Can soft power be applied in terms of the Old Silk Road?
‘Silk Road’ as well a ‘Soft power’ are relatively recent terms. Soft power is a very popular
concept in international affairs nowadays, ever since it was mentioned in a book published in
1990 by Joseph Nye - ‘Bound to Lead’. While Silk Roads for the majority of their long history
had no concrete name. But in the nineteenth century, the German geologist Ferdinand von
Richthofen, named the ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han
Dynasty of China “Die Seidenstrasse” (the Silk Road), and the term, was richly used by historians
and therefore had also become well-known as a common and recognized name by wide public.
On one hand both of these terms are very new and recent but on the other hand, China has been
transforming the world with its soft power ever since the trading with other nations began, far
before anyone was talking about it. Europeans had become used and dependent on the goods
delivered from China. Besides goods, other ideas as well, like religion, philosophies, sciences and
new technologies, were exchanged. As one of the criteria of soft power is attraction and China,
which came up with gunpowder and paper, and also had a monopoly on silk production, which
became, considered an exotic luxury, extremely popular and demanded, it is safe to say that other
nations were attracted by China. Therefore, it could be more open to accepting, or even adopting,
Chinese culture, learning, philosophies and so on. China grew enormous influence - soft power
and the Silk Road trade significantly helped to the development of the civilization of China, but
also Korea, Japan, Iran, India, Europe, Africa and Arabia.
The Sstate tries to display a good part of its culture only, so the rest of the world can
sympathize and relate. China nowadays uses the Old Silk Road to gain sympathy as it shows there
have been long-term, peaceful, prosperous and harmonious trade between China and other
nations, including Europe. “It is no accident that many Chinese analysts now talk about the
Chinese cultural emphasis on harmony or peace as the sources of China’s soft power because
these values essentially touch on the core issue of how power should be used.” (Li, page 8)
Culture is a very important potential source of soft power and China’s goal is more than becoming
an economic superpower. As Chinese economic power continues to grow, China wants to become
a major world cultural power as well. It is not surprising that we can see overusing positives
which bring the Old Silk Road to the world as there are many parts of Chinese history and culture
which may be completely unacceptable to people in other societies. But China’s soft power
diplomacy has become more sophisticated and comprehensive in recent years. Its strategies now
include expanding cultural and social exchanges, promoting economic independence, highlighting
expected benefits from China’s prosperity and presenting a peaceful and non-threatening new
image around the world. It is obviously working, and China quite improved its international
image. BBC World Service poll of 22 countries discovered that China is playing a significantly
more positive role in world affairs than even the U.S. Even more interesting is the fact that
neighboring Asian countries that have historically suspicious of China are thinking about China in
a very benign way now. China has much more cultural power than people ordinarily think.
China grew applied soft power along the ancient Silk Road besides other things also because of
its demanded goods and nowadays tries to spread its culture to other countries in the name of this
historical tradition. China quietly expands its power overseas by promoting Confucius Institutes
across the world, offering help in less developed regions, for example training programs for
African elites, the appeal of China’s model of development and so on. Basically we can say that
even when China’s soft power has lagged significantly behind the growth of the country’s hard
power and many strategists maintain that China is still not sophisticated in incorporating soft
power into its strategic planning, China’s soft power is already transforming the world and we can
only guess how it will evolve in next decades and shape the world.
The essay does not answer the question of the essay.
Try to refer to you own viepoint by using arguments referring to the text. ….
Kommentiert [UW1]: Here you should briefly explain the
term soft power
Kommentiert [UW2]: “concrete” in English is “beton” in
czech
Kommentiert [UW3]: What do you mean by recent, since
Richthofen coined this name already in the 19th
century
Theoretical approach on to “Soft power“
Soft power is a term not not term used only used for the Chinese political system. In many
countries, most superpower countries is soft power is included in their political
structurstructure and more or less is „”transforming the word“. But as Mingjiang Li say „I[i]t
has to be nurtured through a soft use of power and intentionally cultivated.“
So, what is the so -called soft- power? Nye says that soft power is “the ability to get what
you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments.”
If a country make good use of its resources of power through various domestic cultural,
economic, and political programs and this will bring well-being to its own nationals, such use
of power in the domestic context can resonate in the international arena and will produce a lot
of admiration and respect from other countries. This is feasible way to get what you want,
while by other countries is considered still as legitimate.
So tThis atractionattraction is usually based on power resources, such as culture, ideology,
and institutions. Whereas hard power is evident in practices of threat, coercion, sanction,
payment, and inducement. Soft power is preferable whenever is possible, not becousebecause
its more moral then using force, but mostly by pragmatic and economic point of view: „ When
you can get others to admire your ideals and to want what you want, you do not have to spend
as much on sticks and carrots to move them in your direction.“
On the other hand, soft power as well as hard power need to think as a two power affecting
each other. Inappropriate use of hard power can lead to the decline of a state’s soft power. An
inappropriate and aggressive use of soft power can lead to make more enemies. For example,
as Katzenstein and Keohane argue that American popular culture partially contributes to antiAmericanism
in some parts of the world.
However, to gain soft power, a state only attempts to display the good part of its culture
that the outside world believes is enjoyable or agreeable, and hides those elements, that may
cause uneasiness or misgiving in other states. In my opinion the main point how to
convincedconvince our partners is to emphasize what we have common.
There are two best option how to generate soft power in international relationship. The first
is convince their leaders that state is considerate of the concerns and interests of other states.
„American leadership will be more enduring if we can convince our partners that we are
sensitive to their concerns . . „.”The second best scenario would be to be able to have soft
power over a majority of states.“ But as Nyes say: „this power is easy to feel, but hard to
define.“.
Kommentiert [UW4]: Page number is missing
Kommentiert [UW5]: states
Kommentiert [UW6]: reference is missing
Kommentiert [UW7]: reference?
Kommentiert [UW8]: “On the one hand” is missing
hat formatiert: Hervorheben
Kommentiert [UW9]: References are missing
hat formatiert: Hervorheben
If soft power is used in international relationship for easier way to get what you want, we
can also ask question if soft power was used by ancient emperors and leaders. Even softpower
is rellativelyrelatively new term, I think it is impossible that in ancient time was not
such a use of power. Even if emperors and leader didntdidn’t think more deeply to define this
term, I think it was less or more used in their international policy and trade.
As regards trade, for China big vantage in ancient times for using soft-power, could be its
long time lasted status of „center of the word“ . With this status, if cChina’s soft power and
hard power in international policy was used well, it could lead to admiration and attracts
many countries.
We can take a look, how Yo-Yo Ma describe a new silk road: „a modern metaphor for
sharing and learning across cultures, art forms and disciplines.” Even this definiciondefinition
regarding a new inovatedinnovative silk road, the main character could be transformed also to
old one. Silk road trade was mainly based on culture attraction by countries along silk road. If
your culture and commodities is attractive for other countries, it can lead to better trade and
easier earning money. In From this poin of wievpoint of view, china China coudcould have a
big tempting power for other countries and as we know, many countries in Asia and later also
in Europe was less or more influenced by chinese Chinese culture. As Nye says: “When a
country’s culture includes universal values and its policies promote values and interests that
others share, it increases the probability of obtaining its desired outcomes.“.
As to China´s purpose of cultivating superpower in last decade. Deng and Zhang argue that
China’s goal is more than becoming simply an economic superpower. China also wants to
become a major world cultural power. However, in some points China´s development could
has have some serious signs of weakness too. As Suisheng Zhao argues that although China
has moved quickly and made self-conscious efforts to cultivate soft power in order to promote
its interests and expand its influence as a rising power, its approach to exercising soft power is
flawed. This is largely because the pragmatic political values behind China’s rapid economic
growth.
China’s current approach to soft power lacks contemporary moral appeals and is therefore
hardly sustainable in the competition with the U.S. to inspire the vision of building a free and
prosperous world.
Please use grammar and spelling check!
Kommentiert [UW10]: Reference?
Kommentiert [UW11]: Reference?
Kommentiert [UW12]: Reference?
Kommentiert [UW13]: Reference?
Can soft power be applied in terms of the Old Silk Road?
There are many Chinese analysts in China, who argue that the Chinese Soft soft power is
weaker than the Hard hard power of China and it is therefore the weaker part of Chinese
influence in International international politics and position. However, there are also opinions
that points on Chinese options which can become strong tools for building stronger Soft soft
power as a Chinese history, culture, traditional philosophy, institutions, ideology etc. How
would Beijing attract the attention of foreign countries?
First of all is to define Soft soft power, what is it? According to Nye’s opinion the criteria
for Soft soft power are attraction, persuasion, cooptation, and emulation, but on the one hand
Hard power which is based on military, economical and technological strength, can also
produce attraction, appeal, and amity in certain circumstances and on the other hand
aggressive cultural policy as a representative of the Soft soft power can trigger off intolerance
or international conflict. In other words, the most important is how to attract foreign countries
and get appeal. As the author mentioned, not all cultural values can make stronger Soft soft
power as he used example of feet-binding for women in traditional Chinese culture, or social
hierarchy which can weaken international influence of China. Good example for building
Beijing’s international rank is to use one of traditional term, “harmony”. Harmony,
cooperation, peace and other similar terms are connected with traditional Chinese culture in
some ways, so in the spirit of these values Beijing decided act in international relations and in
this way try to solve international problems and possibly improve various strategies that other
countries will appreciate and thus strengthen Beijing's influence. Efforts must therefore be
also in the interest of other states. According to the Confucian teachings, equilibrium relations
can be maintained between nations by trading, and Beijing is trying to develop this direction
according to the 13th Five-Year Plan. International educational exchange programs have also
become a tool to strengthen Chinese soft power in recent years. Through these programs, they
strive to reach Western education levels and to get Chinese universities to the forefront of
global education. Confucius institutes in foreign countries also serve for this purpose. The
author nevertheless believes that although China is consciously trying to strengthen its soft
power, its influence tends to appeal to authoritarian elites and lags behind evolving current
international standards.
In my opinion, Beijing builds international cooperation on its traditional values, which it
seeks to include in the concept of the New Silk Road. In order to positively engage China in
Kommentiert [UW14]: First of all, the term soft power has
to be defined
Kommentiert [UW15]: This is not a grammatical correct
sentence
international relations, Beijing use established terms that are also of positive importance to
foreign countries, which can build a trade artery for easier trade that draws on history. As in
history, the Silk Road can be used not only for the movement of goods but also for the
exchange of ideas and culture, as the author states educational international programs, which
are included as part of the new Silk Road. This helps build a positive view of Chinese
international politics, increases interest in Chinese culture, including learning Chinese, and
thus increases the power of Chinese soft power. I think that in the sense of an old Silk Road,
Soft soft power can also be applied if we release the tools of hard power such as the army,
economy and technology mentioned by the author, we still have cultural exchange and foreign
countries' interest in China, which the author says is an important element in the evaluation of
strength of countries’ Soft soft power. As the author states, although China's soft power
lagged far behind China's hard power and the government began to strengthen it about 30
years ago, there were still values that can be considered as soft power, even though they were
negligible in the historical context.
Good!
SOFT POWER: China’s Emerging Strategy in International Politics {Rewiev essay}
The book is an unique piece of academic work. It consists of several chapters. Every chapter
was created as a contribution of different authors. The whole book was compiled and edited
by Mingjiang Li. The whole study is based on logical arguments and it is very easy for
readers to follow the ideas of the author. The whole book well structured. As we can
understand from the book tittle soft power is the crucial topic for research of the study.
Consisting of 13 chapters, this book seeks to present an in-depth examination of China’s soft
power potential, the perspectives among Chinese elites on soft power, China’s practice of soft
power, and the impacts and implications of China’s emerging soft power strategy in world
politics. This study is interdisciplinary in nature since the subject of soft power involves
domestic politics, culture, history, social relations, and, of course, conventional approaches to
international relations.
As it was written in the introduction to this book author is trying to find answers to several
questions. He uncovers lot’slots of claims about China’ s soft power, for example, Iit is
claimed that China has built up its soft power ‘at the expense of the United States’ and to have
mounted a ‘charm offensive’ globally to transform the world in its own image. Is there any
substance behind such claims? Or Wwhat is China’s soft power? In which way is China
accumulating its soft power? Why should there be such a rage about China’s soft power at
this particular time?
The Aauthor is trying to examine the Ssoft power from many perspectives and angles.
Starting with it’sits theoretical understanding moving through several factors which shapes
it’s more ore less obvious form to point out specific [issues ???] in a state international
policy。 . The Aauthor provides not only a clear examples of using the use soft power but
also gives an explanation to the readers what might be the causes and consequences of it’sits
impact to presented international or bilateral image of the state. By reading this book, readers
can easily finds out those crucial factors which probably stand behind creating international
presentation of the country made by it’sby its government. Domestic problems of
governance, stability, and regime security have threatened China’s soft power. Nevertheless,
soft power will likely continue to drive China’s aspirations abroad. In chapter 5, Jianfeng
Chen explores China’s soft power from the Chinese cultural Doctrine of the Mean, essentially
a traditional Chinese philosophy about how to use power and influence. In the context of
international relations, the Mean refers to a world that embraces a unity of opposites rather
than absolute peace or absolute chaos. Moreover author shows that results of the soft power
Kommentiert [UW16]: There is no need to write about the
book – actiually, which one?? – since one article had to be
read on which the essay was supposed to be based on
Kommentiert [UW17]: Reference is missing
Kommentiert [UW18]: Explanation of „soft power“ is
missing
Kommentiert [UW19]: about the
actions which are taken to create a positive and attractive image for international community
can be more or less predictable in most of the cases.
At the beginning author pointed out who used the term “Soft Power” for the first time.
Author says that term was first publicly used by Joseph Nye’s in the 1990s . Author briefly
provide a critical review of Nye’s conceptualization of Soft power. On one hand Author
analyses a hot debate of China’ s soft power as a part of China’s internal policy on the other
hand he explains China’s urgent need for receiving positive and admiring recognition in the
international arena.
The book gives a lot’slots of comparison between the soft power of the United States and
China, especially in using of methods how to demonstrate that the nation is a superpower and
it´s culture, ideas and the way of ordering the world should be blindly followed by other
nations. The crucial in the strategy of soft power is to highlitehighlight the uniqueness of the
county and nation in the way that would be strongly appreciated by international community.
In a short, Ssoft power can be determined as an ability of nation to get what it wants through
the attraction rather than correction or payments.
In the idealistic understanding of successful soft power one nation can convinces the world to
follow voluntarily it’s ideology, culture or even let the world think that emulating one model
of behaviour is benefitialbeneficial for everyone. However, in reality the prpcessprocess of
atractionattraction other nations is a very complexivecompletive process and there is no
universal method for nation how to become a hegemon. Moreover i tis , it is clear from this
study that only sucessfullsuccessful use of sof tpower is sometimes not enough. As
I Understand understand from the study, only combination of soft power, hard power,
economy and technological domination can put a country on the way to become hegemon .
On the other hand, the author also demonstrate on example of the USA that cultural
hegemony can gradually leads to anti- Americanism
A better approach to soft power is how the resources of power are used rather than associating
sources of power as soft or hard. If a nation state (or any other actor) makes good use of its
resources of power through various domestic cultural, economic, and political programs to
bring well-being to its own nationals, it will produce a lot of admiration from other countries.
As it is obvious the sources of soft power not always produce atractionattraction
persuationpersuasion for the others. As we see veluesvalues ideology culture of one country
can come in to a conflitconflict with other. This conflict can offten increse in to hostility
between nations. Demonstrating example of China, i t it is clear that some sources of soft
power and characteristics like authoritaritarian regime, or suppressions of democratic values
Kommentiert [UW20]: up to this sentence, this is rather
a summary of the „book“ than an essay which would
demenad an introduction to the topic in the very beginning
Kommentiert [UW21]: „On the one hand“... is missing
and individualism will be strongly criticised from a western democratic countries’scountries’
point of view. Since the mentioned values are the core od of the western countries i tis
offtenoften the reason for them to limit the cooperation with China. But reaalityreality we can
see that obstacle of different values can be overcome with a mutual economic
bussinesbusiness interest
On the other hand authoritarian regime, model of hybrithybrid market and state control
economy as well as ability to make a quick solution and adopt to new situations and
persistantce of CCP is offtenoften admire from the developing countries like Africa where the
rullersrulers are much more open to cooperate CCP regime. In result the projects of
democratic countries involving in the developpingdeveloping countries are far behind the
China’s projects.
As author mentioned the key role of China is to shape international community by it‘sits
actively participating on a global projects where the majority of the countries share
basicalybasically the same values and opinions for ex: global wormmingworming problem,
more over thanks to curentcurrent policy of the USA and it’s izolationism China is having
a perfect chance to gain a very positive recognition if can propse solution to certain
international problems. China’s international image has improved quite substantially. In fact,
a BBC World Service poll of 22 countries found that China is viewed as playing
a significantly more positive role in world affairs than even the U.S. What is particularly
noteworthy in the survey is the fact that even in neighboringneighbouring Asian coun tries
that have been historically suspicious of China, the general views a rerelativelyrelatively
benign.
This study reveals that Chinese views on soft power widely vary, with the main stream
believing that soft power is still a weak link in China’s strategic planning but nevertheless
should be an important component in China’s future.
I suggest you to use Window’s grammar and spelling check before submitting any written
homework.
Put more emphasis on your own viewpoint by using arguments from the text.
Can soft power be applied in terms of the Old Silk Road?
When it comes to topic of chinese government policy, we can more frequently hear about
term of soft power. What we can understand under term of soft power? How can China
influence the rest of the word by using soft power? Is it possible to apply soft power in terms
of the sSilk Rroad? In the following text, I am going to focus on the theoretical approach of
soft power in terms of the Old Silk Road.
Chinese leaders determined soft power as main international political strategy.
Chinese formarformer President Hu Jintao remarked that international status of China
depends on hard power as well as on soft power. The economy, technology and science could
be considered as hard power, while soft power is more about influencing people through
China´s culture and traditional philosophy. Li Mingjian claims, that: “[t]The mainstream
assessment of the state of China’s soft power by Chinese analysts is that soft power is still a
weak link in China’s pursuit for stronger comprehensive national power.“ (2009, p. 2). This
could be claimed based on the fact, that some countries are not worried about Chinese success
in influencing other countries through soft power, because of hesitation to determine what is
Chinese culture and values.
The question is what does really soft power mean? Li Mingjin claims that „”I[i]t is the
ability to get desired outcomes because others want what you want,“ (2009, p. 3) and “the
ability to affect what other countries want tends to be associated with intangible power
resources such as culture, ideology, and institutions.“ (2009, p. 3). Under these circumstances,
soft power´s main sources are definitelly for other countries attractive parts of culture,
political values and impressive legitimate foreign policies. Soft power should be able to shape
international institutions as well. Still, there might me question where we isof the border of
between soft power and hard power. If one country is helping another one in any way without
asking anything in return, could we claim that soft power is in play? How could we prove it?
After all, is the chinese Chinese approach to soft power reasonable and effective, if since we
know that hard power is also a good tool to produce attraction?
The Oold Silk Road was a very important and famous trading network and it is
significant part of the world´s history. Althrough these roads were connecting the whole
wolrd, it is mostly associated with Asia, and for it´s is name name mainly with China. The
Chinese leader Xi Jinping announced a new development strategy adopted by the Chinese
government, the Beld and Road Initiative. Could old Silk Roads increase attractivity of
chinese Belt and Road Initiative? I assume if the Cchinese government´s convinction that
culture, ideology and values is a great source of soft power, claim that Belt and Road
Initiative is a renewal or old Silk Roads could get people attracted. However I am not
concerned that being attracted by the idea of the renewal of the Silk Road, the influence if the
Chinese government could increase could significantly increase infuance of chinese
government.
The Chinese government is convinced that culture, ideology and values are good sources
of applying soft power and soft power is an effective tool to influence other countries.
Although it seems that China hesitatateshesitates to determine what is it´s culture and values,
and so for some countries Chinese soft power is not a big threat. The fact China proclaims
that the Belt and Road Initiative is attemptattempted to renew the oOld Silk Road which could
sounds attractive. Hence, and in this way ,the term “New Silk Road” can be applied. it could
be applied in terms of Silk road. However, I am not concerned that it could significantly
increase the influeuance of the cChinese government.
Sources:
Kommentiert [UW22]: Try to avoid „we“
Kommentiert [UW23]: What is „this“ – try to explain in
your own words
Kommentiert [UW24]: What is „Chinese success“ – do
you mean „China’s success“?
Kommentiert [UW25]: How can this be proved?
Kommentiert [UW26]: Is counted as ...
Kommentiert [UW27]: Are you sure about the „whole
world“?
Kommentiert [UW28]: You should specify „China“, since
„China“ has not always been the same territority as nowadays
Kommentiert [UW29]: When?
Kommentiert [UW30]: Is the idea of the New Silk Road
based on the Old Silk Road?
Kommentiert [UW31]: I do not really understand this
sentence
Kommentiert [UW32]: Which influence? What kind of
influence?
Kommentiert [UW33]: This you already stated before
Kommentiert [UW34]: This you already stated before
Li Mingjiang. 2009. „Soft Power: Nurture Not Nature“, in: Li Minjiang, Soft Power : China's
Emerging Strategy in International Politics. Lanham: Lexington Books, p.1-18.
Nye, Joseph. 2004. Power in the Global Information Age: From Realism to Globalization.
London: Routledge.
Can soft power be applied in terms of Old Silk Road?
As professor Li Mingjiang explains in his book Soft Power: China’s Emerging
Strategy in International Politics, the concept of soft power provides a unique perspective not
only on China’s current foreign and security policy but, more significantly, on the trajectory
of China’s rise in the long term.1 The aim of this essay is to examine if soft power can be
applied in terms of the Old Silk Road when international trade between China and Western
empires began to rise. In order to find the answer to this essay´s question, it is important to
firstly understand the theoretical approach on soft power, both by Joseph S. Nye, the author of
the concept, and Li Mingjiang as well. Moreover, it is also necessary to remember the fact
that there are different approaches on Old Silk Road, as it is not just one route or one century
to be considered.
In 1990, the American political scientist, Joseph S. Nye, in his book Bound to Lead:
The Changing Nature of American Power developed the concept of soft power. Referring
mainly to the United States, his concept of soft power stands opposite to military power and
economic power, which are both examples of “hard” command power. As Nye explains,
hard power can rest on inducements or threats. In his book, he suggests that there is also an
indirect way to get the outcomes that you want, so- called “the second face of power.” A
country may obtain its preferred outcomes in world politics because other countries want to
follow it, by admiring its values, emulating its example, aspiring to its level of prosperity and
openness. According to Nye, the ability to establish preferences tends to be associated with
intangible power resources such as an attractive culture, political values and institutions, and
policies that are legitimate or having moral authority.2
Moreover, Li Mingjiang in his book adds that soft power doesn´t exist in the nature of
certain resources of power but rather it has to be nurtured through a soft use of power and it
has to be intentionally cultivated through prudent use of all sources of power available in
certain social relationships. Focusing on the words intentionally cultivated and nurtured,
can it be then applied to Old Silk Road? Taking China as the subject of application, the
question here is if ancient Chinese dynasties were aware of possibility to use soft power to
expand its territories and develop trade relations. Furthermore, there was no “China” as we
know it today, with set borders and set values or developed culture. No doubt it can be applied
1 MINGJIANG, Li. Soft Power: China's Emerging Strategy in International Politics. Maryland: Lexington Books, 2009.
ISBN 978-0739133774.
2
NYE, Joseph S. Bound to lead: the changing nature of American power. New York: Basic Books, 1990. ISBN 04-650-
0744-9.
Kommentiert [UW35]: Was it really „China“ at that
time? ...
Kommentiert [UW36]: Very good introduction to the topic!
Kommentiert [UW37]: Since this is a quote, reference is
missing
Kommentiert [UW38]: If this is a quote, reference!
for contemporary PRC´s New Silk Road initiative where China uses infrastructural projects,
cultural festivals, scholarships and loans to secure its presence mostly in South America, East
Asia and Africa. In the 21st century, PRC follows a set goals and has a clear purpose, so it can
be said that its soft power is intentionally cultivated through prudent use of all sources of
power available in certain case. Grill and Huang noted that culture (including Confucius
Institutes), domestic values and policies (especially the Chinese model of development) and
foreign policy (including good neighbour policies, international peacekeeping and
international aid) became resources of Chinese soft power.3
Now, the two fundamental problems emerge. First, one is the term of the Old Silk
Road term. Both Li Mingjiang and Joseph Nye are showcasing soft power on specific
examples, like China and the United States. However, applying soft power to the Old Silk
Road or the Old Silk Road era is more difficult, mainly because it is hard to define what is
meant by the Old Silk Road. Looking at this problem by using Richthofen’s term ‘Silk Roads’
(Seidenstrassen), there is a quite limited time period. He applies the term only to the Han
period, in discussing the relationship between political expansion and trade on the one hand
and geographical knowledge on the other. The term refers in the first instance to a very
specific east-west overland route defined by a single source, even though he recognizes that at
that time there were other routes in various directions.4 Taking a closer look at the Han period,
there are occasions that might be considered as Chinese empire engaging in something like
foreign relations (the better term might be engaging with outside world). Thus, there is a
situation when soft power could be potentially used. In 138 BC, emperor Wudi sent the first
Chinese envoy led by Zhang Qian to form an alliance with the tribal Yuezhi, because emperor
was hoping to persuade the Yuezhi to help him defeat a rival group, the Xiongnu. Zhang Qian
failed in negotiating alliance, but he returned with information about sophisticated
civilizations existed to the West, with which China the empire could advantageously develop
relations. However, there is no mention that Zhang Qian or Wudi were trying to use culture or
policies to form alliance with Yuezhi. There are also mentions about holding hostages and
sending spare princesses to organize matrimonial alliances with enemies, but this part of Han
diplomacy doesn´t seem legitimate or having moral authority. Hence, it cannot be said that
soft power was practised during this period. 5
3 LAI, Hongyi a Yiyi LU. China's Soft Power and International Relations. New York: Routledge, 2012. ISBN 78-
0415604017.
4
WAUGH, C.Daniel. Richthofen’s ‘Silk Roads’: Toward the Archaeology of a Concept. The Silk Road 5/1, 2007.
5
WOOD, Frances. The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. United States: University of California Press,
2004. ISBN 978-0520243408.
Kommentiert [UW39]: Before using an abbrevation, the
first time the whole term has to be written
Kommentiert [UW40]: When there is a „first“, you need
also a „second“
Shifting away from Richthofen’s approach of the Old Silk Road, it linked the regions
of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE, so not only during the rule of
Han Dynasty. The mutual trade between West and East seems to play the most significant role.
Li Mingjiang also argues that soft power is the ability to get desired outcomes because others
want what you want, rather than do what you make them do. It is the ability to achieve
desired outcomes through attraction rather than coercion. But what did the Chinese emperors
want? Was the desired outcome prospering trade or something else? Chinese themselves used
the Silk Road routes historically to import horses from Ferghana Valley, camels from Bactria,
Persian luxury metalwork and textiles, and jade from Khotan, among other things they needed.
On the contrary, China exported silk or porcelain vessels to the West, which should be
considered as economy power or payment, but not as soft power.6 Now to emphasize the
phrase attraction rather than coercion, extending territories in the past was often achieved
by hard power. Ghengis Khan and his powerful army of Mongol horsemen spilled out of the
eastern steppe and overran the surrounding territory in all directions. This was one of the most
ferocious campaigns the world has ever known. When offered resistance, the Mongol armies
took no prisoners. The Mongols even turned west beyond the Pamirs and attacked the Silk
Route city of Merv. They are said to have massacred its 700,00 inhabitants - and even killed
all the cats and dogs. This behaviour surely couldn´t make positive impression on foreign
entities.7
In conclusion, soft power cannot be applied in terms of the Old Silk Road. Regarding
Chinese history, there seem to be several obstacles. Looking at the rule of different dynasties
with different political values and different attitudes towards foreign relations, further and
deeper analysis of historical events would be needed. Applying the theoretical approach of
soft power to the Old Silk Road seems difficult, as no evidence of intentional nurturing of soft
power was found. Moreover, the term Old Silk Road itself is hard to define.
VERY GOOD!!!
6
BEACH, Milo C.The Ear Commands the Story: Exploration and Imagination on the Silk Road. Art Institute of Chicago
Museum Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1, The Silk Road and Beyond:Travel, Trade, and Transformation,2007.
7
The Silk Route of the Mongols. In: UNESCO. [online] Available at: https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/knowledge-bank/silk-
route-mongols.
Kommentiert [UW41]: Goods/items
SOURCES:
1. BEACH, Milo C.The Ear Commands the Story: Exploration and Imagination on the
Silk Road. Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1, The Silk Road
and Beyond:Travel, Trade, and Transformation,2007.
2. LAI, Hongyi a Yiyi LU. China's Soft Power and International Relations. New York:
Routledge, 2012. ISBN 78-0415604017.
3. MINGJIANG, Li. Soft Power: China's Emerging Strategy in International Politics.
Maryland: Lexington Books, 2009. ISBN 978-0739133774.
4. NYE, Joseph S. Bound to lead: the changing nature of American power. New York:
Basic Books, 1990. ISBN 04-650-0744-9.
5. The Silk Route of the Mongols. In: UNESCO. [online] Available at:
https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/knowledge-bank/silk-route-mongols.
6. WAUGH, C.Daniel. Richthofen’s ‘Silk Roads’: Toward the Archaeology of a Concept.
The Silk Road 5/1, 2007.
7. WOOD, Frances. The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. United
States: University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0520243408.