones in existing reference works is inadequate. The serious student of Japanese will eventually have to tackle the problems related to homophones. Since each character has a distinct meaning, it follows that an effective way to distinguish between homophones is to understand the meaning of each character. Although we have done everything possible to sim plify this task, a certain amount of confu sion is, ultimately, unavoidable, since the relative abundance of homophones is inherent to the nature of the Japanese script. To help the student overcome the special problems posed by homophones in Japanese, this dictionary provides thorough and complete guidance on the discrimination of all one-character kun homophones in current use, and a small number of other kinds of easily-confused homophones. Below is a description of the various features designed to achieve this aim. 5.2.1 Usage Notes A feature of enormous value to the student, appearing here for the first time in English, is the presentation of usage notes- These conveniently bring together in a single article the meanings for every member of a homophone group, along with other information that helps discriminate between them. The usage notes show precisely in which sense each homophone is used: 93a FEATURES 3496 | USACK 1 oka E I someiimes also [Sp hill, hilfock, mound n I usu S hill, hillock, mound used chiefly in proper names (3) [sometimes also fg ] [in compounds! outsider, third parTy. bystander % land, shore »- ' u&u. |K]J outsider, third party, bystander ♦ IT and IS] have the same meaning. The former is used in both common nouns and place names, while the latter is used chiefly in the writing of proper names. | HQMOfHONES I oKa |Bf[ 2997 K 543 ft 11? By comparing the English equivalents, the user can accurately grasp the differences and similarities in shades of mean ing and in usage between easily confused homophones. The homophones treated in the usage section are mostly independ ent iun words and word elements that are etymologically related, but easily confused compounds (both on and kuri) and synonyms are sometimes also included. See i;uii>E § 16. OSAGE Section for format details. 5.2.2 Orthographic Labels The orthographic labels indicate the degree of interchangeability between orthographic variants and show in which sensc(s) these variants are interchangeable. In the above example, ft and |5| are inter changeable in the sense of 'hill', but not in the sense of 'outsider'. Since orthographic variation is a source of much confusion, these labels will prove most useful to the user attempting to interpret or produce Japanese texts. See also §5.4 Discriminating Variants. 5.2.3 Cross-References The usage notes appear only at the entry for the most important member of a homophone group. The homophones and note sections act as a network of cross references that enables the user to immediately identify the existence of other group members, and to quickly locate the compounds and examples for each. By studying the compounds and examples for each group member, the user can get a fuller understanding of how each is used. See guide § 17. homophones Section and guide § 19. note Section For details. 5.2.4 Illustrative Examples The us age notes do not normally include compounds and examples, which can be located at their appropriate entries through the .cross-references. Sometimes, however, illustrative examples appear in the USAGE section itself in order to further clarify the differences be tween easily confused homophones. See also guide §16.2.3 Illustrative Examples. 5.2.5 Supplementary Notes The equivalents in a usage note are sometimes followed by supplementary notes, which provide additional information on differences in usage. In the above example, the supplementary note {preceded by +) discusses the usage of ft and H- * * * In conclusion, the usage notes and other features described above serve as an effective learning aid. They enable the user to study the differences and similarities between the meanings of easily confused words, thereby providing a better understanding of each. They also help the user write with greater clarity and precision by helping him or her select the character most appropriate to a particular context. Since the differences be tween homophones, which are often quite subtle, are a source of confusion to Japanese and non-Japanese alike, these FEATURES features should prove to be of enormous value to the student. 5.3 Discriminating Forms Characters having easily confused forms, such as and are identified by cross-references in the note section. See §3.2.2 Easily Confused Forms for details. 5.4 Discriminating Variants A characteristic of the Japanese script that the learner must deal with is its variable orthography; that is, the many words that can be written with different character combinations. For example, jl is interchangeable with £ in such compounds as 5fjg ( = jf.tj,) mdsd 'wild idea', but not in fffmo/u 'blind obedience'. Two or more characters that are partially or completely interchangeable in this manner are referred to as orthographic variants. One such variant is often a phonetically replaced character, which refers to the characters that ff 2711 [hake, g] la [sometimes also jjj also suffix box, ease, chesi, bin 'V counter for boxes 2, slang railway car 3 dang; shamisen are now replaced by the phonetic replacement characters (see outline of Japanese writing system § 2.5 Language Reforms for details). Another kind of orthographic variation is the alternation between the kana and kanji scripts. For example, neko 'cat' may be written in kanji (Jffi), hiragana (tad), or katakana (^n). This aspect of orthography is not treated in this dictionary since it is a dictionary of characters, not of words. An important feature of this dictionary is the full guidance it provides for dis criminating between orthographic variants. This is particularly useful to the advanced student, since a knowledge of the differences and similarities between orthographic variants helps write with greater precision. The orthographic labels (enclosed in square brackets) indicate the orthographic variant(s) of a word or word element: 3001 O now usu. |?i hako) [original meaning box, case, mailbox © [now also IV' kan 3328 ! used phonetically for han (in Chinese) © abbrev of (SIB hakodate, name of a city in Hokkaido The orthographic labels serve three purposes: 1. To indicate the degree of inter-changeability between orthographic variants. The labels also indicate whether the variants are interchangeable in contemporary Japanese, or over historical periods. In the example above, the labels indicate that S| hako is common while gsj hako is unusual. 2. To specify the sense(s) in which the orthographic variants are inter- changeable. For example, hako and jli hako are interchangeable in the sense of 'box', but not in the sense of 'counter for boxes'. 3. To serve as a cross-reference to the orthographic variants of the entry character, enabling the user to study their differences and similarities. The meanings and format of the ortho graphic labels, which are mostly self-explanatory, are explained in detail in guide § 22. Orthographic Labels. 95a FEATURES 6. REFERRING 6.1 Appendixes 6.2 Cross-Reference Network 6.3 Character Importance One problem with current and past char actcr dictionaries is their lack of a systematic cross-reference network; that is, they fail to systematically bring to the user's attention the various relations (such as similarity in sound, form, and meaning) that exist between characters. This deprives learners of a means to deepen their knowledge by studying the differences and similarities between closely-related characters. To round out a practical reference work, an extensive network of cross-references and eleven appendixes provide the user with a wealth of useful information and supplementary data in readily accessible form. This enhances the user's understanding and is invaluable to the advanced student, the educator, and the scholar. The following features make this dictionary an invaluable too) for referring-: Summary of Features 1. Eleven appendixes with detailed supplementary data. 2. An extensive network of cross-references. 3. Frequency statistics for main entry characters. 4. Grade of character. In addition, various items in the entry-head data, such as the nonstandard forms, calligraphic styles, and stroke-count data, as well as miscellaneous items such as the degree of importance for each character sense, also serve as useful reference data. Compilers of textbooks and developers of kanji curricula, teaching materials, or courseware will find this material particularly useful. For example, information on frequency of occurrence helps in compiling graded lessons based on actual statistics, while the indication of degree of importance for character senses facilitates the preparation of materials in which the characters are used only in their most frequent senses. Teachers will no doubt find many other ways to utilize such information in a manner most suitable to their specific needs. 6.1 Appendixes The eleven appendixes listed below give the user quick access to a valuable source of supplementary data. See the introduction to each appendix for a detailed description. 1. SKIP Rules: Theory and Practice: a practical and theoretical description of how to identify, divide, and subclassify characters according to SKIP rules. 2. How to Count Strokes: explains the principles of stroke counting, which help one write the characters correctly. 3. How to Write Kanji: explains the principles of stroke order, which enable one to write most characters correctly without referring to the stroke order dia grams. 4. Kana and Romanization: presents charts and descriptions of hiragana, kata-kana, and rorfianization. 5. Rules for Okurigana: explains the official rules for affixing okurigana to aid the student learning to write. 96a FEATURES 6. The Radicals: describes the radical system and presents a detailed Radical Chart, which helps in understanding etymology and in using other dictionaries. 7. Historical Tables: presents various historical tables, such as the signs of the zodiac, which are useful for rending historical lexis. 8. Abbreviations of Place Names: lists abbreviations of country and other place names for reference. 9. Core Meanings Arranged by Frequency: lists all main entry characters in order of frequency of occurrence along with their core meanings for ready reference, 10. .loyo Kanji List: presents the official list of Joyo Kanji classified by school grade for quick reference. 11. List of Kanji Synonym Groups: lists all the synonym groups together for quick reference, which makes it possible to look up characters from their meanings and serves as a simple kanji thesaurus. 6.2 Cross-Reference Network An extensive network of cross-references directs the user to a wealth of information useful to both the learner and the educator. For convenience, the cross-references are briefly described below, followed by parenthetical references to where they are described in detail: 1. Radical variants and simplified forms are cross-referenced to their parent radicals (guide §8,2.2). 2. All synonym group members are cross-referenced to each other (GUIDE § 15.2.2). 3. .Equivalents in usage articles are sometimes replaced by a cross-reference (GUIDE §16.2.2). 4. All homophone group members are cross-referenced to each other (guide §170- 5. Cross-reference notes point to usage notes, compound formation articles, easily confused characters, etc, (guide § 19.). 6. Character meanings are sometimes cross-referenced to other entries or entry parts (r.UIDE § 20.9), 7. Cross-references may follow or replace compounds (guide §21.4). 8. Orthographic labels point to orthographic variants of the entry character (guide § 22.), 9. Nonstandard entries are cross-referenced to their corresponding standard forms (GUIDE §27.), 10. Cross-reference entries at incorrect SKIP locations point to correct locations (GUIDE §28.). 11. "Lost-radical" characters in the Radical Index are cross-referenced to their traditional locations (How to Use the Radical Index on p. 1929). 12. Cross-references at incorrect SKIP locations in the Pattern Index point to correct locations (system of kanji indexing by patterns § 2.6 Cross-References). 6.3 Character Importance The degree of importance of the entry character is indicated by the frequency and the grade. This enables the student to know the relative importance of each character, and helps the teacher compile graded lessons. The degree of importance is also given for character meanings ( § 2.3.3 Importance of Character Senses) and character readings ( § 3.3.2 97a FEATURES Importance of Readings). 6.3.1 Frequency The frequency is a number from 1 to 2135 (hat expresses the relative frequency of occurrence of a character in Modern Japanese; this nor mally, but not necessarily, indicates the ranking of each character in decreasing order of importance. It is presented as follows: 1. The frequency of main entry characters is given in the reference data box; the frequency of other characters is not given since it is so low as to be insignificant (guide S 7.5). Fr*q 7. OTHER ADVANCED FEATURES 7.1 Character Functions 7.2 System of Labels 7.3 Character Etymology 7.4 Chinese This dictionary includes many features to help the learner understand the mean- 1. 2. 3. H. 5. 7.1 Character Functions Each character may, in addition to one or more meanings, have various grammatical and syntactic functions. One of the most important characteristics of kam ji is their role as word elements: that FEATURES 2. Appendix 9. Core Meanings Arranged by Frequency lists all main entry characters in order of frequency. 6.3.2 Grade The grade is a classification that indicates the entry type, status, or school grade for each character. It is presented as follows: 1. The reference data box gives the grade of the entry character (guide § 7.*)- (■rade Joyŕi-e 2. Appendix 10. Jöyö Kanji List lists the official Jöyö Kanji by school grade. ings and functions of each character. Most of these are described in detail in §2. Understanding. This section focuses on a number of features that are particularly useful to the advanced student or scholar wishing to gain a deeper understanding. It also describes how students of Japanese who are also interested in Chinese can benefit from the dictionary. The following features are de scribed in the sections below: is, their ability to form countless compound words by being combined with each other. New words can be formed by adding an affix (suffix or prefix) to a base, or by joining combining forms with each other. For example, the suffix -Jg -zumi 'completed' is attached to 98a Summary of Features Functions of characters as words or word elements. System of labels. E>etailed information on radicals. Character etymology. Chinese forms and readings. f& tenken 'inspection' to yield $J&tfc tenkenzumi 'inspection completed'. Another important function of kanji is as a free word, which is any word that can be used independently. Other functions include abbreviations, function words, counters, units, titles, numerals, and phonetic substitutes. Affixes, combining forms, and free words can be combined with each other in various ways, the most important of which are shown below: combining form 4 combining form ty * A - ft A gaijin foreigner combining form + free word * * ^ -» rainen next year free word + suffix *H3h- A -* ftWA gaikokujin foreigner prefix + fret tvord W+ myonendo next year free word + fret nurd nihonryori Japanese cuisine A useful feature of this dictionary is the indication of function for each character meaning, A system of labels, typographical devices, and the entry layout clearly distinguish the meanings of free words from the meanings of word elements, as well as other categories. A detailed analysis of the word-building function of one-character kun words and word elements is presented here for the first time in English. Free words, combining forms, and affixes are basically distinct functional catego- ries, but a character in any given sense may act in more than one of these capacities. Sometimes, a character may function as an affix in one sense and as a free word in another; at others, its meaning as a free word may be the same as its meaning as a combining form. Function and meaning may interact in other ways as well, all of which are indicated. For example, acts as a combining form in the sense of 'author, write', as a suffix in the sense of 'authored by*, and as a free word in the sense of 'literary work': 2300 MP author, write, publish- @ suffix authored by, by- "fffPTS chosBku suru write, author equivalent of a combining form --equivalent of a suffix —B,fäfcl3zM mtshims yukic cho authored by Mishima Yukio I rNTJ][PE'NT.>EM } [cho 3£] literary work, book- ...tD"S no che book written hy... -equivalent of a free word The fourteen character functions indi how each functional category is identi cated in this dictionary are described in fied and detailed definitions of terms can the sections that follow. Explanations of be found in guide § 20,10 and § 20.11. FEATURES Note that because of the special characteristics of the Japanese language, the terms used for describing function in this dictionary differ somewhat from their standard usage. Although the definitions have been applied with extreme caution, the dividing line between different categories is a fine one. Particularly, because of the existence of borderline cases, the difference between free words, combining forms, and affixes involves complex theoretical problems that make it impractical 10 provide a rigorous definition that renders them mutually exclusive one hum dred percent of the time. A detailed knowledge of character function is not always necessary for the beginner. However, it could be very useful in that it helps one learn new words more effectively by clearly showing the role of each character in the formation of compound words, and in that it enables the learner to easily infer the meanings of compound words not listed in the dictionary. 7.1.1 Free Words Free word refers to any independent word; that is, any independent on or kun word that can be freely combined with other words in a sentence. In the example in § 7.1 above, ^ is a free word meaning 'liter ary work'. Although free words often also function as word elements, these functions are clearly distinguished by treating independent on and kun words as separate subentries in the independent and kun sections, respectively. See guide § 20.10.1 Free Words for format details. 7.1.2 Combining Forms Combining form refers to a part of a word that is not an affix and that can form a new word by combining with one or more words or parts of a word. Combining forms and affixes are thus mutually exclusive. As the combining form is extremely common, it is not marked in any special way. Any meaning in the com- pounds section and any kun headword may function as a combining form, unless specifically indicated otherwise, Jn the example in §7.1 above, ^ acts as a combining form meaning 'author, write'. The function of characters as combining forms is of major importance in the formation of words in Japanese. As an on word element, a combining form corresponds to a single character; as a kun word element, it corresponds to a single character with or without okurigatia endings. Normally, the part left after a combining form is removed from a compound word (e.g., gsi/in 'foreigner') is a one-character combining form ($\- gai 'foreign'). If the remaining part is a free word consisting of two or more characters (e.g., ?r-fS| geikoku 'foreign country' from ^ISA gaikokujin 'foreigner'), then the part removed (A /"'" 'person') is an affix, not a combining form. See guide §20.10.2 Combining Forms for format details. 7.1.3 Affixes Affix refers to a part of a word added to a base (word or word element having its own lexical meaning) to form a new word. Verbal affix is a part of a word added to a base to form a new word, usually a kun verb. To qualify as a verbal affix, either the form itself or the base to which it is added must be a verb. For example, in JltAftr")-?! yomiowaru 'finish reading', the verbal affix ^4^>5 itself is a verb; in $I^|g£r torikumu 'grapple, tackle (a problem)' the verbal affix Ijjtrj itself is not a verb but the form $J.£r to which it is attached is. Affixes added to the beginning of a word are called prefixes; those added to the end of a word are suffixes. Affixes include titles, counters, units, and certain function words, but exclude combining forms. Whereas combining forms are normally unmarked, affixes and verbal affixes are specifically identified by a la- FEATURES 100a bel or some other means, as illustrated below: 2002 [furu- [prefix) old. secondhand iSlftW) lurmbinbun old newspapers What distinguishes an affix from a combining form is that the part ol the word that remains after the affix is removed is, in principle, an independent unit in its own right, usually a free word consisting of two or more characters. The exception to this are titles, counters, units, and certain function words, in which the remaining part may consist of one character. See guide §20.10.3 Affixes for format details. 7.1.4 Abbreviations Abbreviation refers to a single character used as a shortened form of a compound word, usually represented by its first constituent character. The first character of a compound is often used to represent the entire compound, as A for in the example below: to i« O© atibrev. of A"-?: daigaltu university, college ^c,^ daisotsu university graduate Abbreviations are a concise means of conveying meaning, especially when used to create new compound words that might otherwise he long and cumbersome. Although abbreviations play an active role in the formation of many compounds, they have been practically ignored by other character dictionaries. This dictionary treats abbreviations rather comprehensively, and includes most of the ones in current use. Abbreviations could be of ordinary compound words, as in =_;fc[s] sanponkan 'between third and home base', where 5 stands for -Lj^ sanrui 'third base' and ^ stands for honrui 'home base', and in A$[ nyuen 'entering kindergarten', where [fj stands for itlli.l^l ydchien 'kindergarten'. Abbreviations could also be of place names, especially of city and country names, as [5Bt for A $i osaka in ^ raihan 'coming to Osaka'. See guide §20.11,4 Abbreviations for format details. 7.1.5 Counters Counter refers to a form, normally used as a suffix, that is added to a numeral to count objects, people, or abstract things: 65 J $ counter for cupfula, glasufuts, bowtfuls or spoonfuls 3S—cha nihai two cups of tea Counters are very common in Japanese, and often have no English equivalents. A counter indicates the characteristic of the thing being counted. The pronunciation of a counter may change according to the previous syllable, such has £f in — Iff- ippai, ~ Iff. nihai, —. Iff sanbai, etc. 7.1.6 Special Readings Special reading refers to a reading of a word consisting of two or more characters assigned to a single word on the basis of its meaning without direct relation to the normal readings of each constituent character: | SPECIAL READINGS"] 3416 DfOrtfl adult In the example, both characters function as a single unit pronounced otona. Compound words having special readings appear together in the special headings section. All the special readings appearing in the Joyo Kanji list have been included, as well as other important ones 101a FEATURES that are not in the list. See also guide §20.11.11 Special Readings and guide § 13. special readings Section. 7.1.7 Names Name reading refers to a reading used only in the writing of personal, family, and place names. These are given for the 166 characters in the official Jinmei Kanji list published in 1981. Typical name examples appear in the namrs section, which includes fur-ther information about the name, i.e., place name, female name, etc. See also guide § 14. names Section. 7.1.8 Miscellaneous Functions Other miscellaneous functions are indicated: (1) various grammatical and syntactic functions. (2) numerals (words Or word elements expressing a number), (3) function words (words or word elements that show grammatical relation ships), (4) units (forms representing units of measurement, weight, etc.), (5) titles (suffixes used as titles of courtesy), (6) phonetic substitutes (charac ters used for transliterating foreign words), and (7) symbols(charactersused as symbols that have no pronunciation). These are described in guide §20.11 Miscellaneous Character Functions. 7.2 System of Labels Existing character dictionaries and textbooks often include obsolete, archaic, and rare meanings without any indication to that effect. While this dictionary lists both archaic and current meanings, a system of labels and typographical devices indicate the temporal status, ety mology, orthography, style, function, level of formality, etc., for each sense. These labels clearly distinguish basic and frequent meanings from rare and archaic ones, and provide the user with practical guidance on the style and usage associated with each sense. The labels are of four major types: orthographic, function al, status, and subject. 7.2.1 Orthographic Labels The orthographic labels indicate the orthographic variants of a word or word element. See §5.4 Discriminating Variants and guide §22. Orthographic Labels for format details. 7.2.2 Functional Labels The functional labels indicate the various grammatical and syntactic functions associated with a sense: 2420 © «1» suffix J inflammation, -ilia chusuian appendicitis In addition to one or more meanings, each character may have various linguistic functions. Knowing these functions helps the student learn new words more effectively since it explains the character's role in the formation of compounds (see § 7.1 Character Functions for details). Functional labels are of the following types: 1. The part-of-speech label indicates part of speech. Part-of-speeeh labels are given mostly when the part of speech is not already evident from the wording of the equivalent. Typ ical labels: particle, vt (transitive verb). 2. The usage label indicates how a word or word element is used, espe cially its syntactic function and the grammatical construction in which it normally appears. Typical labels: [in the form of...], [followed hy...]. 3. The word formation label indicates the function of a form as a word element (affix or combining form). Typ ical labels: [prefix], [suffix], [also suf fix], [verbal suffix], [in compounds]. 4. Miscellaneous functional labels indi- FEATUBES 102a catc various functions of the character as a word or word clement. Typical labels: (auxiliary], [emphatic]. See guide §23. Functional Labels for details on label format and meanings. 7.2.3 Status Labels The status labels restrict a sense to a particular time, level of style, or level of formality: jj^ • archaic darling, brilliant 24SO The complex levels of formality and diversified levels of style in Japanese pose considerable difficulties to the learn er. The status labels are very useful because they distinguish basic and frequent meanings from rare and archaic ones, and show the appropriate context and degree of respect associated with a sense. They are of the following types: 1, The etymological label. See §7.3.2 Original Meaning for details. 2. The temporal labels restrict a sense to a parltcular time. They are of three kinds: [rare], [archaic], and [obsolete], 3. The stylistic labels restrict a sense to a particular level of style. They in elude literary, elegant, cotloq, slang, and vulgar. 4, The formality labels restrict a sense to a particular level of formality. They include [honorific], [humble], [polite], and [belittling]. See guide § 24. Status Labels for details on label format and meanings. 7.2.4 Subject Labels The subject labels identify the field to which the sense applies, usually a branch of science: $ phyi grain, particle ^f£-^ soryushi elementary particle See guide § 25. Subject Labels for de tails on label format and meanings, 7.3 Character Etymology To help the learner gain a deeper understanding of character meaning, this dictionary presents information on the etymology of characters. This informalion can be classified into ihree groups: radicals, original meaning, and koktiji. The etymology of compounds is treated in the compound formation articles (see § 2.5 Compound Formation for de-tails). 7.3.1 Radicals A radical is a frequently recurring graphic component used for classifying Chinese characters into groups sharing a common element. A knowledge of radicals helps the user understand character etymology, and is useful for looking up characters in dictionaries and reference works based on the radical system. The following information is presented on radicals: 1. The radical section describes the function of the entry character as a radical: 3339 Standard form: Z, orsv 'hook' (A ffi) Variant: L iU. ?L uW Description: used for character classification It shows such details as the radical number, standard and variant forms, the radical name in Japanese and English, typical characters in which the radical appears, a description of the radical's meaning and function, and cross-references from variants to parent radicals. See guide §8. radical Section for formal details. 103a FEATURES 2. The reference data box gives the radical and radical number for the entry character. See guide § 7.2 Radical for formal details. 3. The traditional radicals of "lost-radical" characters are shown in the Radical Index (see p. 1929 for details). 4. An appendix describes the radical system and includes a detailed radical chart. See Appendix 6. The Radicals for details. 5. The Radical Index enables the user to look up characters by their radicals and is accompanied by various descriptions and charts about radicals. 7.3.2 Original Meaning The original meaning, which is the first meaning associated with a character after its formation in ancient China (rarely Japan), is often shown by an etymological label: OO original meaning] rest, repo.w, r*la» 62 The original meaning docs not necessarily appear first, nor does it necessarily coincide with, the character's core mean ing. Since this is not a historical dictionary, the treatment of original meanings is not exhaustive. It often appears when it is necessary to clarify the meaning of the character or to show the interrelated-ness between its various senses. See also guide § 24.2 Etymological Labels. 7.3.3 Kokuji This dictionary shows if a character is of Chinese origin or if it is one of the small number of characters of Japanese origin (kokuji): @ none (ffl^) 153 See also outline of japanese writing system § 1.2 Formation of Chinese Characters and guide §5.4 Kokuji. 7.4 Chinese Many students of Japanese are also interested in Chinese, and vice versa. Such students often seek learning materials or reference tools to help them learn both the Japanese and Chinese forms and readings together, or to enable them to take advantage of their knowledge of one system to learn the other. Learning the forms and readings of both languages together has some advantages: the learner can compare their differences and similarities, and thus know which forms and readings of one language correspond to which of the other. On the other hand, it also presents certain difficulties. As a result of the extensive language reforms that took place in the People's Republic of China, many Chinese characters underwent major simplifications to the point where they are no longer recognizable from their traditional or modern Japanese forms. Another problem is that there is often no straightforward, one-to-one correspondence between the Japanese and Chinese forms. Sometimes, two Chinese forms correspond to a single Japanese form, and vice versa, or the correspondence depends on meaning. For example, ^ and originally two distinct characters, have merged in Chinese into the single form as shown below: FEATURES 104a Traditional Japanese Chinese Meaning ?ä Ä fa start; emit 1 §j /jefsu hair To aid the student learning both languages, this dictionary presents the Chi- m a ft ,741 REN netru)* nese forms and readings for each Japanese form: The following information is presented: 1. The Chinese form, which is often a simplified form (fRjt£'^ kantaiji) significantly different from the Japanese form, is the official form(s) used in the People's Republic of China. 2. The Chinese reading, which is transcribed in the official Pinyin system of romanization, is the pronunciation of the character in the People's Republic of China. 3. The traditional form, which is in standard use in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and among overseas Chinese {see §3.2.1 Character Forms for details). 4. The correspondence between the Chinese and Japanese forms is shown on a character-by-cha racier basis. This is, to our knowledge, the first dictionary for learners of Japanese to include detailed information on Chinese forms and readings, and to show the correspondence between the Japanese and Chinese forms on a character-by-character basis, rather than the correspondence for simplified radicals and other elements. See guide §5. Chinese for format details. 105a FEATURES SYSTEM OF KANJI INDEXING BY PATTERNS t. INTRODUCTION p. 106a 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM l>. 113a 3 INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE 1' 130a 4. HOW TO IDENTIFY THE PATTERN i>. 141a 5. HOW TO DIVIDE THE CHARACTER I'- 143a 6. HOW TO Sl'BCLASSIFY THE SOLID PATTERN ll- 147a 7. GLOSSARY i>- 148a QUICK GUIDF TO SKIP The System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns (SKIP) can be used to locate character entries with great speed and little effort. If you are in a hurry to know the bare essentials of the system, do as follows: 1. Read section § 2.1 Overview of SKIP on p, 113a. 2. Refer to the charts inside the front and back covers. To gel a more thorough understanding, carefully read the sections below. Pay special atlenlion to § 3.1 SKIP Method, which gives detailed instructions for locating entries. 1, INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historical Background 1.2 System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns 1.3 Pattern Selection Criteria 1.1 Historical Background The laek of an efficient system for ordering Chinese characters has long been a source of frustralion to learners and even native speakers of Chinese and jap anese, posing a major obstacle to the effective use of character dictionaries. The traditional meihod of looking up charac ters presupposes a knowledge of kanji el ements known as radicals. Looking up by radicals is a time-consuming, laborious, and unreliable process that may require weeks of practice to learn. Al- though many alternative systems have been devised, none have achieved the speed and simplicity required to meet the practical needs of the learner. 1.1.1 The Radical System The tra ditional radical system is based on a table consisting of 214 elements plus about 150 variants used for classifying the char acters into groups in Chinese character dictionaries (see Appendix 6 for details). The radical system is complex and diffi cult to master. To use it effectively re quires much experience, some knowledge of character etymology, the ability to identify the original radical from its variants, and familiarity with old charac ! ter forms. Even experienced users must often resort to guesswork and repeated false attempts. The main reasons that the traditional radical system is difficult to use are: SKIP 106a 1. A radical may have several variants of totally different form and'or stroke-count. Often, the variant cannot be recognized without prior knowledge. For example, ^ is a three-stroke variant of the four-stroke 'water' radical ,/K. 2. Some radicals have almost exactly the same forms, and are easily confused. For example, C (Rad ical 22) is the radical of f/r, while 1 (Radical 23) is the radical of E. 3. Since some radicals have totally dis appeared from the modern forms of characters, a knowledge of old forms is sometimes necessary. For example. Ul is classified under (S according to its old form A. A character often includes several radical elements and one must choose between them; e.g., &lj consists of the four elements n, H3, and I) , all of which are radicals. 5. A character that is itself a radical sometimes includes other radicals. For example, the (&j radical in eludes three radical elements: P, and D- 6. The radical is sometimes "embedded" in the character and is difficult to identify. For example, 2. is the radical of -ft). 7. The radical sometimes appears in unpredictable positions. For exam pie, the radical of characters with ■jjt in the left position is usually but the radical of ifrj is p. Although various attempts have been made to simplify and improve (he sys tern, it is basically cumbersome and diffi cult to use. Nevertheless, the time-honored radical system, which is in widespread use in character dictionaries and reference works, is important and should be learned by the serious student of Chi nese or Japanese. 1.1.2 Alternative Systems Toover- come the problems inherent in the radical system, numerous alternative systems have been devised throughout the long history of Chinese and Japanese lexicography. The most important of these can be classified into six types, which are briefly described below. The list includes the radical system for comparison purposes, 1. Traditional Radical System The traditional method of ordering entries in character dictionaries lists the characters according to their historical radicals and additional strokes. To use it effectively requires much experience, some knowledge of character etymology, familiarity with the 214 radicals and their variants, and a knowledge of old forms. Its main advantage is its widespread use in character dictionaries and reference works. 2. Simplified Radical Systems Since the traditional radical system is cumbersome, many attempts have been made to simplify it by such devices as (1) reducing the number of rad icals, (2) basing the radical on new rather than old character forms, and (3) assigning the radical in a consistent manner. A good example of this is the Radical Priority System introduced in Andrew Nelson's well-known character dictionary. These simplified systems are a considerable improvement over the historical radicals. Their chief disadvantage is thai the user must become familiar with yet another set of radicals, and their lack of standardization—every dictionary uses a somewhat different variation. 3. Reading Indexes The most widespread of these are the On-Kun in dex and romanized index, which list the characters phonetically by their on and kun readings for Japanese and their Mandarin pronunciations for skip Chinese. This type of index suffers from two major drawbacks: (1) the user must have prior knowledge of the character's reading, and (2) dozens or even hundreds of entries may appear under a common reading such as ko 4. Stroke-Count Indexes Most Japanese character dictionaries include a stroke-count index, which lists the characters by total stroke-count. These indexes are difficult to use because (1) many characters, some-times over 500, appear in the same stroke-count section, (2) they require the user to count strokes accu* rately—no cross-references appear at incorrect locations, and (3) finding an entry is very slow. The characters are often further classified by radical, which requires familiarity with the radical system. The only advantage of this index is that, if one has patience, it serves as a last resort when all other means fail. 5. Character and Stroke Form Systems Many systems classify the characters on the hasis of form. They usually define a table of elements based on various criteria such as stroke form or structure, strokes position, or structure of character parts (such as the top or corners). Some systems, such as the well-known Four Corner System, assign a numerical code to each character, and are fairly efficient once learned. Their main disadvantage is that they presuppose a knowledge of character form and/or stroke structure, which the beginner does not have, and often require one to memorize complex rules, 6. Stroke Order Systems Some systems classify the characters on the hasis of stroke order. Although there are general stroke order principles, such as "first left then right," the rules are not strict enough to serve as a basis for an efficient lookup system. The main disadvantage of these systems is that they presuppose a knowledge of stroke order, which makes them unsuitable for learners. One might well ask why, with so many systems in existence, is there a need for yet another system. The answer is that past and existing systems often suffer from a number of serious drawbacks, the most important of which are as follows: 1. Locating an entry can be a time-consuming, laborious process. 2. Some systems are difficult to learn, sometimes requiring rote memoriza tion of many complex elements and weeks of practice. 3. Prior knowledge of kanji, such as of radicals, stroke order, stroke form, character reading, etc, is often required. In effect, the user is unable to look up a character with Out already knowing something about it. 4. Poor cross-referencing often requires going back and forth between entries. 5. Some systems are unreliable and inconsistent, requiring guesswork and repeated false attempts. 6. Poor entry distribution between subgroups. Some indexes may have hundreds of entries in one subsec tion. Because of these drawbacks, previous systems are inadequate for meeting the practical needs of the learner. 1.2 System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns 1.2.1 New Indexing System To overcome the shortcomings of the traditional methods of ordering characters, this dictionary introduces a new scheme, called the System of Kanji Indexing by skip 108a Patterns or SKIP, thai can be used lo locale entries as quickly and as accurately as in alphabetical dictionaries. The system, which can be learned in a very short lime, is based on a new concept: the direct identification of geometrical patterns. With the help of simple rules, each character is unambiguously classified under one of four easy-to-identify patterns: (J 1 left-right, B 2 up-down, 03 enclosure, and B4 solid. For example, +0 is classified under pat 'crn (] 1 since it can be divided into left and right parts ( and B). Classification by patterns is not merely a variation of an existing system—ii is, as we shall see below, a new type of lookup | system based on an entirely new idea. The user need only identify the pattern formed by visual elements, and needs no prior knowledge of the character or its constituents. Characters belonging to the first three patterns, the divisible characters, are arranged in ascending order of hyphenated numerals that indicate stroke-count. The first numeral indicates the number of strokes in the shaded segment of the pattern symbol, and the second the number of strokes in the nonshaded segment. The pattern number followed by these hyphenated numerals is referred to as the SKIP number for that character. The SKIP number for the indivisible characters (pattern Q4) is formed according to a somewhat different principle. The character entries are ordered by their SKIP numbers. Locating a character is simply matter of determining its SKIP number and then finding the corresponding entry. To locate a divisible character, identify the pattern to which it belongs to determine the first part of the SKIP number, then divide it and count the strokes of each part to determine the second and third parts of that number. For example, ;fg can be divided into left and right parts and is thus classified under pattern Since it contains four strokes in the shaded part (|) and five strokes in the blank part (@), its SKIP number is |] 1-4-5. To achieve maximum lookup speed, characters sharing the same SKIP number are further subdivided into progressively smaller groups, while characters that may be difficult to locate are systemati cally cross-referenced at locations where they might be mistakenly looked for. 1.2.2 Advantages of SKIP The System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns is a great improvement over its predecessors. To overcome the six shortcomings of traditional lookup systems listed in § L1.2 above, SKIP offers the following six advantages: 1. Entries can be located with great speed and little effort. Once the system has been mastered, the user can look up entries as quickly and as effortlessly as in alphabetically arranged dictionaries. The experienced user can often locate an entry in less than twenty seconds. 2. The basic principles of the system can be learned in a few minutes. Since SKIP rules are based on intuition, they are easy to learn in a short time. Tests have confirmed that after only ten to fifteen minutes of learning the rules, beginners can locate entries with an accuracy of 90 to 100 per cent. Although it may take some time to master the finer details, this is a small price to pay considering the total amount of time saved in looking up entries over the many years during which the dictionary is used, 3. No prior knowledge of kanji elements is required. The system relies on the direct identification of the pat tern formed by kanji elements, not the forms of the elements themselves. skip Thus no prior knowledge of the character or its constituents, such as its radical, reading, stroke order, or stroke form is needed. 4. A cross-reference system practically eliminates dead-end searching by placing difficuli-to-find characters at locations where they might be mistakenly looked for. 5. The system is reliable and logically consistent. The user need not en gage in guesswork and repeated false attempts. A proper understanding and application of the rules will always lead to the correct location on the first try. 6. The distribution of characters among the four patterns is fairly uniform. Moreover, there is no over-concentration of characters in the subdivisions into which each pattern section is divided. As should be clear from the above, since no prior knowledge of the character or its constituents is required, one need not waste time in learning to recognize the shapes of an arbitrary set of elements— the user need only identify the arrangement of elements in relation to each oth er. In this sense, classification by patterns is intrinsically different from other systems — it is not merely a new varia tion of an existing system. SKIP is a product of seven years of computer-assisted research and experimentation on how kanji elements are intuitively perceived in terms of their parts.1 Since the system can be learned in a very short time and is easy to use, it has been praised by educators as an important breakthrough in Chinese character lexicography. At the very least, it represents a radical departure from all traditional systems for ordering characters in both China and Japan. 1.2.3 SKIP Rules Since the rules for classifying characters by patterns are essentially simple, it is often possible to identify the pattern correctly even with only a superficial knowledge of the rules. Inevitably, a small number of characters will be difficult to locate even if you know the rules. To eliminate dead-end searching, many of these problem characters are systematically cross-referenced at one or more locations where they might be mistakenly looked for. Intuition and cross-references, however, cannot be relied upon all the time. To use the system effectively, a knowledge of the rules is necessary. In the initial stages, a brief glance at the pattern chart inside the back covers, which has been designed as an aid to locating entries without a detailed knowledge of the rules, will no doubt he most helpful. Once you become familiar with the rules and gain a little experience, you should normally be able to quickly locate a desired entry without referring to the chart. In addition to the overall description of the system presented here, Appendix t gives an in-depth, lengthy description that includes many interesting facts on the structure of kanji patterns. However, since the system is basically simple, it is not necessary for the general user to understand all the details. The reader may well wonder why, then, are such 1. Although SKIP has been designed primarily as a lookup system for character dictionaries, it has other potential applications. The most important of these include a kanji input system for computers and word processors (patent pending); structural description rules for generating characters from a small set of elements, miscellaneous products such as road guides that classify place names by patterns; and as a basis for a collating sequence for sorting kanji data. The commercial utilization of SKIP (patent pending) in any form is strictly forbidden without the written permission of the publisher or copyright owner. 110a skip lengthy explanations necessary. The answer is twofold. First, since SK1I1 allows entries to be looked up with great speed, it is likely to be widely adopted as a new classification scheme in future character dictionaries. We have thus felt it necessary, for refer ence purposes, to present a full treat ment of all the theoretical and practical aspects of the system. Second, as is well known, explaining in words the precise procedure for performing a simple action is often far more difficult than doing it. A facetious illustration of this is a condensed version of an excessively elaborate description of how to pronounce the wh in when: " .,.a voiceless glottal fricative (aspirate) followed by a voiceless labiovelar glide or bilabial (dorsovelar) semivowel produced with the lips... by directing a stream of breath.., partially obstructed by the epiglottis, then causing the stream to glide between the pharingopalatine and glosso-palatine arches... by continuously obstructing the stream with the velum and labia..." How much easier wh is to pronounce than it is to describe! The same can be said of SKIP. Describing it is far more difficult than using it. 1.3 Pattern Selection Criteria The four SKIP patterns were selected on the basis of a study of the structure and geometrical properties of kanji elements, and an investigation of how combinations of such elements are intuitively perceived in terms of their parts. There are many other ways in which characters could conceivably be classified by patterns, such as triangular divisions (e.g. under 0), division into three parts (e.g. Íra under etc. Our computer-aided research has shown that the SKIP patterns are ideally suited as a scheme for ordering entries in character dictionaries for the following reasons: 1. They are in harmony with the way the characters are intuitively perceived. 2. They often coincide with etymolog-ically meaningful parts. 3. The distribution of characters among the four patterns and their subdivisions is fairly uniform. Each of these is discussed in greater detail below. 1.3.1 Psychologistics of Pattern Recognition There are countless ways in which combinations of visual elements may be perceived. Even a simple figure like a square can be divided up in numerous ways: 1. Four line segments of equal-length: r: ^ □ 2. Four L-shaped components: □ * □ 3. Many short line segments: □ ** □ A. Two U-shaped components: □ * □ Dozens of other divisions are possible. The larger the components into which a structure is divided, the simpler is the relationship between them. Dividing into smaller parts results in more complex relations. That a structure can be broken up into certain parts does not mean that it has been assembled from those parts. In fact, no division is intrinsically superior to any other—all are equally arbitrary. The best division is the one that most aptly describes the figure for a particular purpose. However, some divisions are more "intuitive" than others. For example, most people perceive a square as consisting of four tine seg- 111a skip merits—few would regard it as a combination of L-shapes. The perceptual principles of organizing groups of elements into larger units form a fascinating branch of psychology. This is not the place to discuss these principles in detail. The point is that Chinese characters, many of which are of highly complex struclure, can be divided in countless ways, but only some of these will seem "natural"—that is, will be in harmony with ihe way the character is intuitively perceived. "Intuitively" here refers to the manner in which the absolute majority of people tend to perceive a character in terms of its parts. For example, most people perceive as con sisling of **» and >j< stacked one over another; as consisting of (~) enclos jng the internal element :£; and so on. SKIP rules are based on an extensive anal ysis of how the characters are intuitively perceived as geometrical patterns. We have developed a set of objective criteria lhat closely reflect the psychologists principles of recognizing the patterns formed by kanji elements. Massive volumes of kanji pattern data were analyzed by computer and subjected to many tests with both beginners and experienced users over a period of several years. The result of these efforts is a set of accurate and reliable rules that are, on the one hand, in close harmony with intuition, and, on the other, strike a good balance between component size and simplicity of relationship between parts. Although we have done everything possible to ensure that the rules reflect intuition, some exceptions are inevitable. For example, some people may find it more natural to divide 5i into ~S and 7\, rather than into -f- and %. That a small number of divisions conflict with intuition is a small price to pay consider- ing the speed, consistency, and ease with which characters can be located by following the rules. Since SKIP rules are based on iniuilion, it follows that they are easy to learn in a short time. It also follows that most people will tend to intuitively divide characters according to these rules even if they do not know them. In conclusion, the firm psychological basis of SKIP patterns makes them well suited for lexicographic classification. 1.3.2 Etymological Integrity A second reason for adopting SKIP patterns is their etymological integrity; that is, dividing a character by SKIP rules often yields etymologicalty meaningful parts such as radicals, which are usually familiar kanji elements contributing to the character's meaning. For example, kyu 'rest', which is classified under pattern C1, is a left-right character divided into i 'human being' and ^ moku 'tree', both of which are radicals. ! However, it is important to note that SKIP rules do not depend on radicals or etymology; etymological integrity is merely a by-product that may be of benefit to the user familiar with the radical sys tern. Since division by patterns is based on a precise set of rules, the division of ■ many characters will of course not conform to division by radicals. For exam pie, SKIP rules call for dividing UJ into $ and % , whereas division by radicals gives §* and J], a far less obvious division. 1.3.3 Uniform Distribution A third reason for adopting SKIP patterns is that the distribution of the character entries among the four patterns is fairly uniform. There is no overconcent ration of | characters under any one pattern, as shown in the table below: skip 112a Pattern of entnes Percentage of occurrences B 1 54 :«i n -i 28 2(1 □ 5 ]t 11 m ■ 7 33 Although lhe percentage of torn! crimes shows a hi);h concentration of characters in the left-right and up-down patterns, I he percentile of iy<-iirrr.NCf of rharac-lers in newspapers is much more evenly distributed. Tor example, left-right char acters account for about M"o of ihc en Iries in this dictionary, bu! only for ap proximately 3 7°o. the probability of encountering I hem is 33CI[. because uf tin-many high frequency characters that are included in thai category. Thus, in terms of percentage of occurrence, the character entries are fairly evenly distrih uted. In addition, there is no ovcrconccntra lion of characters in the subdivisions (subsections and subgroups) into which each pattern section is divided. I his means thai the linal stage of searching for an entry, which requires locating the character by visual scanning, is speedy and efficient. 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM 2.1 Overview of SKIP 2.2 SKII' Patterns 2.3 Divisible and Indivisible Characters 2.4 SKIP Number 2.5 Classification Scheme 2,fi Cross-Keferenecs 2.7 Pattern Index 2.8 SKIPOuidcs 2.1 Overview of SKIP The central idea of the System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns is the classifica-lion of characters into four major cat ego ries on the basis of easy-to-identify geometrical patterns: f] I left right (fll), Pjjj 2 up down (-fO, Q ! enclosure (te), and ■ 1 solid ( r"): Acronym of "System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns." A sys tern of classifying characters by geometrical patterns used for the rapid location of entries in this dictionary. Characters belonging to the first three categories, referred to as the divisible characters, arc arranged in ascending order of hyphenated numerals called the subsection number. The first numeral indicates the number of strokes in the '/ fias^ nr. a turvc-\ of J1S rharacrers hv Sf-irtcnn el al 113a skip shaded part, which corresponds to the shaded segment of the pattern symbol and the second the number of strokes in the blank part, which corresponds to the nonshaded segment. The pattern number followed by the subsection number is referred to as the SKIP number. To locate a divisible character, first iden tify the pattern to which it belongs to dc terminc the first pari of the SKIP number, then divide it and count the strokes of each part to determine the second and third parts of that number (the subsec tion number). For example, )fa can be divided into left and right parts and is thus classified under pattern []1. Since it contains four strokes in the shaded part ( f ) and six strokes in the blank part (&), its SKIP number is E1-4-6. It thus appears under pattern [J 1, subsection 4-6, along with other characters that share the same SKIP number such as 8$ and fig. Divisible characters in the same subsection are divided into subgroups contain ing a shared element (such as 0 and )} ), called the subgroup element, for maximum lookup speed. The characters within each subgroup are further subdivided into progressively smaller groups until each character is assigned its own position. Characters that cannot be divided by SKIP rules, called the indivisible characters, are classified under pattern |4, solid. These are arranged by total stroke-count and subclassified into four solid subpatterns on the basis of easy-to-identify lines: □ 1 top line CF), D2 bottom line (_h), |JJ3 through line (r£i), and QJ4 others (A)- The first part of the subsection number for these characters represents their total stroke-counts, and the second part represents the number of the solid subpattcrn, ~F, for example, is a three-stroke character containing a top line, and is thus classified under pattern ■ 4, subsection 3-1 (SKIP number ■ 4-3-1). The character entries in the main part of the dictionary are ordered according to the above scheme. To attain greater lookup speed and flexibility, they are also listed in exactly the same order in the Pattern Index. Thus, once you have determined the SKIP number, you have a choice of two lookup melhods: (I) locating the entry in the Pattern Index, or (2) locating the entry directly without using the index. In addition, there is a special shortcut called the SCAN method that makes it possible lo locate entries quickly without determining their SKIP numbers. Although SKIP rules are simple, a small number of characters may be difficult to locate. To eliminate dead-end searching, many of these are systematically cross-referenced at one or more locations where they might be mistakenly looked for. Moreover, various guides printed in the outer corners and margins of the page facilitate the rapid location of entries to achieve maximum lookup speed. The above overview describes the most important elements of the system. Since it is essentially simple, you should be able to look up entries even on the basis of this brief description. Sections § 2.2 through § 7. below explain in detail how to look up entries, summarize the rules for identifying the pattern and dividing the character, and define technical terms. Appendix 1 presents a far | more detailed description of the rules. skip 114a but the descriptions here should normally be sufficient for gaining an adequate understanding without referring to the appendix. It is most important that you acquire a clear understanding of the various terms used in a technical sense, particularly the term division point. The definitions of technical terms are enclosed in boxes, while terms appearing in the text are printed in sanserif boldface whenever it is necessary to draw attention to them, especially the first time they are used in a topic of discussion. All SKIP terms are briefly defined in § 7. Glossary, while a detailed description of im portant terms appears in Appendix 1. § 1. Definitions of Pattern Termi- nology, To distinguish SKIP rules from ordinary text, the principal rules are set in sanserif boldface CAPITAL LETTERS and smau capitals, while subrules are set in sanserif lowercase. 2.2 SKIP Patterns The System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns classifies the characters into four major categories on the basis of easy-to-identify geometrical patterns: |] 1 left-right, H 2 up-down, Q 3 enclosure, and ■'1 solid. Each pattern is identified by a pattern symbol and pattern number. The charts below illustrate and define the various parts and terms associated with SKIP patterns. Structure of SKIP Patterns Pattern Shaded segment- Pattern number 1 Blank segment Pattern A configuration of character elements that characterizes the four major character groups in the SKIP classification scheme; i.e., [] 1 left-right, H2 up-down, Q3 enclosure, and ■<> solid. Pattern number A number that identifies one of the four patterns in the SKIP classification scheme; i.e., 1 = 1], 2 = fJ, 3 = Q, and 4=H- Pattern symbol A symbol that identifies one of the four patterns in the SKIP classification scheme; i.e., []~1, H = 2, D~3, and H = 4. The shaded segment of the first three pattern symbols corresponds to the shaded part of the divisible characters, and the nonshaded segment to the blank part of these characters. 115a SKIP I lie lablc below briefly describes the ft)ur SKIP patierns Rules on how 10 iden tify each pattern are given in | I, Mow to Identify the Pattern. The lechnical terms appearing in the table are fully explained in Appendix I. 1 1 LEFT RIGHT A configuration of character elements placed side by side The elements arc separated from each other by a space (fX). The left-right pattern is basically of vertical construe tier. H2 UP DOWN A configuration of character elements slacked more or less one tin top of the other. The elements are separated from earh other by a space I v]^), a horizontal line ( Jji), or a frame element ( ,1; ). Although the up-down pattern is bflsi-ralK of horizontal construction, triangular ( ) and dingo nal t % ) divisions arc also allowed. D 3 ENCLOSURE A configuralion of character elements in which an exterior element encloses the rest of a characlcr on two or more sides. The enclosure element may be separated from the rest of ihc character by a space {!/,), or may be in lull physical contact ([!> ) with it. The enclosure pattern, which is basically of rectangular construction, is subdivided inlo enclosure subpatterns (see § 4.2 Enclosure Subpat-tems). ■ 4 SOLID ----- A character elenu-nl or combination of elements thai does not constitute a left right, up down, or enclosure pattern. Solid characters, such as P, and cannot be divided according io SKIP rules. Many cannol be divided without breaking through indivisible units. The solid pat tern is subdivided into solid subpatterns {see § 6.2 Solid Subpatterns). The chart below has been careful!) de enable you to locate a character even signed to provide you with a good under without a detailed knowledge of SKIP standing of SKIP patierns and subpai rules, h'or ready reference, this chart also terns. Since these are intuitively easy to appears inside the back covers, identify, a glance at the chart will often lib skip SKIP Patterns No. Pattern Classification Examples 1 D drit space m 4 8 ti 2 3 m 3 B 1 1 'II 1 2 i ř 4 i 1 11 dít 2 11 LEFT-RIGHT conceptual space as R 0 3 ft II 4 ii: 3 a l»] b 2 i 1? i nil 10 9 "J 2 b dear span- 1 4 II I ! ri 1 f, ii 2 2 if 2 1 2 2 3 3 2 H UP-DOWN o inrrptual H«ce hi nti >nlal line /J 3 4 A A., t 1 2 4 >Vj Í'. 3 a ri TV ii a 2 2 1 2 « ' l" 3 r 1 Ii 1 2 a rri * f ■f. S 3 fi 2 & 4 fi ft 8 4 É 3 10 (raw demerit 2 3 A; 2 V ťfe :< h V 4 2 >';. 1 I |{] 2 / 1 2 2 LJ ill 3 1 it 4 2 r 3 SiE 3 b ftfe o ř iíí i r fc 1 1 Ji". ? 2 n i>j I 4 .!■'< a r i i ej 1 4 «"] 2 a 4 3 .ti / i & e 4 3 □ G □ n 3 S r± I 3 It 3 4 A i s 2 3 & 4 ? íl f i 4 2 :• ENCLOSURE n u c □ NiJ B J :'r< 2 S *| 2 S t:-a 4 ft H 2 9 |MJ a 3 II. 2 2 4 2 w 2 2 2 1 lit!! 2 1. □ □ □ |U] 3 3 (si 111 3 2 II 3 1 3 2 ta. 3 2 mi: 3 2 □ 1 top line K 3 l ti 1 K 1 f 3 1 rlii !S 1 II 3 1 'II'. / 1 f« 14 1 4 ■ |_i 2 bMlnm line I" 3 2 -b 2 2 c a 2 1? 5 2 Ft. 5 2 l'l 6 2 A|A 7 2 8 •j l> SOLID lL '.hn Ligh ine 4' 4 3 + 2 3 T 4 3 a 3 ř 3 9 3 4 3 dí 11 3 C 4 others K 2 4 )L 2 4 -k 3 4 'k 4 4 1 bakuha : plode_ ÍUK bskufu (bomb bakushó burst into laugbtei tlíí bakugeki bomb ■říjí kubaklJ ,:-,.:| bibakusfta vict 0 abbrev. of Ri^i bak, <— 3. Pattern number 1. Pattern guide 2. Pattern symbol 4. SKIP number 5. Subsection guide 6 Margin guide 7. S ubsect i on n u m be r 8. Subgroup guide 9. Subgroup element 10. Entry number guide — 11, Entry number 4-16 >5 Strokes 20-4-16 d( to l''r«i 1307 H- OO . Ciilumn, piling, balustrade; E 1 1103-1106 SKIP iz8a 1. Pattern guide A guide in the upper, outer corner of a page that indicates the pattern and pattern number for that page (see §2.2). 2. Pattern symbol A symbol that identifies one of the four patterns in the SKIP classification scheme (see § 2.2). 3. Pattern number A number that identifies one of the four patterns in the SKIP classification scheme (see § 2.2). 4. SKIP number A pattern symbol followed by hyphenated numerals used to locate characters according to SKIP rules (see §2.4). 5. Subsection guide Boldface numerals in the upper corner of a page thai indicate the subsection number for that page. The pattern guide and subsection guide in the upper left of the page indicate the SKIP number for the first entry character In a left-hand page, while those in the upper right indicate the SKIP number for the last entry character in a right-hand page. Together, they indicate the SKIP number range for the two pages and serve as a convenient aid when flipping through the pages in search of a desired entry. 6. Margin guide A guide in the outer margin of a page that consists of a frame enclosing the subsection number for each entry character. It can be used in conjunction with, or independently of, the subsection guide to locate a desired subsection number. 7, Subsection number Hyphenated numerals corresponding to the second and third parts of the SKIP number (see § 2.4). 8, Subgroup guide A guide in the outer margin of a page that indicates the subgroup element for each entry character. This guide helps quickly locate the character once the desired SKIP number range has been reached. S. Subgroup element The shared element of a subgroup, which corresponds to the shaded part of a divisible character (see §2.5.1). 10. Entry number guide Boldface numerals or hyphenated boldface numerals in the lower, outer corner of a page that indicate the entry number or range of entry numbers for that page. This guide quickly helps locate a character whose entry number is known. 11, Entry number A boldface serial number that uniquely identifies the numbered character entries of the dictionary (see also guide § 1.4 Entry Number). 129a SKIP 3. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE main part of the dictionary. 3.1 SKIP Method 3.2 SCAN Method 3.3 Hints for Speed There are two methods of locating en tries by SKIP rules: 1. The SKIP Method consists of determining the SKIP number of your character then locating it in the main part of the dictionary. This is the method recommended for ordinary use. 2. The SCAN Method is a special shortcut that enables you to locate a character without determining its SKIP number. This method is only effective for characters containing elements of high stroke-count. The sections below present detailed instructions for locating entries by the above methods. To use these instruc-tions effectively, be sure you understand the material covered in § 2. Description of the System. Although the instructions are very thorough, don't be overwhelmed by the details. Remember that the system is essentially simple— with just a little practice, you should be able to find entries with great speed and little effort. 3.1 SKIP Method Finding an entry by the SKIP Method consists of two major steps: 1. Determine the SKIP number of your character. 2. Locate the character entry in the Once you know the SKIP number of your character, locating the character entry is a straightforward, largely mechanical process. To make the hy>.tcm as flexible as possible, there are two ways to do this: (1) the Index Method, by which you first find the entry number of your character in the Pattern Index, and (2) the Direct Method, by which you locate your character entry directly from its SKIP number. The second method is on the average faster than the first (see § 3.3 Hints for Speed for details). 3.1.1 How to Determine the SKIP Number To locate a character by the SKIP Method, you must first determine its SKIP number. Since determining this number quickly is the key to using the system effectively, you should get a thorough understanding of how it is formed (see §2.4 SKIP Number). The gist of the method is a follows: Identify the pattern to get the first part of the SKIP number. To get the second and third parts, count the strokes of the shaded part and blank part of the divisible characters, or count the total stroke-count and determine the solid subpattern of the indivisible characters. The chart below gives detailed instructions for determining the SKIP number, and includes references to other sections that explain each step in greater detail. Understanding this chart is of crucial importance, so study carefully the examples appearing right after the chart. For quick reference, this chart also appears inside the front covers. 1303 SKIP How to Determine the SKIP Number DETERMINE THE SKIP NUMBER OF YOUR CHARACTER, STEP1 IDENTIFY PATTERN Determine to which of the four patterns your character belongs to get the first part of the SKIP number (the pattern number). If your charac ter belongs to pattern H 1. H2, or Q3, carry out the steps in the left column; if it belongs to pattern 04, carry out the steps in the right column, REFERENCE: §L Ho* lo Identify thf Pattern n i h 2 □ 3 ■ 4 STEP 2 DIVIDE CHARACTER Divide the character into two parts at the first division point. REFERENCE: ji. h> to lib* the Chancier OMIT (Since solid characters cannot be divided, go to STEP 3,) REFERENCE: ^.HontoSuMassifjIhcSolidPattern STEP 3 COUNT STROKES OF SHADED PART Count the strokes of the shaded part to gel the second part of the SKIP number. REFERENCE: Appendix L Ho. ItiCMdStnbt DETERMINE TOTAL STROKE-COUNT Determine the total stroke-count of your character to get the second part of the SKIP number. KEFT.RENCE: Appendin I Hon total Strokes STEP 4 COUNT STROKES OF BLANK PART Count the strokes of the blank part to get the third part of the SKIP number. REFERENCE Appendix I Hoi lo Court Strokes IDENTIFY SOLID SIJliPATTERX Determine to which of the four solid subpatterns your character belongs to get the third part of the SKIP number. Select from: □ 1, □ 2, DO 3, orFJ4. REFERENCE: \ 6. Hot loSubctassih Ehe Solid Pattern Example: DETERMINE THE SKIP NUMBER OF g£, STEP 1 IDENTIFY PATTERN Since can be divided into left and right parts, we identify it as belonging to pattern left-right. This gives the first part of the SKIP number as 1: ffl -m STEP 2 DIVIDE CHARACTER Dividing $f] into two parts at the first division point yields f, the shaded part, and the blank part: m= i +m 1313 SKIP STEP 3 UH'NT STROKES OK SHADED PART Counting the strokes of the shaded part ( -f ) yields a stroke-count of 4. This gives the second part of the SKIP number ns 4: m r i-4- STEP 4 COUNT STROKES OF If LANK PART Couiitmg the strokes of the blank part (Jl'i) yields a stroke-count of 8. This gives the I bird part of the SKIP number ;is S: ffl -En-a Example: DETERMINE T SKIP number of T 1-"-« HE SKIP NUMBER Oh \-'. STEP 1 IDENTIFY PATTERN Since |- eaunot Irf: divided inio piins, we idemify ii as an indivisible character belonging to pattern PJ1, solid This gives iht lirsi pun of the SKIP iitini bcr as 4: K 1 STEP 2 OMIT (Since V cannoi be divided, go to STEP 3.) STEP :i DETERMINE TOTAL STROKE-COUNT Counting llic strokes of tin- entire character yields a stroke-count of Tl. This gives the second pari of the SKIP number at S; T PJ4-3- STEP 1 IDENTIFY SOLID SLIi PATTERN Since V contains a line on top, we identify it as a solid character belonging Lo subpattcrri f I, top line. This gives the third pan of the SKIP number as 1: T ■ 4-3-1 SKIP number of f; fj 4-3-1 3.1.2 Index Method After determining the SKIP number of your character, you must locate it in the main part of the dictionary The surest way lo do this is by the Index Method, the gist of which is as follows: Flip through the Pattern Index until you locate llie pattern number and subsection number for your charac ter. Scan the subgroup guides lo locate your shaded part, then find your character and its entry number. Fi naliy, turn the pages of the dictionary until you find your entry number. The chart below gives detailed instructions for locating character entries by the Index Method. 132a SKIP DETERMINE THE ENTRY NUMBER IN THE PATTERN INDEX, THEN LOCATE YOUR CHARACTER ENTRY. STEP 1 LOCATE PATTEkA Turn the pages of the Pattern Index until you locate the pattern number (the first part of the SKIP number) which corresponds to your character. Use the pattern guides in the upper, outer corners of the pages. REFERENCE: fj2.JPallem Ma STEP 2 LOCATE Sl'BSECTION Continue turning the pages until you locate the subsection number (the second and third parts of the SKIP number) which corresponds to your character. Use the red subsection guides in the left part of the column. REFBENCE: J2.7 Pattern lnd« El H2 Q3 D < STEP 3 LOCATE SUBGROUP Scan the column of subgroup guides until you locate the one which corresponds to the shaded part of your character. REFERENCE: §2.7 Pattern Indei OMIT (Since solid characters cannot be divided, they are not grouped by subgroup elements.) STEP i DETERMINE ENTRY NUMBER Scan the column of characters until you locate your character and its entry number. STEP 5 LOCATE ESTRV CHARACTER Turn the pages of the dictionary until you locate the one which includes your entry number, then scan that page until you locate your entry char actcr. Use the entry number guides in the lower, outer corners of the pages. REFERENCE: §2. £ SKIP Guides 3.1.3 Direct Method After determining the SKIP number of your character, there is a second method for locating your entry in the main part of the dictionary. This is called the Direct Method, and is usually faster than the Index Method. The gist of this method is as follows: Turn the pages of the dictionary {without referring to the Pattern Index) until you locate the pattern number and subsection number for your character. Scan the subgroup guides to locate your shaded part, then continue flipping the pages until you locate your character. The chart below gives detailed instructions for locating character entries by the Direct Method. 1333 SKIP LOCATE YOUR CHARACTER ENTRY DIRECTLY FROM ITS SKIP NUMBER. STEP 1 LOCATE PATTERN Turn the pages of ihe dictionary until you locate the pattern number (the first part of the SKIP number) which corresponds to your character. Use the pattern guides in the upper, outer corners of the pages. REFERENCE: §2.8 SKIP Guides STEP 2 LOCATE SUBSECTION Continue turning the pages until you locate the subsection number (the second and third parts of the SKIP number) which corresponds to your character. Use the subsection guides in the upper, outer corners of the pages. REFERENCE: §2.1 SKIP Guides |]1 H2 Q3 ■ 4 STEP 3 LOCATE SUBGROUP Continue turning the pages until you locate the subgroup guide which corresponds to the shaded part of your character. HINT: Subgroup elements that are radicals are ordered by radical number. REFERENCES: §2.8 SKIP Guides § 2. 5 Classification Scheme $ 3.3 Hints for Speed OMIT Since solid characters are not grouped by subgroup element, go to STEP 4. STEP 4 LOCATE CHARACTER Continue turning the pages until you locate your character entry. HINT: The divisible characters in a given subgroup and the indivisible characters in a given subsection are further classified by entry type and ordered alphabetically by their principal readings. REFERENCES: §2.5 CUssincalion Scheme § 3.3 Hints for Speed 3.2 SCAN Method 3.2.1 A Powerful Shortcut To locate an entry by the SKIP Method, you must first count the strokes of the character's components to determine its SKIP number. For characters of few strokes this does not pose much of a problem, but for elements of high stroke-count it could be time-consuming. While master- ing the techniques explained in Appendix 2. How to Count Strokes helps, counting strokes is nevertheless an error-prone, laborious task. The SCAN Method is a powerful shortcut that makes it possible to dispense with counting the strokes of elements of high stroke-count. Since characters SKIP 134a containing such elements are relatively few and appear close together, you need only to find the approximate location of your character and then scan the vicinity to locate it. For complex characters, this is much faster than counting strokes to determine the SKIP number. Don't bother learning the SCAN Method unless it suits your taste—any entry can always be found reliably with the SKIP Method. The SCAN Method is used for locating divisible characters whose shaded or blank parts have high stroke-counts. Ra sically, "high stroke-count" refers to 12 or more strokes. It is not sufficient for the total stroke-count of a character to be high; one of its parts must have 12 or more strokes. For example, although in' (blank part 15 strokes) is ideally suit ed for this method, £3 (total 18 strokes) is not since neither !1> (10 strokes) nor $ (8 strokes) has 12 strokes. The higher the stroke-count is, the shorter the "scanning distance" and the better the method works. If the shaded part has, say, 15 or more strokes, you can locate your character almost instantaneously. For pattern □ 3, which has rel- atively few entries, you can even use this method for stroke-counts of 11 or 10. Finding a character by the SCAN Method consists of three basic steps: 1 Selecting the SCAN Method The SCAN Method has two variations; SCAM Method A for characters whose shaded parts have high stroke-counts, and SCAN Method B for those whose blank parts have high stroke-counts. Be sure not confuse the two. To select the SCAN Method, decide whether it is the shaded part or the blank part that has a high stroke-count (12 or more). Don't actually count the strokes-just make a rough "guesstimate." 2. Finding the Approximate Location To find a divisible character by the SCAN Method, you must first determine the approximate location from where to begin the search. The optimal approximate location is the vicinity where the subsection numbers begin with or end in 14, as ex plained in the table below: Approximate Locations Stan Method A The vicinity where the subsection numbers begin with 14; i.e., 14-1, 14-2, 14-3, etc. A quick way to find it is to use the pattern guides to locate the beginning of the next pattern section and work your way backwards to 14. Scan Method B The subsection number that begins with the stroke-count of your shaded part and ends in 14; i.e., 1-14, 2-14, 3-14, etc. If there is no subsection number ending in 14, go to the nearest one, such as to one ending in 13 or 12. Both kinds of approximate location are illustrated in the chart entitled Scanning the Pattern Index in § 3,2.2 below. In both cases, use the subsection guides (hyphenated numerals indicating the subsection num- ber) to quickly find your subsection. Fourteen serves as the standard stroke-count for the approximate location. If your stroke-count seems higher than 14, you may save time by begin- 135a ning the search a little further ahead, such as at 16 or higher; if it seems lower than 14, by going back a little to the vicinity of 13 or 12. With a little practice, you should soon be able to find the approximate location in a few seconds. 3. Scanning After establishing the approximate location, you can quickly locate your character by scanning. This can be broken down into the following steps: J. Scan the subgroup guides until you locate the one corresponding to the shaded part of your character. 2. Scan the entry characters within thai subgroup until you locate your character. 3. If your character is not in that subgroup, repeat the first two steps until you find it. Scanning may sound complicated on paper, but is actually very simple to do. There is no need to think of it as consisting of distinct steps. Essentially, all you do is swiftly move from one subgroup to another using the subgroup guides as visual signposts. If you wish, you may scan the entry characters directly without using the subgroup guides. This could work well for high stroke-counts, since the "scanning distance" is short. Scanning can also be used to find a character for which you have miscounted the number of strokes when determining the SKIP number (see § 3.3 Hints tor Speed). 3.2.2 Instruction Charts The charts below present precise instructions for locating a divisible character by scanning. Essentially, you just turn to the approximate location (subsection number begin ning with or ending in 14) and scan until you locate your character. For example, to find U$ you turn to the subsection numbers beginning with 14 and scan until you find it in subsection 19-3, The instructions for locating an entry by the SCAN Method can be carried out in two ways: 1. Determine the entry number of your character in the Pattern Index and then find your character entry. This is similar to the Index Method (see §3.1.2) used for finding entries by the SKIP Method, but when using the SCAN Method there is no need to determine the subsection number since you locate your subsection by finding the approximate location and then scanning. 2. Locate your entry directly in the main part of the dictionary without using the Pattern Index. This is similar to the Direct Method (see §3.1.3) used for finding entries by the SKIP Method, but when using the SCAN Method there is no need to determine the subsection number since you locate your subsection by finding the approximate location and then scanning. Whether to use the Pattern Index or not is largely a matter of personal taste. See § 3.3 Hints for Speed for details. 136a SKIP Selecting the SCAN Method INSTRUCTIONS EXAMPLE: Find & and {& O IDENTIFY PATTERN See §4. How to Identify the Pattern for details. Sir Since $ can be divided into up-down parts, we identify it as belonging to pattern H 2. Since fj£ can be divided into left -right parts, we identify it as belonging to pattern E U 0 DIVIDE CHARACTER If your character belongs to pattern El, H2, or Q3, divide the character into two parts. See §5. How to Divide the Character for de tails. 3£: Dividing ^ into up-down parts yields the shaded part, and the blank part. {&: Dividing fj| into left-right parts yields i, the shaded part, and g), the blank part. © SELECT SCAN METHOD If the stroke-count of the shaded part seems high, use SCAN Method A. If the stroke-count of the blank part seems high, use SCAN Method B. JBJ: Since the stroke-count of the shaded part fj[j seems high (in this case 16), select SCAN Method A. $: Since the stroke-count of the blank part seems high (in this case 12). select SCAN Method B. SCAN Method A: High Shaded Count INSTRUCTIONS EXAMPLE: Find % O FIND APPROXIMATE LOCATION Using the pattern and subsection guides, turn to your pattern section and go to the vicinity where the subsection numbers begin with 14; i.e., 14-1, 14-2. 14-3. etc. Turn to the subsection numbers beginning with 14 under pattern 5J 2. This can be done quickly by finding the beginning of the pattern Q 3 section and working your way backwards. @ LOCATE CHARACTER BY SCANNING Using the subgroup guides, scan until you locate your character. Scanning the subgroup guides quickly leads you to híí, the shaded part of "||. You then easily locate your character in subsection 16-6, 137a SKIP Scanning the Pattern Index Scan Method A - Q3 - ENCLOSURE n 7] 2925 2926 Subsection numbers beginning with 14 Subsection guide Subgroup guide Desired character Subsection numbers ending in 14 Scan Method B a-n ]2-12 n m w i I i i I i ft a j if I i ft 2-13 * Ü1 * mm 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 etcMj3-11" 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 751" 169 170 171 172 173 •tCr+113-13' Beginning of W4 i m 174 pattern Q3 section ■ m 175 799" 2-15W ft 176 ft 177 SKIP 138a SCAN Method B: High Blank Count INSTRUCTIONS EXAMPLE: Kind J3> o DETERMINE STROKE-COINT Count the exact number of strokes of the shaded part of your character. Counting the strokes of the shaded part \ yields a stroke-count of 2. e FIND APPROXIMATE LOCATION Using the pattern and subsection guides, turn to your pattern section and go to the subsection number that begins with the stroke-count of the shaded part and ends in 14; i.e., 1-14, 2-14, 3-14, etc. Using the subsection guides, turn to the subsection number beginning with 2, the stroke-count of the shaded part -f, and ending in 14, i.e., subsection 2-14 under pattern H2. © LOCATE CHARACTER BY SCANNING Using the subgroup guides, scan un til you locate your character. Scanning the subgroup guides quickly leads you to \, the shaded part of fjfc. You then easily locate your character in subsection 2-12, The above charts apply only to the divisible characters. A similar technique can be used for locating an indivisible character. If your character has a high stroke-count, say 10 or more, simply turn to the very end of the Pattern Index or of the main part of the dictionary, and search the vicinity until you find it. As there are very few characters of this kind, you should find your entry almost immediately. 3.3 Hints for Speed Every effort has been made to eliminate guesswork and make SKIP an efficient and reliable lookup system. Below are various time-saving hints and shortcuts that will help you locate entries with maximum speed and minimum effort. To use these hints effectively, refer also to the chart in §2.5.2 Classification Keys. L Pattern Identification Since SKIP rules are based on intuition, you can often identify the correct pattern at once by merely looking at the character. When in doubt, your best guide will be the SKIP patterns chart appearing inside the back covers. This chart has been designed to help you quickly identify the pattern without thinking about the rules. 2. Counting Strokes The ability to count strokes quickly and accurately will help you determine the SKIP number faster. Although many cross-references appear at locations where you might mistakenly look for your character, it will be worth your while to learn the stroke counting techniques explained in Appendix 2. How to Count Strokes. Particularly effective is memorizing the stroke-counts of high-frequency radicals and difficult-to-count elements. 3. SKIP vs. SCAN The SKIP Method ( § 3.1), in which you must first determine the SKIP number, is a safe method that works reliably all the time. It is the method that you should nor- 139a SKIP mally use In most of your dictionary work. The SCAN Method (§3.2). on the other hand, is much more limited in scope. Its main advantage is that it dispenses with the need for counting the strokes of complex elements. For characters containing parts of 12 or more strokes (e.g. §&), it could be considerably faster than the SKIP Method, but for characters containing parts of medium stroke-count (say 12 or 13) it is inefficient or totally useless. In conclusion: if you want a reliable, safe method free of guesswork, use the SKIP Method. If you prefer a rough, speedy shortcut, use the SCAN Method when appropriate. 4. Scanning If you cannot find your character from its SKIP number, there is a good chance that you have mis counted the number of strokes by one stroke. Rather than count again, you might save time by looking for your character in the next or in the previous subsection. For example, if you look for B§ under [] 1-4-10 and cannot find it, try at the previous subsection [J 1-4-9 or at the next suh-section f] 1^1-11 (see §3.2 SCAN Method). Su Index vs. Direct The main advantage of the Direct Method (§3.1.3) is that it dispenses with the need for searching through the Pattern Index. When using the SKIP Method, the Direct Method is usually faster, sometimes considerably faster, than the Index Method (§3.1.2), but for some characters the reverse may be true. A distinct advantage of the Index Method is its high reliability; once you locate the entry number of your character in the index, you can find your entry with great speed and no hesitation. When using the SCAN Method, the difference in speed between the two methods is not very great. Try both and use the one that best suits your personal taste. 6. SKIP Guides Be sure to make full use of the various SKIP guides (§2.8), which are designed to facilitate speedy lookup. Particularly useful are the subsection guides (printed in red in the Pattern Index) and the subgroup guides, which help you swiftly move from one subsection or subgroup to another. 7. Enclosure Subpatterns Although the enclosure characters are grouped by enclosure subpattern (§ 4.2), you may totally disregard this when looking for your entry. The enclosure pattern constitutes a single category, just like the left-right or up-down pattern. 8. Subgroup Elements The divisible characters in a given subsection are grouped by subgroup element (§2.5.1). If you are using the Index Method, you can quickly locate your subgroup element without worrying about their order. Since the number of subgroup elements in a given subsection is small, you can quickly locate your element by skimming through the subgroup guides of the Pattern Index. If, on the other hand, you are using the Direct Method, you may speed up the search by keeping in mind that the subgroup elements that are radicals appear in order of their radical numbers. Ignore this feature if you do not know the radical system really-well. 9. Entry Types The divisible characters in a given subgroup and the indivisible characters in a given subsection are further classified by entry type (see guide § 1.6 Types of Entries). The entries that you are most likely to look for—the standard entries—appear first, and the nonstandard and cross-reference entries, which are the least needed, fol- SKIP 140a low. This is not something that you need to be consciously aware of (except possibly when deliberately searching for a nonstandard form)— it is merely an auxiliary device that automatically speeds up the lookup process. 10. Principal Reading Characters of the same entry type are ordered al phabetically by their principal readings, which is usually the most common on reading (see guide §4.2 Principal Reading). If you know the reading of your character, this may help you find it more quickly, especially when using the Direct Method. 11. Frequency Characters sharing the same principal reading are ordered by their frequency of occurrence (see guide §7.5), so that the more frequent characters appear first. This may slightly contribute to lookup speed if you are looking for a high-frequency character. 4. HOW TO IDENTIFY THE PATTERN iil Pattern Identification 4.2 Enclosure Sub pat terns 4.3 Pattern Identification Rules 4.1 Pattern Identification To locale a character according to SKIP rules, the first task you face is to determine to which of the four patterns your character belongs. The pattern number will constitute the first part of the three-part SKIP number of your charac ter. For example, jjjj is classified under the up-down pattern H 2, so the first part of its SKIP number is 2. See §2.1 SKIP Number for details. To identify the pattern, just look at the character (or imagine it in your mind's eye) and decide to which pattern it belongs. Most of the time, your intuition will lead you to the correct classification at once. For example, and ffi look like they belong to patterns 0 2, and □ 3 respectively, while ~F and ill look like they are indivisible and therefore belong to pattern fl4. If you have trouble classifying your character, a glance at the pattern chart inside the back covers should usually enable you to easily identify the pattern without referring to the rules given below. In actual practice, you normally identify the pattern of a character and divide it or subclassify it more or less simultaneously. When you see a character like ^H, for example, you identify it as a left-right pattern, and, at the same time, decide that it can be divided into % and @. Nevertheless, for the sake of clarity and convenience of presentation, pattern identification and character division are treated here as separate topics ( § 4.3 and § 5.3 respectively). A formal statement of the rules for identifying the pattern is given in §4.3 below. Each rule is explained in greater detail in Appendix 1. § 2. How to Identify the Pattern. 4.2 Enclosure Subpatterns To make it easier to identify the enclosure pattern, it is desirable to understand the concepts enclosure element and enclosure subpattern. uia SKIP Enclosure element A completely exterior clement enclosing the rest of a char-aclcr on two ur more sides. The enclosure pattern is subdivided inlo enclosure subpatterns. Enclosure subpat-tern One of the eleven croups into which the enclosure pallern is subdivided according to the nutnlter of sides of ihc criclo sure clement and its position along the cxierior of I he char acter. Enclosure subp.it-tern symbol A symbol ll'.al idenlifies one of ihc eleven enclosure subpal lerns. II is important to keep in mind that the enclosure pattern constitutes a single category, just like the left-right or up-down pattern. Any enclosure character, regardless of its sub pattern, is classified under the enclosure pattern, and il is not necessary to be par titular!) aware of ihc subpattern. The subpattern symbols are merely visual aids that help describe the structure of enclosure elements. Some enclosure elements may be diffi cull to identify. If you have trouble, re fer to Appendix I. § 1.7 Enclosure Element fur a more detailed description, and lo the charts inside the from and back covers. O DETERMINE TO WHICH OF THE FOUR PATTERNS YOUR CHARACTER BELONGS Right Wrong (j | characters that can be divided into left and right parts (a) The resulting parts must be separated by a space. tti 4 5 A 1 1-1 i ii IV ft] tt 13 14 2 6 (Jb) The resulting division must be more or less vertical 2 5 & m 3-4 3 3 *r tf > 3 2 3 5 3 3 The enclosure subpatterns are illustrated in the chart below: Enclosure Subpatterns Sides Subpattern Symbol Examples 9 c & □ hi r m □ 3 n u til c 8 □ A □ 1*1 □ It □ eg 4.3 Pattern Identification Rules SKIP 142a P 2 CHARACTERS TIhAT CAN BE LWIDEO INTO TOP AND BOTTOM PARTS (a) The resulting pans must be sepa rated by a space, horizontal line, or frame element. {b) The resulting division need not be horizontal. ft * 11 3 3 2 3 Y (, ■2 4 3 3 b A n \ 1-2 4-J nil * w 8 4 4-3 2-2 □ J! CHARACTERS THAT CAN BE UIVlOtD HY AN EN CLOSURE ELEMENT (it) The resulting parts may be sepa rated by a space or be in full physical contact (b) The resulting division must be more or less rectangular. ft M Bj .18 8 3 3 5 nf £ W 2 3 3 2 2 2 a n * t-1 3-4 A 3 m w i 4 3 3 3 5 4 ■ .] CHARACTERS THAT CANNOT BE CLASSIFIED UNDER PATTERNS [1, B 2, OR Q [\ m it »1« % 8 1 5 2 4 3 3 4 7J B * 1*1 4 1 4-3 © IF A CHARACTER CAN BE CLASSIFIED UNDER MORE THAN ONE PATTERN, SELECT THE ONE THAT FOL LOWS THE NATURAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE CHAR AC TER 1 H 2-5-2 +1! B?- 6-9 K I]1-2-5 ,0|]l-7-8 © DO NOT VIOLATE THE PRINCIPLE OF ELEMENT INTEGRI TV 1. NEVER BREAK THROUGH STROKES 2. NEVER BREAK THROUGH INDIVISIBLE UNITS 3. NEVER MAKE UNNATURAL DIVISIONS P |4-3 1 W E1-3-8 HI B 2-6-9 1 1 B2-1-3 I.VIJ i-i-io ■•RB1-7 8 5. HOW TO DIVIDE THE CHARACTER a. 1 Character Division 5.2 Division Points 5.3 Character Division Rules 5.1 Character Division Once you have determined to which of the four patterns your character belongs, you must divide it or subclassify it in order to determine the second and third parts of the SKIP number. Characters thai can be divided into two or mure parts are classified under ihe first three patterns, i.e., f] 1, B 2, and □ 3. This section explains how to divide these divisible characters. Characters that cannot be classified under the above patterns are subclassificd according to a different principle described in §6.1 Subclassification of Solid Pattern. The imaginary line that divides the character splits it into a pattern whose shape | roughly resembles the pattern symbol. 143a SKIP The divisible characters are divided into two parts: the shaded part and the blank part. The second part of the SKIP number indicates the stroke-count of the former, whereas the third part indicates that of the latter. For example, ;fg is divided into 4 (4 strokes) and @ (5 strokes), giving a SKIP number of B1-4-5. See §2.4 SKIP Number for details. In the great majority of cases, you should have no problem in identifying the pattern and, at the same time, deciding at which point to divide the character. Sometimes, however, you may identify a character as belonging to a particular pattern but not be sure at which point the division should be made. That is, some characters, like Jl|. H, and (g, may contain several points at which a division could conceivably be made. To divide such characters correctly and without hesitation, it is important that you get a clear understanding of the con cept of division points. A brief description of these is given in § 5.2 below, while a more thorough treatment can be found in Appendix 1. § 1. Definitions of Pattern Terminology. The most im- Division point A division point is not necessarily the point at which a character is actually divided according to SKIP rules. Whether a character can or cannot be divided at a given point depends on its structure portant thing to remember is: if there is more than one way to divide a character, divide at the first division point. When dividing a character, be sure not to violate the principle of element integrity. This rule prohibits breaking through strokes or indivisible units. For example, you must not divide characters like P into | and 1], or characters like htf into • and . It also prohibits making unnatural divisions. For example, [S| should he classified under □ 3, and not be divided into left and right parts, i.e., I and See Appendix 1. § 3.8 Element Integrity for details. A formal statement of the rules for dividing the divisible characters is given in § 5.3 below. Each rule is explained in greater detail in Appendix 1. §3. How to Divide the Character. 5.2 Division Points The first rule for dividing the pattern is: DIVIDE THE CHARACTER INTO TWO PARTS AT THE FIRST DIVISION POINT. That is, if there arc several ways in which a character can be divided, always divide at the first place possible. and the particular SKIP rule applying to it. Each division point is defined below, followed by a reference to the section where it is described in detail. A space, horizontal line, frame element, or enclosure element at which it may be possible to divide a character. SKIP 144a 1. Space : Apprrtdin 1, § 1,1 Spat* A gap or breaking point between elements. l)i visiiiu by space applies tn patterns | 1, and pa Examples III W HI ,,, i. 12 2 4 2 11 12 16 2 2 i tt p & & * 3 9 5-2 12 6 2 8 1-6 4-7 2. Horizontal Line Appendix 1. $ 1.3 Horizontal lane A horizontal, or almost horizontal, stroke not intersected by any other strokes, llivision hy hofi/onial line applies imly to pattern ^2. .1 J't\ A. {■ tk 33 3 5 22 2 7 53 3 10 3. Frame Element Appendix 1. 41.6 Krame Klemtnt A combination of strokes or stroke segments! forming a figure enclosed on two, three, or four sides. Division by frame element applies only 1o pattern H 2 lV 4-3-i C1-3-9 ["j C|3-8-0 r i na-3-o ilH Ei 10-2 llfi El-3-9 SKIP 1463 6. HOW TO SUBCLASSIFY a different principle is required for sub THE SOLID PATTERN classifying them. (i.l Subclassification (if Solid Paiterr. fi.2 Solid Subpattcrns 6,3 Pallcrn Subclassificalion Rules 6.1 Subclassification of Solid Pattern Characters that cannot be divided accord ing Ki SKIf* rules arc referred to as indivisible (ir solid characters and arc classified under pallcrn ■>'! The second and lliird pans of the SKIP number of the divisible characters, i.e., the charac tcrs classified under paiicrns 1.1, * 2. or Q 3, arc determined by dividing the characier into iwo parts and counting the strokes of each part. Since the solid characters are, by definition, indivisible. The indivisible characters are arranged in ascending order of their total strnke-counts ami arc subclassificd into four solid subpatterns (see §6.2 below). The second pari of the SKIP number indicates the total stroke-count of the characier. whereas iht* third part indicates one of the four solid subpatterns. |>, fur example, is a three-stroke characier contain ing a top line (subpallcrn fl 0, giving a SKIP number of 04-3-1. See §2.1 SKIP Number for details. 6.2 Solid Subpatterns The solid pattern is classified inlo four solid subpatterns on the basis of easy lo identify lines located on the top, al the bottom, or in (he middle of a character. Solid subpaltern One of (he four groups into which ihe solid characters are subdivided according lo the presence or absence of promi nent lines; i.e., Q I top line. [^,2 bottom line. jjj 3 through line, and -1 others. Solid subpaltern number A number that identifies one of the four solid subpatterns; i-c, 1 -Q 2 Q 3 rjj, and 4 Q Solid subpaltern symbol A symbol that identifies one of the four solid subpattcrns; »,e.,n 2, [JJ-3, and □-een select ed to render their meanings as self-evident as possible. The glossary below conveniently brings all SKIP terms together for quick reference. The brief definitions given here should be sufficient for most purposes. Detailed explanations of important terms can be found in Appendix 1. § 1. Definitions of Pattern Terminology. The headwords, which are followed by their Japanese equivalents in parentheses, are arranged in alphabetical order and followed by a definition and examples in square brackets. At the end of each entry is an arrow =: followed by a reference to a more detailed explanation of that term. The technical terms used within the definitions are printed in boldface, which indicates iliat these terms can be found at their own alphabetical locations in the glossary. SKIP U8a attachment one or more usually short strokes, stroke segments, or elements in physical contact, or almost in physical con tact, with the main body of an cle mcnt YY % "iKI : Appendix I. ^ Attachment blank port (^gG-itfSE) the part nf a divisible rharacler cor responding In the blank segment of the pattern symbol; i.e.. the part re maining after the shaded pari is re moved | '[$_ ijl < ;> §2.3 Divisible and Indivisible Characters bottom line ( FtfD a hori/nnlal. or almost horizontal. Stroke or stroke segment extending across the very bottom of a solid char nctcrilll. ltl if] Appendix 1. § l.h.l Top l.inr and liotlom Line branch (fi) a stroke or stroke segment thai abuts with other strokes or stroke segments at a point of tangential contact | rV V.- It! ! Appendix 1. f 1.2 Tangential Contact clear space i'/C^l'^U'i) a clearly visihlc gap. especially one formed bv parallel strokes or elements [ HI ii] ! Appendix 1. § l.l.l Clear Space conceptual space (kctU'^f-i) a natural breaking point where one would expect a gap: i.e., a gap that may not be visible because the ele menls are crowded closely together O Appendix 1. § 1.1.2 Conceptual Space cross-reference entry' (ftlTUS.^&Ll) a character enlry or an entry in the Pattern Index appearing al an incorrect SKIP location with a cross-reference to the corresponding correct location : 52.6 Cross-References divisible characters {v\'iYiW^£) characters that can be divided according to SKIP rules; i.e., characters clas sified under patterns f] 1, ■ 2, or □ 3Lfl'* J£l §2.3 Divisible and Indivisible Characters division point ("Jif A,) a space | l| 1, ], horizontal line ' :> frame element [fr ''(J, or enclosure element | X. | at which it may be possible to divide 11 character I Appendix 1. §3.2 Division Points element integrity VY-BiVATAtfA].) a principle I hat consists nf three parts: (1) Never break through strokes. (2) Never break through indivisible units, and (3) Never make unnatural divisions Appendix I. § 3.N Element Integrity enclosure (I'll^D enclosure pattern enclosure element ([l'],Vit'fc) a completely exterior elemenl cnclns ing the rest of a ellaraclcr on two or more sides [r2, |u] |>f]| - J Appendix t. §1,7 Enclosure Element enclosure pattern (il-l^'V) a configuration of character elements in which an exterior element encloses [he rest of a character on two or more sides (pattern 03)[;ft "\ |'/; l)l| §2.2 SKIP Patterns enclosure subpattern ([H^-WI'vV y) one of the eleven groups into which the enclosure pattern is subdivided according 10 the number of sides of the enclosure element and its posi lion along ihc exterior of the character : §1.2 Enclosure Subpatterns enclosure subpallern symbol (Dfj }<- ?t'l Bll^-VM^) a symbol that identifies one of the clev en enclosure subpatterns; i.e.. Q [J ' §1.2 Enclosure Subpatterns end attachment (iSgJif-rKift) one or more relatively short strokes or stroke segments in physical contact, or almost in physical contact, with the end of the main body of an element \% % ¥1 -* Appendix 1. § 1.5,2 Side and End Attachments entry number (W%%) a serial number [hat uniquely identifies the numbered character entries of SKIP ihc dictionary < 52.« SKIPC.sidw entry number guide (W'f-tfrifcf*}) boldface numerals in the lower, outer corner ol a page I hat indicate the entry number or range of entry num hers for that page -4$2.8 SKIP Guides frame element (tT-£;,f;) a combination of strokes or stroke seg menls forming 3 figure enclosed on two, ihree. or four sides | L+, V f: I Appendi* I. § 1.6 Kramr- Element horizontal line f*StSJ a horizonial. or almost horizontal, stroke nol intersected by any other strokes [ft §2.3 Divisible 2nd lndivisiblr ( haraders indivisible unit (^~,'l'jt"f'j{?:£i) a combination of strokes regarded as an indivisible whole |R P fn) ^ Appendi* 1, 53.R Element Inlefrilj left-right left-right pattern left-right pattern (Jtfi?!) a configuration of character elements placed side by side (pallern I) fill r m =l> §2.2 SKIP Patterns, margin guide (fflg^rt) a guide in the ouier margin of a page that consists of a frame enclosing ihe subsection number for each entry character §2.S SKIP Guides natural construction (QP*-,ti%l$C) an arrangement of character elements thai is in harmony with ihe way a character is intuitively perceived as a combination of certain constituent parts : Appendix!. §2.7 Pattern Priority others (-^yjfrA) solid characters dial cannot be classi fied under subpatterns | j I, U 2. or LT J [A A M ■ : Appendix I. § l.tt.3 Others pattern (A9 — y'^'M'O a configuration of character elements that characterizes the four major char acler groups in the SKIP classification scheme; i.e., (J I left-right, ^,2 up-down, □ M enclosure, and O ■'■ solid 2.2 SKIP Patterns pallern gnide (jrfy — y%\ty a guide in the upper, outer comer of a page thai indicaies the pattern and pattern number for that page ■ ^.SSKIPGiiidcs pattern number (i\y — yffr'y) a number that identifies one of the four patterns in the SKIP classification scheme; i.e., 1 %~], 2-^, 3 o and 4 ■ : 52.2 SKIP Patterns pattern symbol (/\ 9— y„t!sj') a symbol that identifies one of the four patterns in the SKIP classifica tion scheme; i.e., I]-I, H 2, □ 3. and B -; 52.2 SKIP Patterns shaded part (M!,Si!-i^) the pari of a divisible character cor responding to the shaded segment of the pattern symbol; i.e., ihe part removed at the first division point [ j; "i: M] ■;■ 52-3 Divisible and Indivisible Characters side attachment (ftllSW-tFifjfe) one or more relatively short strokes or stroke segments in physical contact, or almost in physical contact, with the side nf the main body of an element Appendix 1. 51.5.2 Side and End Attachments acronym of "System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns" SKIP 150a §2.1 Owniew of SKIP SKIP number (SKIPS*?) .1 pat tem sym bol followed by hyphenated numerals consisting of llirce parts, fur the divisible characters, (] i the pattern number, (2) the Ntrol,c-count of the Riutded pari, anil (3) the stroke-count of the blank part; fur ihc indivisible characters, (1) the pattern number, (2) the lotal stroke-count, and (3) the solid sub-pattern number []l-4-S| §2.4 SKIP Number solid (tkfW < J solid pattern solid pallem f^{M?l) a character element or combination of elements that dins not constitute a left-right, up-down, or enclosure pattern {pattern ■ 4) [ f |}| 4: )]■ : §2.2 SKIP Patterns solid subpattem (^WY!SbI|a 9~>) one of the four groups into which the solid characters are subdU ided accord itlK to the presence or absence of prom inenl lines: i.e., □ I top line, r^2 bottom line, [J.]3 through line, and [~] 4 others : $6.2 Solid Subpallerns solid subpattern number (JJ> fj; !>''Ht| >\ a number that identifies one of the four solid subpatterns; i.e.. 1 2 Q 3-rjj, : §6.2 Solid Subpallerns solid subpattem symbol i/i'Hl II &!| t\ ?-^) a symbol that identifies one of the four solid subpatterns; i.e., □ - 1, Q-2. CTJ 3, and [j-4 ---I §6.2 Solid Subpalterns space(^L43-7.^-7.) a gap I . J*] or breaking point Sfc! between elements ; Appendix 1. § 1.1 Space stroke (Aij*^5 a character element such as a dot or line segment traditionally written with one sweep of the brush or pen U <3 £] : Appendix 1. 13.S Element Integrity Ap- pendix 2. How la Count Strokes subgroup ("F(i!7 i\r —"?} a subdivision of a subsection in which a group of divisible characters share a common subgroup element § 2-5 Classification Scheme subgroup element ( .L'J- the shared element of a .subgroup, which corresponds to the shaded part nf a divisible character [ H i\\ &] : §2.5 Classification Scheme subgroup guide ( \_'Y 1. I ^uide in the outer margin of a page that indicates the subgroup element for carh entry character §2.»SKIPC.uidts 2. :i guide to the left of the character column in the Patient Index that indicates the subgroup element for that subgroup ; §2.7 Pattern hide* subpattern y — y) 1. : enclosure subpattem 2. : solid subpattern subpattern number 9 — y jfr ■ ; solid subpattern number subpattem symbol y — yuli^j) 1. ■ : enclosure subpattem symbol 2. : solid subpattern symbol subsection ( KhiSli) a subdivision of the main part of the dictionary or of the Pattern Index in which the divisible characters are classified by subgroup element and the indivisible characters are classified by entry type ! §2.5 Classification Scheme subsection guide (VivM&jH) 1, boldface numerals in the upper corner of a page that indicate I he subsection number for ijial page 2. red hyphenated numerals in the left part of the Pattern Index column that indicate the subsection number for each subsection =1 §2.8 SKIP Guides, =: §2.7 Pallem Index subsection number (ThArMr^) hyphenated numerals used to identify a subsection and corresponding to the second and third parts of the SKIP 1bla SKIP number ^\2.i SKlPNumbfT System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns (-?-!¥! j£f£'7"?i:) a system of classifying characters by geometrical patterns used for the rapid location of enlrics in this dictionary O 52.1 DVnirw of SKIP tangential contact (ji.'.'j.fgfg) full physical contact between strokes or stroke segments thai join at one poinl without intersecting 1 n 3£] : Append!* I. 51.2 Tangential Contact three-branch tangential contact ( - tangential contact in which three branches (strokes or stroke segments) join at one poinl [j£ 'If'"] Appendix I. § 1.2 Tangents! Conlacl through line (;«j^) a perfectly vertical stroke or stroke segment intersecting another stroke of a solid character and extending over its entire, or almosi its entire, length l>t> k ft) <=^ Appendix I, § Throti([h Line top attachment (liftft/PSft) one or more usually short sirokes. stroke segments, or elements in physi cal contact, or almost in physical con tact, with ihe top of the mnin body of an element j'f- it Appendix 1. § I.S.I Top Attachment top line(Ji^) a horizontal, or almost horizontal, stroke or siroke segment exlending across ihe very top of a solid charac- tertffi JC f] Appendix 1. jl.H.I Top Line and Bollom Line two-branch tangential contact ( |.£ tangentcontact in which two branches (strokes or stroke segments) join at one point III ' j ' • \ • ; Appendix 1. § 1.2 Tangential Contact unnatural division (^I'lf*^^!) division of a character in a manner that is in conflict wilh the way il is in tuiiivcly perceived as a combination of certain constituent parts [;'/) [fi ■ : Appendix 1. § IS Element Integrity up-down (iii'W ; up-down pattern up-down pattern ( l k'W) a confifjuraiion of choraclcr elements slacked more or less one on top of the olher (pattern f**2) hj; juf -'f'-] 52.2 SKIP Patterns SKIP 152a EXPLANATORY CHART The Explanatory Chart shows the various parts of the character entry. The boldface numerals refer to the section numbers of the guide to the dictionary on p. 159a. where the format of each section is explained in detail. Since the various conventions are mostly self-explanatory, a quick glance at this chart should normally be sufficient without further reference to the guide. MAIN ENTRIES 5-2 1. CHARACTER ENTRIES —SKIP number guide 1.1.2 margin guide 1.1.2 entry character 1.3 entry number 1.4_ 3. CHARACTER FORMS AND STYLES —standard form 3.1.1 nonstandard forms 3.1.2 square style 3.2.1- —semicursive style 3.2.2 |-|—cursive style 3.2.3 Ming typeface 3.3.1 Gothic typeface 3.3.2 S. CHINESE Chinese form 5.2 Chinese reading 5.3 koktiji 5.4 @ £|: shing itkiru) I k,i:.i, i(karu) iKmararu) 6. stroke order diagram 1U£t: is used in the mote abstract sense of havmg children. The principal use of *fecr i& in (he sense of producing or giving rise to. 17. HOMOPHONES SECTION section label 17.1 homophones headword 17.2 homophone group member 17.2 \tSkj$<, m 1517 m 664 |S 1547 lok'asu ."■[;»;' 1517] m 1831 jg 664 if? I05B m 1762 18. COMPOUND FORMATION SECTION section label 18.1 compound formation headword 18.2.1 compound formation article 18.2.2 5ti 'teacher; doctor* is a scholar (£© who studied ahead (ft) of others._ 19. NOTE SECTION section label 19.1 cross reference note 19.2.1 supplementary note 19.2.2 see also ishee notes at j% 3298 and ííj 3537 see cgmpolnu formation for ^iEf! shogai m 512 _ is said to have a total of more than 200 readings, which is ntore lhan any other char acter. 157a EXPLANATORY CHART REFERENCE ENTRIES phonetically replaced character 26.1.1 m phonetic replacement character 26.1.1 996 □ 6 iotr* replaced by|7|»m 242U1 Tcriginil - «■ -jI , Rail ■ 1 0 ! now MM. jfc *m 2420 or \k ha**&. 'hgura nvdy) fUrnn fas of pawon i •l.ff-. *m/i iij I . bate tWtS /o*"n flaming d<-*im, burning passion* AtQ**t< **/> o ulk biß. ulk ■ fart 0 ■ i ! ' ■ k -12-4-8 Gride Fm B 1 - 4 - b of hoi air ftt£t7J*fl ncr /wjtJ The Jlfirnre r,f Jen! ouary (movie tili«) ho*6 # 2420 «ön» u'-am noic ar > 2420 NONSTANDARD ENTRIES n^n country} 3132 for |g 3087^- core meaning 27.2 -jdeseri pi ion 27.2 CROSS-REFERENCE ENTRIES incorrect classification -=5 9« 2203 TL single character cross-reference 28.2 i ^2 1 multiple character cross-reference 28.2 incorrect classification °-t sec d^-Ö EXPLANATORY CHART 158a GUIDE TO THE DICTIONARY 1. CHARACTER ENTRIES P- 160a 1- USAGE SECTION P- 183a 2. MAIN ENTRIES P- 162a 17 HOMOPHONES SECT ION P- 185a 3. CHARACTER FORMS AND STYLES P- 164a IS COMPOUND FORMATION SECTION P. 187a 4. CHARACTER READINGS P- 166a l: NOTE SECTION P- 188a 5. CHINESE P- 168a 2C CHARACTER MEANINGS P- 189a 6. STROKE ORDER DIAGRAM P 169a :I COMPOUNDS AND EXAMPLES P- 202a i. REFERENCE DATA BOX P 169a a ORTHOGRAPHIC LAKES p. 205a 8. RADICAL SECTION P- 171a 23 FUNCTIONAL LABELS p. 207a 9, CORE SECTION P- 172a 24 STATUS LABELS P- 2L0a 10. COMPOUNDS SECTION P- 173a 25 SUBJECT LABELS P- 2L4a 11, INDEPENDENT SECTION P- 174a 2f REFERENCE ENTRIES P- 214a 12. KTNSECTION p. 176a r, NONSTANDARD ENTRIES P- 217a 13. SPECIAL READINGS SECTION P- 1 , Ka 26. CROSS-REFERENCE ENTR1P.S P- 219a 14. NAMES SECTION P- 178a 2! ROMANIZATION P- 219a 15. SYNONYMS SECTION P- 179a X OTHER CONVENTIONS P- 220a The aim of this guide to the dictionary is lo present a detailed description of the main body of the dictionary. This consists of explanations of ihe format, order, and manner of presentation of ihe various parts of the character entry, descriptions of the various labels, glosses, and abbreviations, definitions of technical terms, and other conventions. The guide deals mostly with the technical de tails of the presentation, with primary emphasis on format. How and why this information is useful is treated in features of this dictionary on p. 61a. Since the various conventions of this dictionary have been designed to be mostly self-explanatory, it is not necessary for the general user to acquire a thorough understanding of all the details presented here. Normally, a glance at the Explanatory Chart on p. 153a should be sufficient. Much of the information here is of value to the scholar interested in theoreti- cal details, although the general user could greatly benefit from it as well. The most important sections are § 1. Character Entries, § 2. Main Entries, § 10. compounds Section, and § 20. Character Meanings. Unless otherwise indicated, the explanations in the GUIDE apply to main entries. Other types of entries are described in sections §26. through § 28. Each convention is described in detail under its appropriate section. Those conventions that apply throughout the dictionary are described in § 30. Other Conventions. A network of cross-references directs the user to other relevant sections. To understand the explanations properly, a knowledge of the technical terms specific to this dictionary is required. These are set in sanserif boldface at the place where they are formally introduced, and occasionally at other places as necessary. 159a GUIDE 1, CHARACTER ENTRIES 1.1 Guides 1.2 Character Entry 1.3 Entry Character 1.4 Entry Number 1.5 Order of Entries 1.6 Types of Entries 1.1 Guides 1.1.1 General Description The various guides printed in the outer corners and margins of the page have been carefully designed and laid out in order to facilitate the speedy location of character entries: 3-111 1 3-11 ■Subsection guide Pattern guide -Margin guide - Subgroup guide Entry number guide Page number 706-711 352 1.1.2 SKIP Guides The following guides are particularly useful for finding a character entry directly from its SKIP number without consulting the Pattern Index: 1. The pattern guide in the upper, outer corner of a page indicates the pattern and pattern number for that page. 2. The subsection guide in the upper corner of a page consists of boldface numerals that indicate the subsection number for that page. 3. The margin guide in the outer margin of a page consists of a frame en closing the subsection number for each entry character. 4. The subgroup guide in the outer margin of a page indicates the subgroup element for each entry charac ter. See SYSTEM OF KANJI INDEXING BY PATTERNS § 2.8 SKIP Guides for details. 1.1.3 Entry Number Guide Theen-try number guide in the lower, outer corner of a page consists of boldface numerals or hyphenated boldface numerals that indicate the entry number or range of entry numbers for that page. This guide helps quickly locate a character whose entry number is known. See also § 1.4 Entry Number. 1.1.4 Page Number The page number in the main body of the dictionary and in the back matter consists of boldface numerals centered at the bottom of each page; in the front matter, the page numbers are followed by the letter a. Entry numbers, not page numbers, are used in cross-references to character entries. 1.2 Character Entry The matter between the heavy black lines across the page is the character entry. This consists of the entry character followed by the entry-head data and other explanatory matter; that is, it is the entire article of explanatory matter for an entry character. The entry-head data is printed across the page in single column format, while the explanatory-matter that follows is set in two columns separated by a dotted line. 1.3 Entry Character The large character heading the character entry is the entry character. It is set in Ming type, the most common kanji typeface in Japan. The entry character is the subject of all explanatory matter that GUIDE 160a follows within that entry. For Joyo Kanji and Jinmei Kanji characters in main entries, it represents the officially approved standard form: Fntry character Other entry characters, excepi for cross-references, are given in the traditional form. See also § 3.1 Character Forms, 1.4 Entry Number The boldface numeral beiow each numbered entry character is the entry number. This is a serial number that uniquely identifies the numbered charac ter entries of the dictionary and is used throughout the main body of the dictionary, the appendixes, and the indexes for reference and cross-reference. The entry number is given for all character entries, except for cross-reference entries, which are unnumbered. See also § 1.6 Types of Entries. 1.5 Order of Entries The order of entries in this dictionary is based on a new method of classifying characters according to geometrical pat terns. This classification scheme, called System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns (SKIP), unequivocally assigns a position to each character. The characters are divided into four major groups: C 1 left-right, up-down, Q3 enclo- sure, and ■ 4 solid. Set system ok kanji indexing uv patterns § 2.5 Classification Scheme for details. 1.6 Types of Entries This dictionary contains a total of 4421 numbered and unnumbered character entries. These are classified according to their function and manner of treatment into the following four types: (1) main entry, (2) reference entry, (3) nonstandard entry, and (4) cross-reference entry. The layout and manner of presen tation of the explanatory matter are different for each entry type. The four types are briefly described below: 1. The 2135 main entry characters in elude the 1945 characters in the official Joyo Kanji list, the 166 in the Jinmei Kanji (name characters) list of 1981, and 24 high-frequency unap proved characters (characters not listed in the Joyo Kanji and Jinmei Kanji lists). Main entry characters get full treatment and include all the features described herein. The main entry is described in detail in sections §2. through §25. For information on the Joyo Kanji and Jinmei Kanji lists, see outline of japanese writing system § 2.5 Language Reforms. 2. The 472 reference entry characters are all unapproved characters. These include the principal phonetically replaced characters in contemporary Japanese; i.e., the 170 characters that are now replaced by the official phonetic replacement characters, and another 157 phonetically replaced characters that are not in the official list. The remaining reference entries consist of 145 characters that are radicals or radical variants but are not included in the main entry or nonstandard entry characters. The treatment of reference entries is more restricted in scope than that of main entry char acters. See §26. Reference Entries for details. 3. The 980 nonstandard entry characters include 873 traditional forms (full unsimplified forms), 82 alternative forms (variant forms other than the traditional form), and 25 handwritten abbreviations (simplified forms used in handwriting). These appear at their own SKIP locations with a cross-reference to their corresponding standard forms. See §27. Nonstandard Entries for details. 1E1a GUIDE 4. The 834 cross-reference entry characters include 746 single-character and 88 multiple-character cross-reference entries at a location where they might be mistakenly looked for under an incorrect pattern classification or incorrect stroke-count. They appear at their own incorrect SKIP locations with a cross-reference to the character entry at the correct location. See § 28. Cross-Reference Entries for details. 2. MAIN ENTRIES 2.1 Entry Description 2.2 Entry Formal 2.1 Entry Description The most frequently used characters in Japanese are treated as main entries. These include all the characters listed in the Joyo Kanji and Jinmei Kanji lists and high-frequency unapproved characters: The sections Entry head data 3-11 706 I : \ rr frr WW im Rsdiral Strokes tit. 14-3-11 Kr«l JÖYO 1753 I'- 3-11 ► GRADUALLY i mI'O MA i i"it \ | 3 4 The square style is given for all main entry characters, and for all reference and nonstandard entry characters that are used as radicals. 3.2.2 Semicursive Style The char acter immediately to ihe right of the nonstandard form(s) or, if no nonstandard form is given, of a main entry character, is a calligraphic variant in the semi-cursive style. The strokes are loosely joined together in a smooth movement of the brush or pen: yf£ 1 it 21 The semicursive style is given for all main entry characters. 3.2.3 Cursive Style The character immediately to the right of the semicur sive style is a calligraphic variant in the cursive style. The character form is greatly simplified and the strokes are joined in a continuous smooth movement of the brush or pen: it it 21 The cursive style is given for ail main entry characters. 3.3 Typeface Styles Typeface style refers to a uniform style or design of the character type. The two principal styles are given: the Ming typeface and the Gothic typeface. 3.3.1 Ming Typeface The large en try character at the head of each character entry is set in Ming type. This typeface is characterised by thick vertical strokes, thin horizontal strokes, and triangular serifs at the ends of horizontal strokes: 19 The Ming typeface is given for all entry characters. 3.3.2 Gothic Typeface Entry characters appearing in the compounds and examples are set in Gothic type. This typeface is characterized by thick smooth strokes and clean edges: (it£ budda Buddha 19 The Gothic typeface appears in all main and reference entries that include com pounds or examples. 165a GUIDE 4. CHARACTER READINGS 4.1 General Description 4.2 Principal Reading 4.3 On Reading 4.4 Kun Reading 4.5 Special Reading 4.6 Unapproved Reading 4.7 Name Reading 4.8 Chinese Reading 4.1 General Description The romanized transcription immediately to the right of the entry number is the reading or readings of the entry character in Japanese; the Chinese reading follows the Chinese form: m, # M ® % *n lJl-^ nen jin mino(ru) I bakes [ toshi liu' naru nan minoru Reading refers to an established sequence of speech sounds, usually of Chinese or native Japanese origin, associated with a characler. Approved readings are those listed in the J6y6 Kanji list; unapproved readings are those that are not. The Japanese readings appear in the following order: the principal reading; approved, special, and unapproved on readings; approved, special, and unapproved kun readings; and name readings. The Chinese readings appear in descending order of frequency or importance. Character readings are given for all main and reference entry characters, except for reference entry characters that are used only as a radical and have no readings. 4.2 Principal Reading The principal reading, the first charac ter reading given, is the most common or representative reading of a character. It is used as a key of classification in ordering the characters in various character lists and indexes. The principal reading is nearly always the on reading, but GUIDE for characters that do not have an on reading, the kun reading is used. For J6y6 Kanji characters, the principal reading is, with a few minor exceptions, identical with the first reading listed in the joyo Kanji list. 4.3 On Reading The on reading, set in sanserif small capitals, is the Sino-Japanese or Chinese-derived reading of a character. Approved on readings are unmarked; unapproved ones are marked by a superscript solid triangle * : kin kon oon» kane kana gane 2057 The on reading is presented in the following format: 1, Approved on readings are listed in the order in which they appear in the Joyo Kanji list; unapproved ones, in descending order of importance. 2. A small number of on readings are preceded by a hyphen, which indicates that the reading is a variant of an approved on reading used only in certain words for euphony; e.g., the reading -no for f£ as a variant of o in the word hannd. The hyphen does not indicate that the character functions only as a suffix. 4.4 Kun Reading The kun reading, set in sanserif lowercase, is the native Japanese reading of a character. Approved kun readings are unmarked; unapproved ones are marked by a small superscript solid triangle 1 : CHÖ raka uchí* ata(ru)* 3«! The kun reading is presented in the following format: 1. Approved kun readings, along with 166a readings derived from them, are listed in the order in which they appear in the J6yd Kanji list; unapproved ones, in descending order of importance. The order of the kun readings corresponds exactly to that of the kun headwords in the kun section. Kun readings that are directly derived from approved kun readings, such as the noun $lf kake from the verb $\if& kekeru "set, put on, etc.', or kun readings that are identical with an approved or a derived kun reading but differ from it only in okurigana, such as the suffix -ff J -yuki 'bound for' written without the ending J, i.e., -^7, are given immediately after the reading from which they are derived: jj. KAi> KEI* ka(keru) kafkeru) JE}1 ka(ke) kaika) ga. ka) 493 katkaru) ka(karu) ga.karu: ka(kari) ga(kan) kakan gakan Although such readings are not listed in the Joyo Kanji list, they are not considered unapproved readings since they are merely variants of approved kun readings, not independent readings in their own right. 1. Okurigana (kana endings) conforming to the official rules published by the Ministry of Education is shown in parentheses. See Appendix 5. Rules for Okurigana for details. 3. If a kun reading is preceded or followed by a hyphen, it functions only as a word element. 4. It two kun readings have exactly the same written form, they are marked by small superscript numerals: Dai Tai ka(waru) ka'wari) ga^wari) kaferu) yo shiro shiro! See also § 12,2,1 kum Headword. 4.5 Special Reading The special reading is a reading of a word consisting of two or more characters assigned to a single word on the basis of its meaning without direct relation to the normal readings of each character. Since the pronunciation of each character cannot be isolated as a distinct reading, these are not given in the entry-head data but are treated in the special neadjncs section. In exceptional cases, a component of what is normally considered a special reading can be isolated as an independent on or kun reading in its own right. For example, the C3 in rliCI] dekoboko 'unevenncss, etc' can be isolated as having the reading boko in the sense of concave. Such a reading is similar to an ordinary kun reading and is so treated in this dictionary. In the list of character readings, it is marked by a small superscript asterisk * : [U| 6 kubo(mu)* boko- See also § 13. special readings Sec-lion. 4.6 Unapproved Reading The unapproved reading, marked by a superscript solid triangle *, is an on or kun reading that is not listed in the Joyo Kanji list but is sufficiently common to merit inclusion in the dictionary: yJQ HV6 kori hi k6(ru)* 33 Unapproved readings are listed in descending order of importance. The distinction between approved and unapproved readings applies only to characters in thejoyo Kanji list. 167a GUIDE 4.7 Name Reading The name reading or readings, which appear immediately to the right of the symbol ["names \ are used only in the writ ing of personal, family, and place names but not in ordinary words: ren kama [ n amis ken kata kane The name reading is presented in the following format: 1. In the list of name readings, on readings, if any, are given first, followed by kun readings. Within each category the readings are, gener ally, listed in descending order of frequency or importance. If a reading can be used in both names and ordinary words, it is listed among the regular readings, not the name readings. For example, the reading tane of JS, is used in both words and names and thus appears to the left of the symbol namfs , but kazu is only used in names and thus appears to the right of the symbol: 2. Jt in tane kazu nami- tsugi tsugu Sometimes, the same reading appears on both sides of the symbol I names L This indicates that the reading on the left, which"is used as a word, differs in okurigana from the reading on the right, which is used only in names: VO haru(ka) | names' haruka Name readings are given for all Jinmei Kanji that have such readings. See also OUTLINE OF JAPANESE WRITING SYSTEM § 2.5 Language Reforms. 4.8 Chinese Reading The romanized transcription following the Chinese form(s) is the Chinese reading. See § 5. Chinese for details. 5. CHINESE 5.1 General Description 5.2 Chinese Form 5.3 Chinese Reading 5.4 Kokuji 5.1 General Description The matter following the symbol @ (for "Chinese") is the Chinese form and Chi nese reading: life* vim ® if hi lln 1630 R,N nozo(mu) An entry character may have more than one Chinese form and/or Chinese reading corresponding to it. If one or more forms have the same reading or readings, those readings follow the form(s) to which they apply: ijfe & >jjj8 'hen shen In the example, the reading chen applies to and the reading shfin applies to f)C- The Chinese form(s) and Chinese reading(s) are given for all main and reference entry characters, except for reference entry characters that are used only as a radical but not as a word or word element. 5.2 Chinese Form The Chinese form is the official form or forms used in the People's Republic of China. This is often a simplified form significantly different from the Japanese form, but sometimes, as in the example below, both forms are the same or the differences are very slight: guide 168a 2172 5.3 Chinese Reading The romanized transcription following the Chinese form(s) is the Chinese reading. This is the reading or readings of the character in Mandarin; that is, the standard pronunciation of the character in the People's Republic of China. The Chinese readings are transcribed in the official Pinyin system of romanization. The tones are indicated by the standard diacritic marks, as illustrated below: first tone 3 second tone a third tone 3 fourth tone a neutral tone a 5.4 Kokuji Characters that were made in Japan on the model of Chinese characters are referred to as kokuji. This is indicated by the characters "[i.|'j-'" in parentheses, as illustrated below: rji=j? @ none 358 If the entry character is a kokuji not used in Chinese, this is indicated by the word "none" and no Chinese form or reading is given. If the entry character is a rare instance of a kokuji that has been borrowed into Chinese, the corresponding Chinese form and reading appear: life m H cb*) 1035 6. STROKE ORDER DIAGRAM The dotted box consisting of sequentially numbered frames and appearing below the entry character is the stroke order diagram. This shows the correct order in which the strokes of the entry character should be written: 87 " i i ; 4 a e 7 i The order of writing is presented stroke by stroke; that is, each frame contains one more stroke than the previous frame, with the tiny numeral under the frame indicating the position of that stroke in the sequence. The last frame contains the Full character in the standard square style. The stroke order dia gram is given for all main entry characters, and for all reference and nonstandard entry characters that are used as radicals. 7. REFERENCE DATA BOX 7.1 General Description 7.2 Radical 7.3 Strokes 7.4 Grade 7.5 Frequency 7.6 SKIP Number 7.1 General Description The framed box in the right part of the entry-head data of a character entry is the reference data box. This gives numerical data for reference and classifica tion purposes: II 1607 Radical $ 159 Sirohes 16-7-9 Gnule JoyO-5 Fr«t 360 E 1 - 7 - 9 The reference data box consists of (1) the radical, (2) the strokes, (3) the grade, (4) the frequency, and (5) the SKIP number. It appears in all main and reference entries, and in all nonstandard entries that are used as a radical. 169a GUIDE 7.2 Radical The frame of the reference data box headed "Radical" gives the radical and radical number for the entry character: ft Rudi rat 7) 18 The radical, set in Ming type, is often the parent radical in its full traditional form. The radical number is a serial number from 1 to 214 traditionally assigned to each radical and widely used in character dictionaries and reference works for identification. The radical is presented in the following format: 1. If the form of the radical as it actually appears within the entry character (the actual form) differs considerably from the parent radical, then a variant form identical with, or closely resembling, the actual form is given: m Itadiral l[ 18 The radical given for "lost-radical" characters is a new radical based on the simplified form of the entry char actcr. To distinguish the new radical, the radical number is followed by a superscript triangle *; 2020 Radical A. 9" The traditional radical of lost-radical characters (in this case B based on the old form ^) is not shown in the reference data box, but can be determined by looking the character up in the Radical Index. See also Appendix 6. The Radicals. 7.3 Strokes The frame of the reference data box headed "Strokes" gives the stroke structure for the entry character: it Strokes 10-8-2 The hyphenated numeral consists of (1) the total stroke-count, (2) the stroke-count of the radical portion, and (3) the stroke-count of the nonradical portion. The total of the second and third parts equals the first part. The total stroke-count of nonstandard entries that do not have reference data boxes can be determined by adding the two numerals of the margin guide for patterns (]1, H2, and fJ3. For pattern |4, it is indicated by the first numeral of the margin guide. ► QUIET nonstandard for ^ 1728 8-8 The total of the margin guide numerals above is 16, which is the total stroke-count of 1$. 7.4 Grade The frame of the reference data box headed "Grade" gives the classification of the entry character: it Crjrlr Jävö-6 The characters are divided into the seven mutually exclusive categories described below: jöyö-+ A main entry character that number is in the Education Kanji list; that is, a character taught in the first six years of compulsory schooling. The number from 1 to 6 following the hyphen corresponds to one of the six elementary school grades during which the character is taught. GUIDE 170a Joyo A main entry character that is in the Joyo Kanji list but is not included in (he Education Kanji list; that is, a character taught in grades 7 to 9. Non-Joyo A main entry character that is not in the Joyo Kanji list. Names A main entry character that is in thejinmci Kanji list. Reference A reference entry character that is a phonetically replaced character or that is a radical which is also used as a word or word element. See also § 26. Reference Entries. Radical A reference entry character that is used only as a radical but not as a word or word element. See also § 26. Reference Entries. Variant A nonstandard entry charac ter that is also a radical or radical variant. See also §27. Nonstandard Entries. lor information on the Joyo Kanji list and language reforms, see outline of japanese writing system §2.5 Language Reforms. 7.5 Frequency The frame of the reference data box headed "Freq" gives the frequency of the entry character. This indicates the frequency of occurrence of the character in Modern Japanese: it Freq 504 In the example, "504" means that the entry character is the 504th most frequently used main entry character. The frequency of use is only given for main entry characters. For other entry types the frequency frame is left blank. Sec also Appendix 9. Core Meanings Arranged by Frequency. 7.6 SKIP Number The bottom frame of the reference data box gives the SKIP number for the entry character. This consists of the pattern symbol followed by hyphenated numerals used to locate characters according to SKIP rules: It n 1 -8-2 See SYSTEM OF KANJI INDEXING BY PATTERNS §2.4 SKIP Number for details. 8. RADICAL SECTION 8.1 Section Description 8.2 Section Format 8.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label I judical] is the radical section. This describes the function of the entry character as a radical: A 3368 [ HA0lLAt.~9~| Standard form: A 'person' (IX 1^ #<) Left variant; f nintten \z ft) Top variant: hiloyane ^) Description: used in characters related to human beings The section label is followed by the rad ical number. This is a serial number from 1 to 214 traditionally assigned to each radical and widely used in character dictionaries and reference works for 171a GUIDE identification. The RADICAL section is given for every entry character that functions as a radical or radical variant. All such entries also contain a stroke order diagram and reference data box. See also § 7.2 Radical and Appendix 6. The Radicals. 8.2 Section Format 8.2.1 Parent Radical The radical section for an entry character that is one of the 211 traditional radicals in its parent form consists of (1) the standard form, (2) the variants, and {3) the description: Standard Consists of (a) the parent rad-Form: ical in Ming type in its full traditional form, (A) the radical name in italics (the most common name(s) of the rad ical in Japanese), (c) the Eng lish "name" of the parent radical enclosed in single quota tion marks, and (d) examples in parentheses of characters in which the parent radical appears as a radical. Variants: Consists of (a) a caption, such as "Left variant" or "Enclosure," that indicates the position in which the radical normally appears within the character, (£) the variant(s) in Ming type (simplified form of radical or one that differs considerably from parent radical), (f) the variant name in italics (the most common name(s) of the variant(s) in Japanese), and id) examples in parentheses of characters in which the variant appears as a radical. Dcscrip- An explanation of the mean-tton: ing or function of the radical as a character-forming element. NOTE: Certain radicals are used mostly in their variant forms and the characters in which the parent form appears may be quite rare. In such cases, the charac ters given as examples may not appear in the dictionary as character entries in their own right. 8.2.2 Radical Variants radical variants appear at their own SKIP locations. The radical section for an entry character that is a radical variant consists of (I) a brief description and (2) a cross-reference to the parent radical, as illustrated below: i 3313 I SAOICAl 9 | nmbent variant of A b't0 'person' ■S see A 3368 for radical description Characters that are simplified forms of radicals but are not used as radicals in their own right are likewise cross-referenced: [V V m | radical 200 ] simplified form noi used as radical ■ see t£t 3130 for radical description 9. CORE SECTION 9.1 Section Description 9.2 Section Format 9.1 Section Description The matter headed by the symbol ► is the core section. This lists the core meaning or meanings of the entry character. The core meaning, set in boldface capitals, is a concise English keyword that represents the most fundamental or most important concept linking the principal senses of a character: GUIDE 172a ^ p SINGLE The coke section is given for all main and nonstandard entries. 9.2 Section Format The core section consists of one or more core meanings, each headed by the symbol ►. When there are two or more core meanings, these arc listed in descending order of importance. Normally, the core meaning applies to both on and kun words or word elements, but if the kun meaning is dominant and the on meaning uncommon, it may apply only to the tun meanings. Sometimes, as in the example below, one core applies to the on and the other to the kun: ft ► CONNECT ►PERSON IN CHARGE [formerly also ft? 2902. OO ihivt a relationship with) conned, be connected with* relate in. inlerretale | KUrJ j [kakari if.] sometimes also #t a person in charge, official in charge, clerk 10. COMPOUNDS SECTION 10.1 Section Description 10.2 Section Format 10.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label I eowFQUNi>5~l is the COMPOUNDS section. In main entries, this lists the meanings of the entry character as an on word element. Each meaning is nearly always accompanied by compounds and examples and their English equivalents: 192 | COMPOUNDS| O disseminate, spread, teach (esp. Buddhism ) 5tt8' -/£S 1 k°ho (public) information, pub lie relations >$l]£ guho spreading fjuddhist teachings 0© great, grand Q uriginai meaning, now rare I extensive, broad, vast SLfi 9""» liudcltia's great vows Q%f£ kodat na grand, magnificent, vast koen na vast and far reaching The section label f comi'odwiis-! is merely an identifying symbol—it should not be interpreted to mean that the compounds section lists only compound words. In fact, this is the most important section of the entry and usually contains the most useful information about the entry character, especially its meanings as an on word element. The compounds section is given for all main entries and reference entries whose main entry character is used as an on word element (which is almost all of them). The explanations below apply only to main entries. The compounds section of reference entries, described in §26. Reference Entries, is organized somewhat differently. 10.2 Section Format The compounds section consists of (1) the character meanings and (2) the compounds and examples. These appear in an order that shows their semantic inter-rclatcdness, with the compounds and examples following the sense which they illustrate. 10.2.1 Character Meaning The meaning of the entry character as an on word element (combining form or affix) is given by the English equivalent: 173a GUIDE 152« 0 I also suffix | ["original meaning", poet ry, poem, verse 1£> Chinese poetry poem; If a meaning has more than one sense, these are subdivided by sense division numbers and the degree of importance is indicated for each sense. It often includes various labels, glosses, and cross-references. These and the equivalent are described in §20. Character Meanings and in sections § 22. through §25. 10.2.2 Compounds and Examples Compounds and examples, grouped by meaning, almost always accompany each sense. These are usually compound words, but a phrase or sentence may occasionally be given: f$A sh,jin poet I$ft 'tii/d poetic sentiment, poetical interest Sec §21. Compounds and Examples for details. 11. INDEPENDENT SECTION 11.1 Section Description 11.2 Section Format 11.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label I independent | is the INDEPENDENT section. This lists the meanings of the entry character as an independent on word. Each meaning is often accompanied by examples and their English equivalents: 2429 | INIIfH Nl» Nl | [hyó jfi] lable, chart, diagram, schedule, labu lar form; list tt^ů nf suru tabulate; make a lisl of [hvosuru JITSl express, manifest, pay ("one's respects) Independent on word refers to a one-character on word, with or without particles, auxiliaries, or inflections, that can be used on its own. Words consisting of one character terminating in the auxiliary verb -~fZ> -suru or one of its variants, i.e., --f 5 -zutu, -US -i'ru- and -~f -su. or in a function word such as -t&Z> -naru or -tzh -taru, are treated as separate independent on words. Thus, $t and Z> in the example above are treated as separate independent on words. Independent on words terminating in an inflection of ~$ h suru or one of its variants, or in a function word such as a particle, may appear in the examples under their original forms, but if such words have independent meanings that are unrelated to or that cannot be directly derived from their original forms, they are treated as independent headwords in their own right: k 3404 [jo ~tl first class, the best; first book [volume]; (marking on gift wrapper) With one's compliments _L£> /o no first, best, excellent 3333 [otsu £.] the second, B; the latter; second calendar sign, bass (in traditional Japanese music) [otsu na queer, strange, odd; smartish, chic; nice, fanciful, delicate; romantic GUIDE 174a The independent section is given for all main entries whose entry character is used as an independent on word. Independent words are also given for refer ence entries, which are described in §26. Reference Entries. 11.2 Section Format The independent section is subdivided into parts referred to as subentries. Each independent on word is treated under one subentry. This consists of (1) the independent headword, (2) the headword meaning, and (3) the examples. The order of subentries follows that of the on readings given in the entry-head data (see §4.3 On Reading), independent headwords terminating in a parti cle or an auxiliary follow the form from which they originate. For example, J^-j" & kisuru. which terminates in the auxil iary verb -f~suru, follows kb ki 11.2.1 independent Headword The matter enclosed in heavy black square brackets [] at the head of a subentry is the independent headword. This consists of a boldface romani2ed transcription of an independent on word and the Japanese word in Gothic type: [nanjiru (=namuru> BCi>( = S3 criticize unfavorably, blame, reproach 2. In the rare cases that a character is used as a symbol that has no pronunciation, such as for "DANGER," no transcription is given. 11.2.2 Headword Meaning The meaning of an independent headword as an independent on word is given by the English equivalent: C^T [gaku ¥i siudies, learning 2556 The meaning is sometimes subdivided by sense division numbers and may include various labels, glosses, and cross-references. These and the equivalent are described in § 20. Character Meanings and in sections § 22. through § 25. If the meaning consists of numbered senses, these appear flush left in the line immediately below the independent headword: tj|J [betsu Ml , t distinction, difference [mei B^] discernment, insight, eyesight [min 9}] Ming Dynasty The term subentry headword refers to an independent headword, a kun headword, or to both collectively. The independent headword is presented in the following format: 1. If an independent headword has two or more readings or WTttten forms, the alternative readings and or forms follow in parentheses and are preceded by an equal sign. The first alternative is usually more common than the second. 2 another thing, an exlra 3 exception 11.2.3 The Examples Examples, grouped by meaning, often accompany each independent headword. These consist of an independent headword terminating in a particle or an inflection of the auxiliary verb ~f~5 suru or one its variants, or of a phrase or sentence: -fe it" mi %.(£> fu no negative [kyüsuru be in extremily, come to an extreme, be in distress, be in want [need] 175a GUIDE ETriliiif Kyiisureba tsuiu Necessity is the mother of invention Sec §21. Compounds and Examples for details. 12. KUN SECTION 12.1 Section Description 12.2 Section Format 12.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label I kun I is the kun section. This lists the meanings of the entry character as a kun word or word element. Each meaning is usually accompanied by compounds and exam pies and their English equivalents: [osarmeru ; (gj&S] i: cultivate, pursue, practice, study, master, complete £££i£fl6£ gaku o osameru pursue krtowl edge .one's studies] '2' order (one's life) Sttefithi m< o osameru order one's life [osa maru fttSS] govern oneself, conduct oneself well jSfjS'fiE!t tJ&l1 so*o ga osamaranai con duct oneself loosely, be dissolute The kin section is given for all main en tries whose main entry character is used as a kun word or word element. Kun words are also given for reference entries, which are described in §26. Reference Entries. 12.2 Section Format The kun section is subdivided into parts referred to as subentries. Each kun word or word element is treated under one subentry. This consists of (1) the kun headword, (2) the headword mean-ing, and (3) the compounds and examples. The order of subentries follows that of the kun readings given in the entry-head data (see § 4.4 Kun Reading). 12.2.1 KUN Headword The matter en closed in heavy black square brackets [J at the head of a subentry is the KUN headword. This consists of a boldface romanized transcription of a kun word or word element and the Japanese word or word element in Gothic type: j||C [osameru) ««651 123 : [osai maru | ftJ The term subentry headword refers to an independent headword, a kun headword, or to both collectively. The kun headword is presented in the following format: 1. The parentheses in the romanized transcription indicate okuri^anu (ka na endings) in conformity with the official rules published by the Ministry of Education. See Appendix 5. Rules for Okurigana for details. 2. If a kin headword has two readings or written forms, the second reading and/or form follows the first and is separated from it by a comma. The first form is in standard orthography and is usually more common than the second. The second form is usually a variant of the first with different kana endings: 522 [-iu mi: -fcH. -*umi -3f] sulfix com pleted, finished, settled, concluded Sometimes, the two alternatives differ slightly in pronunciation due to voicing or euphonic change: ^ [kata i§, -gata -Mi 745 GUIDE 176a 3. If two kun words or word elements have exactly the same written form and the same reading but differ in function, they are treated as separate headwords and are distinguished by small superscript numerals. One of these homographs functions as a free kun word and or word element: 326 [doro' KJ 'I ■ mud, mire, slush, dirt J£;B doranuma boK, swamp J.of difficulties? ■ 2. unclassified compounds dotobo thief, crook The other functions only as a word el ement, which is indicated by the functional label "|in compounds|": i [doro1 I in compounds 3lso suffix: peny thief, sneak ihief, pilferer J£H doronswb expediency roming loo late (tike making a rijpe af*ea ending the thief) 4. If a kun word is a noun adjective, the KUN headword in the heavy black square brackets [] does not include fi na, the attributive form of the co pula t: da. The kun headword is followed on the next line by a second ary headword in boldface {but not in brackets) that does include t£ na. which is used when the word func tions as an attributive adjective: fit 1728 [shiiuika i shizuk.i na tf^ft^^C quiet, silent, sljll" calm, tranquil, gentle, quiel Noun adjectives can also be used as adverbs by replacing /£ na wTith \Z ni. 5. If a kun headword includes a hy-phen, it functions only as a word element (affix or combining form) in all its senses. The position of the hyphen indicates whether the form is used in the final or in the initial position: JL [-*(geru) -JitfS] 3404 P "*>' honorific verbal suffix In the example, -J-Jf 5 functions as a word element in the final position. See also § 20.10.4 Free Words Versus Word Elements. 12.2.2 Headword Meaning The meaning of a kun headword as a kun word or word element is given by the English equivalent: 242 [seimerui 0tst>£] attack, take ine offensive The meaning Is sometimes subdivided by sense division numbers and may include various labels, glosses, and cross-references. These and the equivalent are described in §20. Character Meanings and in sections § 22. through §25, If the meaning consists of numbered senses, these appear flush left in the line immediately below the kun headword: 1 BUM [o(su5 ttri 1 infer, deduce, conjecture, surmise, guess 2 recommend, propose, nominate 12.2.3 Compounds and Examples Compounds and examples, grouped by meaning, usually accompany each sense of a kun headword. These consist of compound words, inflected or derived forms of the kun headword, a kun head- 177a GUIDE word terminating in a particle or auxiliary, or a phrase or sentence: 1728 rshizudnaru) t*£$J shiiumariitaeru become still as death &ift££ ne&hizumstu Fall fa*1 asleep Dtfi^WJ^/l Ata&tit ga stutumatta The storm has abated See §21. Compounds and Examples for details. 13. SPECIAL READINGS SECTION 13.1 Section Description 13.2 Section Format 13.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label | special beamings \ is the SPECIAL READINGS section. This lists compound words having special readings and their English equivalents: 'h 7 SPECIAL HL.Mi. KL^ 'JXS azuki ad?uki bean 'JVjflS* sazanatni tipples, wavelets A special reading is a reading of a word consisting of two or more characters assigned to a single word on the basis of its meaning without direct relation to the normal readings of each constituent character. Approved special readings are those listed in the appendix to the Joyo Kanji list; unapproved special readings are those that are not. Since the pronunciation of each character cannot nor mally be isolated as a distinct reading, these are not listed in the entry-head data as character readings but are treated in the special headings section. The special readings section appears in all main entries whose entry characters are used in common compound words having special readings. In reference entries, such words appear in the compounds section. Sec also §4.5 Special Reading. 13.2 Section Format All compound words having approved special readings and frequently used compound words with unapproved special readings are listed together in the special readings section. Those with approved special readings are given first, followed by those with unapproved ones. A superscript triangle * following the Japanese word indicates that the special reading in question is unapproved: 9flB asu tomorrow 055 S^B* aahita tomorrow See also §21, Compounds and Examples. 14. NAMES SECTION 14.1 Section Description 14.2 Section Format 14.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label | names [ is the names section. This lists examples of names and their English descriptions: 1b3 ftfiLU hatoyama surname yasuhiko male name The names section gives name examples for the name readings (readings used only in the writing of names) for the 166 characters in the Jinmei Kanji list of 1981. See also §4.7 Name Reading, GUIDE 178a 14,2 Section Format Name examples are listed together in the namis section. These appear in the same order as the corresponding character readings are listed in the eniry-head data. An English description of the name replaces what would normally be the equivalent. This explains how the name is used; i.e., as a surname, male or female first name, place name, and so on, or as a combination of these: i 1693 ft ton (. aisusnii male name Jft^ atsutto fernsle name f£{g tsuruga surname also place name See also §21. Compounds and Examples. 15. SYNONYMS SECTION 15.1 Section Description 15.2 Section Format 15.3 Semantic Relationships 15.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label | synonyms'" is the synonyms section. This lists groups of kanji synonyms and their English keywords for the principal senses of main entry characters: 1787 | synonyms""] o© fight and war S3 ricur —3334 ii go on a military expedition — 293 warfare and rebellions- It? war —2080 j£ war -* 244 f$ Laute -* 453 SL rebellion — 1260 g uprising 2069 fjj höht —3334 SYNONYMS headword 1 Synonym group Q game fit ga me —* 246 [tetakau) 1 compete tH iroH-r — 3334 ^ contend — 2030 t( compete ** 1817 Synonym, or kanji synonym, is used in a broad sense that includes several categories of correlated characters; i.e., synonyms (terms that share the same basic meaning), hyponyms (specific terms included in a more general term), and, rarely, comflementaries (terms of mu tually exclusive meaning). As a rule, kanji synonyms refers to the relationship between word-building elements, especially on word elements. Important independent kun words are sometimes included, but independent on words are quite rare. The synonyms section has two principal aims: 1. To enable the user to study the differences and similarities of synonym group members by (a) indicating the semantic relationship (usually the shared meaning) between them and by (b) bringing together their English keywords into a single article. 2. To act as a network of cross-references that enables the user to quickly locate the meanings and the compounds or examples for any member of a synonym group from any of the others. This allows the user to ac quire a full understanding of the differences in meaning between closely related characters, and to use the dictionary as a simple kanji thesaurus. The synonyms section is given for all principal senses of main entry characters that are semanticatly related to another main entry character (which is almost all of them). See also Appendix 11. List of Kanji Synonym Groups. 179a GUIDE 15.2 Section Format Each group of synonyms is treated in a separate subsection. This consists of (1) the synonyms headword and (2) the synonym group. The synonym groups are listed in the same order as the senses to which they apply originally appear in that character entry. 15.2.1 SYNONYMS Headword The boldface matter heading a synonym group is the SYNONYMS headword. This is an English word or phrase that concisely expresses the semantic relationship (usually the shared meaning) between the members of a synonym group. The SYNONYMS headwords refer to a main sense or subsense in the COMPOUNDS, KUN, or INDEPENDENT Sections of that character entry, as explained below: 1. If a synonyms headword refers to a sense in the compounds section, it is preceded by dark-circled numbers and letters that point to the senses to which that synonym group applies: 1787 | Ct]MPtll'NtirS~1 oo urinal mrsmTJE war. +&ftt *ar, ti(rhl | iSYN-nNVMS I oq tight snri war In the example, the headword fight and war applies to sense O© the compounds section. 2. If a synonyms headword refers to a subentry headword (kun or independent headword), it is preceded by a boldface subentry heading (enclosed in heavy black square brackets [ ]) and clear-circled numbers and letters that point to the senses of the subentry headword to which that synonym group applies: 1787 | hliN~| [tataka u) «-5J 2 contest, contend, play a match game! | SYNUNYMS j [tatakau] 3 compete 6! FifiHl >3334 ^ CONTEND »2030 || coMfr.TK -»1847 In the example, the group applies to sense '.2 of the kun headword tataka (u). The subentry heading is identical with the subentry headword to which it points, but akurigana endings are not shown. 3. If a synonyms headword refers to an unnumbered sense, it is headed by the division number zero. If the sense referred to is in the compounds section, the zero is represented by a solid black circle 9: I SYNONYMS I 0 domesticated birds If the sense referred to is in the kun or independent sections, the zero is represented by a clear circle O (except when the headword is preceded by an ampersand): | synonyms"] 2544 • [miseru] O show 4. Some synonyms headwords refer to two or even three senses. This is indicated by a boldface ampersand (&) that connects the relevant division numbers and letters and or suben try headings, as illustrated below: GUIDE 1B0a [ SYWJMYMS ] OG & [toru] In the example, the headword take applies to sense ©© of Ifr in the compounds section and to sense 1 a of to(ru) in the ki n section. Sometimes two synonym groups apply to the same sense; that is, a particular sense relates equally well to two distinct synonym groups. This is shown by repealing the relevant division number and or letter: O ",d persons 2762 ^ "'^ p*™"" '^197 D& uui man »2108 O woman tH Mil I t v, OMAN • 469 It udman >34I8 Sometimes one synonym group ap plies to all the subsenses of a main sense and another group to only one subsense of that main sense: 3390 O nominalirers ffj particle of nojuinalization —» 851 ® particle & grain -» 1328 In the example, the nominalizers group applies to all of sense ©, in eluding subsenses Q© and © ©, while the particle group applies only to subsense GO-IS.2.2 Synonym Group Two or more on word elements or subentry headwords that are scmantically related, especially those that share the same basic meaning, are referred to as a synonym group. The synonyms section for a particular entry character includes all the members of that group, except for the entry char acter itself. A member of a synonym group is a synonym group member. This consists of (1) the kanji synonym, (2) the synonym keyword, and (3) the cross-reference. The synonym group members are normally presented in descending order of semantic relatedness: jl OO see and look K trtl W ■ 1880 g look .»« K look ovt.k » 2854 1. The kanji synonym is a Japanese word or word element in Gothic type that is a member of a synonym group. In the case of kun words or word elements, it includes okurigana endings and hyphens identical with the subentry headword to which it applies: j- f SVNONYMS ] ars stand — i9B2 hick up-* 379 The synonym keyword is a concise English equivalent that most aptly represents that sense of a kanji synonym which is relevant to that synonym group. This is usually identical with one of the core meanings, or with an English keyword that is not a core meaning, of the entry character for that kanji synonym. Small capitals and lowercase are used to distinguish synonym keywords that are core meanings from those I hat arc not: 00 60 light 855 3t mgiit — 2391 0 lamp —* 825 ffi sunlight -* 2827 C rainbow » 1285 In the example, the keyword "light" represents the core meaning of so it is set in small capitals, whereas the 181a GUIDE keyword "sunlight," which is the sense of OB that is relevant to the tight group, is not a core meaning of JJij so it is set in lowercase. 3. The cross-reference consists of an arrow -* followed by an entry number referring to where that kanji synonym appears as a main entry charac ter in its own right. By consulting thai entry, the user can study the meanings and the compounds or examples for that character. 15.3 Semantic Relationships Various semantic relationships {sense relations) exist among the individual syno nym group members and between the members and the synonyms headword. The main relationships are (1) class-inclusion, {2) synonymy, (3) part-whole, and (4) complementarity. These are not mutually exclusive categories; in some cases they may partially or even wholly overlap. The various relationships are not distinguished by any formal means such as special typefaces or symbols. However, the phrasing or grammatical number of the synonyms headword may identify or hint at the type of relationship, as explained below: 1. Class-inclusion or kind of, a relationship in which the synonyms headword (stiperordinate word) is a general term that includes the meanings of the specific terms (class members or hyponyms) represented by the individual group members, is often indicated by a synonyms headword in the plural form or by the words "kinds of": is a kind of grave, which is the general term that includes all the group members. 2. Synonymy, a relationship in which ihe group members share a basic meaning or are similar or identical in meaning, is often indicated by a synonyms headword given in the singular form: matter H matter 2808 tí) substance 874 tí MATERIAL 836 fs( MATERIALS 1292 H material resources 2695 3. Part-whole, a relationship in which the meanings of the group members are part of each other or of the thing represented by the synonyms headword, is often indicated by a headword in the form "parts of..." or "...parts": parts of towns E ward 2963 fg city quarter 576 Br town section (cko) 1113 X town subsection (chome) 3348 ^ village or town section 2172 4. Complementarity is a relationship in which the meanings of the group members contrast with each other and are mutually exclusive: siblings ft younger sister 278 grti older sister 280 5L older brother 2154 younger brother 2044 graves £ grave 2332 $ tumulus 719 imperial mausoleum 544 S grave mound 556 In the example, each group member Croups of complementary characters, which are similar to antonyms (words of opposite meaning) are, in principle, riot given, except for special cases in which it was necessary to draw attention to closely-related characters. 182a GUIDE sL-t alight, turn on (a h^ht i usu. .^.Tl same as The equivalent is often subdivided by sense division numbers and aecompa nied by various labels and glosses. These and the equivalent are de scribed in § 20. Character Mean-ings and in sections § 22. through §25. 16.2.3 Illustrative Examples Usage notes are not normally aecompa nied by compounds and examples. The compounds and examples for the group member that includes the entry charac ter itself can be found in the appropriate section (usually the kL'K section) of that character entry, while those for the oth er group members can be located through the cross-references in the homOPHONES section (see § 17. HOMOPHONES Section for details). In exceptional cases, additional illustrative examples ap pear in the usage, section to further clarify the differences between easily con fused homophones: O umu It (produce offspring i give binh to. bear oH spring. beget, breed, spawn nin kodomo o unds She gave birth to five children ■ I have children (2* produce, bring forih, give rise (o, yield WttliEA^ffi^ftA/fc' Xano/o wa go nin kodoma o vnda She has five chil dren 16.2.4 Supplementary Note The matter preceded by the symbol it is the supplementary note. This is a comment or article that sometimes appears in a usage note and supplements the Eng- lish equivalent(s). It may include an analysis of the usage of various examples and explain their differences and similarities: it 2941 O -tomeru ♦ Both forms are used in compounds in [he sense of kill, but fiV^J^j is preferred in ihe word fi^AO^i shtorveru 'kill, shoot dead'. Tomeru is not used independently in tliis sensC- Sometimes, as in the case of synonym groups, a supplementary note appears immediately after a usage headword and the equivalent is omitted: m 2432 £ ai %?■ ren ^Though both jfj and mean love, the for mer is mostly restricted to love between man and woman while the latter is a general term roughly equivalent to the English word icve. 17. HOMOPHONES SECTION 17.1 Section Description 17.2 Section format 17.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label | homophones I is the HOMOPHONES section. This lists groups of homophones and their entry numbers for cross-reference: Tfffwt | homophones | KJA uta "11 400 1B25 uteu 3 1597 nil 400 m 1632 The terms homophones and homo- 185a GUIDE phone group are defined in § 16. USAfiE Section. The homophones sections form a network of cross-references that enables one to quickly locate information about any member of a homo phone group from any of the others. This can be useful in two principal ways: 1. The homophones section appears at each member of a group of homophones whose meanings are discriminated in a usage note and acts as a cross-reference to every other member. This enables the user to locate the compounds and examples for each group member. i 8 utau »5 tS-5 PBo ■4 | HOMO HHP h£s t uta nfl 400 utau if 1597 t£ 400 IB 1632 For example, the usage notes for uta and utau shown above appear in the usage section of 1$;. The compounds and examples for 10;-9 are found in the kun section of ffc itself under the headword uta(u), while those for ^ 9. 7 < anc' i8f "5 can be located through the cross-reference in the homophones section of 1ft. 2. The homophones section acts as a cross-reference to characters in orthographic labels that are not followed by their enlry numbers: [uta u »ö] I .sometimes also ofl j ] sing, recite HOMOPHuNF.5 ut» -» OH 400 utau & 1597 Dg 400 M 1632 For example, the orthographic label "(sometimes also "St]" does not include the entry number, since the latter is found in the homophones section. See also § 22. Orthographic Labels. The homophones section appears in all main and reference entries whose entry characters are members of kun homophone groups (groups consisting partially or entirely of kun headwords or their derivatives). See also § 16. usage Section. 17.2 Section Format Each homophone group is listed on a separate line. It consists of (1) the homophones headword and (2) the homophone group members: öffc utau |f 1597 IS 400 m 1632 1625 As a rule, the homophone groups appear in the same order as the words or word elements that correspond to the homophones headwords originally appear in that character entry. The homophones section is presented in the following format: 1. The HOMOPHONES headword is a word heading a homophone group. It consists of an italicized transcription of the reading shared by the members of that group, and is followed by an arrow =t> that introduces the group members. The homophones head- GUIDE 186a 16. USAGE SECTION 16.1 Section Description 16.2 Section Format 16.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label 1 usace. I is the USAGE section. This discriminates between the meanings of homophones (rarely synonyms) by bringing together their English equivalents into a single article: Section labcl-usage headword- ["i.-sam Usage note Usage article uta j also suffix] CO [lometimes also tfl i sona. ballad 2 Japanese [>m-r:i ^vykii. [ankn, ode, vcrsf I'usu. Sr, I [also suffix ! song, ballad-used esp. in reference to traditional Japanese Kanji heading English equivalent 6 utau 1 i sorncl t rri es also ofi-?] sing, recite 2 express in a poem IS? recite, chant (esp. from a noh drama text) [uiu. ft? ) recite, sing used esp. in reference to traditional Japanese songs ■a ® sing the joys of. extol, eulogize :V declare, stale, express Homophones as used in this dictionary refers to words or word elements, often ctymologically related, that arc pro nounced alike but written differently and often have different meanings. The term refers mostly to tun homophones that are subentry headwords or their derivatives. A group of such words is referred to as a homophone group. The purpose of the usage section is to enable the user to study the differences and similarities between the meanings of the members of homophone (and synonym) groups. These are of the following kinds: 1. Independent kitn words or word elements (kun headwords or their deriv- atives) that are pronounced the same but written differently. These usually, but not always, differ in meaning. For example, aku is written in three ways—Bf] < , gfl < , and 3? < —that differ in meaning. 2. Easily confused compound words, either on or kun, or independent on words that are pronounced the same but are written differently and have different meanings; e.g., ffllfp se'~ saku 'production (of a film)' and |H ft seisaku 'manufacture'. 3. A small number of easily confused synonymous words or word elements that are similar in meaning but are written and pronounced differently; 183a GUIDE e.g., & mori 'thick woods' and f$ hayashi 'small woods'. The usage section appears only in main entries. As a rule, a usage note appears at the entry for the most common or important group member. It can be located from the other relevant group members through the cross-references in the homophones and note sections. See also § 17. homophones Section and § 19. note Section. 16.2 Section Format Each group of homophones (or synonyms) is treated in a separate subsection referred to as a usage note. This con sists of (1) the usage headword, (2) the usage article, (3) the compounds and examples, and (4) the supplementary note. As a rule, usage notes for kun words precede those for on words. Within each category they arc listed in the same order as these words originally appear in that character entry. 16.2.1 USAGE Headword The bold face matter heading a usage note is the usage headword. This is a romanized transcription of the reading shared by the members of the homophone group treated in that usage note, Okurigana endings are not shown in the usage headword. When there are two or more usage notes, the usage headwords are numbered sequentially by dark-circled numbers: * I I °JA o uta 1825 6 utau 16.2.2 Usage Article The meanings of each member of a homophone (or synonym) group are given by the usage article. This consists of (1) the kanji headings and (2) the English equivalents: 1825 m also suffix j : I i sometimes also Pg | song, ballad 2 Japanese poem, waka, lanka, ode, verse m I usu. [also suffix | song, ballad used esp in reference IP traditional Japanese 1. The kanji headings are Japanese words or word elements in Gothic type that are the subject of the English equivalents that follow. 2. The English equivalents appear slightly indented in the line immediately below the kanji headings. Since the usage section brings together the English equivalents of the homophone group members into a single article, the equivalent of each member as it appears in the usage section is, with minor exceptions, identical with the equivalent of the corresponding word or word element as it originally appears in the character entry, usually as a kun headword. For example, the equivalent of ,tS tomosu in the usage section below is identical with the equivalent of the kun headword tomo(su). Sometimes, the equivalent of a word treated in the usage section is identical with that of another word appearing elsewhere in the same usage section. To save space in cases of long equivalents, the words "same as" introduce a cross-reference to the word with which it shares its meaning: r5 2084 tomosu sometimes also ff-f ] light (a lamp;. GUIDE 184a word refers 10 a word or word clement within that character entry, usual ly a kun headword, with which it is identical in form, including hyphens, but okurigana endings are not shown. 2. The homophone group member is a member of a homophone group. It consists of the character in Ming type, without okurigana endings or hyphens, followed by its entry number. Sometimes one member of a homophone group may be a kun word written with two characters while the other members arc written with one character. In such cases, the member with two characters is shown in full along with okurigana endings and entry numbers separated by a comma are given for both characters: 2216 | ItoMUPHONI.s"! shwwase * j*tf I is i±£t>*t 34.2019 18. COMPOUND FORMATION SECTION 18.1 Section Description 18.2 Section Format 18.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label | cuMPotiNti formation"" is the compound formation section. This describes how a compound word is formed from its constituent parts and or gives its etymology: ft 477 | COMPOUND FORMATION 1 'one's forte, etc." i5 lo satisfactorily achieve (JJ &@ one's desires (jg) and take pride in one's achievements. Q fjjfli serroJru íSiřfŤS 'persuade' is to persuade a person so as to achieve (-fif OtD) one's ends. Normally, the formation of a compound word is self-evident because the compounds and examples arc grouped by meaning (see § 21. Compounds and Examples). In some cases, however, the semantic relationship between the constituent parts may be obscure. The purpose of the compound formation section is to explain how the constituent characters of such compound words are combined to yield the meaning of the whole. This is done by explaining the meaning or function of each component, or by presenting a brief etymology (origin and/or development) of the compound word. The compound formation section appears only in main entries that contain compound words whose formation may not be clear. As a rule, a compound formation article appears at the entry for the character most relevant to the discussion of that article. It can be located from the other relevant characters through the cross-references in the note section. See also § 19. note; Section. 18.2 Section Format The formation and/or etymology of each compound word or group of related compound words are treated in a separate subsection. This consists of (1) the compound formation headword and (2) the compound formation article. The compound formation articles appear in the same order as the words corresponding to the compound formation headwords originally appear in that character entry, 18.2.1 compound formation Headword The matter heading a com pound formation article is the com pound formation headword. This is 187a GUIDE the Japanese compound word or words in Gothic type followed by an italicized transcription that is the subject of the compound formation article thai follows. It consists of the compound word proper without particles or the auxiliary verb ■f %> suru When there are two or more compound formation articles, the compound formation headwords are numbered sequentially by dark-circled num bers: | coMrouwn mumiioN | 477 O ">*"' O iftf? settoku subentry headword to(ru) in the Ki!N section of IjK. 19. NOTE SECTION 19.1 Section Description 19.2 Section Format 19.1 Section Description The matter headed by the label | noh is the note section. This consists of various cross-references and/or explanatory notes: Sometimes, two or three compound words are treated in the same compound formation article. In such cases, the compound formation headword consists of the relevant compound words: iE l (iMr*(M NfJ f Ott MA HON J£B sagen yogen 18.2.2 Compound Formation Article The matter appearing immediately below the compound formation headword is the compound formation article. This is an explanation of the forma tion and or etymology of a compound word whose formation may not be clear: i 1262 BUSK sekitori ESIfiE 'ranking sumo wrestler' is a sumo wrestler ([»)) who acquired 2 * a m8n rank. Sense division numbers and letters within the article, often in parentheses, refer to the relevant sense in the compounds or kun sections. In the example in §18.1 above, "i#©@" refers to sense ©© in the compounds section of in the example immediately above, "|5t -5 (2; (a)" refers to sense (f;(a) under the 3197 [~NQTE~1 : sec also i saiii notes at g 3298 and 1»; 3537 see i omi-oi m> roKMAiioN for shogai if 512 *'J is said to have a total of more than 200 readings, which is more than any other char-acler. The note section appears in all main and reference entries that require cross-references or supplementary remarks. 19.2 Section Format The NOTr. section consists of (I) the cross reference note and (2) the supplementary note, in that order. 19.2.1 Cross-Reference Note The matter introduced by the arrow =!> is the cross reference note. This directs the user to another character entry that should be consulted for further informa tion. Cross reference notes are of three kinds: 1. A cross-reference to a usage note: >see LSAcf note at M 2977 1695 A cross-reference beginning with "see also" indicates that the entry-character appears in a usage note guide 188a both at its own character entry and at the entry cross-referenced to: also ujjwj* note »t |g 500 2, A cross-reference to a compound formation article: If 1S27 SCe COMPOUND FORMATION for SBBftE *sowB*y«/» .: 3322 sbw r-. ff 431 3. Miscellaneous cross-references, such as to another NOTE section: &3 . . y;,. glfto Null: it 4j 226. 249 19.2.2 Supplementary Note The matter introduced by the symbol it is the supplementary note. This supple ments the information provided by the other explanatory matter. Supplementary notes arc of two kinds: 1. A supplementary remark on the usage, form, orthography, reading, etc., of the entry character: AM 569 ^Though fa,; and rl; 3409 are distinct charac ters, the latter is also used as an abhreuia tion of the former. 2. A warning directing attention to char acters of similar form that are easily confused. These arc cross-referenced to each other, as illustrated below: 20, CHARACTER MEANINGS ♦ do not confvse with 539 20.1 Genera! Description 20.2 Definitions of Terms 20.3 Order of Senses 20.4 Sense Division 20.5 Importance of Character Senses 20.6 Explanatory Gloss 20.7 The Equivalent 20.8 Supplementary Gloss 20.9 Cross-References 20.10 Functions of Kanji as Words and Word Elements 20.! 1 Miscellaneous Character Functions PS ♦ do not confuse with 3 1676 20.1 General Description The detailed presentation of character meanings is one of the principal features of this dictionary. Meanings are given for each character as an on word element in the compounds section, for the headwords in the independent, kun, and usage sections, and for the compounds and examples that usually accompany each sense. As a rule, everything that applies to the meanings of on word elements and the various headwords also applies to the meanings of the compounds and examples, but the latter arc not divided by sense division numbers, nor are they treated in as much detail. The meanings consist of sense division numbers, various labels and glosses, the English equivalent, and cross-references, which are presented in the following order: sense division numbers, orthographic labels, functional labels, status labels, subject labels, explanatory glosses, the equivalent, supplementary glosses, and cross-references. These are described in detail below, except for the labels, which are described in sections § 22. through § 2,ri. The applicability of the la- 189a GUIDE bels and glosses to the individual senses as well as the various conventions that apply throughout the dictionary are treated in § 30. Other Conventions. 20.2 Definitions of Terms Following are definitions of some important terms related to character meanings: Core meaning Keyword- identical with a core meaning 3497 ► LIFE ► BE BORN k-STUDENT I COMPIH NU«, I OG 'act of being alive > (itfel existence © (interval between birth and death 1 |life| (imp. life OG living organisms! © bin . aoic life, living things "Character meaning Keyword not — identical with a core meaning OG J livelihood], living © health, welfare OG (be alive! exist ♦ living, »live © |j\t \), u\ir! trrsh O formerly set or Wi sei] (of animals) (occupy a habitat) [inhabit, |iye| Subsense Main sense - Equivalent 1, Free word or word refers to any independent word; that is, any word that can be used on its own (§20.10.1). This includes (1) independent on words, (2) independent kun words, and (3) most compound words. 2. Word element refers to any form used only in combinations; that is, any combining form or affix. This includes (1) on word elements. (2) KUN headwords (§12.2.1) that are used only in combinations, and (3) compound words (§21.1) not used on their own. On word element, a frequently used term, always refers to an element pronounced in the on reading that is used in the formation of compounds. On word elements are treated only in the compounds section. 3. Subentry headword refers to (1) an independent on word acting as an independent headword ( § 11.2.1), (2) a kun word or word element acting as a kun headword ( § 12.2.1), or (3) to both collectively. 4. Meaning or character meaning is a broad term used rather loosely; in addition to Its use as an ordinary English word, it often refers to an equivalent along with other explanatory matter such as labels and glosses. 5. Sense refers to ooe of the meanings GUIDE 190a of a word or word clement. A sense may be further subdivided by sense division letters and/or semicolons into subsenses. The term main sense is used when it is necessary to distinguish a principal sense from a sub-sense. Sense unqualified may refer to either a main sense or a subsense. 6, Equivalent or English equivalent ( § 20.7) refers to synonymous or nearly synonymous words or phrases that are an English translation of a Japanese word or word element. 7. Keyword or English keyword is a concise English equivalent that most aptly represents the most fundamen tal concept of a sense or group of senses of an on word element or a subentry headword. Keywords are often, but not always, identical with a core meaning ( § 9.1) or with a synonym keyword (§15.2.2). In the example above, life, which is common to senses O and ©, is a keyword of ife that is identical wiih one of its core meanings, whereas live or one of its derivatives, which is common to senses O and %, is a keyword of "f that is not identical with one of its core meanings. When unqualified, sense and equivalent may apply to any word or word ele mcnt; that is, to any meaning appearing in the dictionary. When it is necessary to restrict these terms to a particular kind of meaning, this is made clear by the context or by a qualifying phrase such as "sense of an on word element," "equivalent of a subentry headword," and so on. 20.3 Order of Senses When an on word element or a subentry headword has more than one sense, the senses are arranged in an order that shows their semantic interrelatedness. The senses are arranged psychologist- kally; that is, an English keyword, often a core meaning, serves as the basis of organization, and the various senses are grouped in clusters in a manner that shows their interrelatedness: ► COLOR 04) also suffix I color, coloring ® counter For colors O© : facial expression) color, complexion, countenance, look (!) good looks (of a woman), beauty 0 also suffix O characteristic feature) color, character, feature (B (political tendency) coloring In the example, the core meaning "color" serves as the basis of organization and shows the interrelatedness between the senses. The senses of a compound or example are normally given in order of descending frequency or importance: ± 3404 _tT rtfl* upper and lower parts [sides], high and low: going up and down, rise and fall; first and second volumes 20.4 Sense Division The meaning of an on word element or subentry headword having more lhan one sense is often subdivided by a system of sense division numbers, letters, and semicolons, as explained below. The senses of compounds and examples are subdivided by semicolons, but not by sense division numbers and letters. 1. Main senses are numbered sequentially by sense division numbers. When a numbered, or sometimes unnumbered, sense has two or more 191a GUIDE semantically related subsenses, these are headed by sense division letters. 2. In the compounds section, numbered senses are headed by dark-circled sense division numbers (as O © © and so on) or letters (as © © © and so on), or by a combination of such numbers and letters: O© I original meaning thunder tff lightning O explosive device, mine, torpedo If there is only one main sense that is not subdivided into subsenses, it is identified by a solid black circle • that represents the theoretical sense division number zero: 9 original meaning! (cook by boding) boil, cook 3. In the kun and indepknim-nt sections, numbered senses are headed by clear-circled sense division numbers (as (1) (2) (3 and so on) or letters (as (a'i (B) (c; and so on), or by a combi nation of such numbers and letters. The sense division number zero is not used in these sections. [iyi> shit) ;;■■.;] (i) [formerly also tULl*. (low in social sta tus) mean, lowly, humble, inferior in position C£> [formerly also #£l_.t\| a i of poor appearance) mean, shabby, seedy i, (tacking elevating human qualities) mean, base, vulgar, despicable 4, Numbered and unnumbered senses may be further subdivided by commas and or semicolons. The comma, used to separate synonyms or near-synonyms, indicates the smallest degree of semantic difference, while the semicolon usually indicates a some what greater degree of difference: OO eharacler, letter; type: word In unnumbered senses, the semicolon may indicate a semantic difference equivalent to a difference between one numbered sense and another: £JH [aikarh BJ^rj] light, glimmer; lamp; DVeiOf B55 5. Labels and glosses that apply to a par ticuiar numbered sense appear after the sense division number or letter to which they apply. In unnumbered senses, such information applies until the first semicolon or to the entire sense, depending on the context. See §30.5 Applicability of Labels and Glosses for details, 20.5 Importance of Character Senses The degree of importance of each char acter sense is indicated by various typo graphical devices and labels: GUIDE 192a An explanation sometimes indicates that a sense is figurative: 2*20 (figuratively) flames (as of passion) 2. Sometimes a definition, which is similar to a full lexicographic definition in a monolingual dictionary, is given: 2S3 to(ru) Iff*] ci (separate through the application of a sudden bending force) break off (as a branch), break (a bone), snap (in two). Spill The explanations and definitions are presented in the following format: 1. Explanations and definitions are normally enclosed in parentheses. Some times a parenthetical word or phrase preceding an equivalent may be an optional part of the equivalent itself, not an explanation or definition: ft © (characteristic) form, shape Gt (outer appearance) form, appearance In subsense ©, "(characteristic)" is an optional part of the equivalent that may be omitted (see §30.2); in subsense ®, "(outer appearance)" acts as an explanatory gloss. 2. Sometimes a colon is used instead of parentheses to separate an explana tion or definition from the equivalent. The function of this colon is to coordinate the definition or explanation with the equivalent that follows the colon, especially when the former includes the meaning of the latter. It is often used when an explanation or definition is an expansion from a core meaning: O I also suffix I institution or organization. esp : © medical institution: hospital, clinic, doctor's office d> educational institution academy, institute, school In the example, the colon indicates that hospital is a kind of medical in stitution and that academy is a kind of educational institution. 20.7 The Equivalent The matter following an explanatory gloss or a label is the equivalent or English equivalent. This refers to synonymous or nearly synonymous words or phrases that are an English translation of a Japanese word or word element. Equivalents of on word elements are set in lightface or boldface depending upon their degree of importance ( § 20.5). All other equivalents are set in lightface: tP 2173 O© protect (from, against), defend, guard, watch over tit guard, keeper The equivalent is presented in the following format: I. If a word or word element has no precise English equivalent, such as in the case of culture-bound terms or function words such as particles, an explanation replaces the equivalent: m © suffix after names of villas, inns or apartment houses An explanation may include brief encyclopedic information, especially in reference to culture-bound terms: 194a GUIDE Level 1 Level 2 ».HUMAN BEING I CQMroumiTl )Q also suffix original meaning human beina:, person, man; people, mankind © counter for people Level 4 © rare, other people, others Level 3 O personality, character, disposition The degree of importance is divided into four levels, listed below in descending order of importance: Level 1: Core Meanine—The most important sense, which is essential for the beginner (see § 9. core Section). Level 2: Boldface Equivalent — An English equivalent in the compounds section printed in boldface signifies that the importance or frequency of occurrence of the sense in question is sufficiently high to merit study by the learner at the beginner to intermediate levels. The equivalent, along with its parenthetical adjuncts, is set in boldface; explanatory matter such as labels and glosses is set in lightface. Level 3: Lightface Equivalent — An English equivalent in the compounds section printed in lightface signifies that the sense in question is sufficiently impor tant to merit study by the learner at the intermediate to advanced levels or by the scholar. Level 4: Temporal Labels—Less important senses, such as rare, archaic, and obsolete ones, are indicated by the temporal labels (see §24,3 Temporal Labels). 20.6 Explanatory Gloss The lightface matter often following the labels and preceding the equivalent is the explanatory gloss. This is an Eng- lish word or phrase that restricts, explains, defines, supplements, or clarifies the meaning conveyed by the equivalent. Explanatory glosses arc of two kinds: the subject guide phrase and the explanation or definition. 20.6.1 Subject Guide Phrase The subject guide phrase is a brief parenthetical phrase beginning with the word "of" that restricts the range of application of the equivalent to a specific subject. Specifically, it indicates an only or typical subject of an intransitive verb, or a typical or only noun that can be modified by an adjective given in the equivalent: IHl © (of stock prices) rise 20.6.2 Explanation or Definition A word or phrase enclosed in parentheses or followed by a colon often precedes the equivalent and serves as an explanation or definition: 1. The explanation is a description, rather than a translation, of the meaning or grammatical function of a word or word element. It often helps eliminate the senses of a multisense word, usually the first word of the equivalent, that do not apply; 'L1 193a OtH (central part) heart, center, core GUIDE m 2262 © used in the formation of the names of for mcr feudal villages (farm villages that were formerly manors i see also rt£ 3051 O 2. A definition sometimes replaces the equivalent of culture-bound terms: i 2008 • original meaning ancient Chinese weapon resembling a halberd or spear 3, Word elements in some compounds are used in a sense that is vague or unknown, with little or no relation to the character's meaning. In such cases the equivalent is omitted and the compounds are grouped under the heading "unclassified compounds": © unclassified compounds #^ bento box lunch, lunch, picnic lunch Sä geiib feat, trick, stunt 4. The first word of an equivalent of an on word element or a subentry headword is often identical with a core meaning or another English keyword. It is sometimes modified by a qualify ing word or phrase, around which the senses are grouped in clusters in a manner that shows their interrelated-ness: Ä 3371 ► POWER [ToMPCJUNDS 1 OtD also suffix original meaning.' muscular power, physical strength, force, might O military power, armed force 0 (power in general: power to influence, strength, influence, authority 0© (source of energy; power, energy; mo- tive power A phyi force ©O also suRix ! (ability to do or act) power, ability, faculty In the example, the keyword power (in this case the core meaning of Jj), modified by such words as "muscular" or such glosses as "(source of en ergy)," shows how the individual senses are related to one central concept. 5. The equivalent may include various parenthetical adjuncts. These indicate a typical or only object of a transitive verb, a generic example of a class of things, a subject of a verb, or other miscellaneous items that help clarify or supplement the equivalent: ft 1455 O I original meaning] entrust (a person with a thing), place (a thing) in Homcone's charge, commit, ask If the item in a parenthetical adjunct is a typical one in its class, it may be preceded by the word "as," but the omission of the latter does not indicate that the item is necessarily the only one in its class: T(D servings (as of cutlet, noodles, etc.) 3348 Note that some parentheses indicate optional parts of the equivalent ( § 30.2), not parenthetical adjuncts. 6. An equivalent may sometimes be separated into two parts by a colon. The function of this colon is to coordinate the two parts when the meaning of the first part includes, or is another way of phrasing, the meaning of the second part: 195a GUIDE ff 2949 O catty. Am: unit of weight eu.uiv. to 600 g of 160 momme 25M 6 not ordinary: strange, unusual, abnormal, unorthodox, extraordinary, exceptional, peculiar 7. The equivalent is often subdivided by sense division numbers and accompanied by various labels, glosses, and cross-references. See also % 20.1 General Description. 8. An equivalent of a compound or example is sometimes followed by a par enthetical phrase enclosed in double quotation marks. This is a literal, character by-character translation that clarifies the meaning of each component character when this is not self-evident: T^-* bontnkBt year end party 2036 ("lorgei the year party") 20.8 Supplementary Gloss The lightface matter sometimes follow ing the equivalent is the supplementary gloss. Introduced by a dash, this typically consists of a phrase, beginning with "said of" or "used in," that supplements the equivalent by restricting its range of application, level of formality, and so on, by describing its grammatical function, or by providing encyclopedic information about it: ilk 613 [shibu(i) SL'l ■j. astringent, puckery, rough said esp. of the tasie of unripe persimmons Sometimes, a supplementary gloss is a brief parenthetical phrase similar to an explanatory gloss that explains the preceding equivalent in order to eliminate the senses of a multisense equivalent that do not apply: © I also suffix . | original meaning, heart (theorgan) 11 20.9 Cross-References The equivalent or supplementary gloss is sometimes followed by a cross-reference to a location that should be referred to for further information: t. A long equivalent in the independent or ki;n sections may occasionally be replaced by a cross-reference that points to an equivalent in the compounds section with which it is identical in meaning. This consists of an arrow followed by a number or letter in parentheses, or a combination of these connected by an ampersand, that points to the relevant sense division number or numbers: [fun minute (■ f 6G & ©ffi): fun («fr ©} The example indicates that % fun means 'minute' in senses ©O and © © and 'fun' in sense © of the COMPOUNDS section. 2. Sometimes, a cross-reference in parentheses containing an arrow refers to an appendix: a 3433 # second sign of the Oriental zodiac: the Ox (lime.) 1-3 a.m., (direction) NNE, (season) December (of the iunai calendar} OSsee appendix 7 1 © eldest son, eidcsr child used esp. in 3. Less frequently, an arrow followed by names "see" refers to a meaning in another 196a GUIDE character entry: iff 2), with which it is iden tical in meaning. Synonymous words are indicated by a cross-reference beginning with the words "same as"; [tuto I i ^Li] same as tattoi £(,1 232* 20.10 Functions of Kanji as Words and Word Elements The function of a character as a free word and word element is indicated by various typographical and other devices, as described below. The general user not interested in technical details may skip this and the next sections {§20.10 and §20.11). See also §20.2 Definitions of Terms. 20.10.1 Free Words Free word or word refers to any independent word; that is, any word that can be used on its own. This includes (1) independent on words, (2) independent kun words, and (3) most compound words. Free words can be identified as follows: 1. Any independent headword functions as a free word (independent on word): m SI I I IHtt:PENDENT "j [eki jftj lifjuid, fluid, secretion; juice, sap See also § 11. independent Section, 2. Any kun headword functions as a free word (independent kun word), unless specifically indicated that it functions only as a word element: m 493 [kakari) WfoQ J I expenses tllfl* C K&tratf ga ttasamu Rxpenses get heavy [-ga; karu) HMA<£J I resemble j£f|!8ftn-?fc shibaigakatia theatrical, affected, pompons In the example, the headword kakari is a free word, whereas the headword -gakaru includes a hyphen, which signifies that it functions as a combining form in the final position, not as a free word. 3 Most compounds and one-word examples function as free words. Some compounds, as in the example below, are used only as word elements: ± 3405 |g]± itoshi fellow (as in ^It.Rdr gakuseido shi "fellow students') 197a GUIDE 20.10.2 Combining Forms Combining form refers to a part of a word that is not an affix and that can form a new word by combining with one or more words or parts of a word. The category combining form excludes the catego ry affix. Combining forms can be identified as follows: 1. Any on word element functions as a combining form in any of its senses, unless a label indicates that in a given sense it is used only as an affix: m 1117 0© (divide by differences) separate (into groups), sort, classify, distinguish <& suffix i classified by Jl 3404 O© upper part, top; up, above ffi | also prefix upper, higher, outer In the first example, sense 0© functions only as a combining form, whereas sense ©© is used only as a suffix; in the second example, sense O© is used both as a prefix and as a combining form. 2. Any kdn headword may function as a combining form in any of its senses, unless a label or hyphen indicates that it is used only as an affix: | 2300 [arawa(su) S3"] author, write, publish 0 5 S T katuarawasu publish (a book) In the example, can be used as a combining form, as in W$W~f-as well as a free word. 3. A hum headword functioning as a combining form may be preceded or followed by a hyphen. See § 12.2.1 run Headword for details. 4, If a sense of a kun headword is preceded by the label "[in compounds]," that headword is used in that sense only as a combining form (not as an affix or free word) which may appear in the initial or in the final position: *L 3417 [maru' %} ii | in compounds 1 round, circular, spherical ftfl marugao round face, moon face (Si (also prefix | complete(ly), total(ly), per fect(ly) In the example, the label "[in compounds)" indicates that & functions as a combining form, as in See also § 23.4 Word-Formation Labels. 20.10.3 Affixes Affix refers to a part of a word added to a base (word or word element having its own lexical meaning) to form a new word. Verbal affix is a part of a word added to a base to form a new word, usually a kun verb. If an affix or verbal affix is added to the beginning of a word, it is a prefix or verbal prefix: if it is added to the end of a word, it is a suffix or verbal suffix. An affix is normally a single character added to a two-character, often Chinese-derived, compound word. However, counters, units, titles, and various function words normally function as affixes and may be attached to one-character words. The categories affix and verbal affix exclude the category combining form. Affixes and verbal affixes can be identified as follows: 1. Affixes and verbal affixes are identified by a word-formation label such GUIDE 198a as "[suffix]," "[prefix]," "[verbal suffix]," and so on, or by a phrase such as "suffix after...". These indicate that the sense or senses in question are used only as an affix or verbal af fix, not as a combining form: © suffix authored by. by 2300 2. Although combining forms and affixes are functionally distinct, mutually exclusive categories, a combining form or a free word can sometimes also function as an affix or verbal af fix in a given sense or senses. This is indicated by a word-formation label be ginning with "also," such as "[also suffix]," "[also prefix]," and "[also prefix and suffix]": [doro' ifJJ in compounds [also suffix petty thief, sneak thief, pilferer J£M doronawrt expediency coming loo late (like making a rope afier finding the thief) d^ifg kosodoro sneak, pilferer Sii^ii iidoshBdoro auro ;car Ihief In the example, #g functions as a suffix in such combinations as ^Jfj but as a combining form in such words as ifgip?- 3. A kun headword functioning as an affix or verbal affix is often preceded or followed by a hyphen. See §12.2.1 kun Headword for details. See also § 23.4 Word-Formation Labels. 20.10.4 Free Words Versus Word Elements Some forms may function exclusively as word elements, others as free words only, and yet others both as free words and as word elements. The relationship between free words and word elements is explained below: 1. Any entry character functions as an on word element in all senses given in the compounds section. 2. If an on word element in a given sense functions as an independent on word as well, that sense also appears in the independent section, and vice versa: m tiVj I COMPOUNDS | €>© clear-sighted, bright, discerning, intelligent, wise 9 eyesight I INDEPENDENT I [mei Bfl] discernment, insight: cyesighi For example, in sense ©© 'clearsighted, etc.', Pjfj is used only as a combining form, but in sense © ® 'eyesight', which also appears in the independent section, it is used both as an independent on word and as a combining form. On the other hand, in the sense 'discernment, insight', which does not appear in the compounds section, is used only as an independent on word, not as an on word element. 3. A kun headword or one of its senses functions only as a kun word element, that is, it cannot be used as a free word, if (1) the kun headword includes a hyphen, (2) a label, such as "[suffix]," "[verbal prefix]," and so on, indicates that it functions only as an affix or verba! affix, or (3) it includes the label "[in compounds]": m 853 [-(p)pana(shi) -olftLl ] sometimes also -JJtL -ttanashi~] [verbal sufHx] colloq 199a GUIDE In the example, the hyphen and the label "Iverbal suffix]" indicate that -o Wi L is used only as a word ele ment (verbal suffix). 4. A kun headword may function as a free word or as a word element, unless specifically indicated that it func tions only as a word element: i 376 [sa(BU) fSTl l:ia point to, point si. indicate h aim at, have in view [-sa(shi) -ffcLJ I suffix! player (of shogi) For example, fg-f is used as a free word or as a combining form, but -$a L is used only as a suffix; that is, it is nol used as a free won' or as a combining form. 20.11 Miscellaneous Character Functions 20.11.1 Grammatical and Syntactic Functions Various grammatical and syntactic functions, such as part of speech, are indicated by the functional labels. See §23. Functional Labels for details. 20.11.2 Numerals An English equivalent consisting of a number indicates that a word or word clement functions as a numeral. This refers to a word or word element expressing a number: OO original meanings two, second 1922 The function of a character as a numeral is the same as its function as an ordinary noun. 20.11.3 Function Words Function word refers to a word or word element whose primary function is to show grammatical relationships. This is usually a grammatical element used in forming compound words, particles, and so on: 299 © suffix indicating quality, state or degree: -tty, -ness Since function words cannot usually be translated, an explanation, rather than an English equivalent, is normally given: £n 207 Q suffix added to modifiers I noun adjectives or adverbs) to express a stale 20.11.4 Abbreviations The words "abbrev. of indicate that a word or word element functions as an abbreviation. This is a shortened form of a compound word, usually represented by its first constituent character. If the abbreviation has an English equivalent, the latter is preceded by a colon: 2393 Q abbrev. of ^/^"J-lS kyossnshugi or ^t^S kyosantd: Communism, Communist Party If the abbreviation is of a former place name, it is usually presented in the form illustrated below: 1665 & abbrev. of ^fjftit sanuki, old name for Kagawa Prefecture Sometimes, the use of a character as an abbreviation becomes so well established that it can be considered to be an integral part of its meaning. This is often the case with characters used to abbrevi- GUIDE 200a ate we!i-known country names or cities in Japan. In such cases, the meaning is given directly and its origin as an abbre viation is not indicated: Q ©O Japan 3027 dicates that a word element functions as a title. This is a suffix, usually added to the names of people, that functions as a title of courtesy on various levels of formality. Since titles cannot usually be translated, an explanation, rather than an English equivalent, is given: 20.11.5 Counters The words "counter for" indicate that a word element functions as a counter. This is a form, normally used as a suffix, that is added to a numeral and is used for counting objects, people, or abstract things. Since counters cannot usually be translated, an explanation, rather than an English equivalent, is normally given: rrn 0© counter for books, volumes or Mil copies 3483 20.11.6 Units The words "unit of" indicate that a word clement functions as a unit. This is a form, often used as a suffix, that represents a unit of measurement, weight, or volume, a monetary unit, and so on, used in China or Japan. The English equivalent or Japanese-derived loanword for the unit is normally followed by a colon and a full definition or explanation: M 3323 0 ten unii of length equiv. to approx. 1.8 m or 6 ihatu (K) Sometimes the meaning of a unit may be explained in a parenthetical gloss preced ing the equivalent: w 3100 0© (unit of angular measure, latitude, longi rude, etc.} degree © (unit of temperature or humidity) degree 20.11.7 Titles A phrase including the word "title," usually preceded by a qualifier that shows the level of formality, in m 3206 0 familiar title used in addressing peers, friends or inferiors ?ubu. restrieted to men) 20.11.8 Phonetic Substitutes The words "used phonetically for" indicate that a word element functions as a phonetic substitute. Phonetic substitutes are usually used to transliterate foreign words, typically Sanskrit Buddhist terms, with little or no relation to the character's meaning: it 26 0 used phonetically for bi in the transliteration of Sanscrit Buddhist terms Sometimes, phonetic substitutes are used to represent grammatical elements that are usually written in hiragana, without direct relation to their meanings: 900 0© used phonetically for so 0 function word indicating appearance salts market price, estimation kawa/so na poor, pitiable, pathetic S.Lttl&SJI kanashud na kao sad looking face 20,11.9 Symbols An explanation of an independent on word beginning with the word "symbol" indicates that in the sense in question the character functions as a symbol. This refers to the rare cases that a character is used as a symbol that has no pronunciation: 201a GUIDE ft 3199 [ I Mil I'l Mil K i ft symbol on fuel Irucks and the like DAN GER! 20.11.10 Names The function of char acters in the writing of names is indicated as follows: 1. The entry-head data lists the name readings of Jinmei Kanji. See § 4.7 Name Reading for details. 2. The names section lists examples of names. See § 14. names Section for ill-tails. 3. The function of a character as an ab breviation of a place name is indicated. See §20.11.4 Abbreviations for details. 4. Sometimes, a sense is used exclusive ly or predominantly in the writing of names. This is indicated in the Eng lish explanation or by a gloss: 271 [saka Raj slope, incline, hill now used al most exclusively in the writing of names Osaka Osaka 20.11.11 Special Readings Thefunc tion of characters as components of compound words having special readings is indicated as follows: 1. The entry-head data lists the special readings that can be isolated as independent readings in their own right. See § 4.5 Special Heading for details. 2. The special readings section of main entries and the compounds section of reference entries list compound words having special readings. See § 13. special readings Section for details. 21. COMPOUNDS AND EXAMPLES 21.1 General Description 21.2 Format of Compounds 21.3 Order of Compounds 21.4 Cross-References 21.1 General Description Each sense of an on word element or a subentry headword is usually illustrated by compounds and examples. Compound or compound word refers to a combination of two or more words or word elements having their own lexical meaning that together function as a sin gle word: w 648 IfcflSTS keilai suru carry, bring with one, equip oneself with JXfxT£ keiko SUfU carry along, bring Example refers to a word other than a compound (including derived and inflect ed words) or to an illustrative phrase or sentence: Mt tt£B?x.5 "ue o tatusaeru carry a stick in one's hand Compounds and examples of various parts of speech, such as nouns (rr=rj|$ kokyii) and noun adjectives {fiSj^ts, koto na), are given. The choice of a particular part of speech is often arbitrary, with primary consideration given to the word's ability to illustrate the sense in question. With minor exceptions, all main and reference entry characters in- GUIDE 202a elude compounds and examples. The explanations below apply to the compounds, independent, and kun sections. See § 13. special readings Section and 5 14. names Section for a description of the compounds and examples in those sections. 21.2 Format of Compounds The compounds and examples consist of (1) the Japanese word or phrase, (2) the romanixed transcription, and (3) the English equivalent: ^Ssf 5 J/i«sef sutu sketch |dr»wl from nature, portray 3497 1. The Japanese word or phrase is printed in Gothic type in a mixture of kana and kanji (rarely also numerals or roman letters), normally in conformity with the standard rules of or thography. If a compound or exam pic has two or more written forms, the alternative forms follow in parentheses and arc preceded by an equal sign. The equal sign does not imply that both alternatives are used with equal frequency. Normally, such parenthetical alternatives are only given when an orthographic label does not precede the sense under which the compound or example is classified, or when such a label does not apply to that particular compound or example: m 2217 0 [formerly abo 1198 0 unusual, strange, odd, extraordinary, queer, eccentric © deformity, malformation nfUfc na unusual, strange tifiii eccentric ^person}, queer odd], fellow rS&ti *""V° na strange, queer, odd RJrEft^ kisetct miracle, wonder In the example, ijfgif, which is an alternative form of l^Bf, is shown in parentheses since the label "fformerly also W does not apply to ^fc-J; that is. ftft cannot replace ^ in ^ Iff. 2. The romanized transcription in italics of the pronunciation of a Japanese word or phrase is given in the modified Hepburn system of romaniza-tion. If a compound or example has two or more readings, the alternative readings follow in parentheses and are preceded by an equal sign: 3497 —£8So<^ — ffffifl>)ic isshokenmei ( = /»-shokenmvi) ni for life, with all one's might On rare occasions, such as in the case of certain abbreviations used in newspapers, no transcription is given since the word cannot be pronounced: ft f£WC «*$&fitr?fj£ hoshukei mushoioku) conservative without party affiliation In the example, fJJ*£ has no pronun ciation, but the full form from which it is abbreviated is pronounced as shown. 3. The lightface English equivalent of a compound or example appears immediately after the romanized tran scription. It is not divided by sense division numbers. The equivalent is sometimes accompanied by various la bels and glosses. These and the equivalent are described in § 20. Character Meanings and in sections § 22. through § 25. 21.3 Order of Compounds The compounds and examples are grouped by meaning in a manner that 203a GUIDE shows how they arc formed from their constituent parts. In the compounds, independent, and kun sections of main entries, they are subdivided into groups that appear in the following order: 1. By section: on compounds and examples appear in the compounds sec tion, independent on words in the independent section, and kun compounds and examples in the kin sec tion, 2. By subentry: in the independent and kun sections, the compounds and examples arc grouped by suben try headword; that is, the compounds and examples illustrating a particular subentry headword are grouped together under that headword: 3169 I COMPOt'NM ) O© original meaning choose, select, elect © .ilso suffix I selection, anthotogy aKtRTA &t"taku soro selecl, choose jStt senbsisv seJcclion, choice [sen jg) selection, choice i8FCA$ *en ni toiru he chosen, be selected | ki'n ] [era bu> choose, prefer, select, eleci .h^l^iS-a* /am P* atabu make a good choice iRI.f etabBtaru be elecied In the example, i^l;A5 appears in the independent section under sen, S'ftTS appears in the kun section under ersbu. and so on. 3, By sense: within the same section or Subentry, compounds and examples il lustrating a particular sense (main sense or subsense) are grouped togeth cr under the same main sense. If a main sense is divided into subsenses, the compounds and examples do not appear immediately after each sub-sense that they illustrate; rather, they are all listed together under the same main sense and subdivided into groups in the order of the subsenses to which they apply: 319a ©© }Q atmosphere © psychologic a! environment) atmosphere, tone kiatsu atmospheric [air] pressure kton ■atmospheric) temperature-^jrl taiki ihe atmosphere_ kivn luck, tendency, opportunity ketkt things, times, business conditions © breath %l£ kikan trachea, windpipe In the example, %JE. KS, and A 55 illustrate subsense ©0, so they are grouped together, while and illustrate subsense © © and are grouped together. By position of entry character: compounds and examples illustrating a specific subsense, or, if there are no subsenses, a specific main sense, usually appear in the following order: (a) those consisting of one-character words, with or without okurigana or auxiliaries, (b) those in which the entry character appears in the initial position, and (c) those in which the entry character does not appear in the initial position. In the previous example, %S. and 5*Um, which illustrate sense ©0 and have %, in the initial position, GUIDE 204a appear first, and are followed by A in which % is in the final position. Next appears >ti,iS, which illustrates sense ©© with 51 again in the initial position. In this manner, a shift of the entry character to the initial position signals the beginning of the next subsense group. 5. By type; within the same position group, compounds usually precede ex amples: 341 [abura :±) oil. animal oil, vegetable oil ,t1lK] aburae oil painting jlfeflL aburaka grcasincss, oiliness abura o uru loaf, idle away one's lime The ordering criteria and manner of or ganization of compounds and examples in reference entries are described in §26. Reference Entries. 21.4 Cross References On rare occasions, the compounds and examples are followed, or completely replaced, by a cross-reference to another location where compounds and examples illustrating the sense in question appear: rti © f usLi. it^ 569 width, breadth, range •-■<> see fos 569 for compounds 22. ORTHOGRAPHIC LABELS 22.1 Label Description 22.2 Explanation of Labels 22.3 Label Format 22.1 Label Description The lightface matter in square brackets sometimes appearing at the beginning of a sense is the orthographic label. This indicates the orthographic variant(s) of a word or word element: 2053 © sometimes also 5£ 20161 (not based on reason blind, reckless, aimless Orthographic variants refers to two or more characters that are partially or completely interchangeable in a given sense. For example, is interchangeable with in certain compounds but not in others. One variant is often a phonetically replaced character, while the other is a phonetic replacement character. See §26.1.1 Phonetically Replaced Characters for details. Orthographic labels serve three purposes: (1) to indicate the degree of inlcr-changeability between orthographic variants, (2) to specify the sense in which such variants arc interchangeable, and (3) to serve as a cross-reference to the orthographic variants of the entry character, enabling the user to study their differences and similarities. 22.2 Explanation of Labels The meanings of the orthographic labels, which are mostly self-evident, are explained below. The word now refers to Modern Japanese, especially in the postwar period, and implies that orthographic usage differs from the prewar period. The word formerly refers especially to Japanese in the prewar period, and implies that orthographic usage differs in the postwar period. The meaning of archaic is explained in §24.3 Temporal Labels. The entry character in which the orthographic label shown in the Label column appears is designated by A; the character within the orthographic label is designated by B. That is, the orthographic label being explained appears in the character entry for A. 205a GUIDE Label Explanation [rarely also ß] A is common; B is extremely rare or archaic [sometimes also ß] (1) A is common; B is unusual or rare (2) A is now common; B is now also sometimes used [also ß] A and B arc more or less equally common [now also ß] (1) A and B are used interchangeably in some compounds and examples (2) A and B are now more or less equally common [usu. ß] A is unusual or rare; B is common [now usu. B] (1) B replaces A in most compounds and examples (2) B is now common [formerly ß] A is now common; A was not formerly used, or B may formerly have been used in all compounds and examples [formerly also ß] A is now common; A and B have both been used, or B may formerly have been used in some compounds and ex- amples [now replaced by ß] A may now be replaced by B in all compounds and exam- [now always ß] ples A is extremely rare or archaic; B is common 22.3 Label Format 1. An orthographic label often applies to all the compounds and examples classified under that sense, but sometimes it applies to only some com pounds and examples, as described in the explanation for each label: 3007 $ I formerly also 38 fu 1594J insinuate, hint, satirize faffi fushi satire, sarcasm fuyu him. insinuation, allegory ISM O [now replaced by H 3007 insinuate, hint, satirize SM fushi satire, sarcasm fuyu hint, insinuation, allegory £ fusuru insinuate, hint, satirize In the entry for JH,, the label indi cates that M, is now commonly used but that H may formerly have been used in some compounds and exam- ples. In the entry for J$, the label in dicates that J6, may now be replaced by H in all compounds and examples, not just those given. 2. An italicized reading following an orthographic variant indicates that the characters are interchangeable only for that reading: 1S7Z # ; now also Jf: hi 889] .original mean ing] slander, calumniate, defame If an orthographic variant of an on word element is not followed by a reading, the oji reading in the entry-head data applies. For orthographic variants accompanying a run headword, the reading of that kun headword applies: 1100 K° O "now replaced by J£ 3035" [original meaning] vast, spacious, open GUIDE 3135 [a(u) iB-5] "also j8^! (come upon, esp. by accident} meet wnh, encounter, be confronied In ihc first example, ff£ is replaced by its orthographic variant f£ for the reading k6, which is the only on reading given in the entry-head data. In the second example, the reading of the kun headword au applies; that is, and arc intcrchangea blc for the reading au. 3. If a word or word clement has two or more orthographic variants, the orthographic labels arc combined appropriately to show the relationship of the entry character to each of its orthographic variants, as illustrated below: 2216 [shtawa(se) #tt] [also fffrrjtr. formerly also (f-t* I happiness, blessing, good fortune section. See § 17. homophonks Section for details. 23. FUNCTIONAL LABELS 23.1 Label Description 23.2 Part-of-Spcech Labels 23.3 Usage Labels 2,'M Word-Formation Labels 23.5 Miscellaneous Functional Labels 23.1 Label Description The lightface matter sometimes preceding the equivalent is the functional label. This indicates various grammatical and syntactic functions associated with a sense: © pronoun this © drmonstrotwt this • [prefix] (before place names) Great, Greater 3416 4. The character within an orthographic label is often followed by its entry number, which acts as a cross-reference to where it appears as an enlry character in its own right: Functional labels are of four kinds: part-of-speech, usage, word-formation, and miscellaneous. These are sometimes combined with each other or with a status label, or are modified in some other way: 0 formerly also tt 1499: write down, lake notes of, record To save space, orthographic variants of Kti'N headwords are not normally followed by their entry numbers, since these appear in the homophones 3416 Ö [honorific prefix © great, honorable © Imperial 23.2 Part-of-Speech Labels The part-of-speech label, set in italics, indicates part of speech. The meaning of each label is explained below: 207a GUIDE demonstrative function word that refers to something in terms of distance from the speaker particle particle or postposition pronoun pronoun vi intransitive verb vi & vi intransitive verb and transitive verb vi transitive verb Part of speech and other grammatical functions are usually made clear by the wording of the equivalent and the glos ses, or by miscellaneous functional labels. Part-of-spcech labels appear most ly when it is necessary to eliminate ambi guity for a sense whose part of speech is not already self-evident: eat [he ru | jtfi) vi decrease, diminish, lessen, run low, wear [ho rasu | XhTl «" decrease, reduce, lessen, shorten, cut 23.3 Usage Labels tion in which it normally appears. Usage _, , . . labels apply mostly to free words, cspe- The usage label enclosed in square cW, K(N hcadwords xhe usagc labds brackets, indicates how a word or word do nQ[ ^ fl fij(cd fofm Typica] ]a. element » used, especially Its syntactic ^ whjch ^ modJfitd in som(, function and the grammal.cal construe- arc laincd bdow: [in the form of...] Indicates the form in which the word is normally used: [tsu(keru) tttfSl 31 * ii in the form of Uti'C tsukete] refer to. re late to, connect with [followed by...] Indicates the form that the word is followed by [following the...] Indicates the form that the word normally follows: [mi(ru) S.iJ 2S44 6 following the TE form of verbs] [in negative Used in negative constructions: constructions] tm [sugu rerui HrvS] 177 2.: fusu. in negative constructions be fine, feel well GUIDE 208a Miscellaneous usage Indicate grammatical constructions or other contexts in labels which the word is normally used: .j^ [sama ft] ,0S2 4 often preceded by J-> o or $J go suffix for forming polite phrases 23.4 Word-Formation Labels The word formation label, enclosed in square brackets, indicates the function of a form as a word element (affix or combining form). The absence of a word-formation label before the equivalent of an on word clement indicates that the character functions as a combining form in that sense. The absence of such a label before the equivalent of a kun headword indicates that that headword functions as an independent tun word that may also function as a combining form in that sense. Word-formation labels do not appear in the indkpkndfnt section or in the compounds and examples. The meaning of each label is explained below. The terms used in the explanations are defined in § 20.10. [prefix] used only as prefix; not used as combining form or free word [also prefix] prefix also used as combining form or free word [suffix] used only as suffix; not used as combining form or free word [also suffix] suffix also used as combining form or free word [also prefix and suffix] prefix also used as suffix [verbal prefix] used only as verbal prefix [verbal suffix] used only as verbal suffix [in compounds] kun word element used only as combining form; not used as affix or free word Other word-formation labels, such as "[also verbal suffix]," "[mainly in compounds]," and the like, sometimes ap pear. The meanings of these labels correspond to the meanings of the standard word-formation labels listed above. The example below illustrates a typical word-formation label: Word-formation is often indicated by the wording of the equivalent, in which case the label is omitted: 2035 & suffix indicating the chronological order of years in a given era © 1 also suffix limit, bounds 398 Word-formation labels are sometimes combined with each other or with other labels: f-mawa su -[s]T] emphatic verbal suffix_ about, around 3055 23.5 Miscellaneous Functional Labels Miscellaneous functional labels, enclosed in square brackets, indicate various functions of the character as a word or word element: 209a GUIDE a function word that functions as an adjunct to another word a form that gives additional emphasis [auxiliary] [emphatic. 7 [ko- /]V-] emphatic preceding adjectives or verbs I a liule, slighily, very 24 STATUS LABELS 24.1 Label Description 24.2 Etymological Labels 24.3 Temporal Labels 24.4 Stylistic Labels 24.5 Formality Isabels 24.1 Label Description The lightface matter in square brackets or italics sometimes preceding the equivalent is the status label. This restricts the sense to a particular time, level of style, or level of formality: ft 91 © [archaic] urge someone to eal or drink, assist with a meal Status labels are of four kinds: ctymolog ical, temporal, stylistic, and formality. Status is sometimes indicated by the wording of the equivalent, in which case the status label is omitted: © honorific term used in reference to the Emperor or Buddha Status labels are sometimes combined with each other or with a functional label: GUIDE © original meaning, now archaic] jump over Can obstacle), cross over 24.2 Etymological Labels The etymological label, enclosed in square brackets, indicates that the sense in question is the first to appear historically. There is only one kind of etymological label: [original indicates that the sense is meaning] the first meaning of the char actcr after its formation in ancient China (rarely in Ja pan). An etymological label is sometimes combined with a temporal label, as illustrated below: [original meaning, now rare] [original meaning, now archaic] [original meaning, now obsolete] The original meaning sometimes coincides with a core meaning, in which case it is also the most important, or one of the most important, meanings of the character: ► PHENOMENON ►ELEPHANT 213fl : O .......: I meaning] elephant Though etymological labels appear quite often, the treatment of original meanings is not exhaustive. An etymological label is likely to appear when it helps clarify the meaning of the character or the inter-relatcdness between senses, even if that meaning is rare or archaic: OO I original meaning, now rarej (emitting 210a light} luminous, bright, shining © [enjoying ihe glory of enhghiencd rule) enlightened, glorious, illustrious Sometimes, an etymological label ts given for one of the senses of a com pound word to help clarify how its con stituent characters relate to each other: 3100 ^STi shttaku sum arrange, prepare; [ofig inal meaning, now archaic measure, csti mate 24.3 Temporal Labels The temporal label, enclosed in square brackets, restricts the accompanying sense lo a particular time. This label refers only to the word or word element it accompanies, not to the thing represented. The absence of a temporal label indi cates that the sense is current in Modern Japanese. This refers to the language in [rare] [archaic] [obsolete] A temporal label is sometimes combined with an etymological label, as illustrated below. This means that the sense in question is an original meaning whose temporal status is as indicated by the contemporary usage, especially since the Mciji Restoration in 1868, and does not include words and constructions used only in classical Japanese. The Meiji Res toration marks a period of transition, rather than a precise temporal boundary, for distinguishing between modern and archaic Japanese. The meaning of each label is explained below: second part of the label: [original meaning, now rare] [original meaning, now archaic] [original meaning, now obsolete] Indicaies that the sense is of infrequent occurrence in Modern Japanese, This label applies only to ordinary words or word elements in current use, not to technical terms, nor to archaic or obsolete ones: -u> 9 [rarej death penalty (in aneieni China) tiy^ imposed on an offender and his whole SSB family Indicates that the sense was used before the Meiji Restoration, especially in the classics and classical Chinese, or in ordinary usage during or before the Edo period: m "archaic truly, really, utterly Indicates that the sense is not used in Modern Japanese and only rarely, if ever, in the classics. This label always appears in conjunction with an etymological label: ©© original meaning, now obsolete^ stand on tr* tiptoe 2021 211a GUIDE 24.4 Stylistic Labels The stylistic label, set in italics, restricts the accompanying sense to a particular level of style. Since style is more likely to apply to free words, rather than word elements, stylistic labels appear literary elegant etil I no slang vulgar Other terms that do not appear in the stylistic labels, such as "pompous" and "intimate," may be used to indicate stylistic level: mostly with klin and indlphndfnt headwords, not on word elements. The absence of a stylistic label indicates that the sense in question is of neutral style. The meaning of each label is explained below: [v° &] 3) [also 1933] 1. myself, the present writer historically used as a formal first person pronoun but now only used pompously Indicates a style of language found in literature, particularly bcllcs-lettcrs. It does not refer merely to the written language as opposed to the spoken language, nor does it restrict the sense to classical Japanese literature: 6 IB m 3 literary as, just like, no more...than Indicates a style of language associated with poetry, such as haiku or tanka, which is unlikely to be used in the standard language: vffi [urfl Mi irn I elegant seaside, seashore 437 The label colloq for "colloquial" indicates a style of language characteristic of (he spoken language: [den fE] cottoq way, manner, trick Indicates a style of speech used between intimate friends, the family circle, and so on. It is used in extremely informal contexts, often in facetious figures of speech: [zu [g] 3071 m 3 slang expectation, intention Appears with a small number of senses or words associated with social taboo: [ketsu /C] vulgar ass, fanny, tail end GUIDE 212a 24.5 Formality Labels The formality label, enclosed in square brackets, restricts the accompanying sense to a particular level of formality. Since level of formality is more likely lo apply to free words, rather than to word elements, formality labels are given most- [honorific] [humble] [polite] [belittling] Other terms that do not appear in the formality labels, such as "neutral," may be used to indicate level of formality: Be 29S1 | SV WOW VMS | [Shi] O third person pronouns iS ihird pkrson pronoun (.neutral) -»290 Formality labels are sometimes com- ly for K\'ts and independent headwords. The absence of a formality label in a subentry headword indicates neutrality; that is. neither respect nor humility. Unless indicated otherwise, subentry headwords appear in their dictionary form and are of neutral formality. The mean ing of each label is explained below; bined with functional labels; _JU* © I honorific prefix | © grea*, honorable Level of formality is often indicated by the wording of the equivalent or explana tion, in which case the formality label is omitted: ~[-f- [-domo -S] belittling or liumble plural suffix 2393 * Indicates a level of language in which respect is shown by elevating the status of the grammatical suhjeel: © : honorific ! your, your honorable 2097 Indicates a level of language in which respect is shown through humility; that is, by lowering the status of the subject: ® humble | my humble, my poor Indicates a level of language used in standard polite conversation; that is, the desu-masu style: £^ [shi ft] polite third person pronoun. Indicates a level of language used to show contempt or abuse by lowering the status of ihc person addressed: [yakara ££] belittling; fellows, guys; family; kinsmen 2 »07 213a GUIDE 25. SUBJECT LABELS jr^ (Ti matk element, dimension 25.1 Label Description 25.2 Label Format 25.1 Label Description The lightfacc matter in italics sometimes preceding the equivalent is the subject label. This identifies the field to which the sense applies, usually a branch of science: (.:) music major 2SS6 The appearance of a subject label does not imply that the sense is never used in fields other than the one indicated by the label. 25.2 Label Format The subject label is often an abbrevia tion, as ckem for "chemistry." Subject la bel abbreviations are listed with their full forms in Abbreviations and Symbols on p. 225a. Typical examples are given below: © btot phylum, division, subkingdom © [now replaced by j£ en 2420. original meaningj flame, blaze © I now usu. £ er> 2420 or iff hano] (figuratively) flames (as of passion) ;k;JtQ kaen flames, blaze títS ioen flaming desires, burning passions SItSíítí *'en ° haku shin. 3. Those replaced by characters not in the official list that have the same kun reading, e.g., DfJ uta replaced by |t uta. The reference entries for phonetically replaced characters always contain a cross-reference to their corresponding phonetic replacement characters. The cross-reference appears in an orthograph ic label and/or in the homophones or note section: 400 | compounds | ©© usu % <"<> I also suffix: song, ballad ID usu Sft'j o»ol recite, sing used esp in reference lo traditional Japanese songs II. m< phones | uta ■ : 1825 Mm ■» ft 1825 i% 1597 „B 1632 | note | **aee usace nole at !ft 1825 26.1.2 Radicals and Their Variants The reference entry characters also include characters that are radicals or radical variants but are not listed as main entry characters. Most of these characters, which are used only as radicals but not as words or word elements in their own right, contain only the radical section: 344S [ «AI)IC«L 78 | Slandard form: y gttsuhen 'death' (.^E H &f.) Description: used in characters related eo death or serious injury The remaining characters, which are used both as radicals and as words or word elements in their own right, contain both the compounds and radical sections: m 3S85 I B AlHCAI 206 ] Standard form kanae 'ritual cauldron' Description: used in characters related to ritual cauldrons or tripod vessels I i < ,'MPtii nD< j O [.original meanings tripod cauldron ^©llM£fkj^ kanae no keicho o tou weigh one's ability, call one's ability into question 215a GUIDE 26.2 Entry Format The organization of reference entries is similar to that of main entries. The entry-head data is printed across the page in single column format, and the explanatory matter is organized into sections and set in two columns separated from each other by a dotted line. 26.2.1 Entry-Head Data The entry-head data of reference entries consists of the entry character ( § 1.3). the entry number ( § 1.4), typeface styles ( § 3.3), Chinese ( § 5.), character readings ( § 4.), and the reference data box (§7.). Each item is described in the section indicated by the cross-reference in parentheses. 26.2.2 The Sections The cxplamito ry matter of reference entries is subdivided into four parts referred to as sections, which appear in the order listed below. Not every entry includes every section—only those sections required for describing the entry character are given. Section Label Description | KATITCAL ) The radical section describes the function of the entry character as a radical. See § 8. radical Section for details. rcOMPOUNDS | The compounds section, subdivided by sense division numbers and letters, lists all the meanings of the entry character, regardless of function or reading. Each meaning is usually accompanied by compounds and examples and their English equivalents. See § 26.3 compounds Section for details. HOMOPHONI 5 The jioMdi'iiONl.s section lists groups of homophones and their entry numbers for cross-reference. See § 17. homophones Section for details. | note | The note section consists of various kinds of cross-references and/or explanatory notes. See § 19. note Section for details. 26.3 compounds Section The matter headed by the label | compolinus"! is the compounds section. In reference entries, this section lists all the meanings of the entry character, regardless of function or reading. That is, the meanings of on word elements, independent on words, kun words and word elements, and compound words having special readings are all treated in the same section. Each meaning is usually subdivided by sense division numhers and letters and accompanied by compounds and examples and their English equivalents: in 1s2g ■. ■m'tji rv.s ! O© original meaning : become tame [domesticated ; © now also M fvn 181 tame, domesticate UEftfc nareta ramcT domesticated WsfcC najimu become familiar, grow accus turned, get (clothing) to fit •UfffcT^ junchi suru tame, habituate; lead to WHfc junka acclimation narasu tame, domesticate IrttJ U^- r&r&shite tamer £H[g| tonskai reindeer GUIDE 216a The compounds section is given for all reference entries whose main entry character is used as a word or word element (which is almost all of them). 26.3.1 Character Meaning The meaning of the entry character as a word or word element, regardless of its function or reading, is given by the English equivalent: | compound;. I © wager, bet money © I uwi. 1{tlJS kakeru stake (one's life), risk The meaning is usually subdivided by sense division numbers and may include various labels, glosses, and cross-references. These and the equivalent arc described in § 20. Character Meanings and in sections § 22. through §25. 26.3.2 Compounds and Examples Compounds and examples, grouped by meaning, usually accompany each sense. These consist of compound words, free words, inflected and derived words, a word followed by a particle or auxiliary, or a phrase or sentence: of main entries except for some minor details. The main difference is that in reference entries the compounds and examples are all grouped together in one section—the compounds section—whereas in main entries they are grouped into sections by type of reading. In reference entries, the compounds and examples are subdivided into groups that appear in the following order: 1. By sense: compounds and examples illustrating a particular sense (main sense or suhsense) are grouped together under the same main sense. 2. By type of reading: on compounds and examples, independent on words, kun compounds and examples, and special-reading compound words are grouped together, in that order, 3. By position of entry character: within the same readings group, the compounds and examples are usually grouped by entry character position. 4. By type: within the same position group, compounds usually precede examples. See §21. Compounds and Examples for details. sou ©0 usu. gfejf h akiru grow tired of, lose interest in © he disgusted with, detest, dislike BSI^ffi enseikan pessimism BISS ensert war weariness JH JH JT5 akiaki suru be sick (of), be bored (with) flftSB orvv" Buddhism depart from (in disdain) ftou dislike; be disgusted with; rake (good) care of feSISlilf^ttl'1 kiken o itowanai do not mind running a risk The order of the compounds and examples in reference entries is similar to that 27. NONSTANDARD ENTRIES 27.1 Entry Description 27.2 Entry Format 27.1 Entry Description The nonstandard forms of main entry characters are treated as separate entries referred to as nonstandard entries. These appear along with their core meanings at their own SKIP locations with a cross-reference to their corresponding standard forms: 217a GUIDE ►COUNTRY nonstandard for rjj 3087 3132 Nonstandard form refers to a variant form other than the standard form of ap proved characters, and to a variant form other than the traditional form of unap proved characters. This includes the traditional form (full unsimplified form), the alternative forms (variant forms other than the traditional form), and the handwritten ahbreviation (simplified form used in handwriting). Nonstandard entries can be distinguished from other types of character entries by the words "nonstandard for..." in the line below the core meaning(s), and by the absence of explanatory matter organized into sections. See also §3.1.2 Nonstandard Forms. 27.2 Entry Format The nonstandard entry is printed across the page in single column format. All nonstandard entries consist of (1) the entry-head data, (2) the core mean-ing(s), and (3) the description: 1. The entry-head data of all nonstandard entries consists of the entry char acter (§1.3), the entry number (§1.4), and the Ming typeface (§3.3.1). Each item is described in the section indicated by the cross-reference in parentheses. Other explanatory matter, such as readings, meanings, and compounds and examples can be found under the main entry for the corresponding standard form. 2, The core meaning or meanings, preceded by the symbol ►, are given for each nonstandard entry. 3. A brief description indicates the type of nonstandard form and includes a cross-reference to the corresponding standard form, as illustrated below. Traditional or alternative forms: ► SWORD nonstandard for $J 1672 1903 Handwritten abbreviation: » AFFAIR * ABSTRACT THING handwritten abbreviation lor iff 3^7 3556 Nonstandard forms that are also radicals or radical variants include, in addition to the items descrihed above, the reference data hox (§7,), the stroke order diagram (§6.), and the radical section ( § 8.), Each item is described in the section indicated hy the cross-references in parentheses. B 3028 ► DAY »> SUN ►JAPAN nonstandard for B 3027 i n r b Standard form: 0 hi 'sun' Variant: 0 hi ($j # i_) Inscription: used in characters reJatŕíl to the sun, sunlight or Lime Radical FJ 72 Strokes 4-4-0 C rade Variant Freq O 3 - 3 - 1 GUIDE 218a 28. CROSS-REFERENCE ENTRIES 28.1 Entry Description 28.2 Entry Format 28.1 Entry Description Character entries appearing at an incorrect SKIP location with a cross-reference to the character entry at the correct loca tion are referred to as cross reference entries. 5-2 incorrect classification •: s« 2203 Cross-reference entries can be distinguished from other types of character entries by the words "incorrect classifica tion..." or "incorrect stroke count and by the absence of entry numbers and explanatory matter organized into sections. 28.2 Entry Format The cross-reference entry is printed across the page in single column format. It consists of (1) the entry character, (2) a description of the incorrect location, and (3) the correct location. Cross-reference entries are of two kinds: single character and multiple-character. See SYSTEM OF KANJ1 INDEXING HV patterns § 2.6 Cross-References for details. The romanization system employed is the widely used Hepburn system, with the slight modifications adopted in Kenkyusha's Nexv Japanese-English Dictionary. This system is described in Appendix 4. Kana and Romanization. 29.2 Typeface Styles 1. Romanized transcriptions of compounds and examples are set in casy-to-read sanserif italics to distinguish ihem from other explanatory matter: eds o kiru prune a tree 2306 2. Subentry headwords and other roman-ized headings are set in boldface sanserif roman: 29. ROMANIZATION 29.1 Romanization System 29.2 Typeface Styles 29.3 Word Division 29.1 Romanization System The italicized matter following Japanese words or word elements is the roman-tzed transcription. This is a representation of the Japanese pronunciation by means of the roman alphabet; [yoroko'bu) t=i 2308 3. Romanized transcriptions, including transcriptions of proper nouns, are normally set in lowercase: JtiSrääilSS tomei kosokudoro Tokyo- Nagoya Expressway Capitals are used only for the first letter of the first word of a sentence or part of a sentence: 2308 -g —15 ikkiichiyü fälä^txfciSaTäSft^S Kare wa gakkö 219a GUIDE o chikoku suru koto ga aru He is some times tale for school In special contexts, such as the pre sentation of character readings in the entry-head data and the On-Kun Index, roman capitals are used to iden tify on readings while roman lower case is used (o identify kun readings: m 3031 tatshc suru cope [deal] with, meet Word elements are normally written solid as part of the word in which they appear: KRiS boakikti trade port 2273 KA KE 'e VB ucnl* 29.3 Word Division There is no universally-accepted convention for the division of words in roman-ized Japanese. Different works spell compound words either solid, hyphenated, or open (separated by a space). The policy adopted here is designed to closely reflect the function of, and the semantic re lationship between, word and sentence components. The main principles are ex plained below: 1. Free words, including particles and auxiliaries that are not an integral part of the word, are normally treat ed as independent units and sepa rated by a space; "tii $££55,rJ5 koto o wakeru reason "d""1 with (a person.! Sometimes, as when a suffix applies to more than one word, this relation is shown by a hyphen: 3£ HSffiJcS^S mishime yukio cho c3 authored by Mishima Yukio 2300 5. Compounds are normally written sol id. If a four-character compound consists of two independent two-character compounds, these are separated by a space or a hyphen,depending on the degree of relatedness between them: flS=t*{SJ£ >>yaiun hansa standard 14m deviation 133 However, four-character compounds are written solid if they express an integrated semantic unit: Vfe* MS^t tozainanbokv north, south, ^T** east and west 2. Free words consisting of one character plus the auxiliary verb -f & suru or one of its variants (such as -"f 5 -zuru), or another function word that forms an integral part of the word, are treated as a single unit and spelled solid: 30. OTHER CONVENTIONS [shosuro &T2p] 3. Two-character compounds followed by " suru are treated as two words: 30.1 General Description 30.2 Punctuation Marks 30.3 Typeface Styles 30.4 Omission of Function Words 30.5 Applicability of Labels and Glosses 30.6 Miscellaneous Conventions 30.1 General Description A wide range of typeface styles and sizes and other typographical conventions en- GUIDE 220a sure maximum ease of use of ihe dictio nary. The various conventions are, for the most part, self-explanatory. Each convention is described in detail in the relevant sections in this GUIDE TO THE DICTIONARY. Those conventions that apply throughout the dictionary, especially those that are not explained elsewhere, arc described below, 30.2 Punctuation Marks The punctuation marks described below arc used in special ways. They are also used as in ordinary writing, along with other punctuation marks. Punctuation marks do not normally appear in roman-ized transcriptions. 1. Parentheses ( ) are used (a) to enclose okurigana of kun readings, (b) to enclose explanatory glosses (§20.6) and miscellaneous explanatory matter, especially in the equivalent (§20.7); (c) to indicate that words or parts of words may be included or left out, i.e.. pick (up) is the same as pick or pick up; and (d) to indicate alternative Japanese forms or readings, e.g., Jfe^ seton (~yo-ron), 2. Square brackets [ 1 are used (a) to enclose most labels (§22. through §24.); and (b) to indicate alternatives, i.e., pick \takf\ up is the same as pick up or take up, 3. The virgule . is used (a) to occasionally indicate alternatives, especially in cross-reference entries and the synonyms section; and (b) to separate illustrative sentences: « (nani, nan jSJ] what, which, whatever—used also in the Format inn of various inlerroeanve |.rm:mir:^ 5. The hyphen - is used indicate that a KUN headword is used as a word element (§ 12.2.1): [-maw3'shi -ÜL/J turning, rotating fj. Single quotation marks ' ' are often used to enclose the meanings of Japanese words when these appear within an explanatory text: m [ eOMI'Ot'NO FORMATION | fb5f$ 'beautiful woman; courtesan' derives 7. Semicolons (;) and commas (,) are used to separate synonyms or near-synonyms of a sense ( §20,4): m 147 I KUN~| [kalaiva ra fSti] besides, while; side 8. Periods do not appear after illustrative sentences: Ml 35 SI XaLfdSETli Msta asabi ni kite ku-dasai Come and see me again J^p" © phonetic [»];[*h] 266 Tjb 0$ft.&?t* Gomen nasai I'm sorry Excuse me 2067 4. The dash — is used to introduce a supplementary gloss ( § 20.8): 30.3 Typeface Styles The principal typeface styles used in the dictionary are summarized below: 1, The equivalents and other English explanatory matter are set in light-face roman. Equivalents of level-one 221a GUIDE importance are set in l>oldfacc ro- m 3« 77 O© Rem, jewelry:, precious stone © [original meaning] jade 2. Core meanings, headwords, most headings, character readings, and var ious other items are set in sanserif ro-man: 2066 SAN shin* manrui ► PARTICIPATE ► VISIT A HOLY PLACE [mai(ru) S J ] 3. Japanese compounds and examples are set in Gothic type. The entry character and other explanatory mat ter in Japanese, such as orthographic labels, are set in Ming type: 3JS-7 @ [formerly also ris(t-5] arrange .flowers'! Jfel'T^E ikebana flower arrangement 4. Romanized transcriptions are normally set in sanserif italics: £££ setta pupil, student 30.4 Omission of Function Words To save space, some function words (words that have grammatical function) that do not affect meaning have been omitted from the English equivalents and other explanatory matter: 1 Articles, especially the definite article the, are usually omitted unless such an omission changes the meaning or is extremely unidiomatic: ± 7152 AH iniyo sun taiko father of the Imperial adviser, Toyotomi tfideyoshi The word to is usually omitted from the infinitives of verbs. The status of a word as a verb is made clear by context, a gloss, or a part-of-speech label: dti. © travel by vehicle or craft, ^ drive, sail hfr © (weaken, as in spirit > break "ill down, (cause to) lose heart 30.5 Applicability of Labels and Glosses A label or gloss appears before the mat ter to which it applies, as explained below: 5. Section names and labels, and some cross-references, are set in small capitals: 2390 ^ see also usaot note at 'J* ? 1. A label or gloss that applies to a particular sense (main sense or subsense) appears before the equivalent to which it applies. The information ap plies from the point where it ap pears, which is usually right after a GUIDE 222a sense division number or letter, but may be in the middle of an equiva lent: tuet OO emperor, sovereign related to the emperor, imperial O I formerly f? ka S81 be afraid, be anxious, be fturr*ed 2549 [ku reru i Stlil give (to the speaker), give (to an inferior, animal or plant), [following the TE form of verbs i do something for (the benefit of the speaker) In the first example, the label "[formerly [$ ko 581]" applies only to sense O, not to any other sense; in the second example, the gloss "[following the TE-form of verbs]" applies up to the end of the sense start ing from the point where it appears. 2. If a label or gloss applies to an entire section, subentry, compound, or example, it precedes all the senses. If it applies to all the subsenses of a main sense, it precedes the first subsense division letter: n 31 | COMPOUNDS I L sometimes also pft 347] OO attach, append, add to, affix © attached, additional, supplementary 0 adjacent, near to ft^fi tukin neighborhood, environs, vicinity A 3368 © suffix] © person of specific geographical origin, nationality or race Q> person of certain category, as the perform er of an action or holder of an occupa (ion -er (as in manager) In the first example, the label "[some times also ftf 347]" applies to all the senses in the compounds section; in the second example, the label "[suffix]" applies to all the subsenses of sense © i.e., 0© and ©@. 3. A label or gloss in an unnumbered sense normally applies up to the end of that sense, but may apply up to the first semicolon, depending on context. ft 296 [kowa i flfnj | also Sl>l fearful, scary, uncanny, be afraid hX 1448 [une jft] j original meaningl ridge, furrow, rib. cord (of textiles) In the first example, the label "also [Si >]" applies to the entire sense; in the second example, the label "[original meaning]" applies up to the first semicolon, that is, it does not apply to rib and cord. 4. A label normally applies to all the compounds and examples listed under the sense (main sense or sub-sense) where that label appears, as well as to the compounds and examples that can be classified under that sense but that do not appear in the dictionary: i 2049 O formerly also ke 1189] (not fre quent) rare, uncommon, unusual, scarce ^fiS kisho rare book #7cM k/genso rare element 223a GUIDE %'J?fA kislyo na scarce, rare 1: U keti i *w rare, unusual, untom men three score and ten. seventy years of age In the example, the label "(formerly also ftf, W, Ate 1189]" applies to all the compound words listed, as well as to such words as %^t<0 kisei no 'uncommon, rare', which, although not listed, can also be classified un der sense O However, if such a la bel does not apply to an individual compound, an alternative form in pa rcmheses or a label accompanies tbc equivalent of that compound. 30.6 Miscellaneous Conventions 1. Japanese words and phrases are normally written in a mixture of kanji and kana according to the standard rules of orthography. Except for special contexts, okurigana endings con form to the official rules published by the Japanese government. 2. Character forms in the Joyo Kanji and Jinmei Kanji lists normally appear in the standard form. Other characters are normally given in the traditional form. 3. In principle, American English and spellings arc used in the equivalents and other explanatory matter. 4. Some common abbreviations arc used in the equivalents, labels, and other explanatory matter: abbrcv. abbreviation approx. approximately equiv. equivalent esp. especially usu. usually All abbreviations, especially those used in the subject labels, are listed with their full forms in Abbreviations and Symbols on p. 225a. GUIDE 224a ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ABBREVIATIONS abbrev, abbreviation a.d. anno Domini a.m. ante meridiem anal anatomy approx. approximately as.tr on astronomy b.c. before Christ biol biology bot botany chem chemistry cm centimeter colloq colloquial elec electricity ENE east-northeast cquiv. equivalent ESE cast-southeast csp. especially etc. etcetera Freq frequency g gram geol geology gram grammar GUIDE guide to this dictionary (p. 159a) hist historical in. inch kg kilogram km kilometer m meter math mathematics mg milligram mm millimeter NNE north-northeast NNW north-northwest P- page phys physics p.m. post meridiem psycho! psychology sq. square sq.m square meter SSE south-southeast SSW south-southwest usu. usually vi intransitive verb vs. versus vt transitive verb WNW west-northwest WSW west-southwest SKIP SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS etc. in cross-reference entries, other characters of similar structure incorrect pattern classifica tion (in Pattern Index) incorrect pattern classifica tion and stroke-count (in Pattern Index) incorrect stroke-count (in Pattern Index) SKIP System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns Bl left-right pattern 2 up-down pattern □ 3 enclosure pattern ■ solid pattern rj 1 top line (solid subpattern) □ 2 bottom line (solid subpattern) [JJ 3 through line (solid subpattern) Q]4 others (solid subpattern) : system of kanji indexing by pat terns on p. 106a SYMBOLS IN ENTRY-HEAD DATA O Chinese forms and readings () encloses okurigana of kun readings * kun readings of exactly the same form alternative form * handwritten abbreviation - kun reading used as word ele- ment * special reading that can be isolated * unapproved reading new radical based on simplified character form ■ : Gl'ide §2.2.1 Entry-Head Data on p. 162a 225a ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS OTHER SYMBOLS AND MARKS [ ] encloses subentry headwords (kun aod independent head words) O ©■■■ numbered sense of compounds section © ©■■■ numbered subsense of compounds section CD ©■•• numbered sense of subentry headwords (a) (§)■■• numbered subsense of sub-entry headwords • unnumbered sense of compounds section O m synonyms section, points to unnumbered sense of sub-entry headwords unapproved special reading in special readings section * supplementary note in usage and note sections introduces cross-references precedes section numbers in cross - ref e re n ces precedes alternative forms/ readings encloses (I) okuriguna endings, (2) explanatory glosses, (3) optional omissions (A (B) -Aot AB), (4 alternative forms/readings encloses (1) most labels, @ § alternatives {A\B]C = AC or BC) (t; sometimes indicates alternatives, :2) separates sentences introduces supplementary glosses kun headword used as word element encloses English equivalents in explanatory text coordinates two parts of an English equivalent SECTION LABELS RADKAI ►_ I COMPOUNDS| | KUN 1 I INDEPENDENT Ml I I A [. HI a1>IN(,S radical section cone section compounds section kun section independent section special readings section names section synonyms section USagi; section homophones sec-_tion |compounoformationI compound formation section note section | NAMES | | SYN0NYMS~1 I SAt.l IIOMOP1IONI s [ note | =i> GUIDE §2.2.2 p. 163a The Sections on 226a ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS