Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
Logisch-philosophische Abhandlung
By Ludwig Wittgenstein
First published by Kegan Paul (London), 1922.
SIDE-BY-SIDE-BY-SIDE EDITION, VERSION 0.41 (FEBRUARY 11, 2014),
containing the original German, alongside both the Ogden/Ramsey, and Pears/McGuinness English translations.
Available at: http://people.umass.edu/klement/tlp/
1
Introduction
By Bertrand Russell, F. R. S.
MR. WITTGENSTEIN’S Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, whether or not
it prove to give the ultimate truth on the matters with which it deals,
certainly deserves, by its breadth and scope and profundity, to be considered
an important event in the philosophical world. Starting from
the principles of Symbolism and the relations which are necessary
between words and things in any language, it applies the result of this
inquiry to various departments of traditional philosophy, showing in
each case how traditional philosophy and traditional solutions arise
out of ignorance of the principles of Symbolism and out of misuse of
language.
The logical structure of propositions and the nature of logical inference
are ﬁrst dealt with. Thence we pass successively to Theory of
Knowledge, Principles of Physics, Ethics, and ﬁnally the Mystical (das
Mystische).
In order to understand Mr. Wittgenstein’s book, it is necessary to
realize what is the problem with which he is concerned. In the part
of his theory which deals with Symbolism he is concerned with the
conditions which would have to be fulﬁlled by a logically perfect language.
There are various problems as regards language. First, there is
the problem what actually occurs in our minds when we use language
with the intention of meaning something by it; this problem belongs to
psychology. Secondly, there is the problem as to what is the relation
subsisting between thoughts, words, or sentences, and that which they
refer to or mean; this problem belongs to epistemology. Thirdly, there
is the problem of using sentences so as to convey truth rather that
falsehood; this belongs to the special sciences dealing with the subjectmatter
of the sentences in question. Fourthly, there is the question:
what relation must one fact (such as a sentence) have to another in
order to be capable of being a symbol for that other? This last is a logical
question, and is the one with which Mr. Wittgenstein is concerned.
He is concerned with the conditions for accurate Symbolism, i.e. for
Symbolism in which a sentence “means” something quite deﬁnite. In
practice, language is always more or less vague, so that what we assert
is never quite precise. Thus, logic has two problems to deal with in
regard to Symbolism: (1) the conditions for sense rather than nonsense
in combinations of symbols; (2) the conditions for uniqueness of meaning
or reference in symbols or combinations of symbols. A logically
perfect language has rules of syntax which prevent nonsense, and has
single symbols which always have a deﬁnite and unique meaning. Mr.
Wittgenstein is concerned with the conditions for a logically perfect
language—not that any language is logically perfect, or that we believe
ourselves capable, here and now, of constructing a logically perfect
language, but that the whole function of language is to have meaning,
and it only fulﬁlls this function in proportion as it approaches to the
ideal language which we postulate.
The essential business of language is to assert or deny facts. Given
the syntax of language, the meaning of a sentence is determined as
soon as the meaning of the component words is known. In order that a
certain sentence should assert a certain fact there must, however the
language may be constructed, be something in common between the
structure of the sentence and the structure of the fact. This is perhaps
the most fundamental thesis of Mr. Wittgenstein’s theory. That which
has to be in common between the sentence and the fact cannot, he
contends, be itself in turn said in language. It can, in his phraseology,
only be shown, not said, for whatever we may say will still need to
have the same structure.
The ﬁrst requisite of an ideal language would be that there should
be one name for every simple, and never the same name for two different
simples. A name is a simple symbol in the sense that it has no
parts which are themselves symbols. In a logically perfect language
nothing that is not simple will have a simple symbol. The symbol for
the whole will be a “complex”, containing the symbols for the parts. (In
speaking of a “complex” we are, as will appear later, sinning against
the rules of philosophical grammar, but this is unavoidable at the
outset. “Most propositions and questions that have been written about
philosophical matters are not false but senseless. We cannot, therefore,
2
answer questions of this kind at all, but only state their senselessness.
Most questions and propositions of the philosophers result from the
fact that we do not understand the logic of our language. They are
of the same kind as the question whether the Good is more or less
identical than the Beautiful” (4.003).) What is complex in the world
is a fact. Facts which are not compounded of other facts are what Mr.
Wittgenstein calls Sachverhalte, whereas a fact which may consist of
two or more facts is a Tatsache: thus, for example “Socrates is wise” is
a Sachverhalt, as well as a Tatsache, whereas “Socrates is wise and
Plato is his pupil” is a Tatsache but not a Sachverhalt.
He compares linguistic expression to projection in geometry. A
geometrical ﬁgure may be projected in many ways: each of these ways
corresponds to a different language, but the projective properties of
the original ﬁgure remain unchanged whichever of these ways may
be adopted. These projective properties correspond to that which in
his theory the proposition and the fact must have in common, if the
proposition is to assert the fact.
In certain elementary ways this is, of course, obvious. It is impossible,
for example, to make a statement about two men (assuming for the
moment that the men may be treated as simples), without employing
two names, and if you are going to assert a relation between the two
men it will be necessary that the sentence in which you make the
assertion shall establish a relation between the two names. If we say
“Plato loves Socrates”, the word “loves” which occurs between the word
“Plato” and the word “Socrates” establishes a certain relation between
these two words, and it is owing to this fact that our sentence is able
to assert a relation between the persons named by the words “Plato”
and “Socrates”. “We must not say, the complex sign ‘aRb’ says that ‘a
stands in a certain relation R to b’; but we must say, that ‘a’ stands in
a certain relation to ‘b’ says that aRb” (3.1432).
Mr. Wittgenstein begins his theory of Symbolism with the statement
(2.1): “We make to ourselves pictures of facts.” A picture, he says,
is a model of the reality, and to the objects in the reality correspond the
elements of the picture: the picture itself is a fact. The fact that things
have a certain relation to each other is represented by the fact that in
the picture its elements have a certain relation to one another. “In the
picture and the pictured there must be something identical in order
that the one can be a picture of the other at all. What the picture must
have in common with reality in order to be able to represent it after
its manner—rightly or falsely—is its form of representation” (2.161,
2.17).
We speak of a logical picture of a reality when we wish to imply only
so much resemblance as is essential to its being a picture in any sense,
that is to say, when we wish to imply no more than identity of logical
form. The logical picture of a fact, he says, is a Gedanke. A picture can
correspond or not correspond with the fact and be accordingly true or
false, but in both cases it shares the logical form with the fact. The
sense in which he speaks of pictures is illustrated by his statement:
“The gramophone record, the musical thought, the score, the waves
of sound, all stand to one another in that pictorial internal relation
which holds between language and the world. To all of them the logical
structure is common. (Like the two youths, their two horses and their
lilies in the story. They are all in a certain sense one)” (4.014). The
possibility of a proposition representing a fact rests upon the fact that
in it objects are represented by signs. The so-called logical “constants”
are not represented by signs, but are themselves present in the proposition
as in the fact. The proposition and the fact must exhibit the same
logical “manifold”, and this cannot be itself represented since it has
to be in common between the fact and the picture. Mr. Wittgenstein
maintains that everything properly philosophical belongs to what can
only be shown, or to what is in common between a fact and its logical
picture. It results from this view that nothing correct can be said
in philosophy. Every philosophical proposition is bad grammar, and
the best that we can hope to achieve by philosophical discussion is to
lead people to see that philosophical discussion is a mistake. “Philosophy
is not one of the natural sciences. (The word ‘philosophy’ must
mean something which stands above or below, but not beside the natural
sciences.) The object of philosophy is the logical clariﬁcation of
thoughts. Philosophy is not a theory but an activity. A philosophical
work consists essentially of elucidations. The result of philosophy is
not a number of ‘philosophical propositions’, but to make propositions
clear. Philosophy should make clear and delimit sharply the thoughts
which otherwise are, as it were, opaque and blurred” (4.111 and 4.112).
In accordance with this principle the things that have to be said in
3
leading the reader to understand Mr. Wittgenstein’s theory are all of
them things which that theory itself condemns as meaningless. With
this proviso we will endeavour to convey the picture of the world which
seems to underlie his system.
The world consists of facts: facts cannot strictly speaking be deﬁned,
but we can explain what we mean by saying that facts are what
makes propositions true, or false. Facts may contain parts which are
facts or may contain no such parts; for example: “Socrates was a wise
Athenian”, consists of the two facts, “Socrates was wise”, and “Socrates
was an Athenian.” A fact which has no parts that are facts is called by
Mr. Wittgenstein a Sachverhalt. This is the same thing that he calls
an atomic fact. An atomic fact, although it contains no parts that are
facts, nevertheless does contain parts. If we may regard “Socrates is
wise” as an atomic fact we perceive that it contains the constituents
“Socrates” and “wise”. If an atomic fact is analyzed as fully as possible
(theoretical, not practical possibility is meant) the constituents ﬁnally
reached may be called “simples” or “objects”. It is a logical necessity
demanded by theory, like an electron. His ground for maintaining
that there must be simples is that every complex presupposes a fact.
It is not necessarily assumed that the complexity of facts is ﬁnite;
even if every fact consisted of an inﬁnite number of atomic facts and if
every atomic fact consisted of an inﬁnite number of objects there would
still be objects and atomic facts (4.2211). The assertion that there is
a certain complex reduces to the assertion that its constituents are
related in a certain way, which is the assertion of a fact: thus if we
give a name to the complex the name only has meaning in virtue of
the truth of a certain proposition, namely the proposition asserting
the relatedness of the constituents of the complex. Thus the naming
of complexes presupposes propositions, while propositions presuppose
the naming of simples. In this way the naming of simples is shown to
be what is logically ﬁrst in logic.
The world is fully described if all atomic facts are known, together
with the fact that these are all of them. The world is not described
by merely naming all the objects in it; it is necessary also to know
the atomic facts of which these objects are constituents. Given this
totality of atomic facts, every true proposition, however complex, can
theoretically be inferred. A proposition (true or false) asserting an
atomic fact is called an atomic proposition. All atomic propositions are
logically independent of each other. No atomic proposition implies any
other or is inconsistent with any other. Thus the whole business of
logical inference is concerned with propositions which are not atomic.
Such propositions may be called molecular.
Wittgenstein’s theory of molecular propositions turns upon his
theory of the construction of truth-functions.
A truth-function of a proposition p is a proposition containing p
and such that its truth or falsehood depends only upon the truth or
falsehood of p, and similarly a truth-function of several propositions
p, q, r, ... is one containing p, q, r, ... and such that its truth or falsehood
depends only upon the truth or falsehood of p, q, r, ... It might
seem at ﬁrst sight as though there were other functions of propositions
besides truth-functions; such, for example, would be “A believes p”,
for in general A will believe some true propositions and some false
ones: unless he is an exceptionally gifted individual, we cannot infer
that p is true from the fact that he believes it or that p is false from
the fact that he does not believe it. Other apparent exceptions would
be such as “p is a very complex proposition” or “p is a proposition
about Socrates”. Mr. Wittgenstein maintains, however, for reasons
which will appear presently, that such exceptions are only apparent,
and that every function of a proposition is really a truth-function. It
follows that if we can deﬁne truth-functions generally, we can obtain
a general deﬁnition of all propositions in terms of the original set of
atomic propositions. This Wittgenstein proceeds to do.
It has been shown by Dr. Sheffer (Trans. Am. Math. Soc., Vol. XIV.
pp. 481–488) that all truth-functions of a given set of propositions can
be constructed out of either of the two functions “not-p or not-q” or
“not-p and not-q”. Wittgenstein makes use of the latter, assuming a
knowledge of Dr. Sheffer’s work. The manner in which other truthfunctions
are constructed out of “not-p and not-q” is easy to see. “Not-p
and not-p” is equivalent to “not-p”, hence we obtain a deﬁnition of
negation in terms of our primitive function: hence we can deﬁne “p or
q”, since this is the negation of “not-p and not-q”, i.e. of our primitive
function. The development of other truth-functions out of “not-p” and
“p or q” is given in detail at the beginning of Principia Mathematica.
This gives all that is wanted when the propositions which are argu-
4
ments to our truth-function are given by enumeration. Wittgenstein,
however, by a very interesting analysis succeeds in extending the process
to general propositions, i.e. to cases where the propositions which
are arguments to our truth-function are not given by enumeration but
are given as all those satisfying some condition. For example, let fx be
a propositional function (i.e. a function whose values are propositions),
such as “x is human”—then the various values of fx form a set of propositions.
We may extend the idea “not-p and not-q” so as to apply to the
simultaneous denial of all the propositions which are values of fx. In
this way we arrive at the proposition which is ordinarily represented
in mathematical logic by the words “fx is false for all values of x”. The
negation of this would be the proposition “there is at least one x for
which fx is true” which is represented by “(∃x). fx”. If we had started
with not-fx instead of fx we should have arrived at the proposition “fx
is true for all values of x” which is represented by “(x). fx”. Wittgenstein’s
method of dealing with general propositions [i.e. “(x). fx” and
“(∃x). fx”] differs from previous methods by the fact that the generality
comes only in specifying the set of propositions concerned, and when
this has been done the building up of truth-functions proceeds exactly
as it would in the case of a ﬁnite number of enumerated arguments
p, q, r, ...
Mr. Wittgenstein’s explanation of his symbolism at this point is not
quite fully given in the text. The symbol he uses is [p, ξ, N(ξ)]. The
following is the explanation of this symbol:
p stands for all atomic propositions.
ξ stands for any set of propositions.
N(ξ) stands for the negation of all the propositions making up ξ.
The whole symbol [p, ξ, N(ξ)] means whatever can be obtained by
taking any selection of atomic propositions, negating them all, then
taking any selection of the set of propositions now obtained, together
with any of the originals—and so on indeﬁnitely. This is, he says, the
general truth-function and also the general form of proposition. What
is meant is somewhat less complicated than it sounds. The symbol is
intended to describe a process by the help of which, given the atomic
propositions, all others can be manufactured. The process depends
upon:
(a). Sheffer’s proof that all truth-functions can be obtained out of
simultaneous negation, i.e. out of “not-p and not-q”;
(b). Mr. Wittgenstein’s theory of the derivation of general propositions
from conjunctions and disjunctions;
(c). The assertion that a proposition can only occur in another
proposition as argument to a truth-function. Given these three foundations,
it follows that all propositions which are not atomic can be
derived from such as are, buy a uniform process, and it is this process
which is indicated by Mr. Wittgenstein’s symbol.
From this uniform method of construction we arrive at an amazing
simpliﬁcation of the theory of inference, as well as a deﬁnition of the
sort of propositions that belong to logic. The method of generation
which has just been described, enables Wittgenstein to say that all
propositions can be constructed in the above manner from atomic
propositions, and in this way the totality of propositions is deﬁned.
(The apparent exceptions which we mentioned above are dealt with in
a manner which we shall consider later.) Wittgenstein is enabled to
assert that propositions are all that follows from the totality of atomic
propositions (together with the fact that it is the totality of them); that
a proposition is always a truth-function of atomic propositions; and
that if p follows from q the meaning of p is contained in the meaning
of q, from which of course it results that nothing can be deduced from
an atomic proposition. All the propositions of logic, he maintains, are
tautologies, such, for example, as “p or not p”.
The fact that nothing can be deduced from an atomic proposition
has interesting applications, for example, to causality. There cannot, in
Wittgenstein’s logic, be any such thing as a causal nexus. “The events
of the future”, he says, “cannot be inferred from those of the present.
Superstition is the belief in the causal nexus.” That the sun will rise
to-morrow is a hypothesis. We do not in fact know whether it will rise,
since there is no compulsion according to which one thing must happen
because another happens.
Let us now take up another subject—that of names. In Wittgenstein’s
theoretical logical language, names are only given to simples.
We do not give two names to one thing, or one name to two things.
There is no way whatever, according to him, by which we can describe
the totality of things that can be named, in other words, the totality of
5
what there is in the world. In order to be able to do this we should have
to know of some property which must belong to every thing by a logical
necessity. It has been sought to ﬁnd such a property in self-identity,
but the conception of identity is subjected by Wittgenstein to a destructive
criticism from which there seems no escape. The deﬁnition of
identity by means of the identity of indiscernibles is rejected, because
the identity of indiscernibles appears to be not a logically necessary
principle. According to this principle x is identical with y if every property
of x is a property of y, but it would, after all be logically possible
for two things to have exactly the same properties. If this does not
in fact happen that is an accidental characteristic of the world, not a
logically necessary characteristic, and accidental characteristics of the
world must, of course, not be admitted into the structure of logic. Mr.
Wittgenstein accordingly banishes identity and adopts the convention
that different letters are to mean different things. In practice, identity
is needed as between a name and a description or between two descriptions.
It is needed for such propositions as “Socrates is the philosopher
who drank the hemlock”, or “The even prime is the next number after
1.” For such uses of identity it is easy to provide on Wittgenstein’s
system.
The rejection of identity removes one method of speaking of the
totality of things, and it will be found that any other method that may
be suggested is equally fallacious: so, at least, Wittgenstein contends
and, I think, rightly. This amounts to saying that “object” is a pseudoconcept.
To say “x is an object” is to say nothing. It follows from this
that we cannot make such statements as “there are more than three
objects in the world”, or “there are an inﬁnite number of objects in the
world”. Objects can only be mentioned in connexion with some deﬁnite
property. We can say “there are more than three objects which are
human”, or “there are more than three objects which are red”, for in
these statements the word object can be replaced by a variable in the
language of logic, the variable being one which satisﬁes in the ﬁrst
case the function “x is human”; in the second the function “x is red”.
But when we attempt to say “there are more than three objects”, this
substitution of the variable for the word “object” becomes impossible,
and the proposition is therefore seen to be meaningless.
We here touch one instance of Wittgenstein’s fundamental thesis,
that it is impossible to say anything about the world as a whole, and
that whatever can be said has to be about bounded portions of the
world. This view may have been originally suggested by notation, and
if so, that is much in its favor, for a good notation has a subtlety and
suggestiveness which at times make it seem almost like a live teacher.
Notational irregularities are often the ﬁrst sign of philosophical errors,
and a perfect notation would be a substitute for thought. But although
notation may have ﬁrst suggested to Mr. Wittgenstein the limitation
of logic to things within the world as opposed to the world as a whole,
yet the view, once suggested, is seen to have much else to recommend
it. Whether it is ultimately true I do not, for my part, profess to know.
In this Introduction I am concerned to expound it, not to pronounce
upon it. According to this view we could only say things about the
world as a whole if we could get outside the world, if, that is to say, it
ceased to be for us the whole world. Our world may be bounded for
some superior being who can survey it from above, but for us, however
ﬁnite it may be, it cannot have a boundary, since it has nothing
outside it. Wittgenstein uses, as an analogy, the ﬁeld of vision. Our
ﬁeld of vision does not, for us, have a visual boundary, just because
there is nothing outside it, and in like manner our logical world has no
logical boundary because our logic knows of nothing outside it. These
considerations lead him to a somewhat curious discussion of Solipsism.
Logic, he says, ﬁlls the world. The boundaries of the world are also its
boundaries. In logic, therefore, we cannot say, there is this and this in
the world, but not that, for to say so would apparently presuppose that
we exclude certain possibilities, and this cannot be the case, since it
would require that logic should go beyond the boundaries of the world
as if it could contemplate these boundaries from the other side also.
What we cannot think we cannot think, therefore we also cannot say
what we cannot think.
This, he says, gives the key to solipsism. What Solipsism intends
is quite correct, but this cannot be said, it can only be shown. That
the world is my world appears in the fact that the boundaries of language
(the only language I understand) indicate the boundaries of my
world. The metaphysical subject does not belong to the world but is a
boundary of the world.
We must take up next the question of molecular propositions which
6
are at ﬁrst sight not truth-functions, of the propositions that they
contain, such, for example, as “A believes p.”
Wittgenstein introduces this subject in the statement of his position,
namely, that all molecular functions are truth-functions. He
says (5.54): “In the general propositional form, propositions occur in a
proposition only as bases of truth-operations.” At ﬁrst sight, he goes on
to explain, it seems as if a propositions could also occur in other ways,
e.g. “A believes p.” Here it seems superﬁcially as if the proposition p
stood in a sort of relation to the object A. “But it is clear that ‘A believes
that p,’ ‘A thinks p,’ ‘A says p’ are of the form “‘p’ says p”; and here
we have no co-ordination of a fact and an object, but a co-ordination of
facts by means of a co-ordination of their objects” (5.542).
What Mr. Wittgenstein says here is said so shortly that its point is
not likely to be clear to those who have not in mind the controversies
with which he is concerned. The theory which which he is disagreeing
will be found in my articles on the nature of truth and falsehood in
Philosophical Essays and Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 1906–
7. The problem at issue is the problem of the logical form of belief, i.e.
what is the schema representing what occurs when a man believes.
Of course, the problem applies not only to belief, but also to a host of
other mental phenomena which may be called propositional attitudes:
doubting, considering, desiring, etc. In all these cases it seems natural
to express the phenomenon in the form “A doubts p”, “A considers p”,
“A desires p”, etc., which makes it appear as though we were dealing
with a relation between a person and a proposition. This cannot, of
course, be the ultimate analysis, since persons are ﬁctions and so are
propositions, except in the sense in which they are facts on their own
account. A proposition, considered as a fact on its own account, may be
a set of words which a man says over to himself, or a complex image, or
train of images passing through his mind, or a set of incipient bodily
movements. It may be any one of innumerable different things. The
proposition as a fact on its own account, for example, the actual set of
words the man pronounces to himself, is not relevant to logic. What is
relevant to logic is that common element among all these facts, which
enables him, as we say, to mean the fact which the proposition asserts.
To psychology, of course, more is relevant; for a symbol does not mean
what it symbolizes in virtue of a logical relation alone, but in virtue
also of a psychological relation of intention, or association, or what-not.
The psychological part of meaning, however, does not concern the logician.
What does concern him in this problem of belief is the logical
schema. It is clear that, when a person believes a proposition, the person,
considered as a metaphysical subject, does not have to be assumed
in order to explain what is happening. What has to be explained is the
relation between the set of words which is the proposition considered
as a fact on its own account, and the “objective” fact which makes the
proposition true or false. This reduces ultimately to the question of
the meaning of propositions, that is to say, the meaning of propositions
is the only non-psychological portion of the problem involved in the
analysis of belief. This problem is simply one of a relation of two facts,
namely, the relation between the series of words used by the believer
and the fact which makes these words true or false. The series of
words is a fact just as much as what makes it true or false is a fact.
The relation between these two facts is not unanalyzable, since the
meaning of a proposition results from the meaning of its constituent
words. The meaning of the series of words which is a proposition is a
function of the meaning of the separate words. Accordingly, the proposition
as a whole does not really enter into what has to be explained
in explaining the meaning of a propositions. It would perhaps help to
suggest the point of view which I am trying to indicate, to say that in
the cases which have been considering the proposition occurs as a fact,
not as a proposition. Such a statement, however, must not be taken
too literally. The real point is that in believing, desiring, etc., what
is logically fundamental is the relation of a proposition considered as
a fact, to the fact which makes it true or false, and that this relation
of two facts is reducible to a relation of their constituents. Thus the
proposition does not occur at all in the same sense in which it occurs
in a truth-function.
There are some respects, in which, as it seems to me, Mr. Wittgenstein’s
theory stands in need of greater technical development. This
applies in particular to his theory of number (6.02ff.) which, as it
stands, is only capable of dealing with ﬁnite numbers. No logic can
be considered adequate until it has been shown to be capable of dealing
with transﬁnite numbers. I do not think there is anything in Mr.
Wittgenstein’s system to make it impossible for him to ﬁll this lacuna.
7
More interesting than such questions of comparative detail is Mr.
Wittgenstein’s attitude towards the mystical. His attitude upon this
grows naturally out of his doctrine in pure logic, according to which
the logical proposition is a picture (true or false) of the fact, and has in
common with the fact a certain structure. It is this common structure
which makes it capable of being a picture of the fact, but the structure
cannot itself be put into words, since it is a structure of words, as
well as of the fact to which they refer. Everything, therefore, which
is involved in the very idea of the expressiveness of language must
remain incapable of being expressed in language, and is, therefore,
inexpressible in a perfectly precise sense. This inexpressible contains,
according to Mr. Wittgenstein, the whole of logic and philosophy. The
right method of teaching philosophy, he says, would be to conﬁne oneself
to propositions of the sciences, stated with all possible clearness
and exactness, leaving philosophical assertions to the learner, and
proving to him, whenever he made them, that they are meaningless.
It is true that the fate of Socrates might befall a man who attempted
this method of teaching, but we are not to be deterred by that fear, if
it is the only right method. It is not this that causes some hesitation
in accepting Mr. Wittgenstein’s position, in spite of the very powerful
arguments which he brings to its support. What causes hesitation is
the fact that, after all, Mr. Wittgenstein manages to say a good deal
about what cannot be said, thus suggesting to the sceptical reader that
possibly there may be some loophole through a hierarchy of languages,
or by some other exit. The whole subject of ethics, for example, is
placed by Mr. Wittgenstein in the mystical, inexpressible region. Nevertheless
he is capable of conveying his ethical opinions. His defence
would be that what he calls the mystical can be shown, although it
cannot be said. It may be that this defence is adequate, but, for my
part, I confess that it leaves me with a certain sense of intellectual
discomfort.
There is one purely logical problem in regard to which these difﬁculties
are peculiarly acute. I mean the problem of generality. In the
theory of generality it is necessary to consider all propositions of the
form fx where fx is a given propositional function. This belongs to the
part of logic which can be expressed, according to Mr. Wittgenstein’s
system. But the totality of possible values of x which might seem to be
involved in the totality of propositions of the form fx is not admitted
by Mr. Wittgenstein among the things that can be spoken of, for this is
no other than the totality of things in the world, and thus involves the
attempt to conceive the world as a whole; “the feeling of the world as
a bounded whole is the mystical”; hence the totality of the values of
x is mystical (6.45). This is expressly argued when Mr. Wittgenstein
denies that we can make propositions as to how may things there are
in the world, as for example, that there are more than three.
These difﬁculties suggest to my mind some such possibility as this:
that every language has, as Mr. Wittgenstein says, a structure concerning
which in the language, nothing can be said, but that there may
be another language dealing with the structure of the ﬁrst language,
and having itself a new structure, and that to this hierarchy of languages
there may be no limit. Mr. Wittgenstein would of course reply
that his whole theory is applicable unchanged to the totality of such
languages. The only retort would be to deny that there is any such
totality. The totalities concerning which Mr. Wittgenstein holds that it
is impossible to speak logically are nevertheless thought by him to exist,
and are the subject-matter of his mysticism. The totality resulting
from our hierarchy would be not merely logically inexpressible, but a
ﬁction, a mere delusion, and in this way the supposed sphere of the
mystical would be abolished. Such a hypothesis is very difﬁcult, and
I can see objections to it which at the moment I do not know how to
answer. Yet I do not see how any easier hypothesis can escape from
Mr. Wittgenstein’s conclusions. Even if this very difﬁcult hypothesis
should prove tenable, it would leave untouched a very large part of
Mr. Wittgenstein’s theory, though possibly not the part upon which he
himself would wish to lay most stress. As one with a long experience
of the difﬁculties of logic and of the deceptiveness of theories which
seem irrefutable, I ﬁnd myself unable to be sure of the rightness of
a theory, merely on the ground that I cannot see any point on which
it is wrong. But to have constructed a theory of logic which is not at
any point obviously wrong is to have achieved a work of extraordinary
difﬁculty and importance. This merit, in my opinion, belongs to Mr.
Wittgenstein’s book, and makes it one which no serious philosopher
can afford to neglect.
BERTRAND RUSSELL.
May 1922.
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
DEDICATED
TO THE MEMORY OF MY FRIEND
DAVID H. PINSENT
M o t t o: . . . und alles, was man weiss, nicht bloss rauschen und brausen gehört hat, lässt sich in drei Worten sagen. –KÜRNBERGER.
9
Vorwort (Preface)
German Ogden Pears/McGuinness
Dieses Buch wird vielleicht nur der ver- This book will perhaps only be under- Perhaps this book will be understood only
stehen, der die Gedanken, die darin ausge- stood by those who have themselves already by someone who has himself already had the
drückt sind—oder doch ähnliche Gedanken— thought the thoughts which are expressed in thoughts that are expressed in it—or at least
schon selbst einmal gedacht hat.—Es ist also it—or similar thoughts. It is therefore not similar thoughts.—So it is not a textbook.—
kein Lehrbuch.—Sein Zweck wäre erreicht, a text-book. Its object would be attained if Its purpose would be achieved if it gave pleawenn
es Einem, der es mit Verständnis liest there were one person who read it with under- sure to one person who read and understood
Vergnügen bereitete. standing and to whom it afforded pleasure. it.
Das Buch behandelt die philosophischen The book deals with the problems of The book deals with the problems of phiProbleme
und zeigt—wie ich glaube—daß die philosophy and shows, as I believe, that losophy, and shows, I believe, that the reason
Fragestellung dieser Probleme auf dem Miß- the method of formulating these problems why these problems are posed is that the logic
verständnis der Logik unserer Sprache be- rests on the misunderstanding of the logic of of our language is misunderstood. The whole
ruht. Man könnte den ganzen Sinn des Bu- our language. Its whole meaning could be sense of the book might be summed up in
ches etwa in die Worte fassen: Was sich über- summed up somewhat as follows: What can the following words: what can be said at all
haupt sagen lässt, lässt sich klar sagen; und be said at all can be said clearly; and whereof can be said clearly, and what we cannot talk
wovon man nicht reden kann, darüber muss one cannot speak thereof one must be silent. about we must pass over in silence.
man schweigen.
Das Buch will also dem Denken eine The book will, therefore, draw a limit to Thus the aim of the book is to draw a limit
Grenze ziehen, oder vielmehr—nicht dem thinking, or rather—not to thinking, but to to thought, or rather—not to thought, but to
Denken, sondern dem Ausdruck der Gedan- the expression of thoughts; for, in order to the expression of thoughts: for in order to be
ken: Denn um dem Denken eine Grenze zu draw a limit to thinking we should have to able to draw a limit to thought, we should
ziehen, müssten wir beide Seiten dieser Gren- be able to think both sides of this limit (we have to ﬁnd both sides of the limit thinkable
ze denken können (wir müssten also denken should therefore have to be able to think (i.e. we should have to be able to think what
können, was sich nicht denken lässt). what cannot be thought). cannot be thought).
Die Grenze wird also nur in der Sprache The limit can, therefore, only be drawn in It will therefore only be in language that
gezogen werden können und was jenseits der language and what lies on the other side of the limit can be drawn, and what lies on the
Grenze liegt, wird einfach Unsinn sein. the limit will be simply nonsense. other side of the limit will simply be non-
sense.
Wieweit meine Bestrebungen mit denen How far my efforts agree with those of I do not wish to judge how far my efforts
anderer Philosophen zusammenfallen, will other philosophers I will not decide. Indeed coincide with those of other philosophers. Inich
nicht beurteilen. Ja, was ich hier geschrie- what I have here written makes no claim to deed, what I have written here makes no
ben habe macht im Einzelnen überhaupt novelty in points of detail; and therefore I claim to novelty in detail, and the reason
nicht den Anspruch auf Neuheit; und dar- give no sources, because it is indifferent to why I give no sources is that it is a matter of
um gebe ich auch keine Quellen an, weil es me whether what I have thought has already indifference to me whether the thoughts that
10
mir gleichgültig ist, ob das was ich gedacht been thought before me by another. I have had have been anticipated by someone
habe, vor mir schon ein anderer gedacht hat. else.
Nur das will ich erwähnen, dass ich den I will only mention that to the great I will only mention that I am indebted to
großartigen Werken Freges und den Arbei- works of Frege and the writings of my friend Frege’s great works and of the writings of my
ten meines Freundes Herrn Bertrand Russell Bertrand Russell I owe in large measure the friend Mr. Bertrand Russell for much of the
einen großen Teil der Anregung zu meinen stimulation of my thoughts. stimulation of my thoughts.
Gedanken schulde.
Wenn diese Arbeit einen Wert hat, so be- If this work has a value it consists in If this work has any value, it consists in
steht er in Zweierlei. Erstens darin, dass in two things. First that in it thoughts are ex- two things: the ﬁrst is that thoughts are exihr
Gedanken ausgedrückt sind, und dieser pressed, and this value will be the greater the pressed in it, and on this score the better the
Wert wird umso größer sein, je besser die Ge- better the thoughts are expressed. The more thoughts are expressed—the more the nail
danken ausgedrückt sind. Je mehr der Nagel the nail has been hit on the head.—Here I am has been hit on the head—the greater will
auf den Kopf getroffen ist.—Hier bin ich mir conscious that I have fallen far short of the be its value.—Here I am conscious of having
bewusst, weit hinter dem Möglichen zurück- possible. Simply because my powers are in- fallen a long way short of what is possible.
geblieben zu sein. Einfach darum, weil meine sufﬁcient to cope with the task.—May others Simply because my powers are too slight for
Kraft zur Bewältigung der Aufgabe zu gering come and do it better. the accomplishment of the task.—May others
ist.—Mögen andere kommen und es besser come and do it better.
machen.
Dagegen scheint mir die W a h r h e i t On the other hand the truth of the On the other hand the truth of the
der hier mitgeteilten Gedanken unantastbar thoughts communicated here seems to me thoughts that are here communicated seems
und deﬁnitiv. Ich bin also der Meinung, die unassailable and deﬁnitive. I am, therefore, to me unassailable and deﬁnitive. I therefore
Probleme im Wesentlichen endgültig gelöst of the opinion that the problems have in es- believe myself to have found, on all essenzu
haben. Und wenn ich mich hierin nicht sentials been ﬁnally solved. And if I am not tial points, the ﬁnal solution of the problems.
irre, so besteht nun der Wert dieser Arbeit mistaken in this, then the value of this work And if I am not mistaken in this belief, then
zweitens darin, dass sie zeigt, wie wenig da- secondly consists in the fact that it shows the second thing in which the value of this
mit getan ist, dass diese Probleme gelöst how little has been done when these prob- work consists is that it shows how little is
sind. lems have been solved. achieved when these problems are solved.
L. W. L. W. L. W.
Wien, 1918 Vienna, 1918 Vienna, 1918
11
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
German Ogden Pears/McGuinness
1* Die Welt ist alles, was der Fall ist. The world is everything that is the The world is all that is the case.
case.
1.1 Die Welt ist die Gesamtheit der Tatsa- The world is the totality of facts, not The world is the totality of facts, not
chen, nicht der Dinge. of things. of things.
1.11 Die Welt ist durch die Tatsachen be- The world is determined by the facts, The world is determined by the facts,
stimmt und dadurch, dass es a l l e Tat- and by these being all the facts. and by their being all the facts.
sachen sind.
1.12 Denn, die Gesamtheit der Tatsachen For the totality of facts determines For the totality of facts determines
bestimmt, was der Fall ist und auch, was both what is the case, and also all that is what is the case, and also whatever is
alles nicht der Fall ist. not the case. not the case.
1.13 Die Tatsachen im logischen Raum The facts in logical space are the The facts in logical space are the
sind die Welt. world. world.
1.2 Die Welt zerfällt in Tatsachen. The world divides into facts. The world divides into facts.
1.21 Eines kann der Fall sein oder nicht Any one can either be the case or not Each item can be the case or not the
der Fall sein und alles übrige gleich blei- be the case, and everything else remain case while everything else remains the
ben. the same. same.
2 Was der Fall ist, die Tatsache, ist das What is the case, the fact, is the exis- What is the case—a fact—is the exisBestehen
von Sachverhalten. tence of atomic facts. tence of states of affairs.
2.01 Der Sachverhalt ist eine Verbindung An atomic fact is a combination of ob- A state of affairs (a state of things) is
von Gegenständen. (Sachen, Dingen.) jects (entities, things). a combination of objects (things).
2.011 Es ist dem Ding wesentlich, der Be- It is essential to a thing that it can be It is essential to things that they
standteil eines Sachverhaltes sein zu kön- a constituent part of an atomic fact. should be possible constituents of states
nen. of affairs.
2.012 In der Logik ist nichts zufällig: Wenn In logic nothing is accidental: if a In logic nothing is accidental: if a
das Ding im Sachverhalt vorkommen thing can occur in an atomic fact the pos- thing can occur in a state of affairs, the
k a n n, so muss die Möglichkeit des Sach- sibility of that atomic fact must already possibility of the state of affairs must be
verhaltes im Ding bereits präjudiziert be prejudged in the thing. written into the thing itself.
sein.
* [German] Die Decimalzahlen als Nummern der einzelnen Sätze deuten das logische Gewicht der Sätze an, den Nachdruck, der auf ihnen in meiner Darstellung liegt.
Die Sätze n.1, n.2, n.3, etc., sind Bemerkungen zum Sätze No. n; die Sätze n.m1, n.m2, etc. Bemerkungen zum Satze No. n.m; und so weiter. / [Ogden] The decimal ﬁgures
as numbers of the separate propositions indicate the logical importance of the propositions, the emphasis laid upon them in my exposition. The propositions n.1, n.2, n.3,
etc., are comments on proposition No. n; the propositions n.m1, n.m2, etc., are comments on the proposition No. n.m; and so on. / [Pears & McGuinness] The decimal
numbers assigned to the individual propositions indicate the logical importance of the propositions, the stress laid on them in my exposition. The propositions n.1, n.2, n.3,
etc. are comments on proposition no. n; the propositions n.m1, n.m2, etc. are comments on proposition no. n.m; and so on.
12
2.0121 Es erschiene gleichsam als Zufall, It would, so to speak, appear as an It would seem to be a sort of accident,
wenn dem Ding, das allein für sich beste- accident, when to a thing that could exist if it turned out that a situation would ﬁt
hen könnte, nachträglich eine Sachlage alone on its own account, subsequently a a thing that could already exist entirely
passen würde. state of affairs could be made to ﬁt. on its own.
Wenn die Dinge in Sachverhalten vor- If things can occur in atomic facts, this If things can occur in states of affairs,
kommen können, so muss dies schon in possibility must already lie in them. this possibility must be in them from the
ihnen liegen. beginning.
(Etwas Logisches kann nicht nur- (A logical entity cannot be merely pos- (Nothing in the province of logic can
möglich sein. Die Logik handelt von jeder sible. Logic treats of every possibility, and be merely possible. Logic deals with evMöglichkeit
und alle Möglichkeiten sind all possibilities are its facts.) ery possibility and all possibilities are its
ihre Tatsachen.) facts.)
Wie wir uns räumliche Gegenstände Just as we cannot think of spatial ob- Just as we are quite unable to imagine
überhaupt nicht außerhalb des Raumes, jects at all apart from space, or tempo- spatial objects outside space or temporal
zeitliche nicht außerhalb der Zeit denken ral objects apart from time, so we cannot objects outside time, so too there is no
können, so können wir uns k e i n e n Ge- think of any object apart from the possi- object that we can imagine excluded from
genstand außerhalb der Möglichkeit sei- bility of its connexion with other things. the possibility of combining with others.
ner Verbindung mit anderen denken.
Wenn ich mir den Gegenstand im Ver- If I can think of an object in the con- If I can imagine objects combined in
bande des Sachverhalts denken kann, so text of an atomic fact, I cannot think of it states of affairs, I cannot imagine them
kann ich ihn nicht außerhalb der M ö g - apart from the possibility of this context. excluded from the possibility of such coml
i c h k e i t dieses Verbandes denken. binations.
2.0122 Das Ding ist selbständig, insofern es The thing is independent, in so far as Things are independent in so far as
in allen m ö g l i c h e n Sachlagen vor- it can occur in all possible circumstances, they can occur in all possible situations,
kommen kann, aber diese Form der Selb- but this form of independence is a form of but this form of independence is a form
ständigkeit ist eine Form des Zusammen- connexion with the atomic fact, a form of of connexion with states of affairs, a form
hangs mit dem Sachverhalt, eine Form dependence. (It is impossible for words to of dependence. (It is impossible for words
der Unselbständigkeit. (Es ist unmöglich, occur in two different ways, alone and in to appear in two different roles: by themdass
Worte in zwei verschiedenen Weisen the proposition.) selves, and in propositions.)
auftreten, allein und im Satz.)
2.0123 Wenn ich den Gegenstand kenne, so If I know an object, then I also know If I know an object I also know all its
kenne ich auch sämtliche Möglichkeiten all the possibilities of its occurrence in possible occurrences in states of affairs.
seines Vorkommens in Sachverhalten. atomic facts.
(Jede solche Möglichkeit muss in der (Every such possibility must lie in the (Every one of these possibilities must
Natur des Gegenstandes liegen.) nature of the object.) be part of the nature of the object.)
Es kann nicht nachträglich eine neue A new possibility cannot subsequently A new possibility cannot be discovered
Möglichkeit gefunden werden. be found. later.
2.01231 Um einen Gegenstand zu kennen, In order to know an object, I must If I am to know an object, though I
13
muss ich zwar nicht seine externen—aber know not its external but all its internal need not know its external properties, I
ich muss alle seine internen Eigenschaf- qualities. must know all its internal properties.
ten kennen.
2.0124 Sind alle Gegenstände gegeben, so If all objects are given, then thereby If all objects are given, then at the
sind damit auch alle m ö g l i c h e n Sach- are all possible atomic facts also given. same time all possible states of affairs are
verhalte gegeben. also given.
2.013 Jedes Ding ist, gleichsam, in einem Every thing is, as it were, in a space Each thing is, as it were, in a space of
Raume möglicher Sachverhalte. Diesen of possible atomic facts. I can think of possible states of affairs. This space I can
Raum kann ich mir leer denken, nicht this space as empty, but not of the thing imagine empty, but I cannot imagine the
aber das Ding ohne den Raum. without the space. thing without the space.
2.0131 Der räumliche Gegenstand muss im A spatial object must lie in inﬁnite A spatial object must be situated in
unendlichen Raume liegen. (Der Raum- space. (A point in space is an argument inﬁnite space. (A spatial point is an
punkt ist eine Argumentstelle.) place.) argument-place.)
Der Fleck im Gesichtsfeld muss zwar A speck in a visual ﬁeld need not be A speck in the visual ﬁeld, thought it
nicht rot sein, aber eine Farbe muss er red, but it must have a colour; it has, so need not be red, must have some colour:
haben: er hat sozusagen den Farbenraum to speak, a colour space round it. A tone it is, so to speak, surrounded by colourum
sich. Der Ton muss e i n e Höhe ha- must have a pitch, the object of the sense space. Notes must have some pitch, obben,
der Gegenstand des Tastsinnes e i - of touch a hardness, etc. jects of the sense of touch some degree of
n e Härte, usw. hardness, and so on.
2.014 Die Gegenstände enthalten die Mög- Objects contain the possibility of all Objects contain the possibility of all
lichkeit aller Sachlagen. states of affairs. situations.
2.0141 Die Möglichkeit seines Vorkommens The possibility of its occurrence in The possibility of its occurring in
in Sachverhalten, ist die Form des Gegen- atomic facts is the form of the object. states of affairs is the form of an object.
standes.
2.02 Der Gegenstand ist einfach. The object is simple. Objects are simple.
2.0201 Jede Aussage über Komplexe lässt Every statement about complexes can Every statement about complexes can
sich in eine Aussage über deren Bestand- be analysed into a statement about their be resolved into a statement about their
teile und in diejenigen Sätze zerlegen, constituent parts, and into those proposi- constituents and into the propositions
welche die Komplexe vollständig beschrei- tions which completely describe the com- that describe the complexes completely.
ben. plexes.
2.021 Die Gegenstände bilden die Substanz Objects form the substance of the Objects make up the substance of the
der Welt. Darum können sie nicht zusam- world. Therefore they cannot be com- world. That is why they cannot be commengesetzt
sein. pound. posite.
2.0211 Hätte die Welt keine Substanz, so wür- If the world had no substance, then If the world had no substance, then
de, ob ein Satz Sinn hat, davon abhängen, whether a proposition had sense would whether a proposition had sense would
ob ein anderer Satz wahr ist. depend on whether another proposition depend on whether another proposition
was true. was true.
14
2.0212 Es wäre dann unmöglich, ein Bild der It would then be impossible to form a In that case we could not sketch any
Welt (wahr oder falsch) zu entwerfen. picture of the world (true or false). picture of the world (true or false).
2.022 Es ist offenbar, dass auch eine von der It is clear that however different from It is obvious that an imagined world,
wirklichen noch so verschieden gedachte the real one an imagined world may be, however different it may be from the real
Welt Etwas—eine Form—mit der wirkli- it must have something—a form—in com- one, must have something—a form—in
chen gemein haben muss. mon with the real world. common with it.
2.023 Diese feste Form besteht eben aus den This ﬁxed form consists of the objects. Objects are just what constitute this
Gegenständen. unalterable form.
2.0231 Die Substanz der Welt k a n n nur The substance of the world can only The substance of the world can only
eine Form und keine materiellen Eigen- determine a form and not any material determine a form, and not any material
schaften bestimmen. Denn diese werden properties. For these are ﬁrst presented properties. For it is only by means of
erst durch die Sätze dargestellt—erst by the propositions—ﬁrst formed by the propositions that material properties are
durch die Konﬁguration der Gegenstände conﬁguration of the objects. represented—only by the conﬁguration of
gebildet. objects that they are produced.
2.0232 Beiläuﬁg gesprochen: Die Gegenstän- Roughly speaking: objects are colour- In a manner of speaking, objects are
de sind farblos. less. colourless.
2.0233 Zwei Gegenstände von der gleichen Two objects of the same logical If two objects have the same logical
logischen Form sind—abgesehen von ih- form are—apart from their external form, the only distinction between them,
ren externen Eigenschaften—von einan- properties—only differentiated from one apart from their external properties, is
der nur dadurch unterschieden, dass sie another in that they are different. that they are different.
verschieden sind.
2.02331 Entweder ein Ding hat Eigenschaften, Either a thing has properties which no Either a thing has properties that
die kein anderes hat, dann kann man other has, and then one can distinguish nothing else has, in which case we can
es ohneweiteres durch eine Beschreibung it straight away from the others by a de- immediately use a description to distinaus
den anderen herausheben, und dar- scription and refer to it; or, on the other guish it from the others and refer to it;
auf hinweisen; oder aber, es gibt mehrere hand, there are several things which have or, on the other hand, there are several
Dinge, die ihre sämtlichen Eigenschaften the totality of their properties in common, things that have the whole set of their
gemeinsam haben, dann ist es überhaupt and then it is quite impossible to point to properties in common, in which case it is
unmöglich auf eines von ihnen zu zeigen. any one of them. quite impossible to indicate one of them.
Denn, ist das Ding durch nichts her- For if a thing is not distinguished by For if there is nothing to distinguish
vorgehoben, so kann ich es nicht hervor- anything, I cannot distinguish it—for oth- a thing, I cannot distinguish it, since othheben,
denn sonst ist es eben hervorgeho- erwise it would be distinguished. erwise it would be distinguished after all.
ben.
2.024 Die Substanz ist das, was unabhängig Substance is what exists indepen- The substance is what subsists indevon
dem was der Fall ist, besteht. dently of what is the case. pendently of what is the case.
2.025 Sie ist Form und Inhalt. It is form and content. It is form and content.
2.0251 Raum, Zeit und Farbe (Färbigkeit) Space, time and colour (colouredness) Space, time, colour (being coloured)
15
sind Formen der Gegenstände. are forms of objects. are forms of objects.
2.026 Nur wenn es Gegenstände gibt, kann Only if there are objects can there be There must be objects, if the world is
es eine feste Form der Welt geben. a ﬁxed form of the world. to have unalterable form.
2.027 Das Feste, das Bestehende und der The ﬁxed, the existent and the object Objects, the unalterable, and the subGegenstand
sind Eins. are one. sistent are one and the same.
2.0271 Der Gegenstand ist das Feste, Beste- The object is the ﬁxed, the existent; Objects are what is unalterable and
hende; die Konﬁguration ist das Wech- the conﬁguration is the changing, the subsistent; their conﬁguration is what is
selnde, Unbeständige. variable. changing and unstable.
2.0272 Die Konﬁguration der Gegenstände The conﬁguration of the objects forms The conﬁguration of objects produces
bildet den Sachverhalt. the atomic fact. states of affairs.
2.03 Im Sachverhalt hängen die Gegen- In the atomic fact objects hang one in In a state of affairs objects ﬁt into one
stände ineinander, wie die Glieder einer another, like the links of a chain. another like the links of a chain.
Kette.
2.031 Im Sachverhalt verhalten sich die Ge- In the atomic fact the objects are com- In a state of affairs objects stand in a
genstände in bestimmter Art und Weise bined in a deﬁnite way. determinate relation to one another.
zueinander.
2.032 Die Art und Weise, wie die Gegenstän- The way in which objects hang to- The determinate way in which objects
de im Sachverhalt zusammenhängen, ist gether in the atomic fact is the structure are connected in a state of affairs is the
die Struktur des Sachverhaltes. of the atomic fact. structure of the state of affairs.
2.033 Die Form ist die Möglichkeit der The form is the possibility of the struc- Form is the possibility of structure.
Struktur. ture.
2.034 Die Struktur der Tatsache besteht aus The structure of the fact consists of The structure of a fact consists of the
den Strukturen der Sachverhalte. the structures of the atomic facts. structures of states of affairs.
2.04 Die Gesamtheit der bestehenden The totality of existent atomic facts is The totality of existing states of afSachverhalte
ist die Welt. the world. fairs is the world.
2.05 Die Gesamtheit der bestehenden The totality of existent atomic facts The totality of existing states of afSachverhalte
bestimmt auch, welche also determines which atomic facts do not fairs also determines which states of afSachverhalte
nicht bestehen. exist. fairs do not exist.
2.06 Das Bestehen und Nichtbestehen von The existence and non-existence of The existence and non-existence of
Sachverhalten ist die Wirklichkeit. atomic facts is the reality. states of affairs is reality.
(Das Bestehen von Sachverhalten nen- (The existence of atomic facts we also (We call the existence of states of
nen wir auch eine positive, das Nichtbe- call a positive fact, their non-existence a affairs a positive fact, and their nonstehen
eine negative Tatsache.) negative fact.) existence a negative fact.)
2.061 Die Sachverhalte sind von einander Atomic facts are independent of one States of affairs are independent of
unabhängig. another. one another.
2.062 Aus dem Bestehen oder Nichtbeste- From the existence or non-existence From the existence or non-existence of
hen eines Sachverhaltes kann nicht auf of an atomic fact we cannot infer the exis- one state of affairs it is impossible to infer
16
das Bestehen oder Nichtbestehen eines tence or non-existence of another. the existence or non-existence of another.
anderen geschlossen werden.
2.063 Die gesamte Wirklichkeit ist die Welt. The total reality is the world. The sum-total of reality is the world.
2.1 Wir machen uns Bilder der Tatsachen. We make to ourselves pictures of facts. We picture facts to ourselves.
2.11 Das Bild stellt die Sachlage im logi- The picture presents the facts in logi- A picture presents a situation in logischen
Raume, das Bestehen und Nichtbe- cal space, the existence and non-existence cal space, the existence and non-existence
stehen von Sachverhalten vor. of atomic facts. of states of affairs.
2.12 Das Bild ist ein Modell der Wirklich- The picture is a model of reality. A picture is a model of reality.
keit.
2.13 Den Gegenständen entsprechen im To the objects correspond in the pic- In a picture objects have the elements
Bilde die Elemente des Bildes. ture the elements of the picture. of the picture corresponding to them.
2.131 Die Elemente des Bildes vertreten im The elements of the picture stand, in In a picture the elements of the picBild
die Gegenstände. the picture, for the objects. ture are the representatives of objects.
2.14 Das Bild besteht darin, dass sich seine The picture consists in the fact that its What constitutes a picture is that its
Elemente in bestimmter Art und Weise elements are combined with one another elements are related to one another in a
zu einander verhalten. in a deﬁnite way. determinate way.
2.141 Das Bild ist eine Tatsache. The picture is a fact. A picture is a fact.
2.15 Dass sich die Elemente des Bildes in That the elements of the picture are The fact that the elements of a picbestimmter
Art und Weise zu einander combined with one another in a deﬁnite ture are related to one another in a deverhalten,
stellt vor, dass sich die Sachen way, represents that the things are so terminate way represents that things are
so zu einander verhalten. combined with one another. related to one another in the same way.
Dieser Zusammenhang der Elemente This connexion of the elements of the Let us call this connexion of its eledes
Bildes heiße seine Struktur und ihre picture is called its structure, and the pos- ments the structure of the picture, and
Möglichkeit seine Form der Abbildung. sibility of this structure is called the form let us call the possibility of this structure
of representation of the picture. the pictorial form of the picture.
2.151 Die Form der Abbildung ist die Mög- The form of representation is the pos- Pictorial form is the possibility that
lichkeit, dass sich die Dinge so zu ein- sibility that the things are combined with things are related to one another in the
ander verhalten, wie die Elemente des one another as are the elements of the same way as the elements of the picture.
Bildes. picture.
2.1511 Das Bild ist s o mit der Wirklichkeit Thus the picture is linked with reality; That is how a picture is attached to
verknüpft—es reicht bis zu ihr. it reaches up to it. reality; it reaches right out to it.
2.1512 Es ist wie ein Maßstab an die Wirk- It is like a scale applied to reality. It is laid against reality like a mealichkeit
angelegt. sure.
2.15121 Nur die äußersten Punkte der Teil- Only the outermost points of the divid- Only the end-points of the graduating
striche b e r ü h r e n den zu messenden ing lines touch the object to be measured. lines actually touch the object that is to
Gegenstand. be measured.
2.1513 Nach dieser Auffassung gehört also According to this view the represent- So a picture, conceived in this way,
17
zum Bilde auch noch die abbildende Be- ing relation which makes it a picture, also also includes the pictorial relationship,
ziehung, die es zum Bild macht. belongs to the picture. which makes it into a picture.
2.1514 Die abbildende Beziehung besteht aus The representing relation consists of The pictorial relationship consists of
den Zuordnungen der Elemente des Bil- the co-ordinations of the elements of the the correlations of the picture’s elements
des und der Sachen. picture and the things. with things.
2.1515 Diese Zuordnungen sind gleichsam These co-ordinations are as it were These correlations are, as it were, the
die Fühler der Bildelemente, mit denen the feelers of its elements with which the feelers of the picture’s elements, with
das Bild die Wirklichkeit berührt. picture touches reality. which the picture touches reality.
2.16 Die Tatsache muss, um Bild zu sein, In order to be a picture a fact must If a fact is to be a picture, it must have
etwas mit dem Abgebildeten gemeinsam have something in common with what it something in common with what it dehaben.
pictures. picts.
2.161 In Bild und Abgebildetem muss etwas In the picture and the pictured there There must be something identical in
identisch sein, damit das eine überhaupt must be something identical in order that a picture and what it depicts, to enable
ein Bild des anderen sein kann. the one can be a picture of the other at the one to be a picture of the other at all.
all.
2.17 Was das Bild mit der Wirklichkeit ge- What the picture must have in com- What a picture must have in common
mein haben muss, um sie auf seine Art mon with reality in order to be able to with reality, in order to be able to depict
und Weise—richtig oder falsch—abbilden represent it after its manner—rightly or it—correctly or incorrectly—in the way
zu können, ist seine Form der Abbildung. falsely—is its form of representation. that it does, is its pictorial form.
2.171 Das Bild kann jede Wirklichkeit abbil- The picture can represent every real- A picture can depict any reality whose
den, deren Form es hat. ity whose form it has. form it has.
Das räumliche Bild alles Räumliche, The spatial picture, everything spa- A spatial picture can depict anything
das farbige alles Farbige, etc. tial, the coloured, everything coloured, spatial, a coloured one anything coloured,
etc. etc.
2.172 Seine Form der Abbildung aber, kann The picture, however, cannot repre- A picture cannot, however, depict its
das Bild nicht abbilden; es weist sie auf. sent its form of representation; it shows pictorial form: it displays it.
it forth.
2.173 Das Bild stellt sein Objekt von außer- The picture represents its object from A picture represents its subject from
halb dar (sein Standpunkt ist seine Form without (its standpoint is its form of rep- a position outside it. (Its standpoint is
der Darstellung), darum stellt das Bild resentation), therefore the picture repre- its representational form.) That is why a
sein Objekt richtig oder falsch dar. sents its object rightly or falsely. picture represents its subject correctly or
incorrectly.
2.174 Das Bild kann sich aber nicht außer- But the picture cannot place itself out- A picture cannot, however, place itself
halb seiner Form der Darstellung stellen. side of its form of representation. outside its representational form.
2.18 Was jedes Bild, welcher Form immer, What every picture, of whatever form, What any picture, of whatever form,
mit der Wirklichkeit gemein haben muss, must have in common with reality in must have in common with reality, in orum
sie überhaupt—richtig oder falsch— order to be able to represent it at all— der to be able to depict it—correctly or
18
abbilden zu können, ist die logische Form, rightly or falsely—is the logical form, that incorrectly—in any way at all, is logical
das ist, die Form der Wirklichkeit. is, the form of reality. form, i.e. the form of reality.
2.181 Ist die Form der Abbildung die logi- If the form of representation is the A picture whose pictorial form is logische
Form, so heißt das Bild das logische logical form, then the picture is called a cal form is called a logical picture.
Bild. logical picture.
2.182 Jedes Bild ist a u c h ein logisches. Every picture is also a logical picture. Every picture is at the same time a
(Dagegen ist z. B. nicht jedes Bild ein (On the other hand, for example, not ev- logical one. (On the other hand, not every
räumliches.) ery picture is spatial.) picture is, for example, a spatial one.)
2.19 Das logische Bild kann die Welt abbil- The logical picture can depict the Logical pictures can depict the world.
den. world.
2.2 Das Bild hat mit dem Abgebildeten The picture has the logical form of rep- A picture has logico-pictorial form in
die logische Form der Abbildung gemein. resentation in common with what it pic- common with what it depicts.
tures.
2.201 Das Bild bildet die Wirklichkeit ab, The picture depicts reality by repre- A picture depicts reality by representindem
es eine Möglichkeit des Bestehens senting a possibility of the existence and ing a possibility of existence and nonund
Nichtbestehens von Sachverhalten non-existence of atomic facts. existence of states of affairs.
darstellt.
2.202 Das Bild stellt eine mögliche Sachlage The picture represents a possible A picture represents a possible situaim
logischen Raume dar. state of affairs in logical space. tion in logical space.
2.203 Das Bild enthält die Möglichkeit der The picture contains the possibility of A picture contains the possibility of
Sachlage, die es darstellt. the state of affairs which it represents. the situation that it represents.
2.21 Das Bild stimmt mit der Wirklichkeit The picture agrees with reality or not; A picture agrees with reality or fails
überein oder nicht; es ist richtig oder un- it is right or wrong, true or false. to agree; it is correct or incorrect, true or
richtig, wahr oder falsch. false.
2.22 Das Bild stellt dar, was es darstellt, The picture represents what it repre- What a picture represents it repreunabhängig
von seiner Wahr- oder Falsch- sents, independently of its truth or false- sents independently of its truth or falsity,
heit, durch die Form der Abbildung. hood, through the form of representation. by means of its pictorial form.
2.221 Was das Bild darstellt, ist sein Sinn. What the picture represents is its What a picture represents is its sense.
sense.
2.222 In der Übereinstimmung oder Nicht- In the agreement or disagreement of The agreement or disagreement of its
übereinstimmung seines Sinnes mit der its sense with reality, its truth or falsity sense with reality constitutes its truth or
Wirklichkeit, besteht seine Wahrheit oder consists. falsity.
Falschheit.
2.223 Um zu erkennen, ob das Bild wahr In order to discover whether the pic- In order to tell whether a picture is
oder falsch ist, müssen wir es mit der ture is true or false we must compare it true or false we must compare it with
Wirklichkeit vergleichen. with reality. reality.
2.224 Aus dem Bild allein ist nicht zu erken- It cannot be discovered from the pic- It is impossible to tell from the picture
19
nen, ob es wahr oder falsch ist. ture alone whether it is true or false. alone whether it is true or false.
2.225 Ein a priori wahres Bild gibt es nicht. There is no picture which is a priori There are no pictures that are true a
true. priori.
3 Das logische Bild der Tatsachen ist The logical picture of the facts is the A logical picture of facts is a thought.
der Gedanke. thought.
3.001 „Ein Sachverhalt ist denkbar“ heißt: “An atomic fact is thinkable”—means: ‘A state of affairs is thinkable’: what
Wir können uns ein Bild von ihm machen. we can imagine it. this means is that we can picture it to
ourselves.
3.01 Die Gesamtheit der wahren Gedan- The totality of true thoughts is a pic- The totality of true thoughts is a picken
sind ein Bild der Welt. ture of the world. ture of the world.
3.02 Der Gedanke enthält die Möglichkeit The thought contains the possibility of A thought contains the possibility of
der Sachlage, die er denkt. Was denkbar the state of affairs which it thinks. What the situation of which it is the thought.
ist, ist auch möglich. is thinkable is also possible. What is thinkable is possible too.
3.03 Wir können nichts Unlogisches den- We cannot think anything unlogical, Thought can never be of anything ilken,
weil wir sonst unlogisch denken müs- for otherwise we should have to think un- logical, since, if it were, we should have
sten. logically. to think illogically.
3.031 Man sagte einmal, dass Gott alles It used to be said that God could cre- It used to be said that God could creschaffen
könne, nur nichts, was den logi- ate everything, except what was contrary ate anything except what would be conschen
Gesetzen zuwider wäre.—Wir kön- to the laws of logic. The truth is, we could trary to the laws of logic. The truth is
nen nämlich von einer „unlogischen“ Welt not say of an “unlogical” world how it that we could not say what an ‘illogical’
nicht s a g e n, wie sie aussähe. would look. world would look like.
3.032 Etwas „der Logik widersprechendes“ To present in language anything It is as impossible to represent in lanin
der Sprache darstellen, kann man which “contradicts logic” is as impossi- guage anything that ‘contradicts logic’ as
ebensowenig, wie in der Geometrie eine ble as in geometry to present by its co- it is in geometry to represent by its coden
Gesetzen des Raumes widersprechen- ordinates a ﬁgure which contradicts the ordinates a ﬁgure that contradicts the
de Figur durch ihre Koordinaten darstel- laws of space; or to give the co-ordinates laws of space, or to give the co-ordinates
len; oder die Koordinaten eines Punktes of a point which does not exist. of a point that does not exist.
angeben, welcher nicht existiert.
3.0321 Wohl können wir einen Sachverhalt We could present spatially an atomic Though a state of affairs that would
räumlich darstellen, welcher den Geset- fact which contradicted the laws of contravene the laws of physics can be repzen
der Physik, aber keinen, der den Ge- physics, but not one which contradicted resented by us spatially, one that would
setzen der Geometrie zuwiderliefe. the laws of geometry. contravene the laws of geometry cannot.
3.04 Ein a priori richtiger Gedanke wä- An a priori true thought would be one If a thought were correct a priori, it
re ein solcher, dessen Möglichkeit seine whose possibility guaranteed its truth. would be a thought whose possibility enWahrheit
bedingte. sured its truth.
3.05 Nur so könnten wir a priori wissen, Only if we could know a priori that a A priori knowledge that a thought was
dass ein Gedanke wahr ist, wenn aus dem thought is true if its truth was to be rec- true would be possible only if its truth
20
Gedanken selbst (ohne Vergleichsobjekt) ognized from the thought itself (without were recognizable from the thought itself
seine Wahrheit zu erkennen wäre. an object of comparison). (without anything to compare it with).
3.1 Im Satz drückt sich der Gedanke sinn- In the proposition the thought is ex- In a proposition a thought ﬁnds an
lich wahrnehmbar aus. pressed perceptibly through the senses. expression that can be perceived by the
senses.
3.11 Wir benützen das sinnlich wahrnehm- We use the sensibly perceptible sign We use the perceptible sign of a propobare
Zeichen (Laut- oder Schriftzeichen (sound or written sign, etc.) of the propo- sition (spoken or written, etc.) as a projecetc.)
des Satzes als Projektion der mögli- sition as a projection of the possible state tion of a possible situation.
chen Sachlage. of affairs.
Die Projektionsmethode ist das Den- The method of projection is the think- The method of projection is to think of
ken des Satz-Sinnes. ing of the sense of the proposition. the sense of the proposition.
3.12 Das Zeichen, durch welches wir den The sign through which we express I call the sign with which we express
Gedanken ausdrücken, nenne ich das the thought I call the propositional sign. a thought a propositional sign.—And a
Satzzeichen. Und der Satz ist das Satzzei- And the proposition is the propositional proposition is a propositional sign in its
chen in seiner projektiven Beziehung zur sign in its projective relation to the world. projective relation to the world.
Welt.
3.13 Zum Satz gehört alles, was zur Projek- To the proposition belongs everything A proposition includes all that the protion
gehört; aber nicht das Projizierte. which belongs to the projection; but not jection includes, but not what is projected.
what is projected.
Also die Möglichkeit des Projizierten, Therefore the possibility of what is Therefore, though what is projected is
aber nicht dieses selbst. projected but not this itself. not itself included, its possibility is.
Im Satz ist also sein Sinn noch nicht In the proposition, therefore, its sense A proposition, therefore, does not acenthalten,
wohl aber die Möglichkeit, ihn is not yet contained, but the possibility of tually contain its sense, but does contain
auszudücken. expressing it. the possibility of expressing it.
(„Der Inhalt des Satzes“ heißt der In- (“The content of the proposition” (‘The content of a proposition’ means
halt des sinnvollen Satzes.) means the content of the signiﬁcant the content of a proposition that has
proposition.) sense.)
Im Satz ist die Form seines Sinnes In the proposition the form of its sense A proposition contains the form, but
enthalten, aber nicht dessen Inhalt. is contained, but not its content. not the content, of its sense.
3.14 Das Satzzeichen besteht darin, dass The propositional sign consists in the What constitutes a propositional sign
sich seine Elemente, die Wörter, in ihm fact that its elements, the words, are com- is that in it its elements (the words) stand
auf bestimmte Art und Weise zu einander bined in it in a deﬁnite way. in a determinate relation to one another.
verhalten.
Das Satzzeichen ist eine Tatsache. The propositional sign is a fact. A propositional sign is a fact.
3.141 Der Satz ist kein Wörtergemisch.— The proposition is not a mixture of A proposition is not a blend of words.—
(Wie das musikalische Thema kein Ge- words (just as the musical theme is not a (Just as a theme in music is not a blend
misch von Tönen.) mixture of tones). of notes.)
21
Der Satz ist artikuliert. The proposition is articulate. A proposition is articulate.
3.142 Nur Tatsachen können einen Sinn Only facts can express a sense, a class Only facts can express a sense, a set
ausdrücken, eine Klasse von Namen kann of names cannot. of names cannot.
es nicht.
3.143 Dass das Satzzeichen eine Tatsache That the propositional sign is a fact is Although a propositional sign is a fact,
ist, wird durch die gewöhnliche Aus- concealed by the ordinary form of expres- this is obscured by the usual form of exdrucksform
der Schrift oder des Druckes sion, written or printed. pression in writing or print.
verschleiert.
Denn im gedruckten Satz z. B. sieht For in the printed proposition, for ex- For in a printed proposition, for examdas
Satzzeichen nicht wesentlich ver- ample, the sign of a proposition does not ple, no essential difference is apparent
schieden aus vom Wort. appear essentially different from a word. between a propositional sign and a word.
(So war es möglich, dass Frege den (Thus it was possible for Frege to call (That is what made it possible for
Satz einen zusammengesetzten Namen the proposition a compounded name.) Frege to call a proposition a composite
nannte.) name.)
3.1431 Sehr klar wird das Wesen des Satzzei- The essential nature of the proposi- The essence of a propositional sign
chens, wenn wir es uns, statt aus Schrift- tional sign becomes very clear when we is very clearly seen if we imagine one
zeichen, aus räumlichen Gegenständen imagine it made up of spatial objects composed of spatial objects (such as ta(etwa
Tischen, Stühlen, Büchern) zusam- (such as tables, chairs, books) instead of bles, chairs, and books) instead of written
mengesetzt denken. written signs. signs.
Die gegenseitige räumliche Lage die- The mutual spatial position of these Then the spatial arrangement of these
ser Dinge drückt dann den Sinn des Sat- things then expresses the sense of the things will express the sense of the propozes
aus. proposition. sition.
3.1432 Nicht: „Das komplexe Zeichen ‚aRb‘ We must not say, “The complex sign Instead of, ‘The complex sign “aRb”
sagt, dass a in der Beziehung R zu b ‘aRb’ says ‘a stands in relation R to b’”; says that a stands to b in the relation R’,
steht“, sondern: D a s s „a“ in einer gewis- but we must say, “That ‘a’ stands in a we ought to put, ‘That “a” stands to “b” in
sen Beziehung zu „b“ steht, sagt, d a s s certain relation to ‘b’ says that aRb”. a certain relation says that aRb.’
aRb.
3.144 Sachlagen kann man beschreiben, States of affairs can be described but Situations can be described but not
nicht b e n e n n e n. not named. given names.
(Namen gleichen Punkten, Sätze Pfei- (Names resemble points; propositions (Names are like points; propositions
len, sie haben Sinn.) resemble arrows, they have sense.) like arrows—they have sense.)
3.2 Im Satze kann der Gedanke so ausge- In propositions thoughts can be so ex- In a proposition a thought can be exdrückt
sein, dass den Gegenständen des pressed that to the objects of the thoughts pressed in such a way that elements of
Gedankens Elemente des Satzzeichens correspond the elements of the proposi- the propositional sign correspond to the
entsprechen. tional sign. objects of the thought.
3.201 Diese Elemente nenne ich „einfache These elements I call “simple signs” I call such elements ‘simple signs’, and
Zeichen“ und den Satz „vollständig analy- and the proposition “completely anal- such a proposition ‘complete analysed’.
22
siert“. ysed”.
3.202 Die im Satze angewandten einfachen The simple signs employed in proposi- The simple signs employed in proposiZeichen
heißen Namen. tions are called names. tions are called names.
3.203 Der Name bedeutet den Gegenstand. The name means the object. The ob- A name means an object. The object is
Der Gegenstand ist seine Bedeutung. („A“ ject is its meaning. (“A” is the same sign its meaning. (‘A’ is the same sign as ‘A’.)
ist dasselbe Zeichen wie „A“.) as “A”.)
3.21 Der Konﬁguration der einfachen Zei- To the conﬁguration of the simple The conﬁguration of objects in a situchen
im Satzzeichen entspricht die Konﬁ- signs in the propositional sign corre- ation corresponds to the conﬁguration of
guration der Gegenstände in der Sachla- sponds the conﬁguration of the objects simple signs in the propositional sign.
ge. in the state of affairs.
3.22 Der Name vertritt im Satz den Gegen- In the proposition the name repre- In a proposition a name is the represtand.
sents the object. sentative of an object.
3.221 Die Gegenstände kann ich nur n e n - Objects I can only name. Signs rep- Objects can only be named. Signs are
n e n. Zeichen vertreten sie. Ich kann nur resent them. I can only speak of them. their representatives. I can only speak
v o n ihnen sprechen, s i e a u s s p r e - I cannot assert them. A proposition can about them: I cannot put them into words.
c h e n kann ich nicht. Ein Satz kann nur only say how a thing is, not what it is. Propositions can only say how things are,
sagen, w i e ein Ding ist, nicht w a s es not what they are.
ist.
3.23 Die Forderung der Möglichkeit der The postulate of the possibility of the The requirement that simple signs be
einfachen Zeichen ist die Forderung der simple signs is the postulate of the deter- possible is the requirement that sense be
Bestimmtheit des Sinnes. minateness of the sense. determinate.
3.24 Der Satz, welcher vom Komplex han- A proposition about a complex stands A proposition about a complex stands
delt, steht in interner Beziehung zum Sat- in internal relation to the proposition in an internal relation to a proposition
ze, der von dessen Bestandteil handelt. about its constituent part. about a constituent of the complex.
Der Komplex kann nur durch seine A complex can only be given by its A complex can be given only by its
Beschreibung gegeben sein, und diese description, and this will either be right description, which will be right or wrong.
wird stimmen oder nicht stimmen. Der or wrong. The proposition in which there A proposition that mentions a complex
Satz, in welchem von einem Komplex die is mention of a complex, if this does not will not be nonsensical, if the complex
Rede ist, wird, wenn dieser nicht existiert, exist, becomes not nonsense but simply does not exist, but simply false.
nicht unsinnig, sondern einfach falsch false.
sein.
Dass ein Satzelement einen Komplex That a propositional element signiﬁes When a propositional element signibezeichnet,
kann man aus einer Unbe- a complex can be seen from an indetermi- ﬁes a complex, this can be seen from an
stimmtheit in den Sätzen sehen, worin es nateness in the propositions in which it indeterminateness in the propositions in
vorkommt. Wir w i s s e n, durch diesen occurs. We know that everything is not which it occurs. In such cases we know
Satz ist noch nicht alles bestimmt. (Die yet determined by this proposition. (The that the proposition leaves something unAllgemeinheitsbezeichnung
e n t h ä l t notation for generality contains a proto- determined. (In fact the notation for gen-
23
ja ein Urbild.) type.) erality contains a prototype.)
Die Zusammenfassung des Symbols The combination of the symbols of a The contraction of a symbol for a comeines
Komplexes in ein einfaches Symbol complex in a simple symbol can be ex- plex into a simple symbol can be exkann
durch eine Deﬁnition ausgedrückt pressed by a deﬁnition. pressed in a deﬁnition.
werden.
3.25 Es gibt eine und nur eine vollständige There is one and only one complete A proposition has one and only one
Analyse des Satzes. analysis of the proposition. complete analysis.
3.251 Der Satz drückt auf bestimmte, klar The proposition expresses what it ex- What a proposition expresses it exangebbare
Weise aus, was er ausdrückt: presses in a deﬁnite and clearly speciﬁ- presses in a determinate manner, which
Der Satz ist artikuliert. able way: the proposition is articulate. can be set out clearly: a proposition is
articulated.
3.26 Der Name ist durch keine Deﬁnition The name cannot be analysed further A name cannot be dissected any furweiter
zu zergliedern: er ist ein Urzei- by any deﬁnition. It is a primitive sign. ther by means of a deﬁnition: it is a primchen.
itive sign.
3.261 Jedes deﬁnierte Zeichen bezeichnet Every deﬁned sign signiﬁes via those Every sign that has a deﬁnition signiü
b e r jene Zeichen, durch welche es deﬁ- signs by which it is deﬁned, and the deﬁ- ﬁes via the signs that serve to deﬁne it;
niert wurde; und die Deﬁnitionen weisen nitions show the way. and the deﬁnitions point the way.
den Weg.
Zwei Zeichen, ein Urzeichen, und Two signs, one a primitive sign, and Two signs cannot signify in the same
ein durch Urzeichen deﬁniertes, können one deﬁned by primitive signs, cannot manner if one is primitive and the other
nicht auf dieselbe Art und Weise bezeich- signify in the same way. Names cannot is deﬁned by means of primitive signs.
nen. Namen k a n n man nicht durch be taken to pieces by deﬁnition (nor any Names cannot be anatomized by means
Deﬁnitionen auseinanderlegen. (Kein Zei- sign which alone and independently has of deﬁnitions. (Nor can any sign that has
chen, welches allein, selbständig eine Be- a meaning). a meaning independently and on its own.)
deutung hat.)
3.262 Was in den Zeichen nicht zum Aus- What does not get expressed in the What signs fail to express, their applidruck
kommt, das zeigt ihre Anwendung. sign is shown by its application. What the cation shows. What signs slur over, their
Was die Zeichen verschlucken, das spricht signs conceal, their application declares. application says clearly.
ihre Anwendung aus.
3.263 Die Bedeutung von Urzeichen können The meanings of primitive signs can The meanings of primitive signs can
durch Erläuterungen erklärt werden. Er- be explained by elucidations. Elucida- be explained by means of elucidations.
läuterungen sind Sätze, welche die Ur- tions are propositions which contain the Elucidations are propositions that conzeichen
enthalten. Sie können also nur primitive signs. They can, therefore, tain the primitive signs. So they can only
verstanden werden, wenn die Bedeutun- only be understood when the meanings of be understood if the meanings of those
gen dieser Zeichen bereits bekannt sind. these signs are already known. signs are already known.
3.3 Nur der Satz hat Sinn; nur im Zusam- Only the proposition has sense; only Only propositions have sense; only in
menhang des Satzes hat ein Name Bedeu- in the context of a proposition has a name the nexus of a proposition does a name
24
tung. meaning. have meaning.
3.31 Jeden Teil des Satzes, der seinen Sinn Every part of a proposition which char- I call any part of a proposition that
charakterisiert, nenne ich einen Aus- acterizes its sense I call an expression (a characterizes its sense an expression (or
druck (ein Symbol). symbol). a symbol).
(Der Satz selbst ist ein Ausdruck.) (The proposition itself is an expres- (A proposition is itself an expression.)
sion.)
Ausdruck ist alles, für den Sinn des Expressions are everything—essen- Everything essential to their sense
Satzes wesentliche, was Sätze miteinan- tial for the sense of the proposition—that that propositions can have in common
der gemein haben können. propositions can have in common with with one another is an expression.
one another.
Der Ausdruck kennzeichnet eine An expression characterizes a form An expression is the mark of a form
Form und einen Inhalt. and a content. and a content.
3.311 Der Ausdruck setzt die Formen aller An expression presupposes the forms An expression presupposes the forms
Sätze voraus, in welchem er vorkommen of all propositions in which it can occur. of all the propositions in which it can ockann.
Er ist das gemeinsame charakteri- It is the common characteristic mark of a cur. It is the common characteristic mark
stische Merkmal einer Klasse von Sätzen. class of propositions. of a class of propositions.
3.312 Er wird also dargestellt durch die all- It is therefore represented by the gen- It is therefore presented by means of
gemeine Form der Sätze, die er charakte- eral form of the propositions which it char- the general form of the propositions that
risiert. acterizes. it characterizes.
Und zwar wird in dieser Form der Aus- And in this form the expression is con- In fact, in this form the expression will
druck k o n s t a n t und alles übrige v a - stant and everything else variable. be constant and everything else variable.
r i a b e l sein.
3.313 Der Ausdruck wird also durch eine Va- An expression is thus presented by a Thus an expression is presented by
riable dargestellt, deren Werte die Sätze variable, whose values are the proposi- means of a variable whose values are the
sind, die den Ausdruck enthalten. tions which contain the expression. propositions that contain the expression.
(Im Grenzfall wird die Variable zur (In the limiting case the variable be- (In the limiting case the variable beKonstanten,
der Ausdruck zum Satz.) comes constant, the expression a proposi- comes a constant, the expression becomes
tion.) a proposition.)
Ich nenne eine solche Variable „Satz- I call such a variable a “propositional I call such a variable a ‘propositional
variable“. variable”. variable’.
3.314 Der Ausdruck hat nur im Satz Bedeu- An expression has meaning only in a An expression has meaning only in
tung. Jede Variable lässt sich als Satzva- proposition. Every variable can be con- a proposition. All variables can be conriable
auffassen. ceived as a propositional variable. strued as propositional variables.
(Auch der variable Name.) (Including the variable name.) (Even variable names.)
3.315 Verwandeln wir einen Bestandteil ei- If we change a constituent part of a If we turn a constituent of a propones
Satzes in eine Variable, so gibt es eine proposition into a variable, there is a class sition into a variable, there is a class of
Klasse von Sätzen, welche sämtlich Wer- of propositions which are all the values of propositions all of which are values of the
25
te des so entstandenen variablen Satzes the resulting variable proposition. This resulting variable proposition. In general,
sind. Diese Klasse hängt im allgemeinen class in general still depends on what, by this class too will be dependent on the
noch davon ab, was wir, nach willkürli- arbitrary agreement, we mean by parts meaning that our arbitrary conventions
cher Übereinkunft, mit Teilen jenes Sat- of that proposition. But if we change all have given to parts of the original proposizes
meinen. Verwandeln wir aber alle je- those signs, whose meaning was arbitrar- tion. But if all the signs in it that have arne
Zeichen, deren Bedeutung willkürlich ily determined, into variables, there al- bitrarily determined meanings are turned
bestimmt wurde, in Variable, so gibt es ways remains such a class. But this is into variables, we shall still get a class of
nun noch immer eine solche Klasse. Diese now no longer dependent on any agree- this kind. This one, however, is not depenaber
ist nun von keiner Übereinkunft ab- ment; it depends only on the nature of dent on any convention, but solely on the
hängig, sondern nur noch von der Natur the proposition. It corresponds to a logi- nature of the proposition. It corresponds
des Satzes. Sie entspricht einer logischen cal form, to a logical prototype. to a logical form—a logical prototype.
Form—einem logischen Urbild.
3.316 Welche Werte die Satzvariable anneh- What values the propositional vari- What values a propositional variable
men darf, wird festgesetzt. able can assume is determined. may take is something that is stipulated.
Die Festsetzung der Werte i s t die The determination of the values is the The stipulation of values is the variVariable.
variable. able.
3.317 Die Festsetzung der Werte der Satzva- The determination of the values of the To stipulate values for a propositional
riablen ist die A n g a b e d e r S ä t z e, propositional variable is done by indicat- variable is to give the propositions whose
deren gemeinsames Merkmal die Varia- ing the propositions whose common mark common characteristic the variable is.
ble ist. the variable is.
Die Festsetzung ist eine Beschreibung The determination is a description of The stipulation is a description of
dieser Sätze. these propositions. those propositions.
Die Festsetzung wird also nur von The determination will therefore deal The stipulation will therefore be conSymbolen,
nicht von deren Bedeutung only with symbols not with their mean- cerned only with symbols, not with their
handeln. ing. meaning.
Und n u r dies ist der Festset- And only this is essential to the deter- And the only thing essential to the
zung wesentlich, d a s s s i e n u r e i - mination, that it is only a description of stipulation is that it is merely a descripn
e B e s c h r e i b u n g v o n S y m b o - symbols and asserts nothing about what tion of symbols and states nothing about
l e n i s t u n d n i c h t ü b e r d a s is symbolized. what is signiﬁed.
B e z e i c h n e t e a u s s a g t.
Wie die Beschreibung der Sätze ge- The way in which we describe the How the description of the proposischieht,
ist unwesentlich. propositions is not essential. tions is produced is not essential.
3.318 Den Satz fasse ich—wie Frege und I conceive the proposition—like Frege Like Frege and Russell I construe a
Russell—als Funktion der in ihm enthal- and Russell—as a function of the expres- proposition as a function of the exprestenen
Ausdrücke auf. sions contained in it. sions contained in it.
3.32 Das Zeichen ist das sinnlich Wahr- The sign is the part of the symbol per- A sign is what can be perceived of a
nehmbare am Symbol. ceptible by the senses. symbol.
26
3.321 Zwei verschiedene Symbole können al- Two different symbols can therefore So one and the same sign (written or
so das Zeichen (Schriftzeichen oder Laut- have the sign (the written sign or the spoken, etc.) can be common to two difzeichen
etc.) miteinander gemein haben— sound sign) in common—they then sig- ferent symbols—in which case they will
sie bezeichnen dann auf verschiedene Art nify in different ways. signify in different ways.
und Weise.
3.322 Es kann nie das gemeinsame Merk- It can never indicate the common char- Our use of the same sign to signify two
mal zweier Gegenstände anzeigen, dass acteristic of two objects that we symbolize different objects can never indicate a comwir
sie mit demselben Zeichen, aber them with the same signs but by differ- mon characteristic of the two, if we use it
durch zwei verschiedene B e z e i c h - ent methods of symbolizing. For the sign with two different modes of signiﬁcation.
n u n g s w e i s e n bezeichnen. Denn das is arbitrary. We could therefore equally For the sign, of course, is arbitrary. So we
Zeichen ist ja willkürlich. Man könnte well choose two different signs and where could choose two different signs instead,
also auch zwei verschiedene Zeichen wäh- then would be what was common in the and then what would be left in common
len, und wo bliebe dann das Gemeinsame symbolization? on the signifying side?
in der Bezeichnung?
3.323 In der Umgangssprache kommt es un- In the language of everyday life it very In everyday language it very fregemein
häuﬁg vor, dass dasselbe Wort auf often happens that the same word sig- quently happens that the same word has
verschiedene Art und Weise bezeichnet— niﬁes in two different ways—and there- different modes of signiﬁcation—and so
also verschiedene Symbolen angehört—, fore belongs to two different symbols—or belongs to different symbols—or that two
oder, dass zwei Wörter, die auf verschiede- that two words, which signify in different words that have different modes of signine
Art und Weise bezeichnen, äußerlich ways, are apparently applied in the same ﬁcation are employed in propositions in
in der gleichen Weise im Satz angewandt way in the proposition. what is superﬁcially the same way.
werden.
So erscheint das Wort „ist“ als Kopu- Thus the word “is” appears as the cop- Thus the word ‘is’ ﬁgures as the copla,
als Gleichheitszeichen und als Aus- ula, as the sign of equality, and as the ula, as a sign for identity, and as an exdruck
der Existenz; „existieren“ als in- expression of existence; “to exist” as an pression for existence; ‘exist’ ﬁgures as an
transitives Zeitwort wie „gehen“; „iden- intransitive verb like “to go”; “identical” intransitive verb like ‘go’, and ‘identical’
tisch“ als Eigenschaftswort; wir reden von as an adjective; we speak of something as an adjective; we speak of something,
E t w a s, aber auch davon, dass e t w a s but also of the fact of something happen- but also of something’s happening.
geschieht. ing.
(Im Satze „Grün ist grün“—wo das (In the proposition “Green is green”— (In the proposition, ‘Green is green’—
erste Wort ein Personenname, das letz- where the ﬁrst word is a proper name as where the ﬁrst word is the proper name
te ein Eigenschaftswort ist—haben diese the last an adjective—these words have of a person and the last an adjective—
Worte nicht einfach verschiedene Bedeu- not merely different meanings but they these words do not merely have different
tung, sondern es sind v e r s c h i e d e n e are different symbols.) meanings: they are different symbols.)
S y m b o l e.)
3.324 So entstehen leicht die fundamental- Thus there easily arise the most fun- In this way the most fundamental consten
Verwechselungen (deren die ganze damental confusions (of which the whole fusions are easily produced (the whole of
27
Philosophie voll ist). of philosophy is full). philosophy is full of them).
3.325 Um diesen Irrtümern zu entgehen, In order to avoid these errors, we must In order to avoid such errors we must
müssen wir eine Zeichensprache verwen- employ a symbolism which excludes them, make use of a sign-language that excludes
den, welche sie ausschließt, indem sie by not applying the same sign in different them by not using the same sign for difnicht
das gleiche Zeichen in verschied- symbols and by not applying signs in the ferent symbols and by not using in a sunen
Symbolen, und Zeichen, welche auf same way which signify in different ways. perﬁcially similar way signs that have
verschiedene Art bezeichnen, nicht äu- A symbolism, that is to say, which obeys different modes of signiﬁcation: that is to
ßerlich auf die gleiche Art verwendet. the rules of logical grammar—of logical say, a sign-language that is governed by
Eine Zeichensprache also, die der l o - syntax. logical grammar—by logical syntax.
g i s c h e n Grammatik—der logischen
Syntax—gehorcht.
(Die Begriffsschrift Freges und Rus- (The logical symbolism of Frege and (The conceptual notation of Frege and
sells ist eine solche Sprache, die aller- Russell is such a language, which, how- Russell is such a language, though, it is
dings noch nicht alle Fehler ausschließt.) ever, does still not exclude all errors.) true, it fails to exclude all mistakes.)
3.326 Um das Symbol am Zeichen zu erken- In order to recognize the symbol in the In order to recognize a symbol by its
nen, muss man auf den sinnvollen Ge- sign we must consider the signiﬁcant use. sign we must observe how it is used with
brauch achten. a sense.
3.327 Das Zeichen bestimmt erst mit sei- The sign determines a logical form A sign does not determine a logical
ner logisch-syntaktischen Verwendung only together with its logical syntactic ap- form unless it is taken together with its
zusammen eine logische Form. plication. logico-syntactical employment.
3.328 Wird ein Zeichen n i c h t g e - If a sign is not necessary then it is If a sign is useless, it is meaningless.
b r a u c h t, so ist es bedeutungslos. Das meaningless. That is the meaning of Oc- That is the point of Occam’s maxim.
ist der Sinn der Devise Occams. cam’s razor.
(Wenn sich alles so verhält als hätte (If everything in the symbolism works (If everything behaves as if a sign had
ein Zeichen Bedeutung, dann hat es auch as though a sign had meaning, then it has meaning, then it does have meaning.)
Bedeutung.) meaning.)
3.33 In der logischen Syntax darf nie die In logical syntax the meaning of a sign In logical syntax the meaning of a sign
Bedeutung eines Zeichens eine Rolle spie- ought never to play a rôle; it must admit should never play a role. It must be poslen;
sie muss sich aufstellen lassen, ohne of being established without mention be- sible to establish logical syntax without
dass dabei von der B e d e u t u n g eines ing thereby made of the meaning of a sign; mentioning the meaning of a sign: only
Zeichens die Rede wäre, sie darf n u r die it ought to presuppose only the descrip- the description of expressions may be preBeschreibung
der Ausdrücke vorausset- tion of the expressions. supposed.
zen.
3.331 Von dieser Bemerkung sehen wir in From this observation we get a fur- From this observation we turn to RusRussells
„Theory of types“ hinüber: Der ther view—into Russell’s Theory of Types. sell’s ‘theory of types’. It can be seen that
Irrtum Russells zeigt sich darin, dass er Russell’s error is shown by the fact that Russell must be wrong, because he had
bei der Aufstellung der Zeichenregeln von in drawing up his symbolic rules he has to mention the meaning of signs when
28
der Bedeutung der Zeichen reden musste. to speak about the things his signs mean. establishing the rules for them.
3.332 Kein Satz kann etwas über sich selbst No proposition can say anything about No proposition can make a statement
aussagen, weil das Satzzeichen nicht in itself, because the propositional sign can- about itself, because a propositional sign
sich selbst enthalten sein kann (das ist not be contained in itself (that is the cannot be contained in itself (that is the
die ganze „Theory of types“). “whole theory of types”). whole of the ‘theory of types’).
3.333 Eine Funktion kann darum nicht ihr A function cannot be its own argu- The reason why a function cannot be
eigenes Argument sein, weil das Funkti- ment, because the functional sign already its own argument is that the sign for a
onszeichen bereits das Urbild seines Ar- contains the prototype of its own argu- function already contains the prototype
guments enthält und es sich nicht selbst ment and it cannot contain itself. of its argument, and it cannot contain
enthalten kann. itself.
Nehmen wir nämlich an, die Funktion If, for example, we suppose that the For let us suppose that the function
F(fx) könnte ihr eigenes Argument sein; function F(fx) could be its own argu- F(fx) could be its own argument: in
dann gäbe es also einen Satz: „F(F(fx))“ ment, then there would be a proposition that case there would be a proposition
und in diesem müssen die äußere Funkti- “F(F(fx))”, and in this the outer function ‘F(F(fx))’, in which the outer function F
on F und die innere Funtion F verschie- F and the inner function F must have and the inner function F must have differdene
Bedeutungen haben, denn die in- different meanings; for the inner has the ent meanings, since the inner one has the
nere hat die Form φ(fx), die äußere die form φ(fx), the outer the form ψ(φ(fx)). form φ(fx) and the outer one has the form
Form ψ(φ(fx)). Gemeinsam ist den beiden Common to both functions is only the let- ψ(φ(fx)). Only the letter ‘F’ is common to
Funktionen nur der Buchstabe „F“, der ter “F”, which by itself signiﬁes nothing. the two functions, but the letter by itself
aber allein nichts bezeichnet. signiﬁes nothing.
Dies wird sofort klar, wenn wir statt This is at once clear, if instead of This immediately becomes clear if in„F(Fu)“
schreiben „(∃φ):F(φu) . φu = Fu“. “F(Fu)” we write “(∃φ):F(φu) . φu = Fu”. stead of ‘F(Fu)’ we write ‘(∃φ):F(φu) .
φu = Fu’.
Hiermit erledigt sich Russells Para- Herewith Russell’s paradox vanishes. That disposes of Russell’s paradox.
dox.
3.334 Die Regeln der logischen Syntax müs- The rules of logical syntax must follow The rules of logical syntax must go
sen sich von selbst verstehen, wenn man of themselves, if we only know how every without saying, once we know how each
nur weiß, wie ein jedes Zeichen bezeich- single sign signiﬁes. individual sign signiﬁes.
net.
3.34 Der Satz besitzt wesentliche und zu- A proposition possesses essential and A proposition possesses essential and
fällige Züge. accidental features. accidental features.
Zufällig sind die Züge, die von der Accidental are the features which are Accidental features are those that rebesonderen
Art der Hervorbringung des due to a particular way of producing the sult from the particular way in which the
Satzzeichens herrühren. Wesentlich die- propositional sign. Essential are those propositional sign is produced. Essenjenigen,
welche allein den Satz befähigen, which alone enable the proposition to ex- tial features are those without which the
seinen Sinn auszudrücken. press its sense. proposition could not express its sense.
3.341 Das Wesentliche am Satz ist also das, The essential in a proposition is there- So what is essential in a proposition
29
was allen Sätzen, welche den gleichen fore that which is common to all proposi- is what all propositions that can express
Sinn ausdrücken können, gemeinsam ist. tions which can express the same sense. the same sense have in common.
Und ebenso ist allgemein das Wesent- And in the same way in general the And similarly, in general, what is esliche
am Symbol das, was alle Symbole, essential in a symbol is that which all sential in a symbol is what all symbols
die denselben Zweck erfüllen können, ge- symbols which can fulﬁll the same pur- that can serve the same purpose have in
meinsam haben. pose have in common. common.
3.3411 Man könnte also sagen: Der eigentli- One could therefore say the real name So one could say that the real name
che Name ist das, was alle Symbole, die is that which all symbols, which signify of an object was what all symbols that
den Gegenstand bezeichnen, gemeinsam an object, have in common. It would then signiﬁed it had in common. Thus, one by
haben. Es würde sich so successive erge- follow, step by step, that no sort of compo- one, all kinds of composition would prove
ben, dass keinerlei Zusammensetzung für sition was essential for a name. to be unessential to a name.
den Namen wesentlich ist.
3.342 An unseren Notationen ist zwar etwas In our notations there is indeed some- Although there is something arbiwillkürlich,
aber d a s ist nicht willkür- thing arbitrary, but this is not arbitrary, trary in our notations, this much is
lich: Dass, w e n n wir etwas willkürlich namely that if we have determined any- not arbitrary—that when we have deterbestimmt
haben, dann etwas anderes der thing arbitrarily, then something else mined one thing arbitrarily, something
Fall sein muss. (Dies hängt von dem W e - must be the case. (This results from the else is necessarily the case. (This derives
s e n der Notation ab.) essence of the notation.) from the essence of notation.)
3.3421 Eine besondere Bezeichnungsweise A particular method of symbolizing A particular mode of signifying may
mag unwichtig sein, aber wichtig ist es may be unimportant, but it is always im- be unimportant but it is always imporimmer,
dass diese eine m ö g l i c h e Be- portant that this is a possible method of tant that it is a possible mode of signifyzeichnungsweise
ist. Und so verhält es symbolizing. And this happens as a rule ing. And that is generally so in philososich
in der Philosophie überhaupt: Das in philosophy: The single thing proves phy: again and again the individual case
Einzelne erweist sich immer wieder als over and over again to be unimportant, turns out to be unimportant, but the posunwichtig,
aber die Möglichkeit jedes Ein- but the possibility of every single thing sibility of each individual case discloses
zelnen gibt uns einen Aufschluss über das reveals something about the nature of the something about the essence of the world.
Wesen der Welt. world.
3.343 Deﬁnitionen sind Regeln der Überset- Deﬁnitions are rules for the transla- Deﬁnitions are rules for translating
zung von einer Sprache in eine andere. tion of one language into another. Every from one language into another. Any corJede
richtige Zeichensprache muss sich correct symbolism must be translatable rect sign-language must be translatable
in jede andere nach solchen Regeln über- into every other according to such rules. into any other in accordance with such
setzen lassen: D i e s ist, was sie alle It is this which all have in common. rules: it is this that they all have in comgemeinsam
haben. mon.
3.344 Das, was am Symbol bezeichnet, ist What signiﬁes in the symbol is what What signiﬁes in a symbol is what is
das Gemeinsame aller jener Symbole, is common to all those symbols by which common to all the symbols that the rules
durch die das erste den Regeln der lo- it can be replaced according to the rules of logical syntax allow us to substitute for
gischen Syntax zufolge ersetzt werden of logical syntax. it.
30
kann.
3.3441 Man kann z. B. das Gemeinsame aller We can, for example, express what For instance, we can express what
Notationen für die Wahrheitsfunktionen is common to all notations for the truth- is common to all notations for truthso
ausdrücken: Es ist ihnen gemeinsam, functions as follows: It is common to them functions in the following way: they have
dass sich alle—z. B.—durch die Notation that they all, for example, can be replaced in common that, for example, the notation
von „∼p“ („nicht p“) und „p ∨ q“ („p oder by the notations of “∼p” (“not p”) and that uses ‘∼p’ (‘not p’) and ‘p∨q’ (‘p or q’)
q“) e r s e t z e n l a s s e n. “p ∨ q” (“p or q”). can be substituted for any of them.
(Hiermit ist die Art und Weise gekenn- (Herewith is indicated the way in (This serves to characterize the way in
zeichnet, wie eine spezielle mögliche No- which a special possible notation can give which something general can be disclosed
tation uns allgemeine Aufschlüsse geben us general information.) by the possibility of a speciﬁc notation.)
kann.)
3.3442 Das Zeichen des Komplexes löst sich The sign of the complex is not arbitrar- Nor does analysis resolve the sign for
auch bei der Analyse nicht willkürlich auf, ily resolved in the analysis, in such a way a complex in an arbitrary way, so that it
so dass etwa seine Auﬂösung in jedem that its resolution would be different in would have a different resolution every
Satzgefüge eine andere wäre. every propositional structure. time that it was incorporated in a different
proposition.
3.4 Der Satz bestimmt einen Ort im lo- The proposition determines a place in A proposition determines a place in
gischen Raum. Die Existenz dieses logi- logical space: the existence of this logical logical space. The existence of this logical
schen Ortes ist durch die Existenz der place is guaranteed by the existence of the place is guaranteed by the mere existence
Bestandteile allein verbürgt, durch die constituent parts alone, by the existence of the constituents—by the existence of
Existenz des sinnvollen Satzes. of the signiﬁcant proposition. the proposition with a sense.
3.41 Das Satzzeichen und die logischen Ko- The propositional sign and the logical The propositional sign with logical coordinaten:
Das ist der logische Ort. co-ordinates: that is the logical place. ordinates—that is the logical place.
3.411 Der geometrische und der logische Ort The geometrical and the logical place In geometry and logic alike a place is
stimmen darin überein, dass beide die agree in that each is the possibility of an a possibility: something can exist in it.
Möglichkeit einer Existenz sind. existence.
3.42 Obwohl der Satz nur einen Ort des lo- Although a proposition may only de- A proposition can determine only one
gischen Raumes bestimmen darf, so muss termine one place in logical space, the place in logical space: nevertheless the
doch durch ihn schon der ganze logische whole logical space must already be given whole of logical space must already be
Raum gegeben sein. by it. given by it.
(Sonst würden durch die Verneinung, (Otherwise denial, the logical sum, (Otherwise negation, logical sum,
die logische Summe, das logische Pro- the logical product, etc., would always in- logical product, etc., would introduce
dukt, etc. immer neue Elemente—in troduce new elements—in co-ordination.) more and more new elements—in coKoordinaten—eingeführt.)
ordination.)
(Das logische Gerüst um das Bild her- (The logical scaffolding round the pic- (The logical scaffolding surrounding
um bestimmt den logischen Raum. Der ture determines the logical space. The a picture determines logical space. The
Satz durchgreift den ganzen logischen proposition reaches through the whole force of a proposition reaches through the
31
Raum.) logical space.) whole of logical space.)
3.5 Das angewandte, gedachte Satzeichen The applied, thought, propositional A propositional sign, applied and
ist der Gedanke. sign, is the thought. thought out, is a thought.
4 Der Gedanke ist der sinnvolle Satz. The thought is the signiﬁcant proposi- A thought is a proposition with a
tion. sense.
4.001 Die Gesamtheit der Sätze ist die Spra- The totality of propositions is the lan- The totality of propositions is lanche.
guage. guage.
4.002 Der Mensch besitzt die Fähigkeit Man possesses the capacity of con- Man possesses the ability to construct
Sprachen zu bauen, womit sich jeder Sinn structing languages, in which every sense languages capable of expressing every
ausdrücken lässt, ohne eine Ahnung da- can be expressed, without having an idea sense, without having any idea how each
von zu haben, wie und was jedes Wort how and what each word means—just as word has meaning or what its meaning
bedeutet.—Wie man auch spricht, ohne one speaks without knowing how the sin- is—just as people speak without knowing
zu wissen, wie die einzelnen Laute her- gle sounds are produced. how the individual sounds are produced.
vorgebracht werden.
Die Umgangssprache ist ein Teil des Colloquial language is a part of the hu- Everyday language is a part of the humenschlichen
Organismus und nicht we- man organism and is not less complicated man organism and is no less complicated
niger kompliziert als dieser. than it. than it.
Es ist menschenunmöglich, From it it is humanly impossible to It is not humanly possible to gather
die Sprachlogik aus ihr unmittelbar zu gather immediately the logic of language. immediately from it what the logic of lanentnehmen.
guage is.
Die Sprache verkleidet den Gedanken. Language disguises the thought; so Language disguises thought. So much
Und zwar so, dass man nach der äußeren that from the external form of the clothes so, that from the outward form of the
Form des Kleides, nicht auf deie Form des one cannot infer the form of the thought clothing it is impossible to infer the form
bekleideten Gedankens schließen kann; they clothe, because the external form of the thought beneath it, because the outweil
die äußere Form des Kleides nach of the clothes is constructed with quite ward form of the clothing is not designed
ganz anderen Zwecken gebildet ist als da- another object than to let the form of the to reveal the form of the body, but for ennach,
die Form des Körpers erkennen zu body be recognized. tirely different purposes.
lassen.
Die stillschweigenden Abmachungen The silent adjustments to understand The tacit conventions on which the
zum Verständnis der Umgangssprache colloquial language are enormously com- understanding of everyday language desind
enorm kompliziert. plicated. pends are enormously complicated.
4.003 Die meisten Sätze und Fragen, wel- Most propositions and questions, that Most of the propositions and questions
che über philosophische Dinge geschrie- have been written about philosophical to be found in philosophical works are not
ben worden sind, sind nicht falsch, son- matters, are not false, but senseless. We false but nonsensical. Consequently we
dern unsinnig. Wir können daher Fragen cannot, therefore, answer questions of cannot give any answer to questions of
dieser Art überhaupt nicht beantworten, this kind at all, but only state their sense- this kind, but can only point out that they
sondern nur ihre Unsinnigkeit feststellen. lessness. Most questions and propositions are nonsensical. Most of the propositions
32
Die meisten Fragen und Sätze der Philo- of the philosophers result from the fact and questions of philosophers arise from
sophen beruhen darauf, dass wir unsere that we do not understand the logic of our our failure to understand the logic of our
Sprachlogik nicht verstehen. language. language.
(Sie sind von der Art der Frage, ob das (They are of the same kind as the ques- (They belong to the same class as the
Gute mehr oder weniger identisch sei als tion whether the Good is more or less question whether the good is more or less
das Schöne.) identical than the Beautiful.) identical than the beautiful.)
Und es ist nicht verwunderlich, dass And so it is not to be wondered at that And it is not surprising that the deepdie
tiefsten Probleme eigentlich k e i n e the deepest problems are really no prob- est problems are in fact not problems at
Probleme sind. lems. all.
4.0031 Alle Philosophie ist „Sprachkritik“. All philosophy is “Critique of lan- All philosophy is a ‘critique of lan(Allerdings
nicht im Sinne Mauthners.) guage” (but not at all in Mauthner’s guage’ (though not in Mauthner’s sense).
Russells Verdienst ist es, gezeigt zu ha- sense). Russell’s merit is to have shown It was Russell who performed the service
ben, dass die scheinbar logische Form des that the apparent logical form of the of showing that the apparent logical form
Satzes nicht seine wirkliche sein muss. proposition need not be its real form. of a proposition need not be its real one.
4.01 Der Satz ist ein Bild der Wirklichkeit. The proposition is a picture of reality. A proposition is a picture of reality.
Der Satz ist ein Modell der Wirklich- The proposition is a model of the real- A proposition is a model of reality as
keit, so wie wir sie uns denken. ity as we think it is. we imagine it.
4.011 Auf den ersten Blick scheint der Satz— At the ﬁrst glance the proposition— At ﬁrst sight a proposition—one set
wie er etwa auf dem Papier gedruckt say as it stands printed on paper—does out on the printed page, for example—
steht—kein Bild der Wirklichkeit zu sein, not seem to be a picture of the reality of does not seem to be a picture of the reality
von der er handelt. Aber auch die No- which it treats. But nor does the musical with which it is concerned. But neither
tenschrift scheint auf den ersten Blick score appear at ﬁrst sight to be a picture do written notes seem at ﬁrst sight to
kein Bild der Musik zu sein, und unse- of a musical piece; nor does our phonetic be a picture of a piece of music, nor our
re Lautzeichen-(Buchstaben-)Schrift kein spelling (letters) seem to be a picture of phonetic notation (the alphabet) to be a
Bild unserer Lautsprache. our spoken language. picture of our speech.
Und doch erweisen sich diese Zeichen- And yet these symbolisms prove to be And yet these sign-languages prove to
sprachen auch im gewöhnlichen Sinne als pictures—even in the ordinary sense of be pictures, even in the ordinary sense, of
Bilder dessen, was sie darstellen. the word—of what they represent. what they represent.
4.012 Offenbar ist, dass wir einen Satz von It is obvious that we perceive a propo- It is obvious that a proposition of the
der Form „aRb“ als Bild empﬁnden. Hier sition of the form aRb as a picture. Here form ‘aRb’ strikes us as a picture. In this
ist das Zeichen offenbar ein Gleichnis des the sign is obviously a likeness of the sig- case the sign is obviously a likeness of
Bezeichneten. niﬁed. what is signiﬁed.
4.013 Und wenn wir in das Wesentliche die- And if we penetrate to the essence of And if we penetrate to the essence of
ser Bildhaftigkeit eindringen, so sehen this pictorial nature we see that this is this pictorial character, we see that it is
wir, dass dieselbe durch s c h e i n b a - not disturbed by apparent irregularities not impaired by apparent irregularities
r e U n r e g e l m ä ß i g k e i t e n (wie (like the use of and in the score). (such as the use of and in musical nodie
Verwendung von und in der No- tation).
33
tenschrift) n i c h t gestört wird.
Denn auch diese Unregelmäßigkeiten For these irregularities also picture For even these irregularities depict
bilden das ab, was sie ausdrücken sollen; what they are to express; only in another what they are intended to express; only
nur auf eine andere Art und Weise. way. they do it in a different way.
4.014 Die Grammophonplatte, der musika- The gramophone record, the musical A gramophone record, the musical
lische Gedanke, die Notenschrift, die thought, the score, the waves of sound, idea, the written notes, and the soundSchallwellen,
stehen alle in jener abbil- all stand to one another in that pictorial waves, all stand to one another in the
denden internen Beziehung zu einander, internal relation, which holds between same internal relation of depicting that
die zwischen Sprache und Welt besteht. language and the world. holds between language and the world.
Ihnen allen ist der logische Bau ge- To all of them the logical structure is They are all constructed according to
meinsam. common. a common logical pattern.
(Wie im Märchen die zwei Jünglinge, (Like the two youths, their two horses (Like the two youths in the fairy-tale,
ihre zwei Pferde und ihre Lilien. Sie sind and their lilies in the story. They are all their two horses, and their lilies. They
alle in gewissem Sinne Eins.) in a certain sense one.) are all in a certain sense one.)
4.0141 Dass es eine allgemeine Regel gibt, In the fact that there is a general rule There is a general rule by means of
durch die der Musiker aus der Partitur by which the musician is able to read which the musician can obtain the symdie
Symphonie entnehmen kann, durch the symphony out of the score, and that phony from the score, and which makes it
welche man aus der Linie auf der Gram- there is a rule by which one could recon- possible to derive the symphony from the
mophonplatte die Symphonie und nach struct the symphony from the line on a groove on the gramophone record, and, usder
ersten Regel wieder die Partitur ab- gramophone record and from this again— ing the ﬁrst rule, to derive the score again.
leiten kann, darin besteht eben die inne- by means of the ﬁrst rule—construct the That is what constitutes the inner simire
Ähnlichkeit dieser scheinbar so ganz score, herein lies the internal similarity larity between these things which seem to
verschiedenen Gebilde. Und jene Regel between these things which at ﬁrst sight be constructed in such entirely different
ist das Gesetz der Projektion, welches die seem to be entirely different. And the rule ways. And that rule is the law of proSymphonie
in die Notensprache projiziert. is the law of projection which projects the jection which projects the symphony into
Sie ist die Regel der Übersetzung der No- symphony into the language of the mu- the language of musical notation. It is the
tensprache in die Sprache der Grammo- sical score. It is the rule of translation rule for translating this language into the
phonplatte. of this language into the language of the language of gramophone records.
gramophone record.
4.015 Die Möglichkeit aller Gleichnisse, der The possibility of all similes, of all the The possibility of all imagery, of all
ganzen Bildhaftigkeit unserer Ausdrucks- images of our language, rests on the logic our pictorial modes of expression, is conweise,
ruht in der Logik der Abbildung. of representation. tained in the logic of depiction.
4.016 Um das Wesen des Satzes zu verste- In order to understand the essence In order to understand the essential
hen, denken wir an die Hieroglyphen- of the proposition, consider hieroglyphic nature of a proposition, we should conschrift,
welche die Tatsachen die sie be- writing, which pictures the facts it de- sider hieroglyphic script, which depicts
schreibt abbildet. scribes. the facts that it describes.
Und aus ihr wurde die Buchstaben- And from it came the alphabet with- And alphabetic script developed out
34
schrift, ohne das Wesentliche der Abbil- out the essence of the representation be- of it without losing what was essential to
dung zu verlieren. ing lost. depiction.
4.02 Dies sehen wir daraus, dass wir den This we see from the fact that we un- We can see this from the fact that we
Sinn des Satzzeichens verstehen, ohne derstand the sense of the propositional understand the sense of a propositional
dass er uns erklärt wurde. sign, without having had it explained to sign without its having been explained to
us. us.
4.021 Der Satz ist ein Bild der Wirklichkeit: The proposition is a picture of reality, A proposition is a picture of reality:
Denn ich kenne die von ihm dargestel- for I know the state of affairs presented for if I understand a proposition, I know
le Sachlage, wenn ich den Satz verstehe. by it, if I understand the proposition. And the situation that it represents. And I unUnd
den Satz verstehe ich, ohne dass mir I understand the proposition, without its derstand the proposition without having
sein Sinn erklärt wurde. sense having been explained to me. had its sense explained to me.
4.022 Der Satz z e i g t seinen Sinn. The proposition shows its sense. A proposition shows its sense.
Der Satz z e i g t, wie es sich verhält, The proposition shows how things A proposition shows how things stand
w e n n er wahr ist. Und er s a g t, d a s s stand, if it is true. And it says, that they if it is true. And it says that they do so
es sich so verhält. do so stand. stand.
4.023 Die Wirklichkeit muss durch den Satz The proposition determines reality to A proposition must restrict reality to
auf ja oder nein ﬁxiert sein. this extent, that one only needs to say two alternatives: yes or no.
“Yes” or “No” to it to make it agree with
reality.
Dazu muss sie durch ihn vollständig Reality must therefore be completely In order to do that, it must describe
beschrieben werden. described by the proposition. reality completely.
Der Satz ist die Beschreibung eines A proposition is the description of a A proposition is a description of a
Sachverhaltes. fact. state of affairs.
Wie die Beschreibung einen Gegen- As the description of an object de- Just as a description of an object destand
nach seinen externen Eigenschaf- scribes it by its external properties so scribes it by giving its external properties,
ten, so beschreibt der Satz die Wirklich- propositions describe reality by its inter- so a proposition describes reality by its inkeit
nach ihren internen Eigenschaften. nal properties. ternal properties.
Der Satz konstruiert eine Welt mit The proposition constructs a world A proposition constructs a world with
Hilfe eines logischen Gerüstes und dar- with the help of a logical scaffolding, and the help of a logical scaffolding, so that
um kann man am Satz auch sehen, wie therefore one can actually see in the one can actually see from the proposition
sich alles Logische verhält, w e n n er proposition all the logical features pos- how everything stands logically if it is
wahr ist. Man kann aus einem falschen sessed by reality if it is true. One can true. One can draw inferences from a
Satz S c h l ü s s e z i e h e n. draw conclusions from a false proposition. false proposition.
4.024 Einen Satz verstehen, heißt, wissen To understand a proposition means to To understand a proposition means to
was der Fall ist, wenn er wahr ist. know what is the case, if it is true. know what is the case if it is true.
(Man kann ihn also verstehen, ohne (One can therefore understand it with- (One can understand it, therefore,
zu wissen, ob er wahr ist.) out knowing whether it is true or not.) without knowing whether it is true.)
35
Man versteht ihn, wenn man seine One understands it if one understands It is understood by anyone who underBestandteile
versteht. it constituent parts. stands its constituents.
4.025 Die Übersetzung einer Sprache in ei- The translation of one language into When translating one language into
ne andere geht nicht so vor sich, dass man another is not a process of translating another, we do not proceed by translating
jeden S a t z der einen in einen S a t z each proposition of the one into a proposi- each proposition of the one into a proposider
anderen übersetzt, sondern nur die tion of the other, but only the constituent tion of the other, but merely by translatSatzbestandteile
werden übersetzt. parts of propositions are translated. ing the constituents of propositions.
(Und das Wörterbuch übersetzt nicht (And the dictionary does not only (And the dictionary translates not
nur Substantiva, sondern auch Zeit-, translate substantives but also adverbs only substantives, but also verbs, adjecEigenschafts-
und Bindewörter etc.; und and conjunctions, etc., and it treats them tives, and conjunctions, etc.; and it treats
es behandelt sie alle gleich.) all alike.) them all in the same way.)
4.026 Die Bedeutung der einfachen Zeichen The meanings of the simple signs (the The meanings of simple signs (words)
(der Wörter) müssen uns erklärt werden, words) must be explained to us, if we are must be explained to us if we are to undass
wir sie verstehen. to understand them. derstand them.
Mit den Sätzen aber verständigen wir By means of propositions we explain With propositions, however, we make
uns. ourselves. ourselves understood.
4.027 Es liegt im Wesen des Satzes, dass er It is essential to propositions, that It belongs to the essence of a proposiuns
einen n e u e n Sinn mitteilen kann. they can communicate a new sense to us. tion that it should be able to communicate
a new sense to us.
4.03 Ein Satz muss mit alten Ausdrücken A proposition must communicate a A proposition must use old expreseinen
neuen Sinn mitteilen. new sense with old words. sions to communicate a new sense.
Der Satz teilt uns eine Sachlage mit, The proposition communicates to us a A proposition communicates a situaalso
muss er w e s e n t l i c h mit der state of affairs, therefore it must be essen- tion to us, and so it must be essentially
Sachlage zusammenhängen. tially connected with the state of affairs. connected with the situation.
Und der Zusammenhang ist eben, And the connexion is, in fact, that it is And the connexion is precisely that it
dass er ihr logisches Bild ist. its logical picture. is its logical picture.
Der Satz sagt nur insoweit etwas aus, The proposition only asserts some- A proposition states something only
als er ein Bild ist. thing, in so far as it is a picture. in so far as it is a picture.
4.031 Im Satz wird gleichsam eine Sachlage In the proposition a state of affairs is, In a proposition a situation is, as it
probeweise zusammengestellt. as it were, put together for the sake of were, constructed by way of experiment.
experiment.
Man kann geradezu sagen: statt, die- One can say, instead of, This propo- Instead of, ‘This proposition has such
ser Satz hat diesen und diesen Sinn; die- sition has such and such a sense, This and such a sense’, we can simply say, ‘This
ser Satz stellt diese und diese Sachlage proposition represents such and such a proposition represents such and such a
dar. state of affairs. situation’.
4.0311 Ein Name steht für ein Ding, ein an- One name stands for one thing, and One name stands for one thing, anderer
für ein anderes Ding und unterein- another for another thing, and they are other for another thing, and they are
36
ander sind sie verbunden, so stellt das connected together. And so the whole, like combined with one another. In this way
Ganze—wie ein lebendes Bild—den Sach- a living picture, presents the atomic fact. the whole group—like a tableau vivant—
verhalt vor. presents a state of affairs.
4.0312 Die Möglichkeit des Satzes beruht auf The possibility of propositions is based The possibility of propositions is based
dem Prinzip der Vertretung von Gegen- upon the principle of the representation on the principle that objects have signs
ständen durch Zeichen. of objects by signs. as their representatives.
Mein Grundgedanke ist, dass die „logi- My fundamental thought is that the My fundamental idea is that the ‘logschen
Konstanten“ nicht vertreten. Dass “logical constants” do not represent. That ical constants’ are not representatives;
sich die L o g i k der Tatsachen nicht ver- the logic of the facts cannot be repre- that there can be no representatives of
treten lässt. sented. the logic of facts.
4.032 Nur insoweit ist der Satz ein Bild der The proposition is a picture of its state It is only in so far as a proposition is
Sachlage, als er logisch gegliedert ist. of affairs, only in so far as it is logically logically articulated that it is a picture of
articulated. a situation.
(Auch der Satz: „ambulo“, ist zusam- (Even the proposition “ambulo” is com- (Even the proposition, Ambulo, is commengesetzt,
denn sein Stamm ergibt mit posite, for its stem gives a different sense posite: for its stem with a different ending
einer anderen Endung, und seine Endung with another termination, or its termina- yields a different sense, and so does its
mit einem anderen Stamm, einen ande- tion with another stem.) ending with a different stem.)
ren Sinn.)
4.04 Am Satz muss gerade soviel zu unter- In the proposition there must be ex- In a proposition there must be exactly
scheiden sein, als an der Sachlage, die er actly as many thing distinguishable as as many distinguishable parts as in the
darstellt. there are in the state of affairs, which it situation that it represents.
represents.
Die beiden müssen die gleiche logische They must both possess the same The two must possess the same logical
(mathematische) Mannigfaltigkeit besit- logical (mathematical) multiplicity (cf. (mathematical) multiplicity. (Compare
zen. (Vergleiche Hertz’s „Mechanik“, über Hertz’s Mechanics, on Dynamic Models). Hertz’s Mechanics on dynamical models.)
dynamische Modelle.)
4.041 Diese mathematische Mannigfaltig- This mathematical multiplicity natu- This mathematical multiplicity, of
keit kann man natürlich nicht selbst wie- rally cannot in its turn be represented. course, cannot itself be the subject of deder
abbilden. Aus ihr kann man beim Ab- One cannot get outside it in the represen- piction. One cannot get away from it
bilden nicht heraus. tation. when depicting.
4.0411 Wollten wir z. B. das, was wir durch If we tried, for example, to express If, for example, we wanted to express
„(x). fx“ ausdrücken, durch Vorsetzen ei- what is expressed by “(x). fx” by putting what we now write as ‘(x). fx’ by putting
nes Indexes von „fx“ ausdrücken—etwa an index before fx, like: “Gen. fx”, it an afﬁx in front of ‘fx’—for instance by
so: „Alg. fx“—es würde nicht genügen— would not do, we should not know what writing ‘Gen. fx’—it would not be adewir
wüssten nicht, was verallgemeinert was generalized. If we tried to show it quate: we should not know what was bewurde.
Wollten wir es durch einen Index by an index g, like: “f (xg)” it would not ing generalized. If we wanted to signalize
„a“ anzeigen—etwa so: „f (xa)“—es würde do—we should not know the scope of the it with an afﬁx ‘g’—for instance by writ-
37
auch nicht genügen—wir wüssten nicht generalization. ing ‘f (xg)’—that would not be adequate
den Bereich der Allgemeinheitsbezeich- either: we should not know the scope of
nung. the generality-sign.
Wollten wir es durch Einführung If we were to try it by introducing If we were to try to do it by introduceiner
Marke in die Argumentstellen a mark in the argument places, like ing a mark into the argument-places—for
versuchen—etwa so: „(A, A).F(A, A)“—es “(G,G).F(G,G)”, it would not do—we instance by writing ‘(G,G).F(G,G)’ —it
würde nicht genügen—wir könnten die could not determine the identity of the would not be adequate: we should not be
Identität der Variablen nicht feststellen. variables, etc. able to establish the identity of the variU.s.w.
ables. And so on.
Alle diese Bezeichnungsweisen genü- All these ways of symbolizing are in- All these modes of signifying are inadgen
nicht, weil sie nicht die notwendige adequate because they have not the nec- equate because they lack the necessary
mathematische Mannigfaltigkeit haben. essary mathematical multiplicity. mathematical multiplicity.
4.0412 Aus demselben Grunde genügt die For the same reason the idealist expla- For the same reason the idealist’s apidealistische
Erklärung des Sehens der nation of the seeing of spatial relations peal to ‘spatial spectacles’ is inadequate
räumlichen Beziehung durch die „Raum- through “spatial spectacles” does not do, to explain the seeing of spatial relations,
brille“ nicht, weil sie nicht die Mannig- because it cannot explain the multiplicity because it cannot explain the multiplicity
faltigkeit dieser Beziehungen erklären of these relations. of these relations.
kann.
4.05 Die Wirklichkeit wird mit dem Satz Reality is compared with the proposi- Reality is compared with propositions.
verglichen. tion.
4.06 Nur dadurch kann der Satz wahr oder Propositions can be true or false only A proposition can be true or false only
falsch sein, indem er ein Bild der Wirk- by being pictures of the reality. in virtue of being a picture of reality.
lichkeit ist.
4.061 Beachtet man nicht, dass der Satz If one does not observe that proposi- It must not be overlooked that a propoeinen
von den Tatsachen unabhängigen tions have a sense independent of the sition has a sense that is independent of
Sinn hat, so kann man leicht glauben, facts, one can easily believe that true and the facts: otherwise one can easily supdass
wahr und falsch gleichberechtigte false are two relations between signs and pose that true and false are relations of
Beziehungen von Zeichen und Bezeichne- things signiﬁed with equal rights. equal status between signs and what they
tem sind. signify.
Man könnte dann z. B. sagen, dass „p“ One could, then, for example, say that In that case one could say, for example,
auch die wahre Art bezeichnet, was „∼p“ “p” signiﬁes in the true way what “∼p” that ‘p’ signiﬁed in the true way what ‘∼p’
auf die falsche Art, etc. signiﬁes in the false way, etc. signiﬁed in the false way, etc.
4.062 Kann man sich nicht mit falschen Can we not make ourselves under- Can we not make ourselves underSätzen,
wie bisher mit wahren, verstän- stood by means of false propositions as stood with false propositions just as we
digen? Solange man nur weiß, dass sie hitherto with true ones, so long as we have done up till now with true ones?—So
falsch gemeint sind. Nein! Denn, wahr ist know that they are meant to be false? No! long as it is known that they are meant
ein Satz, wenn es sich so verhält, wie wir For a proposition is true, if what we as- to be false.—No! For a proposition is true
38
es durch ihn sagen; und wenn wir mit „p“ sert by means of it is the case; and if by if we use it to say that things stand in a
∼p meinen, und es sich so verhält wie wir “p” we mean ∼p, and what we mean is certain way, and they do; and if by ‘p’ we
es meinen, so ist „p“ in der neuen Auffas- the case, then “p” in the new conception mean ∼p and things stand as we mean
sung wahr und nicht falsch. is true and not false. that they do, then, construed in the new
way, ‘p’ is true and not false.
4.0621 Dass aber die Zeichen „p“ und „∼p“ That, however, the signs “p” and “∼p” But it is important that the signs ‘p’
das gleiche sagen k ö n n e n, ist wichtig. can say the same thing is important, for and ‘∼p’ can say the same thing. For it
Denn es zeigt, dass dem Zeichen „∼“ in it shows that the sign “∼” corresponds to shows that nothing in reality corresponds
der Wirklichkeit nichts entspricht. nothing in reality. to the sign ‘∼’.
Dass in einem Satz die Verneinung That negation occurs in a proposition, The occurrence of negation in a propovorkommt,
ist noch kein Merkmal seines is no characteristic of its sense (∼∼p = p). sition is not enough to characterize its
Sinnes (∼∼p = p). sense (∼∼p = p).
Die Sätze „p“ und „∼p“ haben entge- The propositions “p” and “∼p” have The propositions ‘p’ and ‘∼p’ have opgengesetzten
Sinn, aber es entspricht ih- opposite senses, but to them corresponds posite sense, but there corresponds to
nen eine und dieselbe Wirklichkeit. one and the same reality. them one and the same reality.
4.063 Ein Bild zur Erklärung des Wahrheits- An illustration to explain the concept An analogy to illustrate the concept
begriffes: Schwarzer Fleck auf weißem of truth. A black spot on white paper; the of truth: imagine a black spot on white
Papier; die Form des Fleckes kann man form of the spot can be described by say- paper: you can describe the shape of the
beschreiben, indem man für jeden Punkt ing of each point of the plane whether it spot by saying, for each point on the sheet,
der Fläche angibt, ob er weiß oder is white or black. To the fact that a point whether it is black or white. To the fact
schwarz ist. Der Tatsache, dass ein Punkt is black corresponds a positive fact; to the that a point is black there corresponds a
schwarz ist, entspricht eine positive—der, fact that a point is white (not black), a positive fact, and to the fact that a point is
dass ein Punkt weiß (nicht schwarz) ist, negative fact. If I indicate a point of the white (not black), a negative fact. If I deseine
negative Tatsache. Bezeichne ich plane (a truth-value in Frege’s terminol- ignate a point on the sheet (a truth-value
einen Punkt der Fläche (einen Frege- ogy), this corresponds to the assumption according to Frege), then this corresponds
schen Wahrheitswert), so entspricht dies proposed for judgment, etc. etc. to the supposition that is put forward for
der Annahme, die zur Beurteilung aufge- judgement, etc. etc.
stellt wird, etc. etc.
Um aber sagen zu können, ein Punkt But to be able to say that a point is But in order to be able to say that a
sei schwarz oder weiß, muss ich vorerst black or white, I must ﬁrst know under point is black or white, I must ﬁrst know
wissen, wann man einen Punkt schwarz what conditions a point is called white when a point is called black, and when
und wann man ihn weiß nennt; um sa- or black; in order to be able to say “p” is white: in order to be able to say, ‘“p” is
gen zu können: „p“ ist wahr (oder falsch), true (or false) I must have determined true (or false)’, I must have determined
muss ich bestimmt haben, unter welchen under what conditions I call “p” true, in what circumstances I call ‘p’ true, and
Umständen ich „p“ wahr nenne, und da- and thereby I determine the sense of the in so doing I determine the sense of the
mit bestimme ich den Sinn des Satzes. proposition. proposition.
Der Punkt, an dem das Gleichnis hin- The point at which the simile breaks Now the point where the simile breaks
39
kt ist nun der: Wir können auf einen down is this: we can indicate a point on down is this: we can indicate a point on
Punkt des Papiers zeigen, auch ohne the paper, without knowing what white the paper even if we do not know what
zu wissen, was weiß und schwarz ist; and black are; but to a proposition with- black and white are, but if a proposieinem
Satz ohne Sinn aber entspricht out a sense corresponds nothing at all, for tion has no sense, nothing corresponds
gar nichts, denn er bezeichnet kein Ding it signiﬁes no thing (truth-value) whose to it, since it does not designate a thing
(Wahrheitswert) dessen Eigenschaften et- properties are called “false” or “true”; the (a truth-value) which might have properwa
„falsch“ oder „wahr“ hießen; das Ver- verb of the proposition is not “is true” ties called ‘false’ or ‘true’. The verb of a
bum eines Satzes ist nicht „ist wahr“ oder or “is false”—as Frege thought—but that proposition is not ‘is true’ or ‘is false’, as
„ist falsch“—wie Frege glaubte—, sondern which “is true” must already contain the Frege thought: rather, that which ‘is true’
das, was „wahr ist“, muss das Verbum verb. must already contain the verb.
schon enthalten.
4.064 Jeder Satz muss s c h o n einen Sinn Every proposition must already have Every proposition must already have
haben; die Bejahung kann ihn ihm nicht a sense; assertion cannot give it a sense, a sense: it cannot be given a sense by afgeben,
denn sie bejaht ja gerade den Sinn. for what it asserts is the sense itself. And ﬁrmation. Indeed its sense is just what is
Und dasselbe gilt von der Verneinung, the same holds of denial, etc. afﬁrmed. And the same applies to negaetc.
tion, etc.
4.0641 Man könnte sagen: Die Verneinung One could say, the denial is already One could say that negation must be
bezieht sich schon auf den logischen Ort, related to the logical place determined by related to the logical place determined by
den der verneinte Satz bestimmt. the proposition that is denied. the negated proposition.
Der verneinende Satz bestimmt einen The denying proposition determines a The negating proposition determines
a n d e r e n logischen Ort als der vernein- logical place other than does the proposi- a logical place different from that of the
te. tion denied. negated proposition.
Der verneinende Satz bestimmt einen The denying proposition determines a The negating proposition determines
logischen Ort mit Hilfe des logischen Or- logical place, with the help of the logical a logical place with the help of the logical
tes des verneinten Satzes, indem er jenen place of the proposition denied, by saying place of the negated proposition. For it
als außerhalb diesem liegend beschreibt. that it lies outside the latter place. describes it as lying outside the latter’s
logical place.
Dass man den verneinten Satz wie- That one can deny again the denied The negated proposition can be
der verneinen kann, zeigt schon, dass das, proposition, shows that what is denied is negated again, and this in itself shows
was verneint wird, schon ein Satz und already a proposition and not merely the that what is negated is already a proponicht
erst die Vorbereitung zu einem Sat- preliminary to a proposition. sition, and not merely something that is
ze ist. preliminary to a proposition.
4.1 Der Satz stellt das Bestehen und A proposition presents the existence Propositions represent the existence
Nichtbestehen der Sachverhalte dar. and non-existence of atomic facts. and non-existence of states of affairs.
4.11 Die Gesamtheit der wahren Sätze ist The totality of true propositions is the The totality of true propositions is the
die gesamte Naturwissenschaft (oder die total natural science (or the totality of the whole of natural science (or the whole corGesamtheit
der Naturwissenschaften). natural sciences). pus of the natural sciences).
40
4.111 Die Philosophie ist keine der Natur- Philosophy is not one of the natural Philosophy is not one of the natural
wissenschaften. sciences. sciences.
(Das Wort „Philosophie“ muss etwas (The word “philosophy” must mean (The word ‘philosophy’ must mean
bedeuten, was über oder unter, aber nicht something which stands above or below, something whose place is above or below
neben den Naturwissenschaften steht.) but not beside the natural sciences.) the natural sciences, not beside them.)
4.112 Der Zweck der Philosophie ist die logi- The object of philosophy is the logical Philosophy aims at the logical clariﬁsche
Klärung der Gedanken. clariﬁcation of thoughts. cation of thoughts.
Die Philosophie ist keine Lehre, son- Philosophy is not a theory but an ac- Philosophy is not a body of doctrine
dern eine Tätigkeit. tivity. but an activity.
Ein philosophisches Werk besteht we- A philosophical work consists essen- A philosophical work consists essensentlich
aus Erläuterungen. tially of elucidations. tially of elucidations.
Das Resultat der Philosophie sind The result of philosophy is not a num- Philosophy does not result in ‘philonicht
„philosophische Sätze“, sondern das ber of “philosophical propositions”, but to sophical propositions’, but rather in the
Klarwerden von Sätzen. make propositions clear. clariﬁcation of propositions.
Die Philosophie soll die Gedanken, die Philosophy should make clear and de- Without philosophy thoughts are, as it
sonst, gleichsam, trübe und verschwom- limit sharply the thoughts which other- were, cloudy and indistinct: its task is to
men sind, klar machen und scharf abgren- wise are, as it were, opaque and blurred. make them clear and to give them sharp
zen. boundaries.
4.1121 Die Psychologie ist der Philosophie Psychology is no nearer related to phi- Psychology is no more closely related
nicht verwandter als irgend eine andere losophy, than is any other natural science. to philosophy than any other natural sciNaturwissenschaft.
ence.
Erkenntnistheorie ist die Philosophie The theory of knowledge is the philos- Theory of knowledge is the philosophy
der Psychologie. ophy of psychology. of psychology.
Entspricht nicht mein Studium der Does not my study of sign-language Does not my study of sign-language
Zeichensprache dem Studium der Denk- correspond to the study of thought pro- correspond to the study of thoughtprozesse,
welches die Philosophen für die cesses which philosophers held to be so processes, which philosophers used to conPhilosophie
der Logik für so wesentlich essential to the philosophy of logic? Only sider so essential to the philosophy of
hielten? Nur verwickelten sie sich mei- they got entangled for the most part in logic? Only in most cases they got entanstens
in unwesentliche psychologische unessential psychological investigations, gled in unessential psychological investiUntersuchungen
und eine analoge Gefahr and there is an analogous danger for my gations, and with my method too there is
gibt es auch bei meiner Methode. method. an analogous risk.
4.1122 Die Darwinsche Theorie hat mit der The Darwinian theory has no more to Darwin’s theory has no more to do
Philosophie nicht mehr zu schaffen als do with philosophy than has any other with philosophy than any other hypotheirgendeine
andere Hypothese der Natur- hypothesis of natural science. sis in natural science.
wissenschaft.
4.113 Die Philosophie begrenzt das bestreit- Philosophy limits the disputable Philosophy sets limits to the much disbare
Gebiet der Naturwissenschaft. sphere of natural science. puted sphere of natural science.
41
4.114 Sie soll das Denkbare abgrenzen und It should limit the thinkable and It must set limits to what can be
damit das Undenkbare. thereby the unthinkable. thought; and, in doing so, to what cannot
be thought.
Sie soll das Undenkbare von innen It should limit the unthinkable from It must set limits to what cannot be
durch das Denkbare begrenzen. within through the thinkable. thought by working outwards through
what can be thought.
4.115 Sie wird das Unsagbare bedeuten, in- It will mean the unspeakable by It will signify what cannot be said, by
dem sie das Sagbare klar darstellt. clearly displaying the speakable. presenting clearly what can be said.
4.116 Alles was überhaupt gedacht werden Everything that can be thought at all Everything that can be thought at all
kann, kann klar gedacht werden. Alles, can be thought clearly. Everything that can be thought clearly. Everything that
was sich aussprechen läßt, läßt sich klar can be said can be said clearly. can be put into words can be put clearly.
aussprechen.
4.12 Der Satz kann die gesamte Wirklich- Propositions can represent the whole Propositions can represent the whole
keit darstellen, aber er kann nicht das reality, but they cannot represent what of reality, but they cannot represent what
darstellen, was er mit der Wirklichkeit they must have in common with reality they must have in common with reality
gemein haben muss, um sie darstellen zu in order to be able to represent it—the in order to be able to represent it—logical
können—die logische Form. logical form. form.
Um die logische Form darstellen zu To be able to represent the logical In order to be able to represent logical
können, müssten wir uns mit dem Satze form, we should have to be able to put form, we should have to be able to station
außerhalb der Logik aufstellen können, ourselves with the propositions outside ourselves with propositions somewhere
das heißt außerhalb der Welt. logic, that is outside the world. outside logic, that is to say outside the
world.
4.121 Der Satz kann die logische Form nicht Propositions cannot represent the log- Propositions cannot represent logical
darstellen, sie spiegelt sich in ihm. ical form: this mirrors itself in the propo- form: it is mirrored in them.
sitions.
Was sich in der Sprache spiegelt, kann That which mirrors itself in language, What ﬁnds its reﬂection in language,
sie nicht darstellen. language cannot represent. language cannot represent.
Was s i c h in der Sprache ausdrückt, That which expresses itself in lan- What expresses itself in language, we
können w i r nicht durch sie ausdrücken. guage, we cannot express by language. cannot express by means of language.
Der Satz z e i g t die logische Form The propositions show the logical form Propositions show the logical form of
der Wirklichkeit. of reality. reality.
Er weist sie auf. They exhibit it. They display it.
4.1211 So zeigt ein Satz „fa“, dass in seinem Thus a proposition “fa” shows that in Thus one proposition ‘fa’ shows that
Sinn der Gegenstand a vorkommt, zwei its sense the object a occurs, two propo- the object a occurs in its sense, two propoSätze
„fa“ und „ga“, dass in ihnen beiden sitions “fa” and “ga” that they are both sitions ‘fa’ and ‘ga’ show that the same
von demselben Gegenstand die Rede ist. about the same object. object is mentioned in both of them.
Wenn zwei Sätze einander widerspre- If two propositions contradict one an- If two propositions contradict one an-
42
chen. So zeigt dies ihre Struktur; ebenso, other, this is shown by their structure; other, then their structure shows it; the
wenn einer aus dem anderen folgt. U.s.w. similarly if one follows from another, etc. same is true if one of them follows from
the other. And so on.
4.1212 Was gezeigt werden k a n n, k a n n What can be shown cannot be said. What can be shown, cannot be said.
nicht gesagt werden.
4.1213 Jetzt verstehen wir auch unser Ge- Now we understand our feeling that Now, too, we understand our feeling
fühl: dass wir im Besitze einer richti- we are in possession of the right logical that once we have a sign-language in
gen logischen Auffassung seien, wenn nur conception, if only all is right in our sym- which everything is all right, we already
einmal alles in unserer Zeichensprache bolism. have a correct logical point of view.
stimmt.
4.122 Wir können in gewissem Sinne von We can speak in a certain sense of In a certain sense we can talk about
formalen Eigenschaften der Gegenstände formal properties of objects and atomic formal properties of objects and states of
und Sachverhalte bezw. von Eigenschaf- facts, or of properties of the structure of affairs, or, in the case of facts, about structen
der Struktur der Tatsachen reden, facts, and in the same sense of formal tural properties: and in the same sense
und in demselben Sinne von formalen Re- relations and relations of structures. about formal relations and structural relationen
und Relationen von Strukturen. lations.
(Statt Eigenschaft der Struktur sage (Instead of property of the structure (Instead of ‘structural property’ I also
ich auch „interne Eigenschaft“; statt Re- I also say “internal property”; instead of say ‘internal property’; instead of ‘struclation
der Strukturen „interne Relation“. relation of structures “internal relation”. tural relation’, ‘internal relation’.
Ich führe diese Ausdrücke ein, um den I introduce these expressions in order I introduce these expressions in order
Grund der bei den Philosophen sehr ver- to show the reason for the confusion, very to indicate the source of the confusion
breiteten Verwechslung zwischen den in- widespread among philosophers, between between internal relations and relations
ternen Relationen und den eigentlichen internal relations and proper (external) proper (external relations), which is very
(externen) Relationen zu zeigen.) relations.) widespread among philosophers.)
Das Bestehen solcher interner Eigen- The holding of such internal proper- It is impossible, however, to assert by
schaften und Relationen kann aber nicht ties and relations cannot, however, be as- means of propositions that such internal
durch Sätze behauptet werden, sondern serted by propositions, but it shows it- properties and relations obtain: rather,
es zeigt sich in den Sätzen, welche jene self in the propositions, which present the this makes itself manifest in the proposiSachverhalte
darstellen und von jenen facts and treat of the objects in question. tions that represent the relevant states
Gegenständen handeln. of affairs and are concerned with the relevant
objects.
4.1221 Eine interne Eigenschaft einer Tatsa- An internal property of a fact we also An internal property of a fact can also
che können wir auch einen Zug dieser Tat- call a feature of this fact. (In the sense in be called a feature of that fact (in the
sache nennen. (In dem Sinn, in welchem which we speak of facial features.) sense in which we speak of facial features,
wir etwa von Gesichtszügen sprechen.) for example).
4.123 Eine Eigenschaft ist intern, wenn es A property is internal if it is unthink- A property is internal if it is unthinkundenkbar
ist, dass ihr Gegenstand sie able that its object does not possess it. able that its object should not possess it.
43
nicht besitzt.
(Diese blaue Farbe und jene stehen (This bright blue colour and that (This shade of blue and that one stand,
in der internen Relation von heller und stand in the internal relation of bright eo ipso, in the internal relation of lighter
dunkler eo ipso. Es ist undenkbar, dass and darker eo ipso. It is unthinkable that to darker. It is unthinkable that these two
d i e s e beiden Gegenstände nicht in die- these two objects should not stand in this objects should not stand in this relation.)
ser Relation stünden.) relation.)
(Hier entspricht dem schwankenden (Here to the shifting use of the words (Here the shifting use of the word ‘obGebrauch
der Worte „Eigenschaft“ und “property” and “relation” there corre- ject’ corresponds to the shifting use of the
„Relation“ der schwankende Gebrauch des sponds the shifting use of the word “ob- words ‘property’ and ‘relation’.)
Wortes „Gegenstand“.) ject”.)
4.124 Das Bestehen einer internen Eigen- The existence of an internal property The existence of an internal property
schaft einer möglichen Sachlage wird of a possible state of affairs is not ex- of a possible situation is not expressed
nicht durch einen Satz ausgedrückt, son- pressed by a proposition, but it expresses by means of a proposition: rather, it exdern
es drückt sich in dem sie darstellen- itself in the proposition which presents presses itself in the proposition representden
Satz durch eine interne Eigenschaft that state of affairs, by an internal prop- ing the situation, by means of an internal
dieses Satzes aus. erty of this proposition. property of that proposition.
Es wäre ebenso unsinnig, dem Satze It would be as senseless to ascribe It would be just as nonsensical to aseine
formale Eigenschaft zuzusprechen, a formal property to a proposition as to sert that a proposition had a formal propals
sie ihm abzusprechen. deny it the formal property. erty as to deny it.
4.1241 Formen kann man nicht dadurch von- One cannot distinguish forms from It is impossible to distinguish forms
einander unterscheiden, dass man sagt, one another by saying that one has this from one another by saying that one has
die eine habe diese, die andere aber jene property, the other that: for this assumes this property and another that property:
Eigenschaft; denn dies setzt voraus, dass that there is a sense in asserting either for this presupposes that it makes sense
es einen Sinn habe, beide Eigenschaften property of either form. to ascribe either property to either form.
von beiden Formen auszusagen.
4.125 Das Bestehen einer internen Relati- The existence of an internal relation The existence of an internal relation
on zwischen möglichen Sachlagen drückt between possible states of affairs ex- between possible situations expresses itsich
sprachlich durch eine interne Relati- presses itself in language by an internal self in language by means of an internal
on zwischen den sie darstellenden Sätzen relation between the propositions present- relation between the propositions repreaus.
ing them. senting them.
4.1251 Hier erledigt sich nun die Streitfra- Now this settles the disputed question Here we have the answer to the vexed
ge, „ob alle Relationen intern oder extern “whether all relations are internal or ex- question ‘whether all relations are interseien“.
ternal”. nal or external’.
4.1252 Reihen, welche durch i n t e r n e Re- Series which are ordered by internal I call a series that is ordered by an
lationen geordnet sind, nenne ich Formen- relations I call formal series. internal relation a series of forms.
reihen.
Die Zahlenreihe ist nicht nach einer The series of numbers is ordered not The order of the number-series is not
44
externen, sondern nach einer internen Re- by an external, but by an internal rela- governed by an external relation but by
lation geordnet. tion. an internal relation.
Ebenso die Reihe der Sätze „aRb“, Similarly the series of propositions The same is true of the series of propo“aRb”,
sitions ‘aRb’,
„(∃x):aRx . xRb“, “(∃x):aRx . xRb”, ‘(∃x):aRx . xRb’,
„(∃x, y):aRx . xR y . yRb“, u. s. f. “(∃x, y):aRx . xR y . yRb”, etc. ‘(∃x, y):aRx . xR y . yRb’, and so forth.
(Steht b in einer dieser Beziehungen (If b stands in one of these relations (If b stands in one of these relations
zu a, so nenne ich b einen Nachfolder von to a, I call b a successor of a.) to a, I call b a successor of a.)
a.)
4.126 In dem Sinne, in welchem wir von for- In the sense in which we speak of for- We can now talk about formal conmalen
Eigenschaften sprechen, können mal properties we can now speak also of cepts, in the same sense that we speak
wir nun auch von formalen Begriffen re- formal concepts. of formal properties.
den.
(Ich führe diesen Ausdruck ein, um (I introduce this expression in order (I introduce this expression in order
den Grund der Verwechslung der forma- to make clear the confusion of formal con- to exhibit the source of the confusion
len Begriffe mit den eigentlichen Begrif- cepts with proper concepts which runs between formal concepts and concepts
fen, welche die ganze alte Logik durch- through the whole of the old logic.) proper, which pervades the whole of trazieht,
klar zu machen.) ditional logic.)
Dass etwas unter einen formalen Be- That anything falls under a formal When something falls under a formal
griff als dessen Gegenstand fällt, kann concept as an object belonging to it, can- concept as one of its objects, this cannot
nicht durch einen Satz ausgedrückt wer- not be expressed by a proposition. But it be expressed by means of a proposition.
den. Sondern es zeigt sich an dem Zeichen is shown in the symbol for the object it- Instead it is shown in the very sign for
dieses Gegenstandes selbst. (Der Name self. (The name shows that it signiﬁes an this object. (A name shows that it signizeigt,
dass er einen Gegenstand bezeich- object, the numerical sign that it signiﬁes ﬁes an object, a sign for a number that it
net, das Zahlenzeichen, dass es eine Zahl a number, etc.) signiﬁes a number, etc.)
bezeichnet etc.)
Die formalen Begriffe können ja nicht, Formal concepts, cannot, like proper Formal concepts cannot, in fact, be
wie die eigentlichen Begriffe, durch eine concepts, be presented by a function. represented by means of a function, as
Funktion dargestellt werden. concepts proper can.
Denn ihre Merkmale, die formalen Ei- For their characteristics, the formal For their characteristics, formal propgenschaften,
werden nicht durch Funktio- properties, are not expressed by the func- erties, are not expressed by means of funcnen
ausgedrückt. tions. tions.
Der Ausdruck der formalen Eigen- The expression of a formal property is The expression for a formal property
schaft ist ein Zug gewisser Symbole. a feature of certain symbols. is a feature of certain symbols.
Das Zeichen der Merkmale eines for- The sign that signiﬁes the character- So the sign for the characteristics of
malen Begriffes ist also ein charakteristi- istics of a formal concept is, therefore, a formal concept is a distinctive feature
scher Zug aller Symbole, deren Bedeutun- a characteristic feature of all symbols, of all symbols whose meanings fall under
45
gen unter den Begriff fallen. whose meanings fall under the concept. the concept.
Der Ausdruck des formalen Begriffes, The expression of the formal concept So the expression for a formal concept
also, eine Satzvariable, in welcher nur is therefore a propositional variable in is a propositional variable in which this
dieser charakteristische Zug konstant ist. which only this characteristic feature is distinctive feature alone is constant.
constant.
4.127 Die Satzvariable bezeichnet den for- The propositional variable signiﬁes The propositional variable signiﬁes
malen Begriff und ihre Werte die Gegen- the formal concept, and its values signify the formal concept, and its values signify
stände, welche unter diesen Begriff fal- the objects which fall under this concept. the objects that fall under the concept.
len.
4.1271 Jede Variable ist das Zeichen eines Every variable is the sign of a formal Every variable is the sign for a formal
formalen Begriffes. concept. concept.
Denn jede Variable stellt eine konstan- For every variable presents a constant For every variable represents a conte
Form dar, welche alle ihre Werte be- form, which all its values possess, and stant form that all its values possess, and
sitzen, und die als formale Eigenschaft which can be conceived as a formal prop- this can be regarded as a formal property
dieser Werte aufgefasst werden kann. erty of these values. of those values.
4.1272 So ist der variable Name „x“ das So the variable name “x” is the proper Thus the variable name ‘x’ is the
eigentliche Zeichen des Scheinbegriffes sign of the pseudo-concept object. proper sign for the pseudo-concept object.
G e g e n s t a n d.
Wo immer das Wort „Gegenstand“ Wherever the word “object” (“thing”, Wherever the word ‘object’ (‘thing’,
(„Ding“, „Sache“, etc.) richtig gebraucht “entity”, etc.) is rightly used, it is ex- etc.) is correctly used, it is expressed in
wird, wird es in der Begriffsschrift durch pressed in logical symbolism by the vari- conceptual notation by a variable name.
den variablen Namen ausgedrückt. able name.
Zum Beispiel in dem Satz „es For example in the proposition “there For example, in the proposition,
gibt 2 Gegenstände, welche . . . “ durch are two objects which . . . ”, by “(∃x, y)...”. ‘There are 2 objects which . . . ’, it is ex„(∃x,
y)...“. pressed by ‘(∃x, y)...’.
Wo immer es anders, also als eigentli- Wherever it is used otherwise, i.e. as Wherever it is used in a different way,
ches Begriffswort gebraucht wird, entste- a proper concept word, there arise sense- that is as a proper concept-word, nonsenhen
unsinnige Scheinsätze. less pseudo-propositions. sical pseudo-propositions are the result.
So kann man z. B. nicht sagen „Es So one cannot, e.g. say “There are ob- So one cannot say, for example, ‘There
gibt Gegenstände“, wie man etwa sagt: jects” as one says “There are books”. Nor are objects’, as one might say, ‘There are
„Es gibt Bücher“. Und ebenso wenig: „Es “There are 100 objects” or “There are ℵ0 books’. And it is just as impossible to say,
gibt 100 Gegenstände“, oder „Es gibt ℵ0 objects”. ‘There are 100 objects’, or, ‘There are ℵ0
Gegenstände“. objects’.
Und es ist unsinnig, von der A n - And it is senseless to speak of the And it is nonsensical to speak of the
z a h l a l l e r G e g e n s t ä n d e zu number of all objects. total number of objects.
sprechen.
Dasselbe gilt von den Worten „Kom- The same holds of the words “Com- The same applies to the words ‘com-
46
plex“, „Tatsache“, „Funktion“, „Zahl“, etc. plex”, “Fact”, “Function”, “Number”, etc. plex’, ‘fact’, ‘function’, ‘number’, etc.
Sie alle bezeichnen formale Begriffe They all signify formal concepts and They all signify formal concepts, and
und werden in der Begriffsschrift durch are presented in logical symbolism by are represented in conceptual notation by
Variable, nicht durch Funktionen oder variables, not by functions or classes (as variables, not by functions or classes (as
Klassen dargestellt. (Wie Frege und Rus- Frege and Russell thought). Frege and Russell believed).
sell glaubten.)
Ausdrücke wie „1 ist eine Zahl“, „Es Expressions like “1 is a number”, ‘1 is a number’, ‘There is only one zero’,
gibt nur Eine Null“ und alle ähnlichen “there is only one number nought”, and and all similar expressions are nonsensisind
unsinnig. all like them are senseless. cal.
(Es ist ebenso unsinnig zu sagen: „Es (It is as senseless to say, “there is only (It is just as nonsensical to say, ‘There
gibt nur Eine 1“, als es unsinnig wäre, zu one 1” as it would be to say: 2+2 is at 3 is only one 1’, as it would be to say, ‘2+2
sagen: „2+2 ist um 3 Uhr gleich 4“.) o’clock equal to 4.) at 3 o’clock equals 4’.)
4.12721 Der formale Begriff ist mit einem Ge- The formal concept is already given A formal concept is given immediately
genstand, der unter ihn fällt, bereits ge- with an object, which falls under it. One any object falling under it is given. It
geben. Man kann also nicht Gegenstän- cannot, therefore, introduce both, the ob- is not possible, therefore, to introduce as
de eines formalen Begriffes u n d den jects which fall under a formal concept primitive ideas objects belonging to a forformalen
Begriff selbst als Grundbegrif- and the formal concept itself, as prim- mal concept and the formal concept itself.
fe einführen. Man kann also z. B. nicht itive ideas. One cannot, therefore, e.g. So it is impossible, for example, to introden
Begriff der Funktion, und auch spezi- introduce (as Russell does) the concept duce as primitive ideas both the concept
elle Funktionen (wie Russell) als Grund- of function and also special functions as of a function and speciﬁc functions, as
begriffe einführen; oder den Begriff der primitive ideas; or the concept of number Russell does; or the concept of a number
Zahl und bestimmte Zahlen. and deﬁnite numbers. and particular numbers.
4.1273 Wollen wir den allgemeinen Satz: „b If we want to express in logical sym- If we want to express in conceptual
ist ein Nachfolger von a“ in der Begriffs- bolism the general proposition “b is a suc- notation the general proposition, ‘b is a
schrift ausdrücken, so brauchen wir hier- cessor of a” we need for this an expression successor of a’, then we require an expreszu
einen Ausdruck für das allgemeine for the general term of the formal series: sion for the general term of the series of
Glied der Formenreihe: forms
aRb, aRb, aRb,
(∃x):aRx . xRb, (∃x):aRx . xRb, (∃x):aRx . xRb,
(∃x, y):aRx . xR y . yRb, (∃x, y):aRx . xR y . yRb, (∃x, y):aRx . xR y . yRb,
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Das allgemeine Glied einer Formenreihe The general term of a formal series can In order to express the general term of a
kann man nur durch eine Variable aus- only be expressed by a variable, for the series of forms, we must use a variable,
drücken, denn der Begriff: Glied dieser concept symbolized by “term of this for- because the concept ‘term of that series
Formenreihe, ist ein f o r m a l e r Begriff. mal series” is a formal concept. (This of forms’ is a formal concept. (This is
(Dies haben Frege und Russell übersehen; Frege and Russell overlooked; the way in what Frege and Russell overlooked: con-
47
die Art und Weise, wie sie allgemeine Sät- which they express general propositions sequently the way in which they want to
ze wie den obigen ausdrücken wollen, ist like the above is, therefore, false; it con- express general propositions like the one
daher falsch; sie enthält einen circulus tains a vicious circle.) above is incorrect; it contains a vicious
vitiosus.) circle.)
Wir können das allgemeine Glied der We can determine the general term of We can determine the general term of
Formenreihe bestimmen, indem wir ihr the formal series by giving its ﬁrst term a series of forms by giving its ﬁrst term
erstes Glied angeben und die allgemeine and the general form of the operation, and the general form of the operation that
Form der Operation, welche das folgen- which generates the following term out produces the next term out of the proposide
Glied aus dem vorhergehenden Satz of the preceding proposition. tion that precedes it.
erzeugt.
4.1274 Die Frage nach der Existenz eines for- The question about the existence of a To ask whether a formal concept exmalen
Begriffes ist unsinnig. Denn kein formal concept is senseless. For no propo- ists is nonsensical. For no proposition can
Satz kann eine solche Frage beantworten. sition can answer such a question. be the answer to such a question.
(Man kann also z. B. nicht fra- (For example, one cannot ask: “Are (So, for example, the question, ‘Are
gen: „Gibt es unanalysierbare Subjekt- there unanalysable subject-predicate there unanalysable subject-predicate
Prädikatsätze¿‘) propositions?”) propositions?’ cannot be asked.)
4.128 Die logischen Formen sind zahl l o s. The logical forms are anumerical. Logical forms are without number.
Darum gibt es in der Logik keine aus- Therefore there are in logic no pre- Hence there are no pre-eminent numgezeichneten
Zahlen und darum gibt es eminent numbers, and therefore there is bers in logic, and hence there is no possikeinen
philosophischen Monismus oder no philosophical monism or dualism, etc. bility of philosophical monism or dualism,
Dualismus, etc. etc.
4.2 Der Sinn des Satzes ist seine Überein- The sense of a proposition is its agree- The sense of a proposition is its agreestimmung
und Nichtübereinstimmung ment and disagreement with the possibil- ment and disagreement with possibilities
mit den Möglichkeiten des Bestehens und ities of the existence and non-existence of of existence and non-existence of states of
Nichtbestehens der Sachverhalte. the atomic facts. affairs.
4.21 Der einfachste Satz, der Elementar- The simplest proposition, the elemen- The simplest kind of proposition, an
satz, behauptet das Bestehen eines Sach- tary proposition, asserts the existence of elementary proposition, asserts the exisverhaltes.
an atomic fact. tence of a state of affairs.
4.211 Ein Zeichen des Elementarsatzes ist It is a sign of an elementary proposi- It is a sign of a proposition’s being elees,
dass kein Elementarsatz mit ihm in tion, that no elementary proposition can mentary that there can be no elementary
Widerspruch stehen kann. contradict it. proposition contradicting it.
4.22 Der Elementarsatz besteht aus Na- The elementary proposition consists of An elementary proposition consists of
men. Er ist ein Zusammenhang, eine Ver- names. It is a connexion, a concatenation, names. It is a nexus, a concatenation, of
kettung, von Namen. of names. names.
4.221 Es ist offenbar, dass wir bei der Analy- It is obvious that in the analysis of It is obvious that the analysis of propose
der Sätze auf Elementarsätze kommen propositions we must come to elementary sitions must bring us to elementary propomüssen,
die aus Namen in unmittelbarer propositions, which consist of names in sitions which consist of names in immedi-
48
Verbindung bestehen. immediate combination. ate combination.
Es frägt sich hier, wie kommt der Satz- The question arises here, how the This raises the question how such comverband
zustande. propositional connexion comes to be. bination into propositions comes about.
4.2211 Auch wenn die Welt unendlich kom- Even if the world is inﬁnitely complex, Even if the world is inﬁnitely complex,
plex ist, so dass jede Tatsache aus unend- so that every fact consists of an inﬁnite so that every fact consists of inﬁnitely
lich vielen Sachverhalten besteht und je- number of atomic facts and every atomic many states of affairs and every state of
der Sachverhalt aus unendlich vielen Ge- fact is composed of an inﬁnite number of affairs is composed of inﬁnitely many obgenständen
zusammengesetzt ist, auch objects, even then there must be objects jects, there would still have to be objects
dann müsste es Gegenstände und Sach- and atomic facts. and states of affairs.
verhalte geben.
4.23 Der Name kommt im Satz nur im Zu- The name occurs in the proposition It is only in the nexus of an elemensammenhange
des Elementarsatzes vor. only in the context of the elementary tary proposition that a name occurs in a
proposition. proposition.
4.24 Die Namen sind die einfachen Symbo- The names are the simple symbols, I Names are the simple symbols: I indile,
ich deute sie durch einzelne Buchsta- indicate them by single letters (x, y, z). cate them by single letters (‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’).
ben („x“, „y“, „z“) an.
Den Elementarsatz schreibe ich als The elementary proposition I write as I write elementary propositions as
Funktion der Namen in der Form: „fx“, function of the names, in the form “fx”, functions of names, so that they have the
„φ(x, y)“, etc. “φ(x, y)”, etc. form ‘fx’, ‘φ(x, y)’, etc.
Oder ich deute ihn durch die Buchsta- Or I indicate it by the letters p, q, r. Or I indicate them by the letters ‘p’,
ben p, q, r an. ‘q’, ‘r’.
4.241 Gebrauche ich zwei Zeichen in ein und If I use two signs with one and the When I use two signs with one and the
derselben Bedeutung, so drücke ich dies same meaning, I express this by putting same meaning, I express this by putting
aus, indem ich zwischen beide das Zei- between them the sign “=”. the sign ‘=’ between them.
chen „=“ setze.
„a = b“ heißt also: das Zeichen „a“ ist “a = b” means then, that the sign “a” So ‘a = b’ means that the sign ‘b’ can
durch das Zeichen „b“ ersetzbar. is replaceable by the sign “b”. be substituted for the sign ‘a’.
(Führe ich durch eine Gleichung ein (If I introduce by an equation a new (If I use an equation to introduce a
neues Zeichen „b“ ein, indem ich bestim- sign “b”, by determining that it shall re- new sign ‘b’, laying down that it shall
me, es solle ein bereits bekanntes Zei- place a previously known sign “a”, I write serve as a substitute for a sign ‘a’ that is
chen „a“ ersetzen, so schreibe ich die the equation—deﬁnition—(like Russell) already known, then, like Russell, I write
Gleichung—Deﬁnition—(wie Russell) in in the form “a = b Def.”. A deﬁnition is a the equation—deﬁnition—in the form ‘a =
der Form „a = b Def.“. Die Deﬁnition ist symbolic rule.) b Def.’ A deﬁnition is a rule dealing with
eine Zeichenregel.) signs.)
4.242 Ausdrücke von der Form „a = b“ sind Expressions of the form “a = b” are Expressions of the form ‘a = b’ are,
also nur Behelfe der Darstellung; sie sa- therefore only expedients in presentation: therefore, mere representational devices.
gen nichts über die Bedeutung der Zei- They assert nothing about the meaning They state nothing about the meaning of
49
chen „a“, „b“ aus. of the signs “a” and “b”. the signs ‘a’ and ‘b’.
4.243 Können wir zwei Namen verstehen, Can we understand two names with- Can we understand two names withohne
zu wissen, ob sie dasselbe Ding oder out knowing whether they signify the out knowing whether they signify the
zwei verschiedene Dinge bezeichnen?— same thing or two different things? Can same thing or two different things?—Can
Können wir einen Satz, worin zwei Na- we understand a proposition in which we understand a proposition in which two
men vorkommen, verstehen, ohne zu wis- two names occur, without knowing if they names occur without knowing whether
sen, ob sie Dasselbe oder Verschiedenes mean the same or different things? their meaning is the same or different?
bedeuten?
Kenne ich etwa die Bedeutung eines If I know the meaning of an English Suppose I know the meaning of an
englischen und eines gleichbedeutenden and a synonymous German word, it is English word and of a German word that
deutschen Wortes, so ist es unmöglich, impossible for me not to know that they means the same: then it is impossible for
dass ich nicht weiß, dass die beiden gleich- are synonymous, it is impossible for me me to be unaware that they do mean the
bedeutend sind; es ist unmöglich, dass ich not to be able to translate them into one same; I must be capable of translating
sie nicht ineinander übersetzen kann. another. each into the other.
Ausdrücke wie „a = a“, oder von die- Expressions like “a = a”, or expres- Expressions like ‘a = a’, and those desen
abgeleitete, sind weder Elementar- sions deduced from these are neither el- rived from them, are neither elementary
sätze, noch sonst sinnvolle Zeichen. (Dies ementary propositions nor otherwise sig- propositions nor is there any other way in
wird sich später zeigen.) niﬁcant signs. (This will be shown later.) which they have sense. (This will become
evident later.)
4.25 Ist der Elementarsatz wahr, so be- If the elementary proposition is true, If an elementary proposition is true,
steht der Sachverhalt; ist der Elementar- the atomic fact exists; if it is false the the state of affairs exists: if an elemensatz
falsch, so besteht der Sachverhalt atomic fact does not exist. tary proposition is false, the state of afnicht.
fairs does not exist.
4.26 Die Angabe aller wahren Elementar- The speciﬁcation of all true elemen- If all true elementary propositions are
sätze beschreibt die Welt vollständig. Die tary propositions describes the world com- given, the result is a complete description
Welt ist vollständig beschrieben durch die pletely. The world is completely described of the world. The world is completely deAngaben
aller Elementarsätze plus der by the speciﬁcation of all elementary scribed by giving all elementary proposiAngabe,
welche von ihnen wahr und wel- propositions plus the speciﬁcation, which tions, and adding which of them are true
che falsch sind. of them are true and which false. and which false.
4.27 Bezüglich des Bestehens und Nicht- With regard to the existence of n For n states of affairs, there are Kn =
bestehens von n Sachverhalten gibt es atomic facts there are Kn =
n
ν=0
n
ν
pos-
n
ν=0
n
ν
possibilities of existence and nonKn
=
n
ν=0
n
ν
Möglichkeiten. sibilities. existence.
Es können alle Kombinationen der It is possible for all combinations of Of these states of affairs any combiSachverhalte
bestehen, die andern nicht atomic facts to exist, and the others not nation can exist and the remainder not
50
bestehen. to exist. exist.
4.28 Diesen Kombinationen entsprechen To these combinations correspond the There correspond to these combinaebenso
viele Möglichkeiten der Wahr- same number of possibilities of the truth— tions the same number of possibilities
heit—und Falschheit—von n Elementar- and falsehood—of n elementary proposi- of truth—and falsity—for n elementary
sätzen. tions. propositions.
4.3 Die Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten der Ele- The truth-possibilities of the elemen- Truth-possibilities of elementary propmentarsätze
bedeuten die Möglichkeiten tary propositions mean the possibilities ositions mean possibilities of existence
des Bestehens und Nichtbestehens der of the existence and non-existence of the and non-existence of states of affairs.
Sachverhalte. atomic facts.
4.31 Die Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten können The truth-possibilities can be pre- We can represent truth-possibilities
wir durch Schemata folgender Art dar- sented by schemata of the following kind by schemata of the following kind (‘T’
stellen („W“ bedeutet „wahr“, „F“, „falsch“. (“T” means “true”, “F” “false”. The rows means ‘true’, ‘F’ means ‘false’; the rows
Die Reihen der „W“ und „F“ unter der Rei- of T’s and F’s under the row of the ele- of ‘T’s’ and ‘F’s’ under the row of elemenhe
der Elementarsätze bedeuten in leicht- mentary propositions mean their truth- tary propositions symbolize their truthverständlicher
Symbolik deren Wahr- possibilities in an easily intelligible sym- possibilities in a way that can easily be
heitsmöglichkeiten): bolism). understood):
p q r
W W W
F W W
W F W
W W F
F F W
F W F
W F F
F F F
p q
W W
F W
W F
F F
p
W
F
p q r
T T T
F T T
T F T
T T F
F F T
F T F
T F F
F F F
p q
T T
F T
T F
F F
p
T
F
p q r
T T T
F T T
T F T
T T F
F F T
F T F
T F F
F F F
p q
T T
F T
T F
F F
p
T
F
4.4 Der Satz ist der Ausdruck der A proposition is the expression of A proposition is an expression of
Übereinstimmung und Nichtübereinstim- agreement and disagreement with the agreement and disagreement with truthmung
mit den Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten truth-possibilities of the elementary possibilities of elementary propositions.
der Elementarsätze. propositions.
4.41 Die Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten der Ele- The truth-possibilities of the elemen- Truth-possibilities of elementary propmentarsätze
sind die Bedingungen der tary propositions are the conditions of the ositions are the conditions of the truth
Wahrheit und Falschheit der Sätze. truth and falsehood of the propositions. and falsity of propositions.
4.411 Es ist von vornherein wahrscheinlich, It seems probable even at ﬁrst sight It immediately strikes one as probable
dass die Einführung der Elementarsätze that the introduction of the elementary that the introduction of elementary propofür
das Verständnis aller anderen Satzar- propositions is fundamental for the com- sitions provides the basis for understandten
grundlegend ist. Ja, das Verständnis prehension of the other kinds of proposi- ing all other kinds of proposition. Indeed
der allgemeinen Sätze hängt f ü h l b a r tions. Indeed the comprehension of the the understanding of general propositions
51
von dem der Elementarsätze ab. general propositions depends palpably on palpably depends on the understanding
that of the elementary propositions. of elementary propositions.
4.42 Bezüglich der Übereinstimmung und With regard to the agreement and dis- For n elementary propositions there
Nichtüberein stimmung eines Satzes mit agreement of a proposition with the truth- are
Kn
κ=0
Kn
κ
= Ln ways in which a propoden
Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten von n Ele- possibilities of n elementary propositions sition can agree and disagree with their
mentarsätzen gibt es
Kn
κ=0
Kn
κ
= Ln Mög- there are
Kn
κ=0
Kn
κ
= Ln possibilities. truth possibilities.
lichkeiten.
4.43 Die Übereinstimmung mit den Wahr- Agreement with the truth-possibili- We can express agreement with truthheitsmöglichkeiten
können wir dadurch ties can be expressed by co-ordinating possibilities by correlating the mark ‘T’
ausdrücken, indem wir ihnen im Schema with them in the schema the mark “T” (true) with them in the schema.
etwa das Abzeichen „W“ (wahr) zuordnen. (true).
Das Fehlen dieses Abzeichens bedeu- Absence of this mark means disagree- The absence of this mark means distet
die Nichtübereinstimmung. ment. agreement.
4.431 Der Ausdruck der Übereinstimmung The expression of the agreement and The expression of agreement and disund
Nichtübereinstimmung mit den disagreement with the truth-possibilities agreement with the truth possibilities
Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten der Elementar- of the elementary propositions expresses of elementary propositions expresses the
sätze drückt die Wahrheitsbedingungen the truth-conditions of the proposition. truth-conditions of a proposition.
des Satzes aus.
Der Satz ist der Ausdruck seiner The proposition is the expression of A proposition is the expression of its
Wahrheitsbedingungen. its truth-conditions. truth-conditions.
(Frege hat sie daher ganz richtig als (Frege has therefore quite rightly put (Thus Frege was quite right to use
Erklärung der Zeichen seiner Begriffs- them at the beginning, as explaining them as a starting point when he exschrift
vorausgeschickt. Nur ist die Er- the signs of his logical symbolism. Only plained the signs of his conceptual notaklärung
des Wahrheitsbegriffes bei Fre- Frege’s explanation of the truth-concept tion. But the explanation of the concept of
ge falsch: Wären „das Wahre“ und „das is false: if “the true” and “the false” were truth that Frege gives is mistaken: if ‘the
Falsche“ wirklich Gegenstände und die real objects and the arguments in ∼p, etc., true’ and ‘the false’ were really objects,
Argumente in ∼p etc. dann wäre nach then the sense of ∼p would by no means and were the arguments in ∼p etc., then
Freges Bestimmung der Sinn von „∼p“ be determined by Frege’s determination.) Frege’s method of determining the sense
keineswegs bestimmt.) of ‘∼p’ would leave it absolutely undeter-
mined.)
4.44 Das Zeichen, welches durch die Zuord- The sign which arises from the co- The sign that results from correlating
nung jener Abzeichen „W“ und der Wahr- ordination of that mark “T” with the the mark ‘T’ with truth-possibilities is a
heitsmöglichkeiten entsteht, ist ein Satz- truth-possibilities is a propositional sign. propositional sign.
zeichen.
52
4.441 Es ist klar, dass dem Komplex der Zei- It is clear that to the complex of the It is clear that a complex of the signs
chen „F“ und „W“ kein Gegenstand (oder signs “F” and “T” no object (or complex ‘F’ and ‘T’ has no object (or complex of obKomplex
von Gegenständen) entspricht; of objects) corresponds; any more than to jects) corresponding to it, just as there is
so wenig, wie den horizontalen und ver- horizontal and vertical lines or to brack- none corresponding to the horizontal and
tikalen Strichen oder den Klammern.— ets. There are no “logical objects”. vertical lines or to the brackets.—There
„Logische Gegenstände“ gibt es nicht. are no ‘logical objects’.
Analoges gilt natürlich für alle Zei- Something analogous holds of course Of course the same applies to all signs
chen, die dasselbe ausdrücken wie die for all signs, which express the same as that express what the schemata of ‘T’s’
Schemata der „W“ und „F“. the schemata of “T” and “F”. and ‘F’s’ express.
4.442 Es ist z. B.: Thus e.g. For example, the following is a propositional
sign:
p q “
W W W
F W W
W F
„ F F W
“ p q
T T T
F T T
T F
F F T ”
‘ p q ’
T T T
F T T
T F
F F T
ein Satzzeichen. is a propositional sign.
(Frege’s „Urtelistrich“ „ “ ist logisch (Frege’s assertion sign “ ” is logically (Frege’s ‘judgement stroke’ ‘ ’ is logiganz
bedeutunglos; er zeigt bei Frege altogether meaningless; in Frege (and cally quite meaningless: in the works of
(und Russell) nur an, dass diese Autoren Russell) it only shows that these authors Frege (and Russell) it simply indicates
die so bezeichneten Sätze für wahr halten. hold as true the propositions marked in that these authors hold the propositions
„ “ gehört daher ebenso wenig zum Satz- this way. “ ” belongs therefore to the marked with this sign to be true. Thus ‘ ’
gefüge, wie etwa die Nummer des Satzes. propositions no more than does the num- is no more a component part of a proposiEin
Satz kann unmöglich von sich selbst ber of the proposition. A proposition can- tion than is, for instance, the proposition’s
aussagen, dass er wahr ist.) not possibly assert of itself that it is true.) number. It is quite impossible for a proposition
to state that it itself is true.)
Ist die Reihenfolge der Wahrheitsmög- If the sequence of the truth-possibil- If the order or the truth-possibilities
lichkeiten im Schema durch eine Kombi- ities in the schema is once for all deter- in a schema is ﬁxed once and for all by a
nationsregel ein für allemal festgesetzt, mined by a rule of combination, then the combinatory rule, then the last column by
dann ist die letzte Kolonne allein schon last column is by itself an expression of itself will be an expression of the truthein
Ausdruck der Wahrheitsbedingungen. the truth-conditions. If we write this col- conditions. If we now write this column as
Schreiben wir diese Kolonne als Reihe umn as a row the propositional sign be- a row, the propositional sign will become
hin, so wird das Satzzeichen zu comes:
„(WW−W) (p, q)“ “(TT−T) (p, q)”, “(TT−T) (p, q)”,
oder deutlicher
„(WWFW) (p, q)“.
or more plainly:
“(TTFT) (p, q)”.
or more explicitly
“(TTFT) (p, q)”.
53
(Die Anzahl der Stellen in der linken (The number of places in the left-hand (The number of places in the left-hand
Klammer ist durch die Anzahl der Glieder bracket is determined by the number of pair of brackets is determined by the numin
der rechten bestimmt.) terms in the right-hand bracket.) ber of terms in the right-hand pair.)
4.45 Für n Elementarsätze gibt es Ln mög- For n elementary propositions there For n elementary propositions there
liche Gruppen von Wahrheitsbedingun- are Ln possible groups of truth-condi- are Ln possible groups of truth-condigen.
tions. tions.
Die Gruppen von Wahrheitsbedingun- The groups of truth-conditions which The groups of truth-conditions that
gen, welche zu den Wahrheitsmöglichkeit- belong to the truth-possibilities of a num- are obtainable from the truth-possibilities
en einer Anzahl von Elementarsätzen ge- ber of elementary propositions can be or- of a given number of elementary proposihören,
lassen sich in eine Reihe ordnen. dered in a series. tions can be arranged in a series.
4.46 Unter den möglichen Gruppen von Among the possible groups of truth- Among the possible groups of truthWahrheitsbedingungen
gibt es zwei ex- conditions there are two extreme cases. conditions there are two extreme cases.
treme Fälle.
In dem einen Fall ist der Satz für In the one case the proposition is true In one of these cases the proposition
sämtliche Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten der for all the truth-possibilities of the ele- is true for all the truth-possibilities of the
Elementarsätze wahr. Wir sagen, die mentary propositions. We say that the elementary propositions. We say that the
Wahrheitsbedingungen sind t a u t o l o - truth-conditions are tautological. truth-conditions are tautological.
g i s c h.
Im zweiten Fall ist der Satz für sämt- In the second case the proposition is In the second case the proposition is
liche Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten falsch: Die false for all the truth-possibilities. The false for all the truth-possibilities: the
Wahrheitsbedingungen sind k o n t r a - truth-conditions are self-contradictory. truth-conditions are contradictory.
d i k t o r i s c h.
Im ersten Fall nennen wir den Satz In the ﬁrst case we call the proposition In the ﬁrst case we call the proposieine
Tautologie, im zweiten Fall eine Kon- a tautology, in the second case a contra- tion a tautology; in the second, a contratradiktion.
diction. diction.
4.461 Der Satz zeigt was er sagt, die Tau- The proposition shows what it says, Propositions show what they say: tautologie
und die Kontradiktion, dass sie the tautology and the contradiction that tologies and contradictions show that
nichts sagen. they say nothing. they say nothing.
Die Tautologie hat keine Wahrheits- The tautology has no truth-conditions, A tautology has no truth-conditions,
bedingungen, denn sie ist bedingungslos for it is unconditionally true; and the con- since it is unconditionally true: and a conwahr;
und die Kontradiktion ist unter kei- tradiction is on no condition true. tradiction is true on no condition.
ner Bedingung wahr.
Tautologie und Kontradiktion sind Tautology and contradiction are with- Tautologies and contradictions lack
sinnlos. out sense. sense.
(Wie der Punkt, von dem zwei Pfeile (Like the point from which two arrows (Like a point from which two arrows
in entgegengesetzter Richtung auseinan- go out in opposite directions.) go out in opposite directions to one andergehen.)
other.)
54
(Ich weiß z. B. nichts über das Wetter, (I know, e.g. nothing about the (For example, I know nothing about
wenn ich weiß, dass es regnet oder nicht weather, when I know that it rains or does the weather when I know that it is either
regnet.) not rain.) raining or not raining.)
4.4611 Tautologie und Kontradiktion sind Tautology and contradiction are, how- Tautologies and contradictions are
aber nicht unsinnig; sie gehören zum ever, not nonsensical; they are part of the not, however, nonsensical. They are part
Symbolismus, und zwar ähnlich wie die symbolism, in the same way that “0” is of the symbolism, much as ‘0’ is part of
„0“ zum Symbolismus der Arithmetik. part of the symbolism of Arithmetic. the symbolism of arithmetic.
4.462 Tautologie und Kontradiktion sind Tautology and contradiction are not Tautologies and contradictions are not
nicht Bilder der Wirklichkeit. Sie stellen pictures of the reality. They present no pictures of reality. They do not represent
keine mögliche Sachlage dar. Denn jene possible state of affairs. For the one al- any possible situations. For the former
lässt j e d e mögliche Sachlage zu, diese lows every possible state of affairs, the admit all possible situations, and latter
k e i n e. other none. none.
In der Tautologie heben die Bedin- In the tautology the conditions of In a tautology the conditions of agreegungen
der Übereinstimmung mit der agreement with the world—the present- ment with the world—the representaWelt—die
darstellenden Beziehungen— ing relations—cancel one another, so that tional relations—cancel one another, so
einander auf, so dass sie in keiner darstel- it stands in no presenting relation to real- that it does not stand in any representalenden
Beziehung zur Wirklichkeit steht. ity. tional relation to reality.
4.463 Die Wahrheitsbedingungen bestim- The truth-conditions determine the The truth-conditions of a proposition
men den Spielraum, der den Tatsachen range, which is left to the facts by the determine the range that it leaves open
durch den Satz gelassen wird. proposition. to the facts.
(Der Satz, das Bild, das Modell, sind (The proposition, the picture, the (A proposition, a picture, or a model
im negativen Sinne wie ein fester Kör- model, are in a negative sense like a solid is, in the negative sense, like a solid body
per, der die Bewegungsfreiheit der ande- body, which restricts the free movement that restricts the freedom of movement of
ren beschränkt; im positiven Sinne, wie of another: in a positive sense, like the others, and, in the positive sense, like
der von fester Substanz begrenzte Raum, space limited by solid substance, in which a space bounded by solid substance in
worin ein Körper Platz hat.) a body may be placed.) which there is room for a body.)
Die Tautologie lässt der Wirklich- Tautology leaves to reality the whole A tautology leaves open to reality
keit den ganzen—unendlichen—logisch- inﬁnite logical space; contradiction ﬁlls the whole—the inﬁnite whole—of logical
en Raum; die Kontradiktion erfüllt den the whole logical space and leaves no space: a contradiction ﬁlls the whole of
ganzen logischen Raum und lässt der point to reality. Neither of them, there- logical space leaving no point of it for reWirklichkeit
keinen Punkt. Keine von bei- fore, can in any way determine reality. ality. Thus neither of them can determine
den kann daher die Wirklichkeit irgend- reality in any way.
wie bestimmen.
4.464 Die Wahrheit der Tautologie ist ge- The truth of tautology is certain, of A tautology’s truth is certain, a propowiss,
des Satzes möglich, der Kontradik- propositions possible, of contradiction im- sition’s possible, a contradiction’s impostion
unmöglich. possible. sible.
(Gewiss, möglich, unmöglich: Hier ha- (Certain, possible, impossible: here (Certain, possible, impossible: here
55
ben wir das Anzeichen jener Gradation, we have an indication of that gradation we have the ﬁrst indication of the scale
die wir in der Wahrscheinlichkeitslehre which we need in the theory of probabil- that we need in the theory of probability.)
brauchen.) ity.)
4.465 Das logische Produkt einer Tautolo- The logical product of a tautology and The logical product of a tautology and
gie und eines Satzes sagt dasselbe, wie a proposition says the same as the propo- a proposition says the same thing as the
der Satz. Also ist jenes Produkt identisch sition. Therefore that product is identical proposition. This product, therefore, is
mit dem Satz. Denn man kann das We- with the proposition. For the essence of identical with the proposition. For it is
sentliche des Symbols nicht ändern, ohne the symbol cannot be altered without al- impossible to alter what is essential to a
seinen Sinn zu ändern. tering its sense. symbol without altering its sense.
4.466 Einer bestimmten logischen Verbin- To a deﬁnite logical combination of What corresponds to a determinate
dung von Zeichen entspricht eine be- signs corresponds a deﬁnite logical combi- logical combination of signs is a determistimmte
logische Verbindung ihrer Be- nation of their meanings; every arbitrary nate logical combination of their meandeutungen;
j e d e b e l i e b i g e Verbin- combination only corresponds to the un- ings. It is only to the uncombined signs
dung entspricht nur den unverbundenen connected signs. that absolutely any combination correZeichen.
sponds.
Das heißt, Sätze, die für jede Sachlage That is, propositions which are true In other words, propositions that are
wahr sind, können überhaupt keine Zei- for every state of affairs cannot be combi- true for every situation cannot be combichenverbindungen
sein, denn sonst könn- nations of signs at all, for otherwise there nations of signs at all, since, if they were,
ten ihnen nur bestimmte Verbindungen could only correspond to them deﬁnite only determinate combinations of objects
von Gegenständen entsprechen. combinations of objects. could correspond to them.
(Und keiner logischen Verbindung ent- (And to no logical combination corre- (And what is not a logical combination
spricht k e i n e Verbindung der Gegen- sponds no combination of the objects.) has no combination of objects correspondstände.)
ing to it.)
Tautologie und Kontradiktion sind die Tautology and contradiction are the Tautology and contradiction are the
Grenzfälle der Zeichenverbindung, näm- limiting cases of the combination of sym- limiting cases—indeed the disintegralich
ihre Auﬂösung. bols, namely their dissolution. tion—of the combination of signs.
4.4661 Freilich sind auch in der Tautologie Of course the signs are also combined Admittedly the signs are still comund
Kontradiktion die Zeichen noch mit with one another in the tautology and con- bined with one another even in tautoloeinander
verbunden, d. h. sie stehen tradiction, i.e. they stand in relations to gies and contradictions—i.e. they stand
in Beziehungen zu einander, aber die- one another, but these relations are mean- in certain relations to one another: but
se Beziehungen sind bedeutungslos, dem ingless, unessential to the symbol. these relations have no meaning, they are
S y m b o l unwesentlich. not essential to the symbol.
4.5 Nun scheint es möglich zu sein, die all- Now it appears to be possible to give It now seems possible to give the most
gemeinste Satzform anzugeben: das heißt, the most general form of proposition; i.e. general propositional form: that is, to
eine Beschreibung der Sätze i r g e n d to give a description of the propositions give a description of the propositions of
e i n e r Zeichensprache zu geben, so dass of some one sign language, so that every any sign-language whatsoever in such a
jeder mögliche Sinn durch ein Symbol, possible sense can be expressed by a sym- way that every possible sense can be ex-
56
auf welches die Beschreibung passt, aus- bol, which falls under the description, and pressed by a symbol satisfying the degedrückt
werden kann, und dass jedes so that every symbol which falls under scription, and every symbol satisfying the
Symbol, worauf die Beschreibung passt, the description can express a sense, if the description can express a sense, provided
einen Sinn ausdrücken kann, wenn die meanings of the names are chosen accord- that the meanings of the names are suitBedeutungen
der Namen entsprechend ingly. ably chosen.
gewählt werden.
Es ist klar, dass bei der Beschreibung It is clear that in the description of It is clear that only what is essential
der allgemeinsten Satzform n u r ihr the most general form of proposition only to the most general propositional form
Wesentliches beschrieben werden darf,— what is essential to it may be described— may be included in its description—for
sonst wäre sie nämlich nicht die allge- otherwise it would not be the most gen- otherwise it would not be the most genmeinste.
eral form. eral form.
Dass es eine allgemeine Satzform gibt, That there is a general form is proved The existence of a general proposiwird
dadurch bewiesen, dass es keinen by the fact that there cannot be a propo- tional form is proved by the fact that
Satz geben darf, dessen Form man nicht sition whose form could not have been there cannot be a proposition whose form
hätte voraussehen (d. h. konstruieren) foreseen (i.e. constructed). The general could not have been foreseen (i.e. conkönnen.
Die allgemeine Form des Satzes form of proposition is: Such and such is structed). The general form of a propoist:
Es verhält sich so und so. the case. sition is: This is how things stand.
4.51 Angenommen, mir wären a l l e Ele- Suppose all elementary propositions Suppose that I am given all elemenmentarsätze
gegeben: Dann lässt sich ein- were given me: then we can simply ask: tary propositions: then I can simply ask
fach fragen: Welche Sätze kann ich aus what propositions I can build out of them. what propositions I can construct out of
ihnen bilden? Und das sind a l l e Sätze And these are all propositions and so are them. And there I have all propositions,
und s o sind sie begrenzt. they limited. and that ﬁxes their limits.
4.52 Die Sätze sind alles, was aus der Ge- The propositions are everything which Propositions comprise all that follows
samtheit aller Elementarsätze folgt (na- follows from the totality of all elementary from the totality of all elementary propotürlich
auch daraus, dass es die G e - propositions (of course also from the fact sitions (and, of course, from its being the
s a m t h e i t a l l e r ist). (So könnte that it is the totality of them all). (So, in totality of them all). (Thus, in a certain
man in gewissem Sinne sagen, dass a l l e some sense, one could say, that all propo- sense, it could be said that all proposiSätze
Verallgemeinerungen der Elemen- sitions are generalizations of the elemen- tions were generalizations of elementary
tarsätze sind.) tary propositions.) propositions.)
4.53 Die allgemeine Satzform ist eine Va- The general proposition form is a vari- The general propositional form is a
riable. able. variable.
5 Der Satz ist eine Wahrheitsfunktion Propositions are truth-functions of el- A proposition is a truth-function of elder
Elementarsätze. ementary propositions. ementary propositions.
(Der Elementarsatz ist eine Wahr- (An elementary proposition is a truth- (An elementary proposition is a truthheitsfunktion
seiner selbst.) function of itself.) function of itself.)
5.01 Die Elementarsätze sind die Wahr- The elementary propositions are the Elementary propositions are the
heitsargumente des Satzes. truth-arguments of propositions. truth-arguments of propositions.
57
5.02 Es liegt nahe, die Argumente von It is natural to confuse the arguments The arguments of functions are readFunktionen
mit den Indices von Namen of functions with the indices of names. ily confused with the afﬁxes of names. For
zu verwechseln. Ich erkenne nämlich so- For I recognize the meaning of the sign both arguments and afﬁxes enable me to
wohl am Argument wie am Index die Be- containing it from the argument just as recognize the meaning of the signs condeutung
des sie enthaltenden Zeichens. much as from the index. taining them.
In Russells „+c“ ist z.B. „c“ ein Index, In Russell’s “+c”, for example, “c” is For example, when Russell writes ‘+c’,
der darauf hinweist, dass das ganze Zei- an index which indicates that the whole the ‘c’ is an afﬁx which indicates that the
chen das Additionszeichen für Kardinal- sign is the addition sign for cardinal num- sign as a whole is the addition-sign for carzahlen
ist. Aber diese Bezeichnung be- bers. But this way of symbolizing depends dinal numbers. But the use of this sign
ruht auf willkürlicher Übereinkunft und on arbitrary agreement, and one could is the result of arbitrary convention and
man könnte statt „+c“ auch ein einfaches choose a simple sign instead of “+c”: but it would be quite possible to choose a simZeichen
wählen; in „∼p“ aber ist „p“ kein in “∼p” “p” is not an index but an argu- ple sign instead of ‘+c’; in ‘∼p’, however,
Index, sondern ein Argument: der Sinn ment; the sense of “∼p” cannot be under- ‘p’ is not an afﬁx but an argument: the
von „∼p“ k a n n n i c h t verstanden wer- stood, unless the sense of “p” has pre- sense of ‘∼p’ cannot be understood unless
den, ohne dass vorher der Sinn von „p“ viously been understood. (In the name the sense of ‘p’ has been understood alverstanden
worden wäre. (Im Namen Ju- Julius Cæsar, Julius is an index. The in- ready. (In the name Julius Caesar ‘Julius’
lius Cäsar ist „Julius“ ein Index. Der In- dex is always part of a description of the is an afﬁx. An afﬁx is always part of a
dex ist immer ein Teil einer Beschreibung object to whose name we attach it, e.g. description of the object to whose name
des Gegenstandes, dessen Namen wir ihn The Cæsar of the Julian gens.) we attach it: e.g. the Caesar of the Julian
anhängen. Z. B. d e r Cäsar aus dem Ge- gens.)
schlechte der Julier.)
Die Verwechslung von Argument und The confusion of argument and index If I am not mistaken, Frege’s theory
Index liegt, wenn ich mich nicht irre, der is, if I am not mistaken, at the root of about the meaning of propositions and
Theorie Freges von der Bedeutung der Frege’s theory of the meaning of proposi- functions is based on the confusion beSätze
und Funktionen zugrunde. Für Fre- tions and functions. For Frege the propo- tween an argument and an afﬁx. Frege rege
waren die Sätze der Logik Namen, und sitions of logic were names and their ar- garded the propositions of logic as names,
deren Argumente die Indices dieser Na- guments the indices of these names. and their arguments as the afﬁxes of
men. those names.
5.1 Die Wahrheitsfunktionen lassen sich The truth-functions can be ordered in Truth-functions can be arranged in
in Reihen ordnen. series. series.
Das ist die Grundlage der Wahrschein- That is the foundation of the theory of That is the foundation of the theory of
lichkeitslehre. probability. probability.
5.101 Die Wahrheitsfunktionen jeder An- The truth-functions of every number The truth-functions of a given number
zahl von Elementarsätzen lassen sich in of elementary propositions can be written of elementary propositions can always be
einem Schema folgender Art hinschrei- in a schema of the following kind: set out in a schema of the following kind:
ben:
58
(WWWW) (p, q) Tautologie (Wenn p, so p; und wenn q, so q.)
(p ⊃ p . q ⊃ q)
(F WWW) (p, q) in Worten: Nicht beides p und q. (∼(p . q))
(W F WW) (p, q) ” ” Wenn q, so p. (q ⊃ p)
(WW F W) (p, q) ” ” Wenn p, so q. (p ⊃ q)
(WWW F) (p, q) ” ” p oder q. (p ∨ q)
(F F WW) (p, q) ” ” Nicht q. (∼q)
(F W F W) (p, q) ” ” Nicht p. (∼p)
(F WW F) (p, q) ” ” p, oder q, aber nicht beide.
(p . ∼q :∨: q . ∼p)
(W F F W) (p, q) ” ” Wenn p, so q; und wenn q, so p.
(p ≡ q)
(W F W F) (p, q) ” ” p
(WW F F) (p, q) ” ” q
(F F F W) (p, q) ” ” Weder p noch q.
(∼p . ∼q) oder (p | q)
(F F W F) (p, q) ” ” p und nicht q. (p . ∼q)
(F W F F) (p, q) ” ” q und nicht p. (q . ∼p)
(W F F F) (p, q) ” ” q und p. (q . p)
(F F F F) (p, q) Kontradiktion (p und nicht p; und
q und nicht q.) (p . ∼p . q . ∼q)
(TTTT) (p, q) Tautology (if p then p; and if q then q)
[p ⊃ p . q ⊃ q]
(FTTT) (p, q) in words: Not both p and q. [∼(p . q)]
(TFTT) (p, q) ” ” If q then p. [q ⊃ p]
(TTFT) (p, q) ” ” If p then q. [p ⊃ q]
(TTTF) (p, q) ” ” p or q. [p ∨ q]
(FFTT) (p, q) ” ” Not q. [∼q]
(FTFT) (p, q) ” ” Not p. [∼p]
(FTTF) (p, q) ” ” p or q, but not both.
[p . ∼q :∨: q . ∼p]
(TFFT) (p, q) ” ” If p, then q; and if q, then p.
[p ≡ q]
(TFTF) (p, q) ” ” p
(TTFF) (p, q) ” ” q
(FFFT) (p, q) ” ” Neither p nor q.
[∼p . ∼q or p | q]
(FFTF) (p, q) ” ” p and not q. [p . ∼q]
(FTFF) (p, q) ” ” q and not p. [q . ∼p]
(TFFF) (p, q) ” ” p and q. [p . q]
(FFFF) (p, q) Contradiction (p and not p; and
q and not q.) [p . ∼p . q . ∼q]
(TTTT) (p, q) Tautology (If p then p; and if q then q.)
(p ⊃ p . q ⊃ q)
(FTTT) (p, q) In words: Not both p and q. (∼(p . q))
(TFTT) (p, q) ” ” : If q then p. (q ⊃ p)
(TTFT) (p, q) ” ” : If p then q. (p ⊃ q)
(TTTF) (p, q) ” ” : p or q. (p ∨ q)
(FFTT) (p, q) ” ” : Not q. (∼q)
(FTFT) (p, q) ” ” : Not p. (∼p)
(FTTF) (p, q) ” ” : p or q, but not both.
(p . ∼q :∨: q . ∼p)
(TFFT) (p, q) ” ” : If p then q, and if q then p.
(p ≡ q)
(TFTF) (p, q) ” ” : p
(TTFF) (p, q) ” ” q
(FFFT) (p, q) ” ” : Neither p nor q.
(∼p . ∼q or p | q)
(FFTF) (p, q) ” ” : p and not q. (p . ∼q)
(FTFF) (p, q) ” ” : q and not p. (q . ∼p)
(TFFF) (p, q) ” ” : q and p. (q . p)
(FFFF) (p, q) Contradiction (p and not p, and
q and not q.) (p . ∼p . q . ∼q)
Diejenigen Wahrheitsmöglichkeiten Those truth-possibilities of its truth- I will give the name truth-grounds of
seiner Wahrheitsargumente, welche den arguments, which verify the proposition, a proposition to those truth-possibilities
Satz bewahrheiten, will ich seine W a h r - I shall call its truth-grounds. of its truth-arguments that make it true.
h e i t s g r ü n d e nennen.
5.11 Sind die Wahrheitsgründe, die ei- If the truth-grounds which are com- If all the truth-grounds that are comner
Anzahl von Sätzen gemeinsam sind, mon to a number of propositions are all mon to a number of propositions are at
sämtlich auch Wahrheitsgründe eines be- also truth-grounds of some one proposi- the same time truth-grounds of a certain
stimmten Satzes, so sagen wir, die Wahr- tion, we say that the truth of this proposi- proposition, then we say that the truth of
heit dieses Satzes folge aus der Wahrheit tion follows from the truth of those propo- that proposition follows from the truth of
jener Sätze. sitions. the others.
5.12 Insbesondere folgt die Wahrheit eines In particular the truth of a proposition In particular, the truth of a proposiSatzes
„p“ aus der Wahrheit eines an- p follows from that of a proposition q, if tion ‘p’ follows from the truth of another
deren „q“, wenn alle Wahrheitsgründe all the truth-grounds of the second are proposition ‘q’ if all the truth-grounds of
des zweiten Wahrheitsgründe des ersten truth-grounds of the ﬁrst. the latter are truth-grounds of the former.
sind.
5.121 Die Wahrheitsgründe des einen sind The truth-grounds of q are contained The truth-grounds of the one are conin
denen des anderen enthalten; p folgt in those of p; p follows from q. tained in those of the other: p follows
aus q. from q.
5.122 Folgt p aus q, so ist der Sinn von „p“ If p follows from q, the sense of “p” is If p follows from q, the sense of ‘p’ is
im Sinne von „q“ enthalten. contained in that of “q”. contained in the sense of ‘q’.
5.123 Wenn ein Gott eine Welt erschafft, If a god creates a world in which cer- If a god creates a world in which cerworin
gewisse Sätze wahr sind, so schafft tain propositions are true, he creates tain propositions are true, then by that
59
er damit auch schon eine Welt, in welcher thereby also a world in which all proposi- very act he also creates a world in which
alle ihre Folgesätze stimmen. Und ähn- tions consequent on them are true. And all the propositions that follow from them
lich könnte er keine Welt schaffen, worin similarly he could not create a world in come true. And similarly he could not creder
Satz „p“ wahr ist, ohne seine sämtli- which the proposition “p” is true without ate a world in which the proposition ‘p’
chen Gegenstände zu schaffen. creating all its objects. was true without creating all its objects.
5.124 Der Satz bejaht jeden Satz, der aus A proposition asserts every proposi- A proposition afﬁrms every proposiihm
folgt. tion which follows from it. tion that follows from it.
5.1241 „p . q“ ist einer der Sätze, welche „p“ “p . q” is one of the propositions which ‘p . q’ is one of the propositions that
bejahen, und zugleich einer der Sätze, assert “p” and at the same time one of the afﬁrm ‘p’ and at the same time one of the
welche „q“ bejahen. propositions which assert “q”. propositions that afﬁrm ‘q’.
Zwei Sätze sind einander entgegen- Two propositions are opposed to one Two propositions are opposed to one
gesetzt, wenn es keinen sinnvollen Satz another if there is no signiﬁcant proposi- another if there is no proposition with a
gibt, der sie beide bejaht. tion which asserts them both. sense, that afﬁrms them both.
Jeder Satz der einem anderen wider- Every proposition which contradicts Every proposition that contradicts anspricht,
verneint ihn. another, denies it. other negates it.
5.13 Dass die Wahrheit eines Satzes aus That the truth of one proposition fol- When the truth of one proposition folder
Wahrheit anderer Sätze folgt, ersehen lows from the truth of other propositions, lows from the truth of others, we can see
wir aus der Struktur der Sätze. we perceive from the structure of the this from the structure of the proposipropositions.
tions.
5.131 Folgt die Wahrheit eines Satzes aus If the truth of one proposition follows If the truth of one proposition follows
der Wahrheit anderer, so drückt sich dies from the truth of others, this expresses from the truth of others, this ﬁnds expresdurch
Beziehungen aus, in welchen die itself in relations in which the forms of sion in relations in which the forms of the
Formen jener Sätze zu einander stehen; these propositions stand to one another, propositions stand to one another: nor is
und zwar brauchen wir sie nicht erst in and we do not need to put them in these it necessary for us to set up these relajene
Beziehungen zu setzen, indem wir relations ﬁrst by connecting them with tions between them, by combining them
sie in einem Satz miteinander verbinden, one another in a proposition; for these re- with one another in a single proposition;
sondern diese Beziehungen sind intern lations are internal, and exist as soon as, on the contrary, the relations are interund
bestehen, sobald, und dadurch dass, and by the very fact that, the propositions nal, and their existence is an immediate
jene Sätze bestehen. exist. result of the existence of the propositions.
5.1311 Wenn wir von p ∨ q und ∼p auf q When we conclude from p ∨ q and ∼p When we infer q from p ∨ q and ∼p,
schließen, so ist hier durch die Bezeich- to q the relation between the forms of the relation between the propositional
nungsweise die Beziehung der Satzfor- the propositions “p ∨ q” and “∼p” is here forms of ‘p∨ q’ and ‘∼p’ is masked, in this
men von „p∨q“ und „∼p“ verhüllt. Schrei- concealed by the method of symbolizing. case, by our mode of signifying. But if
ben wir aber z. B. statt „p ∨ q“ „p | q .|. p | But if we write, e.g. instead of “p ∨ q” instead of ‘p ∨ q’ we write, for example,
q“ und statt „∼p“ „p | p“ (p | q = weder p, “p | q .|. p | q” and instead of “∼p” “p | p” ‘p | q .|. p | q’, and instead of ‘∼p’, ‘p | p’
noch q), so wird der innere Zusammen- (p | q = neither p nor q), then the inner (p | q = neither p nor q), then the inner
hang offenbar. connexion becomes obvious. connexion becomes obvious.
60
(Dass man aus (x). fx auf fa schließen (The fact that we can infer fa from (The possibility of inference from
kann, das zeigt, dass die Allgemeinheit (x). fx shows that generality is present (x). fx to fa shows that the symbol (x). fx
auch im Symbol „(x). fx“ vorhanden ist.) also in the symbol “(x). fx”. itself has generality in it.)
5.132 Folgt p aus q, so kann ich von q auf p If p follows from q, I can conclude If p follows from q, I can make an
schließen; p aus q folgern. from q to p; infer p from q. inference from q to p, deduce p from q.
Die Art des Schlusses ist allein aus The method of inference is to be un- The nature of the inference can be
den beiden Sätzen zu entnehmen. derstood from the two propositions alone. gathered only from the two propositions.
Nur sie selbst können den Schluss Only they themselves can justify the They themselves are the only possible
rechtfertigen. inference. justiﬁcation of the inference.
„Schlussgesetze“, welche—wie bei Fre- Laws of inference, which—as in Frege ‘Laws of inference’, which are supge
und Russell—die Schlüsse rechtferti- and Russell—are to justify the conclu- posed to justify inferences, as in the
gen sollen, sind sinnlos, und wären über- sions, are senseless and would be super- works of Frege and Russell, have no sense,
ﬂüssig. ﬂuous. and would be superﬂuous.
5.133 Alles Folgern geschieht a priori. All inference takes place a priori. All deductions are made a priori.
5.134 Aus einem Elementarsatz lässt sich From an elementary proposition no One elementary proposition cannot be
kein anderer folgern. other can be inferred. deduced form another.
5.135 Auf keine Weise kann aus dem Beste- In no way can an inference be made There is no possible way of making an
hen irgend einer Sachlage auf das Beste- from the existence of one state of affairs to inference from the existence of one situahen
einer von ihr gänzlich verschiedenen the existence of another entirely different tion to the existence of another, entirely
Sachlage geschlossen werden. from it. different situation.
5.136 Einen Kausalnexus, der einen solchen There is no causal nexus which justi- There is no causal nexus to justify
Schluss rechtfertigte, gibt es nicht. ﬁes such an inference. such an inference.
5.1361 Die Ereignisse der Zukunft k ö n n e n The events of the future cannot be in- We cannot infer the events of the fuwir
nicht aus den gegenwärtigen erschlie- ferred from those of the present. ture from those of the present.
ßen.
Der Glaube an den Kausalnexus ist Superstition is the belief in the causal Belief in the causal nexus is superstider
A b e r g l a u b e. nexus. tion.
5.1362 Die Willensfreiheit besteht darin, The freedom of the will consists in The freedom of the will consists in the
dass zukünftige Handlungen jetzt nicht the fact that future actions cannot be impossibility of knowing actions that still
gewusst werden können. Nur dann könn- known now. We could only know them lie in the future. We could know them
ten wir sie wissen, wenn die Kausalität if causality were an inner necessity, like only if causality were an inner necessity
eine i n n e r e Notwendigkeit wäre, wie that of logical deduction.—The connexion like that of logical inference.—The condie
des logischen Schlusses.—Der Zusam- of knowledge and what is known is that nexion between knowledge and what is
menhang von Wissen und Gewusstem ist of logical necessity. known is that of logical necessity.
der der logischen Notwendigkeit.
(„A weiß, dass p der Fall ist“ ist sinn- (“A knows that p is the case” is sense- (‘A knows that p is the case’, has no
los, wenn p eine Tautologie ist.) less if p is a tautology.) sense if p is a tautology.)
61
5.1363 Wenn daraus, dass ein Satz uns ein- If from the fact that a proposition is If the truth of a proposition does not
leuchtet, nicht f o l g t, dass er wahr ist, obvious to us it does not follow that it is follow from the fact that it is self-evident
so ist das Einleuchten auch keine Recht- true, then obviousness is no justiﬁcation to us, then its self-evidence in no way jusfertigung
für unseren Glauben an seine for our belief in its truth. tiﬁes our belief in its truth.
Wahrheit.
5.14 Folgt ein Satz aus einem anderen, so If a proposition follows from another, If one proposition follows from ansagt
dieser mehr als jener, jener weniger then the latter says more than the former, other, then the latter says more than the
als dieser. the former less than the latter. former, and the former less than the lat-
ter.
5.141 Folgt p aus q und q aus p, so sind sie If p follows from q and q from p then If p follows from q and q from p, then
ein und derselbe Satz. they are one and the same proposition. they are one and the same proposition.
5.142 Die Tautologie folgt aus allen Sätzen: A tautology follows from all proposi- A tautology follows from all proposisie
sagt nichts. tions: it says nothing. tions: it says nothing.
5.143 Die Kontradiktion ist das Gemeinsa- Contradiction is something shared by Contradiction is that common factor
me der Sätze, was k e i n Satz mit ei- propositions, which no proposition has of propositions which no proposition has
nem anderen gemein hat. Die Tautologie in common with another. Tautology is in common with another. Tautology is
ist das Gemeinsame aller Sätze, welche that which is shared by all propositions, the common factor of all propositions that
nichts miteinander gemein haben. which have nothing in common with one have nothing in common with one ananother.
other.
Die Kontradiktion verschwindet so- Contradiction vanishes so to speak Contradiction, one might say, vanzusagen
außerhalb, die Tautologie inner- outside, tautology inside all propositions. ishes outside all propositions: tautology
halb aller Sätze. vanishes inside them.
Die Kontradiktion ist die äußere Gren- Contradiction is the external limit Contradiction is the outer limit of
ze der Sätze, die Tautologie ihr substanz- of the propositions, tautology their sub- propositions: tautology is the unsubstanloser
Mittelpunkt. stanceless centre. tial point at their centre.
5.15 Ist Wr die Anzahl der Wahrheitsgrün- If Tr is the number of the truth- If Tr is the number of the truthde
des Satzes „r“, Wrs die Anzahl derjeni- grounds of the proposition “r”, Trs the grounds of a proposition ‘r’, and if Trs
gen Wahrheitsgründe des Satzes „s“, die number of those truth-grounds of the is the number of the truth-grounds of a
zugleich Wahrheitsgründe von „r“ sind, proposition “s” which are at the same proposition ‘s’ that are at the same time
dann nennen wir das Verhältnis: Wrs : time truth-grounds of “r”, then we call truth-grounds of ‘r’, then we call the ratio
Wr das Maß der W a h r s c h e i n l i c h - the ratio Trs : Tr the measure of the prob- Trs : Tr the degree of probability that the
k e i t, welche der Satz „r“ dem Satz „s“ ability which the proposition “r” gives to proposition ‘r’ gives to the proposition ‘s’.
gibt. the proposition “s”.
5.151 Sei in einem Schema wie dem obigen Suppose in a schema like that above In a schema like the one above in
in No. 5.101 Wr die Anzahl der „W“ im in No. 5.101 Tr is the number of the “T” ’s 5.101, let Tr be the number of ‘T’s’ in the
Satze r; Wrs die Anzahl derjenigen „W“ in the proposition r, Trs the number of proposition r, and let Trs, be the number
im Satze s, die in gleichen Kolonnen mit those “T” ’s in the proposition s, which of ‘T’s’ in the proposition s that stand in
62
„W“ des Satzes r stehen. Der Satz r gibt stand in the same columns as “T” ’s of columns in which the proposition r has
dann dem Satze s die Wahrscheinlichkeit: the proposition r; then the proposition r ‘T’s’. Then the proposition r gives to the
Wrs : Wr. gives to the proposition s the probability proposition s the probability Trs : Tr.
Trs : Tr.
5.1511 Es gibt keinen besonderen Gegen- There is no special object peculiar to There is no special object peculiar to
stand, der den Wahrscheinlichkeitssätzen probability propositions. probability propositions.
eigen wäre.
5.152 Sätze, welche keine Wahrheitsargu- Propositions which have no truth- When propositions have no truthmente
mit einander gemein haben, nen- arguments in common with one another arguments in common with one another,
nen wir von einander unabhängig. we call independent. we call them independent of one another.
Zwei Elementarsätze geben einander Independent propositions (e.g. any two Two elementary propositions give one
die Wahrscheinlichkeit 1
2. elementary propositions) give to one an- another the probability 1
2.
other the probability 1
2.
Folgt p aus q, so gibt der Satz „q“ dem If p follows from q, the proposition q If p follows from q, then the propoSatz
„p“ die Wahrscheinlichkeit 1. Die gives to the proposition p the probability sition ‘q’ gives to the proposition ‘p’ the
Gewissheit des logischen Schlusses ist ein 1. The certainty of logical conclusion is a probability 1. The certainty of logical inGrenzfall
der Wahrscheinlichkeit. limiting case of probability. ference is a limiting case of probability.
(Anwendung auf Tautologie und Kon- (Application to tautology and contra- (Application of this to tautology and
tradiktion.) diction.) contradiction.)
5.153 Ein Satz ist an sich weder wahrschein- A proposition is in itself neither prob- In itself, a proposition is neither problich
noch unwahrscheinlich. Ein Ereignis able nor improbable. An event occurs or able nor improbable. Either an event octrifft
ein, oder es trifft nicht ein, ein Mit- does not occur, there is no middle course. curs or it does not: there is no middle
telding gibt es nicht. way.
5.154 In einer Urne seien gleichviel weiße In an urn there are equal numbers of Suppose that an urn contains black
und schwarze Kugeln (und keine ande- white and black balls (and no others). I and white balls in equal numbers (and
ren). Ich ziehe eine Kugel nach der ande- draw one ball after another and put them none of any other kind). I draw one ball
ren und lege sie wieder in die Urne zu- back in the urn. Then I can determine by after another, putting them back into the
rück. Dann kann ich durch den Versuch the experiment that the numbers of the urn. By this experiment I can establish
feststellen, dass sich die Zahlen der gezo- black and white balls which are drawn that the number of black balls drawn and
genen schwarzen und weißen Kugeln bei approximate as the drawing continues. the number of white balls drawn approxifortgesetztem
Ziehen einander nähern. mate to one another as the draw contin-
ues.
D a s ist also kein mathematisches So this is not a mathematical fact. So this is not a mathematical truth.
Faktum.
Wenn ich nun sage: Es ist gleich wahr- If then, I say, It is equally probable Now, if I say, ‘The probability of my
scheinlich, dass ich eine weiße Kugel wie that I should draw a white and a black drawing a white ball is equal to the probeine
schwarze ziehen werde, so heißt das: ball, this means, All the circumstances ability of my drawing a black one’, this
63
Alle mir bekannten Umstände (die hy- known to me (including the natural laws means that all the circumstances that I
pothetisch angenommenen Naturgesetze hypothetically assumed) give to the occur- know of (including the laws of nature asmitinbegriffen)
geben dem Eintreffen des rence of the one event no more probability sumed as hypotheses) give no more probeinen
Ereignisses nicht m e h r Wahr- than to the occurrence of the other. That ability to the occurrence of the one event
scheinlichkeit als dem Eintreffen des an- is they give—as can easily be understood than to that of the other. That is to say,
deren. Das heißt, sie geben—wie aus den from the above explanations—to each the they give each the probability 1
2, as can
obigen Erklärungen leicht zu entnehmen probability 1
2. easily be gathered from the above deﬁniist—jedem
die Wahrscheinlichkeit 1
2. tions.
Was ich durch den Versuch bestätige What I can verify by the experiment What I conﬁrm by the experiment is
ist, dass das Eintreffen der beiden Ereig- is that the occurrence of the two events that the occurrence of the two events is innisse
von den Umständen, die ich nicht is independent of the circumstances with dependent of the circumstances of which
näher kenne, unabhängig ist. which I have no closer acquaintance. I have no more detailed knowledge.
5.155 Die Einheit des Wahrscheinlichkeits- The unit of the probability proposition The minimal unit for a probability
satzes ist: Die Umstände—die ich sonst is: The circumstances—with which I am proposition is this: The circumstances—
nicht weiter kenne—geben dem Eintref- not further acquainted—give to the occur- of which I have no further knowledge—
fen eines bestimmten Ereignisses den rence of a deﬁnite event such and such a give such and such a degree of probability
und den Grad der Wahrscheinlichkeit. degree of probability. to the occurrence of a particular event.
5.156 So ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit eine Ver- Probability is a generalization. It is in this way that probability is a
allgemeinerung. generalization.
Sie involviert eine allgemeine Be- It involves a general description of a It involves a general description of a
schreibung einer Satzform. propositional form. propositional form.
Nur in Ermanglung der Gewissheit Only in default of certainty do we need We use probability only in default of
gebrauchen wir die Wahrscheinlichkeit.— probability. If we are not completely ac- certainty—if our knowledge of a fact is
Wenn wir zwar eine Tatsache nicht voll- quainted with a fact, but know something not indeed complete, but we do know
kommen kennen, wohl aber e t w a s über about its form. something about its form.
ihre Form wissen.
(Ein Satz kann zwar ein unvollstän- (A proposition can, indeed, be an in- (A proposition may well be an incomdiges
Bild einer gewissen Sachlage sein, complete picture of a certain state of af- plete picture of a certain situation, but
aber er ist immer e i n vollständiges fairs, but it is always a complete picture.) it is always a complete picture of someBild.)
thing.)
Der Wahrscheinlichkeitssatz ist The probability proposition is, as it A probability proposition is a sort of
gleichsam ein Auszug aus anderen Sätz- were, an extract from other propositions. excerpt from other propositions.
en.
5.2 Die Strukturen der Sätze stehen in The structures of propositions stand The structures of propositions stand
internen Beziehungen zu einander. to one another in internal relations. in internal relations to one another.
5.21 Wir können diese internen Beziehun- We can bring out these internal re- In order to give prominence to these
gen dadurch in unserer Ausdrucksweise lations in our manner of expression, by internal relations we can adopt the follow-
64
hervorheben, dass wir einen Satz als Re- presenting a proposition as the result of ing mode of expression: we can represent
sultat einer Operation darstellen, die ihn an operation which produces it from other a proposition as the result of an operation
aus anderen Sätzen (den Basen der Ope- propositions (the bases of the operation). that produces it out of other propositions
ration) hervorbringt. (which are the bases of the operation).
5.22 Die Operation ist der Ausdruck einer The operation is the expression of a re- An operation is the expression of a reBeziehung
zwischen den Strukturen ih- lation between the structures of its result lation between the structures of its result
res Resultats und ihrer Basen. and its bases. and of its bases.
5.23 Die Operation ist das, was mit dem The operation is that which must hap- The operation is what has to be done
einen Satz geschehen muss, um aus ihm pen to a proposition in order to make an- to the one proposition in order to make
den anderen zu machen. other out of it. the other out of it.
5.231 Und das wird natürlich von ihren for- And that will naturally depend on And that will, of course, depend on
malen Eigenschaften, von der internen their formal properties, on the internal their formal properties, on the internal
Ähnlichkeit ihrer Formen abhängen. similarity of their forms. similarity of their forms.
5.232 Die interne Relation, die eine Reihe The internal relation which orders a The internal relation by which a series
ordnet, ist äquivalent mit der Operation, series is equivalent to the operation by is ordered is equivalent to the operation
durch welche ein Glied aus dem anderen which one term arises from another. that produces one term from another.
entsteht.
5.233 Die Operation kann erst dort auftre- The ﬁrst place in which an operation Operations cannot make their appearten,
wo ein Satz auf logisch bedeutungs- can occur is where a proposition arises ance before the point at which one propovolle
Weise aus einem anderen entsteht. from another in a logically signiﬁcant sition is generated out of another in a
Also dort, wo die logische Konstruktion way; i.e. where the logical construction logically meaningful way; i.e. the point at
des Satzes anfängt. of the proposition begins. which the logical construction of propositions
begins.
5.234 Die Wahrheitsfunktionen der Elemen- The truth-functions of elementary Truth-functions of elementary propotarsätze
sind Resultate von Operationen, proposition, are results of operations sitions are results of operations with eldie
die Elementarsätze als Basen haben. which have the elementary propositions ementary propositions as bases. (These
(Ich nenne diese Operationen Wahrheits- as bases. (I call these operations, truth- operations I call truth-operations.)
operationen.) operations.)
5.2341 Der Sinn einer Wahrheitsfunktion von The sense of a truth-function of p is a The sense of a truth-function of p is a
p ist eine Funktion des Sinnes von p. function of the sense of p. function of the sense of p.
Verneinung, logische Addition, logi- Denial, logical addition, logical multi- Negation, logical addition, logical mulsche
Multiplikation, etc., etc. sind Ope- plication, etc., etc., are operations. tiplication, etc. etc. are operations.
rationen.
(Die Verneinung verkehrt den Sinn (Denial reverses the sense of a propo- (Negation reverses the sense of a
des Satzes.) sition.) proposition.)
5.24 Die Operation zeigt sich in einer Va- An operation shows itself in a vari- An operation manifests itself in a variriablen;
sie zeigt, wie man von einer Form able; it shows how we can proceed from able; it shows how we can get from one
65
von Sätzen zu einer anderen gelangen one form of proposition to another. form of proposition to another.
kann.
Sie bringt den Unterschied der For- It gives expression to the difference It gives expression to the difference
men zum Ausdruck. between the forms. between the forms.
(Und das Gemeinsame zwischen den (And that which is common the the (And what the bases of an operation
Basen und dem Resultat der Operation bases, and the result of an operation, is and its result have in common is just the
sind eben die Basen.) the bases themselves.) bases themselves.)
5.241 Die Operation kennzeichnet keine The operation does not characterize An operation is not the mark of a form,
Form, sondern nur den Unterschied der a form but only the difference between but only of a difference between forms.
Formen. forms.
5.242 Dieselbe Operation, die „q“ aus „p“ The same operation which makes “q” The operation that produces ‘q’ from
macht, macht aus „q“ „r“ u. s. f. Dies kann from “p”, makes “r” from “q”, and so on. ‘p’ also produces ‘r’ from ‘q’, and so on.
nur darin ausgedrückt sein, dass „p“, „q“, This can only be expressed by the fact There is only one way of expressing this:
„r“, etc. Variable sind, die gewisse forma- that “p”, “q”, “r”, etc., are variables which ‘p’, ‘q’, ‘r’, etc. have to be variables that
le Relationen allgemein zum Ausdruck give general expression to certain formal give expression in a general way to cerbringen.
relations. tain formal relations.
5.25 Das Vorkommen der Operation cha- The occurrence of an operation does The occurrence of an operation does
rakterisiert den Sinn des Satzes nicht. not characterize the sense of a proposi- not characterize the sense of a proposition.
tion.
Die Operation sagt ja nichts aus, nur For an operation does not assert any- Indeed, no statement is made by an
ihr Resultat, und dies hängt von den Ba- thing; only its result does, and this de- operation, but only by its result, and this
sen der Operation ab. pends on the bases of the operation. depends on the bases of the operation.
(Operation und Funktion dürfen nicht (Operation and function must not be (Operations and functions must not
miteinander verwechselt werden.) confused with one another.) be confused with each other.)
5.251 Eine Funktion kann nicht ihr eigenes A function cannot be its own argu- A function cannot be its own arguArgument
sein, wohl aber kann das Re- ment, but the result of an operation can ment, whereas an operation can take one
sultat einer Operation ihre eigene Basis be its own basis. of its own results as its base.
werden.
5.252 Nur so ist das Fortschreiten von Glied Only in this way is the progress from It is only in this way that the step
zu Glied in einer Formenreihe (von Ty- term to term in a formal series possible from one term of a series of forms to anpe
zu Type in den Hierarchien Russells (from type to type in the hierarchy of Rus- other is possible (from one type to another
und Whiteheads) möglich. (Russell und sell and Whitehead). (Russell and White- in the hierarchies of Russell and WhiteWhitehead
haben die Möglichkeit dieses head have not admitted the possibility of head). (Russell and Whitehead did not
Fortschreitens nicht zugegeben, aber im- this progress but have made use of it all admit the possibility of such steps, but
mer wieder von ihr Gebrauch gemacht.) the same.) repeatedly availed themselves of it.)
5.2521 Die fortgesetzte Anwendung einer The repeated application of an opera- If an operation is applied repeatedly
Operation auf ihr eigenes Resultat tion to its own result I call its successive to its own results, I speak of successive
66
nenne ich ihre successive Anwendung application (“O’O’O’a” is the result of the applications of it. (‘O’O’O’a’ is the result
(„O’O’O’a“ ist das Resultat der dreima- threefold successive application of “O’ξ” of three successive applications of the opligen
successiven Anwendung von „O’ξ“ to “a”). eration ‘O’ξ’ to ‘a’.)
auf „a“).
In einem ähnlichen Sinne rede ich von In a similar sense I speak of the suc- In a similar sense I speak of succesder
successiven Anwendung m e h r e - cessive application of several operations sive applications of more than one operar
e r Operationen auf eine Anzahl von to a number of propositions. tion to a number of propositions.
Sätzen.
5.2522 Das allgemeine Glied einer Formen- The general term of the formal se- Accordingly I use the sign ‘[a, x, O’x]’
reihe a, O’a, O’O’a, ... schreibe ich da- ries a, O’a, O’O’a, .... I write thus: for the general term of the series of forms
her so: „[a, x, O’x]“. Dieser Klammeraus- “[a, x, O’x]”. This expression in brackets a, O’a, O’O’a, .... This bracketed expresdruck
ist eine Variable. Das erste Glied is a variable. The ﬁrst term of the expres- sion is a variable: the ﬁrst term of the
des Klammerausdruckes ist der Anfang sion is the beginning of the formal series, bracketed expression is the beginning of
der Formenreihe, das zweite die Form ei- the second the form of an arbitrary term the series of forms, the second is the form
nes beliebigen Gliedes x der Reihe und x of the series, and the third the form of of a term x arbitrarily selected from the
das dritte die Form desjenigen Gliedes that term of the series which immediately series, and the third is the form of the
der Reihe, welches auf x unmittelbar follows x. term that immediately follows x in the
folgt. series.
5.2523 Der Begriff der successiven Anwen- The concept of the successive applica- The concept of successive applications
dung der Operation ist äquivalent mit tion of an operation is equivalent to the of an operation is equivalent to the condem
Begriff „und so weiter“. concept “and so on”. cept ‘and so on’.
5.253 Eine Operation kann die Wirkung ei- One operation can reverse the effect One operation can counteract the efner
anderen rückgängig machen. Opera- of another. Operations can cancel one fect of another. Operations can cancel one
tionen können einander aufheben. another. another.
5.254 Die Operation kann verschwinden (z. Operations can vanish (e.g. denial in An operation can vanish (e.g. negation
B. die Verneinung in „∼∼p“: ∼∼p = p). “∼∼p”. ∼∼p = p). in ‘∼∼p’: ∼∼p = p).
5.3 Alle Sätze sind Resultate von Wahr- All propositions are results of truth- All propositions are results of truthheitsoperationen
mit den Elementarsät- operations on the elementary proposi- operations on elementary propositions.
zen. tions.
Die Wahrheitsoperation ist die Art The truth-operation is the way in A truth-operation is the way in which
und Weise, wie aus den Elementarsätzen which a truth-function arises from ele- a truth-function is produced out of eledie
Wahrheitsfunktion entsteht. mentary propositions. mentary propositions.
Nach dem Wesen der Wahrheitsope- According to the nature of truth- It is of the essence of truth-operations
ration wird auf die gleiche Weise, wie operations, in the same way as out of el- that, just as elementary propositions
aus den Elementarsätzen ihre Wahrheits- ementary propositions arise their truth- yield a truth-function of themselves, so
funktion, aus Wahrheitsfunktionen eine functions, from truth-functions arises a too in the same way truth-functions yield
neue. Jede Wahrheitsoperation erzeugt new one. Every truth-operation creates a further truth-function. When a truth-
67
aus Wahrheitsfunktionen von Elemen- from truth-functions of elementary propo- operation is applied to truth-functions of
tarsätzen wieder eine Wahrheitsfunkti- sitions, another truth-function of elemen- elementary propositions, it always generon
von Elementarsätzen, einen Satz. Das tary propositions i.e. a proposition. The ates another truth-function of elementary
Resultat jeder Wahrheitsoperation mit result of every truth-operation on the re- propositions, another proposition. When
den Resultaten von Wahrheitsoperatio- sults of truth-operations on elementary a truth-operation is applied to the results
nen mit Elementarsätzen ist wieder das propositions is also the result of one truth- of truth-operations on elementary propoResultat
E i n e r Wahrheitsoperation operation on elementary propositions. sitions, there is always a single operation
mit Elementarsätzen. on elementary propositions that has the
same result.
Jeder Satz ist das Resultat von Wahr- Every proposition is the result of Every proposition is the result of
heitsoperationen mit Elementarsätzen. truth-operations on elementary proposi- truth-operations on elementary propositions.
tions.
5.31 Die Schemata No. 4.31 haben auch The Schemata No. 4.31 are also signif- The schemata in 4.31 have a meaning
dann eine Bedeutung, wenn „p“, „q“, „r“, icant, if “p”, “q”, “r”, etc. are not elemen- even when ‘p’, ‘q’, ‘r’, etc. are not elemenetc.
nicht Elementarsätze sind. tary propositions. tary propositions.
Und es ist leicht zu sehen, dass das And it is easy to see that the propo- And it is easy to see that the propoSatzzeichen
in No. 4.442, auch wenn „p“ sitional sign in No. 4.442 expresses one sitional sign in 4.442 expresses a single
und „q“ Wahrheitsfunktionen von Ele- truth-function of elementary propositions truth-function of elementary propositions
mentarsätzen sind, Eine Wahrheitsfunk- even when “p” and “q” are truth-functions even when ‘p’ and ‘q’ are truth-functions
tion von Elementarsätzen ausdrückt. of elementary propositions. of elementary propositions.
5.32 Alle Wahrheitsfunktionen sind Resul- All truth-functions are results of the All truth-functions are results of suctate
der successiven Anwendung einer successive application of a ﬁnite number cessive applications to elementary propoendlichen
Anzahl von Wahrheitsoperatio- of truth-operations to elementary propo- sitions of a ﬁnite number of truthnen
auf die Elementarsätze. sitions. operations.
5.4 Hier zeigt es sich, dass es „logische Here it becomes clear that there are At this point it becomes manifest that
Gegenstände“, „logische Konstante“ (im no such things as “logical objects” or “logi- there are no ‘logical objects’ or ‘logical conSinne
Freges und Russells) nicht gibt. cal constants” (in the sense of Frege and stants’ (in Frege’s and Russell’s sense).
Russell).
5.41 Denn: Alle Resultate von Wahrheits- For all those results of truth-oper- The reason is that the results of truthoperationen
mit Wahrheitsfunktionen ations on truth-functions are identical, operations on truth-functions are always
sind identisch, welche eine und dieselbe which are one and the same truth-func- identical whenever they are one and the
Wahrheitsfunktion von Elementarsätzen tion of elementary propositions. same truth-function of elementary proposind.
sitions.
5.42 Dass ∨, ⊃, etc. nicht Beziehungen That ∨, ⊃, etc., are not relations in the It is self-evident that ∨, ⊃, etc. are not
im Sinne von rechts und links etc. sind, sense of right and left, etc., is obvious. relations in the sense in which right and
leuchtet ein. left etc. are relations.
Die Möglichkeit des kreuzweisen Deﬁ- The possibility of crosswise deﬁnition The interdeﬁnability of Frege’s and
68
nierens der logischen „Urzeichen“ Freges of the logical “primitive signs” of Frege Russell’s ‘primitive signs’ of logic is
und Russells zeigt schon, dass diese kei- and Russell shows by itself that these are enough to show that they are not primine
Urzeichen sind, und schon erst recht, not primitive signs and that they signify tive signs, still less signs for relations.
dass sie keine Relationen bezeichnen. no relations.
Und es ist offenbar, dass das „⊃“, wel- And it is obvious that the “⊃” which And it is obvious that the ‘⊃’ deﬁned
ches wir durch „∼“ und „∨“ deﬁnieren, we deﬁne by means of “∼” and “∨” is iden- by means of ‘∼’ and ‘∨’ is identical with
identisch ist mit dem, durch welches wir tical with that by which we deﬁne “∨” the one that ﬁgures with ‘∼’ in the def„∨“
mit „∼“ deﬁnieren, und dass dieses „∨“ with the help of “∼”, and that this “∨” is inition of ‘∨’; and that the second ‘∨’ is
mit dem ersten identisch ist. U. s. w. the same as the ﬁrst, and so on. identical with the ﬁrst one; and so on.
5.43 Dass aus einer Tatsache p unendlich That from a fact p an inﬁnite num- Even at ﬁrst sight it seems scarcely
viele a n d e r e folgen sollten, nämlich ber of others should follow, namely, ∼∼p, credible that there should follow from
∼∼p, ∼∼∼∼p, etc., ist doch von vornher- ∼∼∼∼p, etc., is indeed hardly to be be- one fact p inﬁnitely many others, namely
ein kaum zu glauben. Und nicht weniger lieved, and it is no less wonderful that the ∼∼p, ∼∼∼∼p, etc. And it is no less
merkwürdig ist, dass die unendliche An- inﬁnite number of propositions of logic (of remarkable that the inﬁnite number of
zahl der Sätze der Logik (der Mathema- mathematics) should follow from half a propositions of logic (mathematics) follow
tik) aus einem halben Dutzend „Grundge- dozen “primitive propositions”. from half a dozen ‘primitive propositions’.
setzen“ folgen.
Alle Sätze der Logik sagen aber das- But the propositions of logic say the But in fact all the propositions of logic
selbe. Nämlich nichts. same thing. That is, nothing. say the same thing, to wit nothing.
5.44 Die Wahrheitsfunktionen sind keine Truth-functions are not material func- Truth-functions are not material funcmateriellen
Funktionen. tions. tions.
Wenn man z. B. eine Bejahung durch If e.g. an afﬁrmation can be produced For example, an afﬁrmation can be
doppelte Verneinung erzeugen kann, ist by repeated denial, is the denial—in produced by double negation: in such a
dann die Verneinung—in irgend einem any sense—contained in the afﬁrmation? case does it follow that in some sense
Sinn—in der Bejahung enthalten? Ver- Does “∼∼p” deny ∼p, or does it afﬁrm p; negation is contained in afﬁrmation?
neint „∼∼p“ ∼p, oder bejaht es p; oder or both? Does ‘∼∼p’ negate ∼p, or does it afﬁrm
beides? p—or both?
Der Satz „∼∼p“ handelt nicht von der The proposition “∼∼p” does not treat The proposition ‘∼∼p’ is not about
Verneinung wie von einem Gegenstand; of denial as an object, but the possibility negation, as if negation were an object:
wohl aber ist die Möglichkeit der Ver- of denial is already prejudged in afﬁrma- on the other hand, the possibility of neganeinung
in der Bejahung bereits präju- tion. tion is already written into afﬁrmation.
diziert.
Und gäbe es einen Gegenstand, der And if there was an object called “∼”, And if there were an object called ‘∼’,
„∼“ hieße, so müsste „∼∼p“ etwas anderes then “∼∼p” would have to say something it would follow that ‘∼∼p’ said something
sagen als „p“. Denn der eine Satz wür- other than “p”. For the one proposition different from what ‘p’ said, just because
de dann eben von ∼ handeln, der andere would then treat of ∼, the other would the one proposition would then be about
nicht. not. ∼ and the other would not.
69
5.441 Dieses Verschwinden der scheinbaren This disappearance of the appar- This vanishing of the apparent loglogischen
Konstanten tritt auch ein, wenn ent logical constants also occurs if ical constants also occurs in the case
„∼(∃x).∼fx“ dasselbe sagt wie „(x). fx“, “∼(∃x).∼fx” says the same as “(x). fx”, or of ‘∼(∃x).∼fx’, which says the same as
oder „(∃x). fx . x = a“ dasselbe wie „fa“. “(∃x). fx . x = a” the same as “fa”. ‘(x). fx’, and in the case of ‘(∃x). fx . x = a’,
which says the same as ‘fa’.
5.442 Wenn uns ein Satz gegeben ist, so sind If a proposition is given to us then the If we are given a proposition, then
m i t i h m auch schon die Resultate aller results of all truth-operations which have with it we are also given the results of
Wahrheitsoperationen, die ihn zur Basis it as their basis are given with it. all truth-operations that have it as their
haben, gegeben. base.
5.45 Gibt es logische Urzeichen, so muss If there are logical primitive signs a If there are primitive logical signs,
eine richtige Logik ihre Stellung zuein- correct logic must make clear their posi- then any logic that fails to show clearly
ander klar machen und ihr Dasein recht- tion relative to one another and justify how they are placed relatively to one anfertigen.
Der Bau der Logik a u s ihren their existence. The construction of logic other and to justify their existence will be
Urzeichen muss klar werden. out of its primitive signs must become incorrect. The construction of logic out of
clear. its primitive signs must be made clear.
5.451 Hat die Logik Grundbegriffe, so müs- If logic has primitive ideas these must If logic has primitive ideas, they must
sen sie von einander unabhängig sein. Ist be independent of one another. If a prim- be independent of one another. If a primein
Grundbegriff eingeführt, so muss er itive idea is introduced it must be intro- itive idea has been introduced, it must
in allen Verbindungen eingeführt sein, duced in all contexts in which it occurs have been introduced in all the combinaworin
er überhaupt vorkommt. Man kann at all. One cannot therefore introduce tions in which it ever occurs. It cannot,
ihn also nicht zuerst für e i n e Verbin- it for one context and then again for an- therefore, be introduced ﬁrst for one comdung,
dann noch einmal für eine andere other. For example, if denial is introduced, bination and later reintroduced for aneinführen.
Z. B.: Ist die Verneinung ein- we must understand it in propositions of other. For example, once negation has
geführt, so müssen wir sie jetzt in Sätzen the form “∼p”, just as in propositions like been introduced, we must understand it
von der Form „∼p“ ebenso verstehen, wie “∼(p∨ q)”, “(∃x).∼fx” and others. We may both in propositions of the form ‘∼p’ and
in Sätzen wie „∼(p ∨ q)“, „(∃x).∼fx“ u. a. not ﬁrst introduce it for one class of cases in propositions like ‘∼(p ∨ q)’, ‘(∃x).∼fx’,
Wir dürfen sie nicht erst für die eine Klas- and then for another, for it would then etc. We must not introduce it ﬁrst for
se von Fällen, dann für die andere ein- remain doubtful whether its meaning in the one class of cases and then for the
führen, denn es bliebe dann zweifelhaft, the two cases was the same, and there other, since it would then be left in doubt
ob ihre Bedeutung in beiden Fällen die would be no reason to use the same way whether its meaning were the same in
gleiche wäre und es wäre kein Grund vor- of symbolizing in the two cases. both cases, and no reason would have
handen, in beiden Fällen dieselbe Art der been given for combining the signs in the
Zeichenverbindung zu benützen. same way in both cases.
(Kurz, für die Einführung der Ur- (In short, what Frege (“Grundgesetze (In short, Frege’s remarks about inzeichen
gilt, mutatis mutandis, dassel- der Arithmetik”) has said about the in- troducing signs by means of deﬁnitions
be, was Frege („Grundgesetze der Arith- troduction of signs by deﬁnitions holds, (in The Fundamental Laws of Arithmetic)
metik“) für die Einführung von Zeichen mutatis mutandis, for the introduction of also apply, mutatis mutandis, to the intro-
70
durch Deﬁnitionen gesagt hat.) primitive signs also.) duction of primitive signs.)
5.452 Die Einführung eines neuen Be- The introduction of a new expedient in The introduction of any new device
helfes in den Symbolismus der Logik the symbolism of logic must always be an into the symbolism of logic is necessarily
muss immer ein folgenschweres Ereig- event full of consequences. No new sym- a momentous event. In logic a new device
nis sein. Kein neuer Behelf darf in die bol may be introduced in logic in brackets should not be introduced in brackets or
Logik—sozusagen, mit ganz unschuldi- or in the margin—with, so to speak, an in a footnote with what one might call a
ger Miene—in Klammern oder unter dem entirely innocent face. completely innocent air.
Striche eingeführt werden.
(So kommen in den „Principia Mathe- (Thus in the “Principia Mathematica” (Thus in Russell and Whitehead’s
matica“ von Russell und Whitehead De- of Russell and Whitehead there occur Principia Mathematica there occur defﬁnitionen
und Grundgesetze in Worten deﬁnitions and primitive propositions in initions and primitive propositions exvor.
Warum hier plötzlich Worte? Dies be- words. Why suddenly words here? This pressed in words. Why this sudden apdürfte
einer Rechtfertigung. Sie fehlt und would need a justiﬁcation. There was pearance of words? It would require a
muss fehlen, da das Vorgehen tatsächlich none, and can be none for the process is justiﬁcation, but none is given, or could
unerlaubt ist.) actually not allowed.) be given, since the procedure is in fact
illicit.)
Hat sich aber die Einführung eines But if the introduction of a new expe- But if the introduction of a new device
neuen Behelfes an einer Stelle als nötig dient has proved necessary in one place, has proved necessary at a certain point,
erwiesen, so muss man sich nun sofort we must immediately ask: Where is this we must immediately ask ourselves, ‘At
fragen: Wo muss dieser Behelf nun i m - expedient always to be used? Its position what points is the employment of this dem
e r angewandt werden? Seine Stellung in logic must be made clear. vice now unavoidable?’ and its place in
in der Logik muss nun erklärt werden. logic must be made clear.
5.453 Alle Zahlen der Logik müssen sich All numbers in logic must be capable All numbers in logic stand in need of
rechtfertigen lassen. of justiﬁcation. justiﬁcation.
Oder vielmehr: Es muss sich heraus- Or rather it must become plain that Or rather, it must become evident that
stellen, dass es in der Logik keine Zahlen there are no numbers in logic. there are no numbers in logic.
gibt.
Es gibt keine ausgezeichneten Zahlen. There are no pre-eminent numbers. There are no privileged numbers.
5.454 In der Logik gibt es kein Nebeneinan- In logic there is no side by side, there In logic there is no co-ordinate status,
der, kann es keine Klassiﬁkation geben. can be no classiﬁcation. and there can be no classiﬁcation.
In der Logik kann es nicht Allgemei- In logic there cannot be a more gen- In logic there can be no distinction
neres und Spezielleres geben. eral and a more special. between the general and the speciﬁc.
5.4541 Die Lösungen der logischen Probleme The solution of logical problems must The solutions of the problems of logic
müssen einfach sein, denn sie setzen den be neat for they set the standard of neat- must be simple, since they set the stanStandard
der Einfachheit. ness. dard of simplicity.
Die Menschen haben immer geahnt, Men have always thought that there Men have always had a presentiment
dass es ein Gebiet von Fragen ge- must be a sphere of questions whose that there must be a realm in which
71
ben müsse, deren Antworten—a priori— answers—a priori—are symmetrical and the answers to questions are symmetrisymmetrisch,
und zu einem abgeschlosse- united into a closed regular structure. cally combined—a priori—to form a selfnen,
regelmäßigen Gebilde vereint liegen. contained system.
Ein Gebiet, in dem der Satz gilt: sim- A sphere in which the proposition, A realm subject to the law: Simplex
plex sigillum veri. simplex sigillum veri, is valid. sigillum veri.
5.46 Wenn man die logischen Zeichen rich- When we have rightly introduced the If we introduced logical signs properly,
tig einführte, so hätte man damit auch logical signs, the sense of all their combi- then we should also have introduced at
schon den Sinn aller ihrer Kombinatio- nations has been already introduced with the same time the sense of all combinanen
eingeführt; also nicht nur „p∨ q“ son- them: therefore not only “p ∨ q” but also tions of them; i.e. not only ‘p ∨ q’ but
dern auch schon „∼(p∨∼q)“ etc. etc. Man “∼(p ∨ ∼q)”, etc. etc. We should then al- ‘∼(p ∨ ∼q)’ as well, etc. etc. We should
hätte damit auch schon die Wirkung aller ready have introduced the effect of all also have introduced at the same time
nur möglichen Kombinationen von Klam- possible combinations of brackets; and it the effect of all possible combinations of
mern eingeführt. Und damit wäre es klar would then have become clear that the brackets. And thus it would have been
geworden, dass die eigentlichen allgemei- proper general primitive signs are not made clear that the real general priminen
Urzeichen nicht die „p∨ q“, „(∃x). fx“, “p ∨ q”, “(∃x). fx”, etc., but the most gen- tive signs are not ‘p∨ q’, ‘(∃x). fx’, etc. but
etc. sind, sondern die allgemeinste Form eral form of their combinations. the most general form of their combinaihrer
Kombinationen. tions.
5.461 Bedeutungsvoll ist die scheinbar un- The apparently unimportant fact that Though it seems unimportant, it is in
wichtige Tatsache, dass die logischen the apparent relations like ∨ and ⊃ fact signiﬁcant that the pseudo-relations
Scheinbeziehungen, wie ∨ und ⊃, der need brackets—unlike real relations—is of logic, such as ∨ and ⊃, need brackets—
Klammern bedürfen—im Gegensatz zu of great importance. unlike real relations.
den wirklichen Beziehungen.
Die Benützung der Klammern mit The use of brackets with these appar- Indeed, the use of brackets with these
jenen scheinbaren Urzeichen deutet ja ent primitive signs shows that these are apparently primitive signs is itself an inschon
darauf hin, dass diese nicht die not the real primitive signs; and nobody dication that they are not primitive signs.
wirklichen Urzeichen sind. Und es wird of course would believe that the brackets And surely no one is going to believe
doch wohl niemand glauben, dass die have meaning by themselves. brackets have an independent meaning.
Klammern eine selbständige Bedeutung
haben.
5.4611 Die logischen Operationszeichen sind Logical operation signs are punctua- Signs for logical operations are
Interpunktionen. tions. punctuation-marks.
5.47 Es ist klar, dass alles, was sich über- It is clear that everything which can It is clear that whatever we can say in
haupt v o n v o r n h e r e i n über die be said beforehand about the form of all advance about the form of all propositions,
Form aller Sätze sagen lässt, sich a u f propositions at all can be said on one oc- we must be able to say all at once.
e i n m a l sagen lassen muss. casion.
Sind ja schon im Elementarsatze alle For all logical operations are already An elementary proposition really conlogischen
Operationen enthalten. Denn contained in the elementary proposition. tains all logical operations in itself. For
72
„fa“ sagt dasselbe wie For “fa” says the same as ‘fa’ says the same thing as
„(∃x). fx . x = a“. “(∃x). fx . x = a”. ‘(∃x). fx . x = a’.
Wo Zusammengesetztheit ist, da ist Where there is composition, there is Wherever there is compositeness, arArgument
und Funktion, und wo diese argument and function, and where these gument and function are present, and
sind, sind bereits alle logischen Konstan- are, all logical constants already are. where these are present, we already have
ten. all the logical constants.
Man könnte sagen: Die Eine logische One could say: the one logical con- One could say that the sole logical conKonstante
ist das, was a l l e Sätze, ihrer stant is that which all propositions, ac- stant was what all propositions, by their
Natur nach, mit einander gemein haben. cording to their nature, have in common very nature, had in common with one anwith
one another. other.
Das aber ist die allgemeine Satzform. That however is the general form of But that is the general propositional
proposition. form.
5.471 Die allgemeine Satzform ist das We- The general form of proposition is the The general propositional form is the
sen des Satzes. essence of proposition. essence of a proposition.
5.4711 Das Wesen des Satzes angeben, heißt, To give the essence of proposition To give the essence of a proposition
das Wesen aller Beschreibung angeben, means to give the essence of all descrip- means to give the essence of all descripalso
das Wesen der Welt. tion, therefore the essence of the world. tion, and thus the essence of the world.
5.472 Die Beschreibung der allgemeinsten The description of the most general The description of the most general
Satzform ist die Beschreibung des einen propositional form is the description of propositional form is the description of
und einzigen allgemeinen Urzeichens der the one and only general primitive sign the one and only general primitive sign
Logik. in logic. in logic.
5.473 Die Logik muss für sich selber sorgen. Logic must take care of itself. Logic must look after itself.
Ein m ö g l i c h e s Zeichen muss A possible sign must also be able to If a sign is possible, then it is also caauch
bezeichnen können. Alles was in der signify. Everything which is possible in pable of signifying. Whatever is possible
Logik möglich ist, ist auch erlaubt. („So- logic is also permitted. (“Socrates is iden- in logic is also permitted. (The reason
krates ist identisch“ heißt darum nichts, tical” means nothing because there is no why ‘Socrates is identical’ means nothing
weil es keine Eigenschaft gibt, die „iden- property which is called “identical”. The is that there is no property called ‘identisch“
heißt. Der Satz ist unsinnig, weil proposition is senseless because we have tical’. The proposition is nonsensical bewir
eine willkürliche Bestimmung nicht not made some arbitrary determination, cause we have failed to make an arbitrary
getroffen haben, aber nicht darum, weil not because the symbol is in itself unper- determination, and not because the symdas
Symbol an und für sich unerlaubt wä- missible.) bol, in itself, would be illegitimate.)
re.)
Wir können uns, in gewissem Sinne, In a certain sense we cannot make In a certain sense, we cannot make
nicht in der Logik irren. mistakes in logic. mistakes in logic.
5.4731 Das Einleuchten, von dem Russell Self-evidence, of which Russell has Self-evidence, which Russell talked
so viel sprach, kann nur dadurch in said so much, can only be discard in logic about so much, can become dispensable
der Logik entbehrlich werden, dass die by language itself preventing every logi- in logic, only because language itself
73
Sprache selbst jeden logischen Fehler cal mistake. That logic is a priori consists prevents every logical mistake.—What
verhindert.—Dass die Logik a priori ist, in the fact that we cannot think illogically. makes logic a priori is the impossibility
besteht darin, dass nicht unlogisch ge- of illogical thought.
dacht werden k a n n.
5.4732 Wir können einem Zeichen nicht den We cannot give a sign the wrong We cannot give a sign the wrong
unrechten Sinn geben. sense. sense.
5.47321 Occams Devise ist natürlich keine Occam’s razor is, of course, not an arbi- Occam’s maxim is, of course, not an
willkürliche, oder durch ihren prakti- trary rule nor one justiﬁed by its practical arbitrary rule, nor one that is justiﬁed by
schen Erfolg gerechtfertigte Regel: Sie be- success. It simply says that unnecessary its success in practice: its point is that unsagt,
dass u n n ö t i g e Zeicheneinheiten elements in a symbolism mean nothing. necessary units in a sign-language mean
nichts bedeuten. nothing.
Zeichen, die E i n e n Zweck erfül- Signs which serve one purpose are log- Signs that serve one purpose are loglen,
sind logisch äquivalent, Zeichen, die ically equivalent, signs which serve no ically equivalent, and signs that serve
k e i n e n Zweck erfüllen, logisch bedeu- purpose are logically meaningless. none are logically meaningless.
tungslos.
5.4733 Frege sagt: Jeder rechtmäßig gebilde- Frege says: Every legitimately con- Frege says that any legitimately conte
Satz muss einen Sinn haben; und ich structed proposition must have a sense; structed proposition must have a sense.
sage: Jeder mögliche Satz ist rechtmäßig and I say: Every possible proposition is And I say that any possible proposition is
gebildet, und wenn er keinen Sinn hat, legitimately constructed, and if it has legitimately constructed, and, if it has no
so kann das nur daran liegen, dass wir no sense this can only be because we sense, that can only be because we have
einigen seiner Bestandteile keine B e - have given no meaning to some of its con- failed to give a meaning to some of its
d e u t u n g gegeben haben. stituent parts. constituents.
(Wenn wir auch glauben, es getan zu (Even if we believe that we have done (Even if we think that we have done
haben.) so.) so.)
So sagt „Sokrates ist identisch“ darum Thus “Socrates is identical” says noth- Thus the reason why ‘Socrates is idennichts,
weil wir dem Wort „identisch“ als ing, because we have given no mean- tical’ says nothing is that we have not
E i g e n s c h a f t s w o r t k e i n e Be- ing to the word “identical” as adjec- given any adjectival meaning to the word
deutung gegeben haben. Denn, wenn es tive. For when it occurs as the sign of ‘identical’. For when it appears as a sign
als Gleichheitszeichen auftritt, so sym- equality it symbolizes in an entirely dif- for identity, it symbolizes in an entirely
bolisiert es auf ganz andere Art und ferent way—the symbolizing relation is different way—the signifying relation is a
Weise—die bezeichnende Beziehung ist another—therefore the symbol is in the different one—therefore the symbols also
eine andere,—also ist auch das Symbol two cases entirely different; the two sym- are entirely different in the two cases: the
in beiden Fällen ganz verschieden; die bols have the sign in common with one two symbols have only the sign in combeiden
Symbole haben nur das Zeichen another only by accident. mon, and that is an accident.
zufällig miteinander gemein.
5.474 Die Anzahl der nötigen Grundopera- The number of necessary fundamental The number of fundamental operationen
hängt n u r von unserer Notation operations depends only on our notation. tions that are necessary depends solely
74
ab. on our notation.
5.475 Es kommt nur darauf an, ein Zeichen- It is only a question of constructing All that is required is that we should
system von einer bestimmten Anzahl von a system of signs of a deﬁnite number of construct a system of signs with a particDimensionen—von
einer bestimmten ma- dimensions—of a deﬁnite mathematical ular number of dimensions—with a parthematischen
Mannigfaltigkeit—zu bil- multiplicity. ticular mathematical multiplicity.
den.
5.476 Es ist klar, dass es sich hier nicht um It is clear that we are not concerned It is clear that this is not a question of
eine A n z a h l v o n G r u n d b e g r i f - here with a number of primitive ideas a number of primitive ideas that have to
f e n handelt, die bezeichnet werden müs- which must be signiﬁed but with the ex- be signiﬁed, but rather of the expression
sen, sondern um den Ausdruck einer Re- pression of a rule. of a rule.
gel.
5.5 Jede Wahrheitsfunktion ist ein Resul- Every truth-function is a result of the Every truth-function is a result of
tat der successiven Anwendung der Ope- successive application of the operation successive applications to elementary
ration (−−−−−W)(ξ, . . . . .) auf Elemen- (−−−−−T)(ξ, . . . . .) to elementary propo- propositions of the operation ‘(−−−−−T)
tarsätze. sitions. (ξ, . . . . .)’.
Diese Operation verneint sämtliche This operation denies all the proposi- This operation negates all the propoSätze
in der rechten Klammer, und ich tions in the right-hand bracket and I call sitions in the right-hand pair of brackets,
nenne sie die Negation dieser Sätze. it the negation of these propositions. and I call it the negation of those proposi-
tions.
5.501 Einen Klammerausdruck, dessen Glie- An expression in brackets whose When a bracketed expression has
der Sätze sind, deute ich—wenn die Rei- terms are propositions I indicate—if the propositions as its terms—and the orhenfolge
der Glieder in der Klammer order of the terms in the bracket is der of the terms inside the brackets is
gleichgültig ist—durch ein Zeichen von indifferent—by a sign of the form “(ξ)”. “ξ” indifferent—then I indicate it by a sign of
der Form „(ξ)“ an. „ξ“ ist eine Variable, is a variable whose values are the terms the form ‘(ξ)’. ‘ξ’ is a variable whose valderen
Werte die Glieder des Klammer- of the expression in brackets, and the line ues are terms of the bracketed expression
ausdruckes sind; und der Strich über der over the variable indicates that it stands and the bar over the variable indicates
Variablen deutet an, dass sie ihre sämtli- for all its values in the bracket. that it is the representative of all its valchen
Werte in der Klammer vertritt. ues in the brackets.
(Hat also ξ etwa die 3 Werte P, Q, R, (Thus if ξ has the 3 values P, Q, R, (E.g. if ξ has the three values P, Q, R,
so ist (ξ) = (P, Q, R).) then (ξ) = (P, Q, R).) then (ξ) = (P, Q, R). )
Die Werte der Variablen werden fest- The values of the variables must be What the values of the variable are is
gesetzt. determined. something that is stipulated.
Die Festsetzung ist die Beschreibung The determination is the description The stipulation is a description of the
der Sätze, welche die Variable vertritt. of the propositions which the variable propositions that have the variable as
stands for. their representative.
Wie die Beschreibung der Glieder des How the description of the terms of How the description of the terms of
Klammerausdruckes geschieht, ist unwe- the expression in brackets takes place is the bracketed expression is produced is
75
sentlich. unessential. not essential.
Wir k ö n n e n drei Arten der Be- We may distinguish 3 kinds of descrip- We can distinguish three kinds of deschreibung
unterscheiden: 1. Die direk- tion: 1. Direct enumeration. In this case scription: 1. direct enumeration, in which
te Aufzählung. In diesem Fall können we can place simply its constant values in- case we can simply substitute for the variwir
statt der Variablen einfach ihre kon- stead of the variable. 2. Giving a function able the constants that are its values; 2.
stanten Werte setzen. 2. Die Angabe ei- fx, whose values for all values of x are giving a function fx whose values for all
ner Funktion fx, deren Werte für alle the propositions to be described. 3. Giv- values of x are the propositions to be deWerte
von x die zu beschreibenden Sätze ing a formal law, according to which those scribed; 3. giving a formal law that govsind.
3. Die Angabe eines formalen Ge- propositions are constructed. In this case erns the construction of the propositions,
setzes, nach welchem jene Sätze gebildet the terms of the expression in brackets in which case the bracketed expression
sind. In diesem Falle sind die Glieder des are all the terms of a formal series. has as its members all the terms of a seKlammerausdrucks
sämtliche Glieder ei- ries of forms.
ner Formenreihe.
5.502 Ich schreibe also statt „(−−−−−W) Therefore I write instead of So instead of ‘(−−−−−T) (ξ, . . . . .)’,
(ξ, . . . . .)“ „N(ξ)“. “(−−−−−T) (ξ, . . . . .)”, “N(ξ)”. I write ‘N(ξ)’.
N(ξ) ist die Negation sämtlicher Werte N(ξ) is the negation of all the values N(ξ) is the negation of all the values
der Satzvariablen ξ. of the propositional variable ξ. of the propositional variable ξ.
5.503 Da sich offenbar leicht ausdrücken As it is obviously easy to express how It is obvious that we can easily
läßt, wie mit dieser Operation Sätze gebil- propositions can be constructed by means express how propositions may be condet
werden können und wie Sätze mit ihr of this operation and how propositions are structed with this operation, and how
nicht zu bilden sind, so muss dies auch not to be constructed by means of it, this they may not be constructed with it; so it
einen exakten Ausdruck ﬁnden können. must be capable of exact expression. must be possible to ﬁnd an exact expression
for this.
5.51 Hat ξ nur einen Wert, so ist N(ξ) = ∼p If ξ has only one value, then N(ξ) = ∼p If ξ has only one value, then N(ξ) = ∼p
(nicht p), hat es zwei Werte, so ist N(ξ) = (not p), if it has two values then N(ξ) = (not p); if it has two values, then N(ξ) =
∼p . ∼q (weder p noch q). ∼p . ∼q (neither p nor q). ∼p . ∼q (neither p nor q).
5.511 Wie kann die allumfassende, welt- How can the all-embracing logic which How can logic—all-embracing logic,
spiegelnde Logik so spezielle Haken und mirrors the world use such special which mirrors the world—use such peManipulationen
gebrauchen? Nur, indem catches and manipulations? Only because culiar crotchets and contrivances? Only
sich alle diese zu einem unendlich feinen all these are connected into an inﬁnitely because they are all connected with one
Netzwerk, zu dem großen Spiegel, ver- ﬁne network, to the great mirror. another in an inﬁnitely ﬁne network, the
knüpfen. great mirror.
5.512 „∼p“ ist wahr, wenn „p“ falsch ist. “∼p” is true if “p” is false. Therefore ‘∼p’ is true if ‘p’ is false. Therefore, in
Also in dem wahren Satz „∼p“ ist „p“ in the true proposition “∼p” “p” is a false the proposition ‘∼p’, when it is true, ‘p’
ein falscher Satz. Wie kann ihn nun der proposition. How then can the stroke “∼” is a false proposition. How then can the
Strich „∼“ mit der Wirklichkeit zum Stim- bring it into agreement with reality? stroke ‘∼’ make it agree with reality?
76
men bringen?
Das, was in „∼p“ verneint, ist aber That which denies in “∼p” is however But in ‘∼p’ it is not ‘∼’ that negates, it
nicht das „∼“, sondern dasjenige, was al- not “∼”, but that which all signs of this is rather what is common to all the signs
len Zeichen dieser Notation, welche p ver- notation, which deny p, have in common. of this notation that negate p.
neinen, gemeinsam ist.
Also die gemeinsame Regel, nach wel- Hence the common rule according to That is to say the common rule that
cher „∼p“, „∼∼∼p“, „∼p ∨∼p“, „∼p . ∼p“, which “∼p”, “∼∼∼p”, “∼p∨∼p”, “∼p . ∼p”, governs the construction of ‘∼p’, ‘∼∼∼p’,
etc. etc. (ad inf.) gebildet werden. Und etc. etc. (to inﬁnity) are constructed. And ‘∼p ∨∼p’, ‘∼p . ∼p’, etc. etc. (ad inf.). And
dies Gemeinsame spiegelt die Verneinung this which is common to them all mirrors this common factor mirrors negation.
wieder. denial.
5.513 Man könnte sagen: Das Gemeinsame We could say: What is common to all We might say that what is common to
aller Symbole, die sowohl p als q bejahen, symbols, which assert both p and q, is all symbols that afﬁrm both p and q is
ist der Satz „p . q“. Das Gemeinsame aller the proposition “p . q”. What is common the proposition ‘p . q’; and that what is
Symbole, die entweder p oder q bejahen, to all symbols, which asserts either p or common to all symbols that afﬁrm either
ist der Satz „p ∨ q“. q, is the proposition “p ∨ q”. p or q is the proposition ‘p ∨ q’.
Und so kann man sagen: Zwei Sätze And similarly we can say: Two propo- And similarly we can say that two
sind einander entgegengesetzt, wenn sie sitions are opposed to one another when propositions are opposed to one another
nichts miteinander gemein haben, und: they have nothing in common with one if they have nothing in common with one
Jeder Satz hat nur ein Negativ, weil es another; and every proposition has only another, and that every proposition has
nur einen Satz gibt, der ganz außerhalb one negative, because there is only one only one negative, since there is only one
seiner liegt. proposition which lies altogether outside proposition that lies completely outside
it. it.
Es zeigt sich so auch in Russells No- Thus in Russell’s notation also it ap- Thus in Russell’s notation too it is
tation, dass „q : p ∨∼p“ dasselbe sagt wie pears evident that “q : p ∨ ∼p” says the manifest that ‘q : p ∨ ∼p’ says the same
„q“; dass „p ∨∼p“ nichts sagt. same thing as “q”; that “p∨∼p” says noth- thing as ‘q’, that ‘p ∨∼p’ says nothing.
ing.
5.514 Ist eine Notation festgelegt, so gibt es If a notation is ﬁxed, there is in it a Once a notation has been established,
in ihr eine Regel, nach der alle p vernei- rule according to which all the proposi- there will be in it a rule governing the connenden
Sätze gebildet werden, eine Regel, tions denying p are constructed, a rule struction of all propositions that negate
nach der alle p bejahenden Sätze gebil- according to which all the propositions as- p, a rule governing the construction of
det werden, eine Regel, nach der alle p serting p are constructed, a rule accord- all propositions that afﬁrm p, and a rule
oder q bejahenden Sätze gebildet werden, ing to which all the propositions asserting governing the construction of all proposiu.
s. f. Diese Regeln sind den Symbolen p or q are constructed, and so on. These tions that afﬁrm p or q; and so on. These
äquivalent und in ihnen spiegelt sich ihr rules are equivalent to the symbols and rules are equivalent to the symbols; and
Sinn wieder. in them their sense is mirrored. in them their sense is mirrored.
5.515 Es muss sich an unseren Symbolen It must be recognized in our symbols It must be manifest in our symbols
zeigen, dass das, was durch „∨“, „.“, etc. that what is connected by “∨”, “.”, etc., that it can only be propositions that are
77
miteinander verbunden ist, Sätze sein must be propositions. combined with one another by ‘∨’, ‘∼’, etc.
müssen.
Und dies ist auch der Fall, denn das And this is the case, for the symbols And this is indeed the case, since the
Symbol „p“ und „q“ setzt ja selbst das „∨“, “p” and “q” presuppose “∨”, “∼”, etc. If symbol in ‘p’ and ‘q’ itself presupposes ‘∨’,
„∼“, etc. voraus. Wenn das Zeichen „p“ in the sign “p” in “p ∨ q” does not stand for ‘∼’, etc. If the sign ‘p’ in ‘p ∨ q’ does not
„p ∨ q“ nicht für ein komplexes Zeichen a complex sign, then by itself it cannot stand for a complex sign, then it cannot
steht, dann kann es allein nicht Sinn ha- have sense; but then also the signs “p∨p”, have sense by itself: but in that case the
ben; dann können aber auch die mit „p“ “p . p”, etc. which have the same sense as signs ‘p ∨ p’, ‘p . p’, etc., which have the
gleichsinnigen Zeichen „p∨ p“, „p . p“, etc. “p” have no sense. If, however, “p∨ p” has same sense as p, must also lack sense.
keinen Sinn haben. Wenn aber „p∨p“ kei- no sense, then also “p ∨ q” can have no But if ‘p ∨ p’ has no sense, then ‘p ∨ q’
nen Sinn hat, dann kann auch „p∨ q“ kei- sense. cannot have a sense either.
nen Sinn haben.
5.5151 Muss das Zeichen des negativen Sat- Must the sign of the negative proposi- Must the sign of a negative proposizes
mit dem Zeichen des positiven gebil- tion be constructed by means of the sign tion be constructed with that of the posdet
werden? Warum sollte man den nega- of the positive? Why should one not be itive proposition? Why should it not be
tiven Satz nicht durch eine negative Tat- able to express the negative proposition possible to express a negative proposition
sache ausdrücken können. (Etwa: Wenn by means of a negative fact? (Like: if “a” by means of a negative fact? (E.g. sup„a“
nicht in einer bestimmten Beziehung does not stand in a certain relation to “b”, pose that ‘a’ does not stand in a certain
zu „b“ steht, könnte das ausdrücken, dass it could express that aRb is not the case.) relation to ‘b’; then this might be used to
aRb nicht der Fall ist.) say that aRb was not the case.)
Aber auch hier ist ja der negative Satz But here also the negative proposition But really even in this case the negaindirekt
durch den positiven gebildet. is indirectly constructed with the positive. tive proposition is constructed by an indirect
use of the positive.
Der positive S a t z muss die Existenz The positive proposition must presup- The positive proposition necessarily
des negativen S a t z e s voraussetzen pose the existence of the negative propo- presupposes the existence of the negative
und umgekehrt. sition and conversely. proposition and vice versa.
5.52 Sind die Werte von ξ sämtliche Werte If the values of ξ are the total values If ξ has as its values all the values
einer Funktion fx für alle Werte von x, so of a function fx for all values of x, then of a function fx for all values of x, then
wird N(ξ) = ∼(∃x). fx. N(ξ) = ∼(∃x). fx. N(ξ) = ∼(∃x). fx.
5.521 Ich trenne den Begriff A l l e von der I separate the concept all from the I dissociate the concept all from truthWahrheitsfunktion.
truth-function. functions.
Frege und Russell haben die Allge- Frege and Russell have introduced Frege and Russell introduced genermeinheit
in Verbindung mit dem logi- generality in connexion with the logical ality in association with logical product
schen Produkt oder der logischen Summe product or the logical sum. Then it would or logical sum. This made it difﬁcult to
eingeführt. So wurde es schwer, die Sätze be difﬁcult to understand the propositions understand the propositions ‘(∃x). fx’ and
„(∃x). fx“ und „(x). fx“, in welchen beide “(∃x). fx” and “(x). fx” in which both ideas ‘(x). fx’, in which both ideas are embedIdeen
beschlossen liegen, zu verstehen. lie concealed. ded.
78
5.522 Das Eigentümliche der Allgemein- That which is peculiar to the “symbol- What is peculiar to the generality-sign
heitsbezeichnung ist erstens, dass sie auf ism of generality” is ﬁrstly, that it refers is ﬁrst, that it indicates a logical protoein
logisches Urbild hinweist, und zwei- to a logical prototype, and secondly, that type, and secondly, that it gives promitens,
dass sie Konstante hervorhebt. it makes constants prominent. nence to constants.
5.523 Die Allgemeinheitsbezeichnung tritt The generality symbol occurs as an The generality-sign occurs as an arguals
Argument auf. argument. ment.
5.524 Wenn die Gegenstände gegeben sind, If the objects are given, therewith are If objects are given, then at the same
so sind uns damit auch schon a l l e Ge- all objects also given. time we are given all objects.
genstände gegeben.
Wenn die Elementarsätze gegeben If the elementary propositions are If elementary propositions are given,
sind, so sind damit auch a l l e Elemen- given, then therewith all elementary then at the same time all elementary
tarsätze gegeben. propositions are also given. propositions are given.
5.525 Es ist unrichtig, den Satz „(∃x). fx“— It is not correct to render the propo- It is incorrect to render the proposiwie
Russell dies tut—in Worten durch „fx sition “(∃x). fx”—as Russell does—in the tion ‘(∃x). fx’ in the words, ‘fx is possible’
ist m ö g l i c h“ wiederzugeben. words “fx is possible”. as Russell does.
Gewißheit, Möglichkeit oder Unmög- Certainty, possibility or impossibility The certainty, possibility, or impossilichkeit
einer Sachlage wird nicht durch of a state of affairs are not expressed by a bility of a situation is not expressed by a
einen Satz ausgedrückt, sondern dadurch, proposition but by the fact that an expres- proposition, but by an expression’s being
dass ein Ausdruck eine Tautologie, ein sion is a tautology, a signiﬁcant proposi- a tautology, a proposition with a sense, or
sinnvoller Satz oder eine Kontradiktion tion or a contradiction. a contradiction.
ist.
Jener Präzedenzfall, auf den man sich That precedent to which one would The precedent to which we are conimmer
berufen möchte, muss schon im always appeal, must be present in the stantly inclined to appeal must reside in
Symbol selber liegen. symbol itself. the symbol itself.
5.526 Man kann die Welt vollständig durch One can describe the world completely We can describe the world completely
vollkommen verallgemeinerte Sätze be- by completely generalized propositions, by means of fully generalized proposischreiben,
das heißt also, ohne irgend- i.e. without from the outset co-ordinating tions, i.e. without ﬁrst correlating any
einen Namen von vornherein einem be- any name with a deﬁnite object. name with a particular object.
stimmten Gegenstand zuzuordnen.
Um dann auf die gewöhnliche Aus- In order then to arrive at the custom- Then, in order to arrive at the customdrucksweise
zu kommen, muss man ein- ary way of expression we need simply say ary mode of expression, we simply need
fach nach einem Ausdruck: „Es gibt ein after an expression “there is one and only to add, after an expression like, ‘There
und nur ein x, welches . . . “ sagen: Und one x, which . . . ”: and this x is a. is one and only one x such that . . . ’, the
dies x ist a. words, ‘and that x is a’.
5.5261 Ein vollkommen verallgemeinerter A completely generalized proposition A fully generalized proposition, like
Satz ist, wie jeder andere Satz, zusam- is like every other proposition compos- every other proposition, is composite.
mengesetzt. (Dies zeigt sich daran, dass ite. (This is shown by the fact that in (This is shown by the fact that in
79
wir in „(∃x,φ).φx“ „φ“ und „x“ getrennt er- “(∃x,φ).φx” we must mention “φ” and “x” ‘(∃x,φ).φx’ we have to mention ‘φ’ and
wähnen müssen. Beide stehen unabhän- separately. Both stand independently in ‘x’ separately. They both, independently,
gig in bezeichnenden Beziehungen zur signifying relations to the world as in the stand in signifying relations to the world,
Welt, wie im unverallgemeinerten Satz.) ungeneralized proposition.) just as is the case in ungeneralized propo-
sitions.)
Kennzeichen des zusammengesetzten A characteristic of a composite symbol: It is a mark of a composite symbol that
Symbols: Es hat etwas mit a n d e r e n it has something in common with other it has something in common with other
Symbolen gemeinsam. symbols. symbols.
5.5262 Es verändert ja die Wahr- oder Falsch- The truth or falsehood of every proposi- The truth or falsity of every proposiheit
j e d e s Satzes etwas am allgemei- tion alters something in the general struc- tion does make some alteration in the
nen Bau der Welt. Und der Spielraum, ture of the world. And the range which general construction of the world. And
welcher ihrem Bau durch die Gesamt- is allowed to its structure by the totality the range that the totality of elementary
heit der Elementarsätze gelassen wird, of elementary propositions is exactly that propositions leaves open for its construcist
eben derjenige, welchen die ganz all- which the completely general propositions tion is exactly the same as that which
gemeinen Sätze begrenzen. delimit. is delimited by entirely general proposi-
tions.
(Wenn ein Elementarsatz wahr ist, so (If an elementary proposition is true, (If an elementary proposition is true,
ist damit doch jedenfalls Ein Elementar- then, at any rate, there is one more ele- that means, at any rate, one more true
satz m e h r wahr.) mentary proposition true.) elementary proposition.)
5.53 Gleichheit des Gegenstandes drücke Identity of the object I express by iden- Identity of object I express by idenich
durch Gleichheit des Zeichens aus, tity of the sign and not by means of a sign tity of sign, and not by using a sign for
und nicht mit Hilfe eines Gleichheitszei- of identity. Difference of the objects by identity. Difference of objects I express by
chens. Verschiedenheit der Gegenstände difference of the signs. difference of signs.
durch Verschiedenheit der Zeichen.
5.5301 Dass die Identität keine Relation zwi- That identity is not a relation between It is self-evident that identity is not
schen Gegenständen ist, leuchtet ein. objects is obvious. This becomes very a relation between objects. This becomes
Dies wird sehr klar, wenn man z. B. den clear if, for example, one considers the very clear if one considers, for example,
Satz „(x): fx .⊃. x = a“ betrachtet. Was die- proposition “(x): fx .⊃. x = a”. What this the proposition ‘(x): fx .⊃. x = a’. What
ser Satz sagt, ist einfach, dass n u r a proposition says is simply that only a sat- this proposition says is simply that only a
der Funktion f genügt, und nicht, dass isﬁes the function f , and not that only satisﬁes the function f , and not that only
nur solche Dinge der Funktion f genü- such things satisfy the function f which things that have a certain relation to a
gen, welche eine gewisse Beziehung zu a have a certain relation to a. satisfy the function f .
haben.
Man könnte nun freilich sagen, dass One could of course say that in fact Of course, it might then be said that
eben n u r a diese Beziehung zu a habe, only a has this relation to a, but in order only a did have this relation to a; but in
aber, um dies auszudrücken, brauchten to express this we should need the sign of order to express that, we should need the
wir das Gleichheitszeichen selber. identity itself. identity-sign itself.
80
5.5302 Russells Deﬁnition von „=“ genügt Russell’s deﬁnition of “=” won’t do; Russell’s deﬁnition of ‘=’ is inadequate,
nicht; weil man nach ihr nicht sagen because according to it one cannot say because according to it we cannot say
kann, dass zwei Gegenstände alle Eigen- that two objects have all their properties that two objects have all their properties
schaften gemeinsam haben. (Selbst wenn in common. (Even if this proposition is in common. (Even if this proposition is
dieser Satz nie richtig ist, hat er doch never true, it is nevertheless signiﬁcant.) never correct, it still has sense.)
S i n n.)
5.5303 Beiläuﬁg gesprochen: Von z w e i Din- Roughly speaking: to say of two things Roughly speaking, to say of two things
gen zu sagen, sie seien identisch, ist ein that they are identical is nonsense, and that they are identical is nonsense, and
Unsinn, und von E i n e m zu sagen, to say of one thing that it is identical with to say of one thing that it is identical with
es sei identisch mit sich selbst, sagt gar itself is to say nothing. itself is to say nothing at all.
nichts.
5.531 Ich schreibe also nicht „f (a,b) . a = I write therefore not “f (a,b) . a = Thus I do not write ‘f (a,b) . a = b’, but
b“, sondern „f (a,a)“ (oder „f (b,b)“). Und b” but “f (a,a)” (or “f (b,b)”). And not ‘f (a,a)’ (or ‘f (b,b)’); and not ‘f (a,b) . ∼a =
nicht „f (a,b) . ∼a = b“, sondern „f (a,b)“. “f (a,b) . ∼a = b”, but “f (a,b)”. b’, but ‘f (a,b)’.
5.532 Und analog: Nicht „(∃x, y). f (x, y) . And analogously: not “(∃x, y). f (x, y) . And analogously I do not write
x = y“, sondern „(∃x). f (x,x)“; und nicht x = y”, but “(∃x). f (x,x)”; and not “(∃x, y). ‘(∃x, y). f (x, y) . x = y’, but ‘(∃x). f (x,x)’;
„(∃x, y). f (x, y) . ∼x = y“, sondern „(∃x, y). f (x, y) . ∼x = y”, but “(∃x, y). f (x, y)”. and not ‘(∃x, y). f (x, y) . ∼x = y’, but
f (x, y)“. ‘(∃x, y). f (x, y)’.
(Also statt des Russellschen „(∃x, y). (Therefore instead of Russell’s “(∃x, y). (So Russell’s ‘(∃x, y). f (x, y)’ becomes
f (x, y)“: „(∃x, y). f (x, y) .∨. (∃x). f (x,x)“.) f (x, y)”: “(∃x, y). f (x, y) .∨. (∃x). f (x,x)”.) ‘(∃x, y). f (x, y) .∨. (∃x). f (x,x)’.)
5.5321 Statt „(x): fx ⊃ x = a“ schreiben wir al- Instead of “(x): fx ⊃ x = a” we there- Thus, for example, instead of ‘(x): fx
so z. B. „(∃x). fx .⊃. fa : ∼(∃x, y). fx . f y“. fore write e.g. “(∃x). fx .⊃. fa : ∼(∃x, y). fx . ⊃ x = a’ we write ‘(∃x). fx .⊃. fa : ∼(∃x, y).
f y”. fx . f y’.
Und der Satz: „n u r Ein x befriedigt And if the proposition “only one x And the proposition, ‘Only one x satf
( )“ lautet: „(∃x). fx .⊃. fa : ∼(∃x, y). fx . satisﬁes f ( )” reads: “(∃x). fx .⊃. fa : isﬁes f ( )’, will read ‘(∃x). fx .⊃. fa :
f y“. ∼(∃x, y). fx . f y”. ∼(∃x, y). fx . f y’.
5.533 Das Gleichheitszeichen ist also kein The identity sign is therefore not an The identity-sign, therefore, is not an
wesentlicher Bestandteil der Begriffs- essential constituent of logical notation. essential constituent of conceptual notaschrift.
tion.
5.534 Und nun sehen wir, dass Scheinsät- And we see that the apparent proposi- And now we see that in a correct conze
wie: „a = a“, „a = b . b = c .⊃ a = c“, tions like: “a = a”, “a = b . b = c .⊃ a = c”, ceptual notation pseudo-propositions like
„(x).x = x“, „(∃x).x = a“, etc. sich in ei- “(x).x = x”. “(∃x).x = a”, etc. cannot be ‘a = a’, ‘a = b . b = c .⊃ a = c’, ‘(x).x = x’,
ner richtigen Begriffsschrift gar nicht hin- written in a correct logical notation at ‘(∃x).x = a’, etc. cannot even be written
schreiben lassen. all. down.
5.535 Damit erledigen sich auch alle Proble- So all problems disappear which are This also disposes of all the problems
me, die an solche Scheinsätze geknüpft connected with such pseudo-propositions. that were connected with such pseudowaren.
propositions.
81
Alle Probleme, die Russells „Axiom of This is the place to solve all the prob- All the problems that Russell’s ‘axiom
Inﬁnity“ mit sich bringt, sind schon hier lems with arise through Russell’s “Axiom of inﬁnity’ brings with it can be solved at
zu lösen. of Inﬁnity”. this point.
Das, was das Axiom of Inﬁnity sagen What the axiom of inﬁnity is meant What the axiom of inﬁnity is intended
soll, würde sich in der Sprache dadurch to say would be expressed in language by to say would express itself in language
ausdrücken, dass es unendlich viele Na- the fact that there is an inﬁnite number through the existence of inﬁnitely many
men mit verschiedener Bedeutung gäbe. of names with different meanings. names with different meanings.
5.5351 Es gibt gewisse Fälle, wo man in Ver- There are certain cases in which one There are certain cases in which one
suchung gerät, Ausdrücke von der Form is tempted to use expressions of the form is tempted to use expressions of the form
„a = a“ oder „p ⊃ p“ u. dgl. zu benützen. “a = a” or “p ⊃ p”. As, for instance, when ‘a = a’ or ‘p ⊃ p’ and the like. In fact,
Und zwar geschieht dies, wenn man von one would speak of the archetype Propo- this happens when one wants to talk
dem Urbild: Satz, Ding, etc. reden möchte. sition, Thing, etc. So Russell in the Prin- about prototypes, e.g. about proposition,
So hat Russell in den „Principles of Ma- ciples of Mathematics has rendered the thing, etc. Thus in Russell’s Principles of
thematics“ den Unsinn „p ist ein Satz“ in nonsense “p is a proposition” in symbols Mathematics ‘p is a proposition’—which
Symbolen durch „p ⊃ p“ wiedergegeben by “p ⊃ p” and has put it as hypothesis is nonsense—was given the symbolic renund
als Hypothese vor gewisse Sätze ge- before certain propositions to show that dering ‘p ⊃ p’ and placed as an hypothesis
stellt, damit deren Argumentstellen nur their places for arguments could only be in front of certain propositions in order
von Sätzen besetzt werden könnten. occupied by propositions. to exclude from their argument-places everything
but propositions.
(Es ist schon darum Unsinn, die Hypo- (It is nonsense to place the hypoth- (It is nonsense to place the hypothesis
these p ⊃ p vor einen Satz zu stellen, um esis p ⊃ p before a proposition in order ‘p ⊃ p’ in front of a proposition, in order
ihm Argumente der richtigen Form zu si- to ensure that its arguments have the to ensure that its arguments shall have
chern, weil die Hypothese für einen Nicht- right form, because the hypotheses for a the right form, if only because with a nonSatz
als Argument nicht falsch, sondern non-proposition as argument becomes not proposition as argument the hypothesis
unsinnig wird, und weil der Satz selbst false but meaningless, and because the becomes not false but nonsensical, and bedurch
die unrichtige Gattung von Argu- proposition itself becomes senseless for cause arguments of the wrong kind make
menten unsinnig wird, also sich selbst arguments of the wrong kind, and there- the proposition itself nonsensical, so that
ebenso gut, oder so schlecht, vor den un- fore it survives the wrong arguments no it preserves itself from wrong arguments
rechten Argumenten bewahrt wie die zu better and no worse than the senseless just as well, or as badly, as the hypothesis
diesem Zweck angehängte sinnlose Hypo- hypothesis attached for this purpose.) without sense that was appended for that
these.) purpose.)
5.5352 Ebenso wollte man „Es gibt keine Similarly it was proposed to express In the same way people have wanted
D i n g e“ ausdrücken durch „∼(∃x).x = x“. “There are no things” by “∼(∃x).x = x”. to express, ‘There are no things’, by writAber
selbst wenn dies ein Satz wäre— But even if this were a proposition— ing ‘∼(∃x).x = x’. But even if this were a
wäre er nicht auch wahr, wenn es zwar would it not be true if indeed “There were proposition, would it not be equally true
„Dinge gäbe“, aber diese nicht mit sich things”, but these were not identical with if in fact ‘there were things’ but they were
selbst identisch wären? themselves? not identical with themselves?
82
5.54 In der allgemeinen Satzform kommt In the general propositional form, In the general propositional form
der Satz im Satze nur als Basis der Wahr- propositions occur in a proposition only propositions occur in other propositions
heitsoperationen vor. as bases of the truth-operations. only as bases of truth-operations.
5.541 Auf den ersten Blick scheint es, als At ﬁrst sight it appears as if there At ﬁrst sight it looks as if it were also
könne ein Satz in einem anderen auch were also a different way in which one possible for one proposition to occur in
auf andere Weise vorkommen. proposition could occur in another. another in a different way.
Besonders in gewissen Satzformen Especially in certain propositional Particularly with certain forms of
der Psychologie, wie „A glaubt, dass p forms of psychology, like “A thinks, that p proposition in psychology, such as ‘A beder
Fall ist“, oder „A denkt p“, etc. is the case”, or “A thinks p”, etc. lieves that p is the case’ and A has the
thought p’, etc.
Hier scheint es nämlich oberﬂächlich, Here it appears superﬁcially as if the For if these are considered superﬁals
stünde der Satz p zu einem Gegen- proposition p stood to the object A in a cially, it looks as if the proposition p stood
stand A in einer Art von Relation. kind of relation. in some kind of relation to an object A.
(Und in der modernen Erkenntnis- (And in modern epistemology (Russell, (And in modern theory of knowledge
theorie (Russell, Moore, etc.) sind jene Moore, etc.) those propositions have been (Russell, Moore, etc.) these propositions
Sätze auch so aufgefasst worden.) conceived in this way.) have actually been construed in this way.)
5.542 Es ist aber klar, dass „A glaubt, dass But it is clear that “A believes that It is clear, however, that ‘A believes
p“, „A denkt p“, „A sagt p“ von der Form p”, “A thinks p”, “A says p”, are of the that p’, ‘A has the thought p’, and ‘A says
„‚p‘ sagt p“ sind: Und hier handelt es sich form “‘p’ says p”: and here we have no p’ are of the form ‘“p” says p’: and this
nicht um eine Zuordnung von einer Tatsa- co-ordination of a fact and an object, but does not involve a correlation of a fact
che und einem Gegenstand, sondern um a co-ordination of facts by means of a co- with an object, but rather the correlation
die Zuordnung von Tatsachen durch Zu- ordination of their objects. of facts by means of the correlation of
ordnung ihrer Gegenstände. their objects.
5.5421 Dies zeigt auch, dass die Seele—das This shows that there is no such thing This shows too that there is no such
Subjekt etc.—wie sie in der heutigen ober- as the soul—the subject, etc.—as it is con- thing as the soul—the subject, etc.—as it
ﬂächlichen Psychologie aufgefasst wird, ceived in superﬁcial psychology. is conceived in the superﬁcial psychology
ein Unding ist. of the present day.
Eine zusammengesetzte Seele wäre A composite soul would not be a soul Indeed a composite soul would no
nämlich keine Seele mehr. any longer. longer be a soul.
5.5422 Die richtige Erklärung der Form des The correct explanation of the form of The correct explanation of the form
Satzes „A urteilt p“ muss zeigen, dass the proposition “A judges p” must show of the proposition, ‘A makes the judgees
unmöglich ist, einen Unsinn zu urtei- that it is impossible to judge a nonsense. ment p’, must show that it is impossible
len. (Russells Theorie genügt dieser Be- (Russell’s theory does not satisfy this con- for a judgement to be a piece of nonsense.
dingung nicht.) dition.) (Russell’s theory does not satisfy this re-
quirement.)
5.5423 Einen Komplex wahrnehmen heißt To perceive a complex means to per- To perceive a complex means to perwahrnehmen,
dass sich seine Bestandtei- ceive that its constituents are combined ceive that its constituents are related to
83
le so und so zu einander verhalten. in such and such a way. one another in such and such a way.
Dies erklärt wohl auch, dass man die This perhaps explains that the ﬁgure This no doubt also explains why there
Figur are two possible ways of seeing the ﬁgure
a
a
a
a
b
b b
b
a
a
a
a
b
b b
b
a
a
a
a
b
b b
b
auf zweierlei Art als Würfel sehen kann; can be seen in two ways as a cube; and as a cube; and all similar phenomena. For
und alle ähnlichen Erscheinungen. Denn all similar phenomena. For we really see we really see two different facts.
wir sehen eben wirklich zwei verschiede- two different facts.
ne Tatsachen.
(Sehe ich erst auf die Ecken a und nur (If I ﬁx my eyes ﬁrst on the corners a (If I look in the ﬁrst place at the corﬂüchtig
auf b, so erscheint a vorne; und and only glance at b, a appears in front ners marked a and only glance at the b’s,
umgekehrt.) and b behind, and vice versa.) then the a’s appear to be in front, and vice
versa).
5.55 Wir müssen nun die Frage nach allen We must now answer a priori the ques- We now have to answer a priori the
möglichen Formen der Elementarsätze a tion as to all possible forms of the elemen- question about all the possible forms of
priori beantworten. tary propositions. elementary propositions.
Der Elementarsatz besteht aus Na- The elementary proposition consists Elementary propositions consist of
men. Da wir aber die Anzahl der Namen of names. Since we cannot give the num- names. Since, however, we are unable to
von verschiedener Bedeutung nicht ange- ber of names with different meanings, we give the number of names with different
ben können, so können wir auch nicht die cannot give the composition of the elemen- meanings, we are also unable to give the
Zusammensetzung des Elementarsatzes tary proposition. composition of elementary propositions.
angeben.
5.551 Unser Grundsatz ist, dass jede Fra- Our fundamental principle is that ev- Our fundamental principle is that
ge, die sich überhaupt durch die Logik ery question which can be decided at all whenever a question can be decided by
entscheiden läßt, sich ohne weiteres ent- by logic can be decided off-hand. logic at all it must be possible to decide it
scheiden lassen muss. without more ado.
(Und wenn wir in die Lage kommen, (And if we get into a situation where (And if we get into a position where
ein solches Problem durch Ansehen der we need to answer such a problem by look- we have to look at the world for an answer
Welt beantworten zu müssen, so zeigt ing at the world, this shows that we are to such a problem, that shows that we are
dies, dass wir auf grundfalscher Fährte on a fundamentally wrong track.) on a completely wrong track.)
sind.)
84
5.552 Die „Erfahrung“, die wir zum Verste- The “experience” which we need to un- The ‘experience’ that we need in order
hen der Logik brauchen, ist nicht die, derstand logic is not that such and such is to understand logic is not that something
dass sich etwas so und so verhält, son- the case, but that something is; but that or other is the state of things, but that
dern, dass etwas i s t: aber das ist eben is no experience. something is: that, however, is not an
k e i n e Erfahrung. experience.
Die Logik ist v o r jeder Erfahrung— Logic precedes every experience—that Logic is prior to every experience—
dass etwas s o ist. something is so. that something is so.
Sie ist vor dem Wie, nicht vor dem It is before the How, not before the It is prior to the question ‘How?’, not
Was. What. prior to the question ‘What?’
5.5521 Und wenn dies nicht so wäre, wie And if this were not the case, how And if this were not so, how could we
könnten wir die Logik anwenden? Man could we apply logic? We could say: if apply logic? We might put it in this way:
könnte sagen: Wenn es eine Logik gäbe, there were a logic, even if there were no if there would be a logic even if there were
auch wenn es keine Welt gäbe, wie könnte world, how then could there be a logic, no world, how then could there be a logic
es dann eine Logik geben, da es eine Welt since there is a world? given that there is a world?
gibt?
5.553 Russell sagte, es gäbe einfache Rela- Russell said that there were sim- Russell said that there were simple
tionen zwischen verschiedenen Anzahlen ple relations between different numbers relations between different numbers of
von Dingen (Individuals). Aber zwischen of things (individuals). But between things (individuals). But between what
welchen Anzahlen? Und wie soll sich das what numbers? And how should this be numbers? And how is this supposed to be
entscheiden?—Durch die Erfahrung? decided—by experience? decided?—By experience?
(Eine ausgezeichnete Zahl gibt es (There is no pre-eminent number.) (There is no privileged number.)
nicht.)
5.554 Die Angabe jeder speziellen Form wä- The enumeration of any special forms It would be completely arbitrary to
re vollkommen willkürlich. would be entirely arbitrary. give any speciﬁc form.
5.5541 Es soll sich a priori angeben lassen, How could we decide a priori whether, It is supposed to be possible to answer
ob ich z. B. in die Lage kommen kann, for example, I can get into a situation in a priori the question whether I can get
etwas mit dem Zeichen einer 27-stelligen which I need to symbolize with a sign of a into a position in which I need the sign
Relation bezeichnen zu müssen. 27-termed relation? for a 27-termed relation in order to signify
something.
5.5542 Dürfen wir denn aber überhaupt so May we then ask this at all? Can we But is it really legitimate even to ask
fragen? Können wir eine Zeichenform auf- set out a sign form and not know whether such a question? Can we set up a form of
stellen und nicht wissen, ob ihr etwas ent- anything can correspond to it? sign without knowing whether anything
sprechen könne? can correspond to it?
Hat die Frage einen Sinn: Was muss Has the question sense: what must Does it make sense to ask what there
s e i n, damit etwas der-Fall-sein kann? there be in order that anything can be the must be in order that something can be
case? the case?
5.555 Es ist klar, wir haben vom Elementar- It is clear that we have a concept of Clearly we have some concept of el-
85
satz einen Begriff, abgesehen von seiner the elementary proposition apart from its ementary propositions quite apart from
besonderen logischen Form. special logical form. their particular logical forms.
Wo man aber Symbole nach einem Sy- Where, however, we can build symbols But when there is a system by which
stem bilden kann, dort ist dieses System according to a system, there this system we can create symbols, the system is what
das logisch wichtige und nicht die einzel- is the logically important thing and not is important for logic and not the individnen
Symbole. the single symbols. ual symbols.
Und wie wäre es auch möglich, dass And how would it be possible that I And anyway, is it really possible that
ich es in der Logik mit Formen zu tun should have to deal with forms in logic in logic I should have to deal with forms
hätte, die ich erﬁnden kann; sondern mit which I can invent: but I must have to that I can invent? What I have to deal
dem muss ich es zu tun haben, was es mir deal with that which makes it possible for with must be that which makes it possible
möglich macht, sie zu erﬁnden. me to invent them. for me to invent them.
5.556 Eine Hierarchie der Formen der Ele- There cannot be a hierarchy of the There cannot be a hierarchy of the
mentarsätze kann es nicht geben. Nur forms of the elementary propositions. forms of elementary propositions. We can
was wir selbst konstruieren, können wir Only that which we ourselves construct foresee only what we ourselves construct.
voraussehen. can we foresee.
5.5561 Die empirische Realität ist begrenzt Empirical reality is limited by the to- Empirical reality is limited by the todurch
die Gesamtheit der Gegenstände. tality of objects. The boundary appears tality of objects. The limit also makes itDie
Grenze zeigt sich wieder in der Ge- again in the totality of elementary propo- self manifest in the totality of elementary
samtheit der Elementarsätze. sitions. propositions.
Die Hierarchien sind, und müssen un- The hierarchies are and must be inde- Hierarchies are and must be indepenabhängig
von der Realität sein. pendent of reality. dent of reality.
5.5562 Wissen wir aus rein logischen Grün- If we know on purely logical grounds, If we know on purely logical grounds
den, dass es Elementarsätze geben muss, that there must be elementary proposi- that there must be elementary proposidann
muss es jeder wissen, der die Sätze tions, then this must be known by ev- tions, then everyone who understands
in ihrer unanalysierten Form versteht. eryone who understands propositions in propositions in their unanalyzed form
their unanalysed form. must know it.
5.5563 Alle Sätze unserer Umgangssprache All propositions of our colloquial lan- In fact, all the propositions of our evsind
tatsächlich, so wie sie sind, logisch guage are actually, just as they are, log- eryday language, just as they stand, are
vollkommen geordnet.—Jenes Einfachste, ically completely in order. That simple in perfect logical order.—That utterly simwas
wir hier angeben sollen, ist nicht ein thing which we ought to give here is not a ple thing, which we have to formulate
Gleichnis der Wahrheit, sondern die volle model of the truth but the complete truth here, is not an image of the truth, but
Wahrheit selbst. itself. the truth itself in its entirety.
(Unsere Probleme sind nicht abstrakt, (Our problems are not abstract but (Our problems are not abstract, but
sondern vielleicht die konkretesten, die perhaps the most concrete that there are.) perhaps the most concrete that there are.)
es gibt.)
5.557 Die A n w e n d u n g der Logik ent- The application of logic decides what The application of logic decides what
scheidet darüber, welche Elementarsätze elementary propositions there are. elementary propositions there are.
86
es gibt.
Was in der Anwendung liegt, kann die What lies in its application logic can- What belongs to its application, logic
Logik nicht vorausnehmen. not anticipate. cannot anticipate.
Das ist klar: Die Logik darf mit ihrer It is clear that logic may not conﬂict It is clear that logic must not clash
Anwendung nicht kollidieren. with its application. with its application.
Aber die Logik muss sich mit ihrer But logic must have contact with its But logic has to be in contact with its
Anwendung berühren. application. application.
Also dürfen die Logik und ihre Anwen- Therefore logic and its application Therefore logic and its application
dung einander nicht übergreifen. may not overlap one another. must not overlap.
5.5571 Wenn ich die Elementarsätze nicht a If I cannot give elementary proposi- If I cannot say a priori what elemenpriori
angeben kann, dann muss es zu tions a priori then it must lead to obvious tary propositions there are, then the atoffenbarem
Unsinn führen, sie angeben nonsense to try to give them. tempt to do so must lead to obvious nonzu
wollen. sense.
5.6 D i e G r e n z e n m e i n e r S p r a - The limits of my language mean the The limits of my language mean the
c h e bedeuten die Grenzen meiner Welt. limits of my world. limits of my world.
5.61 Die Logik erfüllt die Welt; die Grenzen Logic ﬁlls the world: the limits of the Logic pervades the world: the limits
der Welt sind auch ihre Grenzen. world are also its limits. of the world are also its limits.
Wir können also in der Logik nicht We cannot therefore say in logic: This So we cannot say in logic, ‘The world
sagen: Das und das gibt es in der Welt, and this there is in the world, that there has this in it, and this, but not that.’
jenes nicht. is not.
Das würde nämlich scheinbar voraus- For that would apparently presuppose For that would appear to presuppose
setzen, dass wir gewisse Möglichkeiten that we exclude certain possibilities, and that we were excluding certain possibiliausschließen,
und dies kann nicht der this cannot be the case since otherwise ties, and this cannot be the case, since it
Fall sein, da sonst die Logik über die logic must get outside the limits of the would require that logic should go beyond
Grenzen der Welt hinaus müsste; wenn world: that is, if it could consider these the limits of the world; for only in that
sie nämlich diese Grenzen auch von der limits from the other side also. way could it view those limits from the
anderen Seite betrachten könnte. other side as well.
Was wir nicht denken können, das What we cannot think, that we cannot We cannot think what we cannot
können wir nicht denken; wir können also think: we cannot therefore say what we think; so what we cannot think we cannot
auch nicht s a g e n, was wir nicht denken cannot think. say either.
können.
5.62 Diese Bemerkung gibt den Schlüssel This remark provides a key to the This remark provides the key to the
zur Entscheidung der Frage, inwieweit question, to what extent solipsism is a problem, how much truth there is in solipder
Solipsismus eine Wahrheit ist. truth. sism.
Was der Solipsismus nämlich In fact what solipsism means, is quite For what the solipsist means is quite
m e i n t, ist ganz richtig, nur lässt es sich correct, only it cannot be said, but it correct; only it cannot be said, but makes
nicht s a g e n, sondern es zeigt sich. shows itself. itself manifest.
87
Dass die Welt m e i n e Welt ist, das That the world is my world, shows it- The world is my world: this is manizeigt
sich darin, dass die Grenzen d e r self in the fact that the limits of the lan- fest in the fact that the limits of language
Sprache (der Sprache, die allein ich ver- guage (the language which I understand) (of that language which alone I understehe)
die Grenzen m e i n e r Welt be- mean the limits of my world. stand) mean the limits of my world.
deuten.
5.621 Die Welt und das Leben sind Eins. The world and life are one. The world and life are one.
5.63 Ich bin meine Welt. (Der Mikrokos- I am my world. (The microcosm.) I am my world. (The microcosm.)
mos.)
5.631 Das denkende, vorstellende, Subjekt The thinking, presenting subject; There is no such thing as the subject
gibt es nicht. there is no such thing. that thinks or entertains ideas.
Wenn ich ein Buch schriebe „Die Welt, If I wrote a book “The world as I found If I wrote a book called The World as I
wie ich sie vorfand“, so wäre darin auch it”, I should also have therein to report found it, I should have to include a report
über meinen Leib zu berichten und zu on my body and say which members obey on my body, and should have to say which
sagen, welche Glieder meinem Willen un- my will and which do not, etc. This then parts were subordinate to my will, and
terstehen und welche nicht, etc., dies ist would be a method of isolating the subject which were not, etc., this being a method
nämlich eine Methode, das Subjekt zu iso- or rather of showing that in an important of isolating the subject, or rather of showlieren,
oder vielmehr zu zeigen, dass es in sense there is no subject: that is to say, of ing that in an important sense there is
einem wichtigen Sinne kein Subjekt gibt: it alone in this book mention could not be no subject; for it alone could not be menVon
ihm allein nämlich könnte in diesem made. tioned in that book.—
Buche n i c h t die Rede sein.—
5.632 Das Subjekt gehört nicht zur Welt, The subject does not belong to the The subject does not belong to the
sondern es ist eine Grenze der Welt. world but it is a limit of the world. world: rather, it is a limit of the world.
5.633 Wo i n der Welt ist ein metaphysi- Where in the world is a metaphysical Where in the world is a metaphysical
sches Subjekt zu merken? subject to be noted? subject to be found?
Du sagst, es verhält sich hier ganz You say that this case is altogether You will say that this is exactly like
wie mit Auge und Gesichtsfeld. Aber das like that of the eye and the ﬁeld of sight. the case of the eye and the visual ﬁeld.
Auge siehst du wirklich n i c h t. But you do not really see the eye. But really you do not see the eye.
Und nichts a m G e s i c h t s f e l d And from nothing in the ﬁeld of sight And nothing in the visual ﬁeld allows
lässt darauf schließen, dass es von einem can it be concluded that it is seen from an you to infer that it is seen by an eye.
Auge gesehen wird. eye.
5.6331 Das Gesichtsfeld hat nämlich nicht For the ﬁeld of sight has not a form For the form of the visual ﬁeld is
etwa eine solche Form: like this: surely not like this
Auge — Eye — Eye —
5.634 Das hängt damit zusammen, dass This is connected with the fact that no This is connected with the fact that no
88
kein Teil unserer Erfahrung auch a priori part of our experience is also a priori. part of our experience is at the same time
ist. a priori.
Alles, was wir sehen, könnte auch an- Everything we see could also be other- Whatever we see could be other than
ders sein. wise. it is.
Alles, was wir überhaupt beschreiben Everything we describe at all could Whatever we can describe at all could
können, könnte auch anders sein. also be otherwise. be other than it is.
Es gibt keine Ordnung der Dinge a There is no order of things a priori. There is no a priori order of things.
priori.
5.64 Hier sieht man, dass der Solipsismus, Here we see that solipsism strictly car- Here it can be seen that solipsism,
streng durchgeführt, mit dem reinen Rea- ried out coincides with pure realism. The when its implications are followed out
lismus zusammenfällt. Das Ich des Solip- I in solipsism shrinks to an extensionless strictly, coincides with pure realism. The
sismus schrumpft zum ausdehnungslosen point and there remains the reality co- self of solipsism shrinks to a point withPunkt
zusammen, und es bleibt die ihm ordinated with it. out extension, and there remains the rekoordinierte
Realität. ality co-ordinated with it.
5.641 Es gibt also wirklich einen Sinn, in There is therefore really a sense in Thus there really is a sense in which
welchem in der Philosophie nichtpsycho- which the philosophy we can talk of a non- philosophy can talk about the self in a
logisch vom Ich die Rede sein kann. psychological I. non-psychological way.
Das Ich tritt in die Philosophie da- The I occurs in philosophy through the What brings the self into philosophy
durch ein, dass „die Welt meine Welt ist“. fact that the “world is my world”. is the fact that ‘the world is my world’.
Das philosophische Ich ist nicht der The philosophical I is not the man, The philosophical self is not the huMensch,
nicht der menschliche Körper, not the human body or the human soul man being, not the human body, or the
oder die menschliche Seele, von der die of which psychology treats, but the meta- human soul, with which psychology deals,
Psychologie handelt, sondern das meta- physical subject, the limit—not a part of but rather the metaphysical subject, the
physische Subjekt, die Grenze—nicht ein the world. limit of the world—not a part of it.
Teil—der Welt.
6 Die allgemeine Form der Wahrheits- The general form of truth-function is: The general form of a truth-function
funktion ist: [p, ξ, N(ξ)]. [p, ξ, N(ξ)]. is [p, ξ, N(ξ)].
Dies ist die allgemeine Form des Sat- This is the general form of proposi- This is the general form of a proposizes.
tion. tion.
6.001 Dies sagt nichts anderes, als dass je- This says nothing else than that ev- What this says is just that every
der Satz ein Resultat der successiven An- ery proposition is the result of successive proposition is a result of successive apwendung
der Operation N’(ξ) auf die Ele- applications of the operation N’(ξ) to the plications to elementary propositions of
mentarsätze ist. elementary propositions. the operation N(ξ).
6.002 Ist die allgemeine Form gegeben, wie If we are given the general form of the If we are given the general form acein
Satz gebaut ist, so ist damit auch way in which a proposition is constructed, cording to which propositions are conschon
die allgemeine Form davon gege- then thereby we are also given the gen- structed, then with it we are also given
ben, wie aus einem Satz durch eine Ope- eral form of the way in which by an oper- the general form according to which one
89
ration ein anderer erzeugt werden kann. ation out of one proposition another can proposition can be generated out of anbe
created. other by means of an operation.
6.01 Die allgemeine Form der Operation The general form of the opera- Therefore the general form of an operΩ’(η)
ist also: [ξ, N(ξ)]’(η) (= [η, ξ, N(ξ)]). tion Ω’(η) is therefore: [ξ, N(ξ)]’(η) (= ation Ω’(η) is [ξ, N(ξ)]’(η) (= [η, ξ, N(ξ)]).
[η, ξ, N(ξ)]).
Das ist die allgemeinste Form des This is the most general form of tran- This is the most general form of tranÜberganges
von einem Satz zum ande- sition from one proposition to another. sition from one proposition to another.
ren.
6.02 Und s o kommen wir zu den Zahlen: And thus we come to numbers: I de- And this is how we arrive at numbers.
Ich deﬁniere ﬁne I give the following deﬁnitions
x = Ω0
’x Def. und
Ω’Ων
’x = Ων+1
’x Def.
x = Ω0
’x Def. and
Ω’Ων
’x = Ων+1
’x Def.
x = Ω0
’x Def.
Ω’Ων
’x = Ων+1
’x Def.
Nach diesen Zeichenregeln schreiben According, then, to these symbolic So, in accordance with these rules,
wir also die Reihe rules we write the series which deal with signs, we write the se-
ries
x, Ω’x, Ω’Ω’x, Ω’Ω’Ω’x, ... x, Ω’x, Ω’Ω’x, Ω’Ω’Ω’x, ... x, Ω’x, Ω’Ω’x, Ω’Ω’Ω’x, ...
so: as: in the following way
Ω0
’x, Ω0+1
’x, Ω0+1+1
’x, Ω0+1+1+1
’x, ... Ω0
’x, Ω0+1
’x, Ω0+1+1
’x, Ω0+1+1+1
’x, ... Ω0
’x, Ω0+1
’x, Ω0+1+1
’x, Ω0+1+1+1
’x, ...
Also schreibe ich statt „[x, ξ, Ω’ξ]“: Therefore I write in place of “[x, ξ, Therefore, instead of ‘[x, ξ, Ω’ξ]’,
Ω’ξ]”,
„[Ω0
’x, Ων
’x, Ων+1
’x]“. “[Ω0
’x, Ων
’x, Ων+1
’x]”. I write ‘[Ω0
’x, Ων
’x, Ων+1
’x]’.
Und deﬁniere: And I deﬁne: And I give the following deﬁnitions
0+1 = 1 Def.
0+1+1 = 2 Def.
0+1+1+1 = 3 Def.
(u. s. f.)
0+1 = 1 Def.
0+1+1 = 2 Def.
0+1+1+1 = 3 Def.
and so on.
0+1 = 1 Def.,
0+1+1 = 2 Def.,
0+1+1+1 = 3 Def.,
(and so on).
6.021 Die Zahl ist der Exponent einer Ope- A number is the exponent of an opera- A number is the exponent of an operaration.
tion. tion.
6.022 Der Zahlbegriff ist nichts anderes als The concept number is nothing else The concept of number is simply what
das Gemeinsame aller Zahlen, die allge- than that which is common to all num- is common to all numbers, the general
meine Form der Zahl. bers, the general form of a number. form of a number.
Der Zahlbegriff ist die variable Zahl. The concept number is the variable The concept of number is the variable
number. number.
Und der Begriff der Zahlengleichheit And the concept of equality of num- And the concept of numerical equality
90
ist die allgemeine Form aller speziellen bers is the general form of all special is the general form of all particular cases
Zahlengleichheiten. equalities of numbers. of numerical equality.
6.03 Die allgemeine Form der ganzen Zahl The general form of the cardinal num- The general form of an integer is
ist: [0,ξ,ξ+1]. ber is: [0,ξ,ξ+1]. [0,ξ,ξ+1].
6.031 Die Theorie der Klassen ist in der Ma- The theory of classes is altogether su- The theory of classes is completely suthematik
ganz überﬂüssig. perﬂuous in mathematics. perﬂuous in mathematics.
Dies hängt damit zusammen, dass die This is connected with the fact that This is connected with the fact that
Allgemeinheit, welche wir in der Mathe- the generality which we need in mathe- the generality required in mathematics is
matik brauchen, nicht die z u f ä l l i g e matics is not the accidental one. not accidental generality.
ist.
6.1 Die Sätze der Logik sind Tautologien. The propositions of logic are tautolo- The propositions of logic are tautologies.
gies.
6.11 Die Sätze der Logik sagen also nichts. The propositions of logic therefore say Therefore the propositions of logic say
(Sie sind die analytischen Sätze.) nothing. (They are the analytical proposi- nothing. (They are the analytic propositions.)
tions.)
6.111 Theorien, die einen Satz der Logik ge- Theories which make a proposition All theories that make a proposition
haltvoll erscheinen lassen, sind immer of logic appear substantial are always of logic appear to have content are false.
falsch. Man könnte z. B. glauben, dass false. One could e.g. believe that the One might think, for example, that the
die Worte „wahr“ und „falsch“ zwei Ei- words “true” and “false” signify two prop- words ‘true’ and ‘false’ signiﬁed two propgenschaften
unter anderen Eigenschaf- erties among other properties, and then erties among other properties, and then it
ten bezeichnen, und da erschiene es als it would appear as a remarkable fact that would seem to be a remarkable fact that
eine merkwürdige Tatsache, dass jeder every proposition possesses one of these every proposition possessed one of these
Satz eine dieser Eigenschaften besitzt. properties. This now by no means ap- properties. On this theory it seems to be
Das scheint nun nichts weniger als selbst- pears self-evident, no more so than the anything but obvious, just as, for instance,
verständlich zu sein, ebensowenig selbst- proposition “All roses are either yellow or the proposition, ‘All roses are either yelverständlich,
wie etwa der Satz: „Alle Ro- red” would seem even if it were true. In- low or red’, would not sound obvious even
sen sind entweder gelb oder rot“ klänge, deed our proposition now gets quite the if it were true. Indeed, the logical propoauch
wenn er wahr wäre. Ja, jener Satz character of a proposition of natural sci- sition acquires all the characteristics of a
bekommt nun ganz den Charakter eines ence and this is a certain symptom of its proposition of natural science and this is
naturwissenschaftlichen Satzes, und dies being falsely understood. the sure sign that it has been construed
ist das sichere Anzeichen dafür, dass er wrongly.
falsch aufgefasst wurde.
6.112 Die richtige Erklärung der logischen The correct explanation of logical The correct explanation of the propoSätze
muss ihnen eine einzigartige Stel- propositions must give them a peculiar sitions of logic must assign to them a
lung unter allen Sätzen geben. position among all propositions. unique status among all propositions.
6.113 Es ist das besondere Merkmal der logi- It is the characteristic mark of logi- It is the peculiar mark of logical proposchen
Sätze, dass man am Symbol allein cal propositions that one can perceive in sitions that one can recognize that they
91
erkennen kann, dass sie wahr sind, und the symbol alone that they are true; and are true from the symbol alone, and this
diese Tatsache schließt die ganze Philoso- this fact contains in itself the whole phi- fact contains in itself the whole philosophie
der Logik in sich. Und so ist es auch losophy of logic. And so also it is one of phy of logic. And so too it is a very imeine
derwichtigsten Tatsachen, dass sich the most important facts that the truth or portant fact that the truth or falsity of
die Wahrheit oder Falschheit der nicht- falsehood of non-logical propositions can non-logical propositions cannot be recoglogischen
Sätze n i c h t am Satz allein not be recognized from the propositions nized from the propositions alone.
erkennen lässt. alone.
6.12 Dass die Sätze der Logik Tautolo- The fact that the propositions of The fact that the propositions of
gien sind, das z e i g t die formalen— logic are tautologies shows the formal— logic are tautologies shows the formal—
logischen—Eigenschaften der Sprache, logical—properties of language, of the logical—properties of language and the
der Welt. world. world.
Dass ihre Bestandteile s o verknüpft That its constituent parts connected The fact that a tautology is yielded
eine Tautologie ergeben, das charakteri- together in this way give a tautology char- by this particular way of connecting its
siert die Logik ihrer Bestandteile. acterizes the logic of its constituent parts. constituents characterizes the logic of its
constituents.
Damit Sätze, auf bestimmte Art und In order that propositions connected If propositions are to yield a tautolWeise
verknüpft, eine Tautologie ergeben, together in a deﬁnite way may give a tau- ogy when they are connected in a certain
dazu müssen sie bestimmte Eigenschaf- tology they must have deﬁnite properties way, they must have certain structural
ten der Struktur haben. Dass sie s o ver- of structure. That they give a tautology properties. So their yielding a tautology
bunden eine Tautologie ergeben, zeigt al- when so connected shows therefore that when combined in this way shows that
so, dass sie diese Eigenschaften der Struk- they possess these properties of structure. they possess these structural properties.
tur besitzen.
6.1201 Dass z. B. die Sätze „p“ und „∼p“ in That e.g. the propositions “p” and “∼p” For example, the fact that the propoder
Verbindung „∼(p . ∼p)“ eine Tautolo- in the connexion “∼(p . ∼p)” give a tau- sitions ‘p’ and ‘∼p’ in the combination
gie ergeben, zeigt, dass sie einander wi- tology shows that they contradict one an- ‘∼(p . ∼p)’ yield a tautology shows that
dersprechen. Dass die Sätze „p ⊃ q“, „p“ other. That the propositions “p ⊃ q”, “p” they contradict one another. The fact
und „q“ in der Form „(p ⊃ q) . (p) :⊃: (q)“ and “q” connected together in the form that the propositions ‘p ⊃ q’, ‘p’, and ‘q’,
miteinander verbunden eine Tautologie “(p ⊃ q) . (p) :⊃: (q)” give a tautology shows combined with one another in the form
ergeben, zeigt, dass q aus p und p ⊃ q that q follows from p and p ⊃ q. That ‘(p ⊃ q) . (p) :⊃: (q)’, yield a tautology
folgt. Dass „(x). fx :⊃: fa“ eine Tautologie “(x). fx :⊃: fa” is a tautology shows that shows that q follows from p and p ⊃ q.
ist, dass fa aus (x). fx folgt. etc. etc. fa follows from (x). fx, etc. etc. The fact that ‘(x). fx :⊃: fa’ is a tautology
shows that fa follows from (x). fx. Etc.
etc.
6.1202 Es ist klar, dass man zu demselben It is clear that we could have used It is clear that one could achieve the
Zweck statt der Tautologien auch die Kon- for this purpose contradictions instead of same purpose by using contradictions intradiktionen
verwenden könnte. tautologies. stead of tautologies.
6.1203 Um eine Tautologie als solche zu er- In order to recognize a tautology as In order to recognize an expression as
92
kennen, kann man sich, in den Fällen, such, we can, in cases in which no sign of a tautology, in cases where no generalityin
welchen in der Tautologie keine All- generality occurs in the tautology, make sign occurs in it, one can employ the folgemeinheitsbezeichnung
vorkommt, fol- use of the following intuitive method: lowing intuitive method: instead of ‘p’,
gender anschaulichen Methode bedienen: I write instead of “p”, “q”, “r”, etc., ‘q’, ‘r’, etc. I write ‘T pF’, ‘T qF’, ‘TrF’, etc.
Ich schreibe statt „p“, „q“, „r“ etc. „W pF“, “T pF”, “T qF”, “TrF”, etc. The truth- Truth-combinations I express by means
„W qF“, „WrF“ etc. Die Wahrheitskombi- combinations I express by brackets, e.g.: of brackets, e.g.
nationen drücke ich durch Klammern aus,
z. B.:
W p F W q F T p F T q F T p F T q F,
und die Zuordnung der Wahr- oder Falsch- and the co-ordination of the truth or and I use lines to express the correlation
heit des ganzen Satzes und der Wahr- falsity of the whole proposition with of the truth or falsity of the whole propoheitskombinationen
der Wahrheitsargu- the truth-combinations of the truth- sition with the truth-combinations of its
mente durch Striche auf folgende Weise: arguments by lines in the following way: truth-arguments, in the following way
W p F W q F
F
W
T p F T q F
F
T
T p F T q F.
F
T
Dies Zeichen würde also z. B. den Satz This sign, for example, would therefore So this sign, for instance, would represent
p ⊃ q darstellen. Nun will ich z. B. den present the proposition p ⊃ q. Now I will the proposition p ⊃ q. Now, by way of exSatz
∼(p . ∼p) (Gesetz des Widerspruchs) proceed to inquire whether such a propo- ample, I wish to examine the proposition
daraufhin untersuchen, ob er eine Tauto- sition as ∼(p . ∼p) (The Law of Contra- ∼(p . ∼p) (the law of contradiction) in orlogie
ist. Die Form „∼ξ“ wird in unserer diction) is a tautology. The form “∼ξ” is der to determine whether it is a tautology.
Notation written in our notation In our notation the form ‘∼ξ’ is written as
93
„W ξ F“
W
F
“T ξ F”
T
F
‘T ξ F’,
T
F
geschrieben; die Form „ξ . η“ so: the form “ξ . η” thus:— and the form ‘ξ . η’ as
W ξ F W η F
F
W
T ξ F T η F
F
T
T ξ F T η F.
F
T
Daher lautet der Satz ∼(p . ∼q) so: Hence the proposition ∼(p . ∼q) runs Hence the proposition ∼(p . ∼q) reads as
thus:— follows
W q F W p F
W
F
W
F
F
W
T q F T p F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T q F T p F.
T
F
T
F
F
T
Setzen wir statt „q“ „p“ ein und unter- If here we put “p” instead of “q” and ex- If we here substitute ‘p’ for ‘q’ and
suchen die Verbindung der äußersten W amine the combination of the outermost T examine how the outermost T and F
und F mit den innersten, so ergibt sich, and F with the innermost, it is seen that are connected with the innermost ones,
dass die Wahrheit des ganzen Satzes a l - the truth of the whole proposition is co- the result will be that the truth of the
l e n Wahrheitskombinationen seines Ar- ordinated with all the truth-combinations whole proposition is correlated with all
gumentes, seine Falschheit keiner der of its argument, its falsity with none of the truth-combinations of its argument,
94
Wahrheitskombinationen zugeordnet ist. the truth-combinations. and its falsity with none of the truth-
combinations.
6.121 Die Sätze der Logik demonstrieren die The propositions of logic demonstrate The propositions of logic demonstrate
logischen Eigenschaften der Sätze, indem the logical properties of propositions, by the logical properties of propositions by
sie sie zu nichtssagenden Sätzen verbin- combining them into propositions which combining them so as to form propositions
den. say nothing. that say nothing.
Diese Methode könnte man auch eine This method could be called a zero- This method could also be called a
Nullmethode nennen. Im logischen Satz method. In a logical proposition proposi- zero-method. In a logical proposition,
werden Sätze miteinander ins Gleich- tions are brought into equilibrium with propositions are brought into equilibrium
gewicht gebracht und der Zustand des one another, and the state of equilibrium with one another, and the state of equiGleichgewichts
zeigt dann an, wie diese then shows how these propositions must librium then indicates what the logical
Sätze logisch beschaffen sein müssen. be logically constructed. constitution of these propositions must
be.
6.122 Daraus ergibt sich, dass wir auch oh- Whence it follows that we can get on It follows from this that we can actune
die logischen Sätze auskommen kön- without logical propositions, for we can ally do without logical propositions; for
nen, da wir ja in einer entsprechenden recognize in an adequate notation the in a suitable notation we can in fact recNotation
die formalen Eigenschaften der formal properties of the propositions by ognize the formal properties of proposiSätze
durch das bloße Ansehen dieser Sät- mere inspection. tions by mere inspection of the proposize
erkennen können. tions themselves.
6.1221 Ergeben z. B. zwei Sätze „p“ und „q“ If for example two propositions “p” If, for example, two propositions ‘p’
in der Verbindung „p ⊃ q“ eine Tautologie, and “q” give a tautology in the connex- and ‘q’ in the combination ‘p ⊃ q’ yield a
so ist klar, dass q aus p folgt. ion “p ⊃ q”, then it is clear that q follows tautology, then it is clear that q follows
from p. from p.
Dass z. B. „q“ aus „p ⊃ q . p“ folgt, er- E.g. that “q” follows from “p ⊃ q . p” For example, we see from the two
sehen wir aus diesen beiden Sätzen selbst, we see from these two propositions them- propositions themselves that ‘q’ follows
aber wir können es auch s o zeigen, in- selves, but we can also show it by com- from ‘p ⊃ q . p’, but it is also possible to
dem wir sie zu „p ⊃ q . p :⊃: q“ verbinden bining them to “p ⊃ q . p :⊃: q” and then show it in this way: we combine them to
und nun zeigen, dass dies eine Tautologie showing that this is a tautology. form ‘p ⊃ q . p :⊃: q’, and then show that
ist. this is a tautology.
6.1222 Dies wirft ein Licht auf die Frage, This throws light on the question why This throws some light on the queswarum
die logischen Sätze nicht durch logical propositions can no more be empir- tion why logical propositions cannot be
die Erfahrung bestätigt werden können, ically conﬁrmed than they can be empiri- conﬁrmed by experience any more than
ebensowenig wie sie durch die Erfah- cally refuted. Not only must a proposition they can be refuted by it. Not only must
rung widerlegt werden können. Nicht nur of logic be incapable of being contradicted a proposition of logic be irrefutable by
muss ein Satz der Logik durch keine mög- by any possible experience, but it must any possible experience, but it must also
liche Erfahrung widerlegt werden kön- also be incapable of being conﬁrmed by be unconﬁrmable by any possible experinen,
sondern er darf auch nicht durch any such. ence.
95
eine solche bestätigt werden können.
6.1223 Nun wird klar, warum man oft fühl- It now becomes clear why we often Now it becomes clear why people have
te, als wären die „logischen Wahrheiten“ feel as though “logical truths” must be often felt as if it were for us to ‘postulate’
von uns zu „f o r d e r n“: Wir können sie “postulated” by us. We can in fact postu- the ‘truths of logic’. The reason is that
nämlich insofern fordern, als wir eine ge- late them in so far as we can postulate an we can postulate them in so far as we can
nügende Notation fordern können. adequate notation. postulate an adequate notation.
6.1224 Es wird jetzt auch klar, warum die It also becomes clear why logic has It also becomes clear now why logic
Logik die Lehre von den Formen und vom been called the theory of forms and of was called the theory of forms and of inSchließen
genannt wurde. inference. ference.
6.123 Es ist klar: Die logischen Gesetze dür- It is clear that the laws of logic cannot Clearly the laws of logic cannot in
fen nicht selbst wieder logischen Geset- themselves obey further logical laws. their turn be subject to laws of logic.
zen unterstehen.
(Es gibt nicht, wie Russell meinte, für (There is not, as Russell supposed, for (There is not, as Russell thought, a
jede „Type“ ein eigenes Gesetz des Wider- every “type” a special law of contradiction; special law of contradiction for each ‘type’;
spruches, sondern Eines genügt, da es auf but one is sufﬁcient, since it is not applied one law is enough, since it is not applied
sich selbst nicht angewendet wird.) to itself.) to itself.)
6.1231 Das Anzeichen des logischen Satzes The mark of logical propositions is not The mark of a logical proposition is
ist n i c h t die Allgemeingültigkeit. their general validity. not general validity.
Allgemein sein heißt ja nur: zufälli- To be general is only to be acciden- To be general means no more than to
gerweise für alle Dinge gelten. Ein unver- tally valid for all things. An ungeneral- be accidentally valid for all things. An
allgemeinerter Satz kann ja ebensowohl ized proposition can be tautologous just ungeneralized proposition can be tautotautologisch
sein als ein verallgemeiner- as well as a generalized one. logical just as well as a generalized one.
ter.
6.1232 Die logische Allgemeingültigkeit Logical general validity, we could call The general validity of logic might be
könnte man wesentlich nennen, im Ge- essential as opposed to accidental gen- called essential, in contrast with the acgensatz
zu jener zufälligen, etwa des Sat- eral validity, e.g. of the proposition “all cidental general validity of such proposizes:
„Alle Menschen sind sterblich“. Sätze men are mortal”. Propositions like Rus- tions as ‘All men are mortal’. Propositions
wie Russells „Axiom of Reducibility“ sind sell’s “axiom of reducibility” are not log- like Russell’s ‘axiom of reducibility’ are
nicht logische Sätze, und dies erklärt un- ical propositions, and this explains our not logical propositions, and this explains
ser Gefühl: Dass sie, wenn wahr, so doch feeling that, if true, they can only be true our feeling that, even if they were true,
nur durch einen günstigen Zufall wahr by a happy chance. their truth could only be the result of a
sein könnten. fortunate accident.
6.1233 Es lässt sich eine Welt denken, in der We can imagine a world in which the It is possible to imagine a world in
das Axiom of Reducibility nicht gilt. Es axiom of reducibility is not valid. But it which the axiom of reducibility is not
ist aber klar, dass die Logik nichts mit is clear that logic has nothing to do with valid. It is clear, however, that logic has
der Frage zu schaffen hat, ob unsere Welt the question whether our world is really nothing to do with the question whether
wirklich so ist oder nicht. of this kind or not. our world really is like that or not.
96
6.124 Die logischen Sätze beschreiben das The logical propositions describe the The propositions of logic describe the
Gerüst der Welt, oder vielmehr, sie stellen scaffolding of the world, or rather they scaffolding of the world, or rather they
es dar. Sie „handeln“ von nichts. Sie set- present it. They “treat” of nothing. They represent it. They have no ‘subjectzen
voraus, dass Namen Bedeutung, und presuppose that names have meaning, matter’. They presuppose that names
Elementarsätze Sinn haben: Und dies ist and that elementary propositions have have meaning and elementary proposiihre
Verbindung mit der Welt. Es ist klar, sense. And this is their connexion with tions sense; and that is their connexion
dass es etwas über die Welt anzeigen the world. It is clear that it must show with the world. It is clear that somemuss,
dass gewisse Verbindungen von something about the world that certain thing about the world must be indicated
Symbolen—welche wesentlich einen be- combinations of symbols—which essen- by the fact that certain combinations of
stimmten Charakter haben—Tautologien tially have a deﬁnite character—are tau- symbols—whose essence involves the possind.
Hierin liegt das Entscheidende. Wir tologies. Herein lies the decisive point. session of a determinate character—are
sagten, manches an den Symbolen, die We said that in the symbols which we use tautologies. This contains the decisive
wir gebrauchen, wäre willkürlich, man- something is arbitrary, something not. In point. We have said that some things are
ches nicht. In der Logik drückt nur dieses logic only this expresses: but this means arbitrary in the symbols that we use and
aus: Das heißt aber, in der Logik drücken that in logic it is not we who express, by that some things are not. In logic it is only
nicht w i r mit Hilfe der Zeichen aus, means of signs, what we want, but in logic the latter that express: but that means
was wir wollen, sondern in der Logik sagt the nature of the essentially necessary that logic is not a ﬁeld in which we exdie
Natur der naturnotwendigen Zeichen signs itself asserts. That is to say, if we press what we wish with the help of signs,
selbst aus: Wenn wir die logische Syn- know the logical syntax of any sign lan- but rather one in which the nature of the
tax irgendeiner Zeichensprache kennen, guage, then all the propositions of logic natural and inevitable signs speaks for
dann sind bereits alle Sätze der Logik ge- are already given. itself. If we know the logical syntax of
geben. any sign-language, then we have already
been given all the propositions of logic.
6.125 Es ist möglich, und zwar auch nach It is possible, also with the old con- It is possible—indeed possible even acder
alten Auffassung der Logik, von vorn- ception of logic, to give at the outset a cording to the old conception of logic—to
herein eine Beschreibung aller „wahren“ description of all “true” logical proposi- give in advance a description of all ‘true’
logischen Sätze zu geben. tions. logical propositions.
6.1251 Darum kann es in der Logik auch n i e Hence there can never be surprises in Hence there can never be surprises in
Überraschungen geben. logic. logic.
6.126 Ob ein Satz der Logik angehört, kann Whether a proposition belongs to logic One can calculate whether a proposiman
berechnen, indem man die logischen can be calculated by calculating the logi- tion belongs to logic, by calculating the
Eigenschaften des S y m b o l s berech- cal properties of the symbol. logical properties of the symbol.
net.
Und dies tun wir, wenn wir einen lo- And this we do when we prove a log- And this is what we do when we ‘prove’
gischen Satz „beweisen“. Denn, ohne uns ical proposition. For without troubling a logical proposition. For, without botherum
einen Sinn und eine Bedeutung zu ourselves about a sense and a meaning, ing about sense or meaning, we construct
kümmern, bilden wir den logischen Satz we form the logical propositions out of the logical proposition out of others using
97
aus anderen nach bloßen Z e i c h e n r e - others by mere symbolic rules. only rules that deal with signs.
g e l n.
Der Beweis der logischen Sätze be- We prove a logical proposition by cre- The proof of logical propositions consteht
darin, dass wir sie aus anderen lo- ating it out of other logical propositions sists in the following process: we produce
gischen Sätzen durch successive Anwen- by applying in succession certain opera- them out of other logical propositions by
dung gewisser Operationen entstehen las- tions, which again generate tautologies successively applying certain operations
sen, die aus den ersten immer wieder Tau- out of the ﬁrst. (And from a tautology that always generate further tautologies
tologien erzeugen. (Und zwar f o l g e n only tautologies follow.) out of the initial ones. (And in fact only
aus einer Tautologie nur Tautologien.) tautologies follow from a tautology.)
Natürlich ist diese Art zu zeigen, dass Naturally this way of showing that Of course this way of showing that the
ihre Sätze Tautologien sind, der Logik its propositions are tautologies is quite propositions of logic are tautologies is not
durchaus unwesentlich. Schon darum, unessential to logic. Because the proposi- at all essential to logic, if only because the
weil die Sätze, von welchen der Beweis tions, from which the proof starts, must propositions from which the proof starts
ausgeht, ja ohne Beweis zeigen müssen, show without proof that they are tautolo- must show without any proof that they
dass sie Tautologien sind. gies. are tautologies.
6.1261 In der Logik sind Prozess und Re- In logic process and result are equiva- In logic process and result are equivasultat
äquivalent. (Darum keine Überra- lent. (Therefore no surprises.) lent. (Hence the absence of surprise.)
schung.)
6.1262 Der Beweis in der Logik ist nur ein Proof in logic is only a mechanical ex- Proof in logic is merely a mechanical
mechanisches Hilfsmittel zum leichteren pedient to facilitate the recognition of tau- expedient to facilitate the recognition of
Erkennen der Tautologie, wo sie kompli- tology, where it is complicated. tautologies in complicated cases.
ziert ist.
6.1263 Es wäre ja auch zu merkwürdig, wenn It would be too remarkable, if one Indeed, it would be altogether too reman
einen sinnvollen Satz l o g i s c h could prove a signiﬁcant proposition logi- markable if a proposition that had sense
aus anderen beweisen könnte, und einen cally from another, and a logical propo- could be proved logically from others, and
logischen Satz a u c h. Es ist von vornher- sition also. It is clear from the begin- so too could a logical proposition. It is
ein klar, dass der logische Beweis eines ning that the logical proof of a signiﬁcant clear from the start that a logical proof of
sinnvollen Satzes und der Beweis i n der proposition and the proof in logic must be a proposition that has sense and a proof
Logik zwei ganz verschiedene Dinge sein two quite different things. in logic must be two entirely different
müssen. things.
6.1264 Der sinnvolle Satz sagt etwas aus, und The signiﬁcant proposition asserts A proposition that has sense states
sein Beweis zeigt, dass es so ist; in der something, and its proof shows that it is something, which is shown by its proof
Logik ist jeder Satz die Form eines Bewei- so; in logic every proposition is the form to be so. In logic every proposition is the
ses. of a proof. form of a proof.
Jeder Satz der Logik ist ein in Zeichen Every proposition of logic is a modus Every proposition of logic is a modus
dargestellter modus ponens. (Und den mo- ponens presented in signs. (And the ponens represented in signs. (And one
dus ponens kann man nicht durch einen modus ponens can not be expressed by cannot express the modus ponens by
98
Satz ausdrücken.) a proposition.) means of a proposition.)
6.1265 Immer kann man die Logik so auffas- Logic can always be conceived to be It is always possible to construe logic
sen, dass jeder Satz sein eigener Beweis such that every proposition is its own in such a way that every proposition is its
ist. proof. own proof.
6.127 Alle Sätze der Logik sind gleichberech- All propositions of logic are of equal All the propositions of logic are of
tigt, es gibt unter ihnen nicht wesentlich rank; there are not some which are essen- equal status: it is not the case that some
Grundgesetze und abgeleitete Sätze. tially primitive and others deduced from of them are essentially derived proposithere.
tions.
Jede Tautologie zeigt selbst, dass sie Every tautology itself shows that it is Every tautology itself shows that it is
eine Tautologie ist. a tautology. a tautology.
6.1271 Es ist klar, dass die Anzahl der „lo- It is clear that the number of “prim- It is clear that the number of the ‘primgischen
Grundgesetze“ willkürlich ist, itive propositions of logic” is arbitrary, itive propositions of logic’ is arbitrary,
denn man könnte die Logik ja aus Ei- for we could deduce logic from one prim- since one could derive logic from a sinnem
Grundgesetz ableiten, indem man itive proposition by simply forming, for gle primitive proposition, e.g. by simply
einfach z. B. aus Freges Grundgesetzen example, the logical produce of Frege’s constructing the logical product of Frege’s
das logische Produkt bildet. (Frege würde primitive propositions. (Frege would per- primitive propositions. (Frege would pervielleicht
sagen, dass dieses Grundgesetz haps say that this would no longer be haps say that we should then no longer
nun nicht mehr unmittelbar einleuchte. immediately self-evident. But it is re- have an immediately self-evident primAber
es ist merkwürdig, dass ein so exak- markable that so exact a thinker as Frege itive proposition. But it is remarkable
ter Denker wie Frege sich auf den Grad should have appealed to the degree of self- that a thinker as rigorous as Frege apdes
Einleuchtens als Kriterium des logi- evidence as the criterion of a logical propo- pealed to the degree of self-evidence as
schen Satzes berufen hat.) sition.) the criterion of a logical proposition.)
6.13 Die Logik ist keine Lehre, sondern ein Logic is not a theory but a reﬂexion of Logic is not a body of doctrine, but a
Spiegelbild der Welt. the world. mirror-image of the world.
Die Logik ist transzendental. Logic is transcendental. Logic is transcendental.
6.2 Die Mathematik ist eine logische Me- Mathematics is a logical method. Mathematics is a logical method.
thode.
Die Sätze der Mathematik sind Glei- The propositions of mathematics The propositions of mathematics
chungen, also Scheinsätze. are equations, and therefore pseudo- are equations, and therefore pseudopropositions.
propositions.
6.21 Der Satz der Mathematik drückt kei- Mathematical propositions express no A proposition of mathematics does not
nen Gedanken aus. thoughts. express a thought.
6.211 Im Leben ist es ja nie der mathema- In life it is never a mathematical Indeed in real life a mathematitische
Satz, den wir brauchen, sondern proposition which we need, but we use cal proposition is never what we want.
wir benützen den mathematischen Satz mathematical propositions only in order Rather, we make use of mathematin
u r, um aus Sätzen, welche nicht der to infer from propositions which do not cal propositions only in inferences from
Mathematik angehören, auf andere zu belong to mathematics to others which propositions that do not belong to mathe-
99
schließen, welche gleichfalls nicht der Ma- equally do not belong to mathematics. matics to others that likewise do not bethematik
angehören. long to mathematics.
(In der Philosophie führt die Frage: (In philosophy the question “Why do (In philosophy the question, ‘What do
„Wozu gebrauchen wir eigentlich jenes we really use that word, that proposition?” we actually use this word or this propoWort,
jenen Satz“ immer wieder zu wert- constantly leads to valuable results.) sition for?’ repeatedly leads to valuable
vollen Einsichten.) insights.)
6.22 Die Logik der Welt, die die Sätze der The logic of the world which the propo- The logic of the world, which is shown
Logik in den Tautologien zeigen, zeigt die sitions of logic show in tautologies, math- in tautologies by the propositions of logic,
Mathematik in den Gleichungen. ematics shows in equations. is shown in equations by mathematics.
6.23 Wenn zwei Ausdrücke durch das If two expressions are connected by If two expressions are combined by
Gleichheitszeichen verbunden werden, so the sign of equality, this means that they means of the sign of equality, that means
heißt das, sie sind durch einander ersetz- can be substituted for one another. But that they can be substituted for one anbar.
Ob dies aber der Fall ist, muss sich whether this is the case must show itself other. But it must be manifest in the two
an den beiden Ausdrücken selbst zeigen. in the two expressions themselves. expressions themselves whether this is
the case or not.
Es charakterisiert die logische Form It characterizes the logical form of two When two expressions can be substizweier
Ausdrücke, dass sie durch einan- expressions, that they can be substituted tuted for one another, that characterizes
der ersetzbar sind. for one another. their logical form.
6.231 Es ist eine Eigenschaft der Bejahung, It is a property of afﬁrmation that it It is a property of afﬁrmation that it
dass man sie als doppelte Verneinung auf- can be conceived as double denial. can be construed as double negation.
fassen kann.
Es ist eine Eigenschaft von „1 + 1 + It is a property of “1+1+1+1” that it It is a property of ‘1+1+1+1’ that it
1 + 1“, dass man es als „(1 + 1) + (1 + 1)“ can be conceived as “(1+1)+(1+1)”. can be construed as ‘(1+1)+(1+1)’.
auffassen kann.
6.232 Frege sagt, die beiden Ausdrücke ha- Frege says that these expressions Frege says that the two expressions
ben dieselbe Bedeutung, aber verschiede- have the same meaning but different have the same meaning but different
nen Sinn. senses. senses.
Das Wesentliche an der Gleichung ist But what is essential about equation But the essential point about an equaaber,
dass sie nicht notwendig ist, um zu is that it is not necessary in order to tion is that it is not necessary in order to
zeigen, dass die beiden Ausdrücke, die show that both expressions, which are show that the two expressions connected
das Gleichheitszeichen verbindet, diesel- connected by the sign of equality, have the by the sign of equality have the same
be Bedeutung haben, da sich dies aus den same meaning: for this can be perceived meaning, since this can be seen from the
beiden Ausdrücken selbst ersehen lässt. from the two expressions themselves. two expressions themselves.
6.2321 Und, dass die Sätze der Mathematik And, that the propositions of mathe- And the possibility of proving the
bewiesen werden können, heißt ja nichts matics can be proved means nothing else propositions of mathematics means simanderes,
als dass ihre Richtigkeit einzu- than that their correctness can be seen ply that their correctness can be persehen
ist, ohne dass das, was sie aus- without our having to compare what they ceived without its being necessary that
100
drücken, selbst mit den Tatsachen auf express with the facts as regards correct- what they express should itself be comseine
Richtigkeit hin verglichen werden ness. pared with the facts in order to determine
muss. its correctness.
6.2322 Die Identität der Bedeutung zweier The identity of the meaning of two ex- It is impossible to assert the identity of
Ausdrücke lässt sich nicht b e h a u p - pressions cannot be asserted. For in order meaning of two expressions. For in order
t e n. Denn, um etwas von ihrer Bedeu- to be able to assert anything about their to be able to assert anything about their
tung behaupten zu können, muss ich ihre meaning, I must know their meaning, and meaning, I must know their meaning,
Bedeutung kennen: und indem ich ihre if I know their meaning, I know whether and I cannot know their meaning withBedeutung
kenne, weiß ich, ob sie dassel- they mean the same or something differ- out knowing whether what they mean is
be oder verschiedenes bedeuten. ent. the same or different.
6.2323 Die Gleichung kennzeichnet nur den The equation characterizes only the An equation merely marks the point
Standpunkt, von welchem ich die beiden standpoint from which I consider the two of view from which I consider the two exAusdrücke
betrachte, nämlich vom Stand- expressions, that is to say the standpoint pressions: it marks their equivalence in
punkte ihrer Bedeutungsgleichheit. of their equality of meaning. meaning.
6.233 Die Frage, ob man zur Lösung der ma- To the question whether we need in- The question whether intuition is
thematischen Probleme die Anschauung tuition for the solution of mathematical needed for the solution of mathematical
brauche, muss dahin beantwortet werden, problems it must be answered that lan- problems must be given the answer that
dass eben die Sprache hier die nötige An- guage itself here supplies the necessary in this case language itself provides the
schauung liefert. intuition. necessary intuition.
6.2331 Der Vorgang des R e c h n e n s ver- The process of calculation brings The process of calculating serves to
mittelt eben diese Anschauung. about just this intuition. bring about that intuition.
Die Rechnung ist kein Experiment. Calculation is not an experiment. Calculation is not an experiment.
6.234 Die Mathematik ist eine Methode der Mathematics is a method of logic. Mathematics is a method of logic.
Logik.
6.2341 Das Wesentliche der mathematischen The essential of mathematical method It is the essential characteristic of
Methode ist es, mit Gleichungen zu arbei- is working with equations. On this mathematical method that it employs
ten. Auf dieser Methode beruht es näm- method depends the fact that every equations. For it is because of this method
lich, dass jeder Satz der Mathematik sich proposition of mathematics must be self- that every proposition of mathematics
von selbst verstehen muss. evident. must go without saying.
6.24 Die Methode der Mathematik, zu ih- The method by which mathematics ar- The method by which mathematics arren
Gleichungen zu kommen, ist die Sub- rives at its equations is the method of rives at its equations is the method of
stitutionsmethode. substitution. substitution.
Denn die Gleichungen drücken die Er- For equations express the substi- For equations express the substisetzbarkeit
zweier Ausdrücke aus und tutability of two expressions, and we pro- tutability of two expressions and, starting
wir schreiten von einer Anzahl von Glei- ceed from a number of equations to new from a number of equations, we advance
chungen zu neuen Gleichungen vor, in- equations, replacing expressions by oth- to new equations by substituting differdem
wir, den Gleichungen entsprechend, ers in accordance with the equations. ent expressions in accordance with the
101
Ausdrücke durch andere ersetzen. equations.
6.241 So lautet der Beweis des Satzes 2×2 = Thus the proof of the proposition 2× Thus the proof of the proposition 2×
4: 2 = 4 runs: 2 = 4 runs as follows:
(Ων
)µ
’x = Ων×µ
’x Def. (Ων
)µ
’x = Ων×µ
’x Def. (Ων
)µ
’x = Ων×µ
’x Def.
Ω2×2
’x = (Ω2
)2
’x = (Ω2
)1+1
’x = Ω2
’Ω2
’x Ω2×2
’x = (Ω2
)2
’x = (Ω2
)1+1
’x = Ω2
’Ω2
’x Ω2×2
’x = (Ω2
)2
’x = (Ω2
)1+1
’x = Ω2
’Ω2
’x
= Ω1+1
’Ω1+1
’x = (Ω’Ω)’(Ω’Ω)’x = Ω1+1
’Ω1+1
’x = (Ω’Ω)’(Ω’Ω)’x = Ω1+1
’Ω1+1
’x = (Ω’Ω)’(Ω’Ω)’x
= Ω’Ω’Ω’Ω’x = Ω1+1+1+1
’x = Ω4
’x. = Ω’Ω’Ω’Ω’x = Ω1+1+1+1
’x = Ω4
’x. = Ω’Ω’Ω’Ω’x = Ω1+1+1+1
’x = Ω4
’x.
6.3 Die Erforschung der Logik bedeutet Logical research means the investiga- The exploration of logic means the exdie
Erforschung a l l e r G e s e t z m ä - tion of all regularity. And outside logic all ploration of everything that is subject to
ß i g k e i t. Und außerhalb der Logik ist is accident. law. And outside logic everything is accialles
Zufall. dental.
6.31 Das sogenannte Gesetz der Indukti- The so-called law of induction cannot The so-called law of induction cannot
on kann jedenfalls kein logisches Gesetz in any case be a logical law, for it is ob- possibly be a law of logic, since it is obsein,
denn es ist offenbar ein sinnvoller viously a signiﬁcant proposition.—And viously a proposition with sense.—Nor,
Satz.—Und darum kann es auch kein Ge- therefore it cannot be a law a priori ei- therefore, can it be an a priori law.
setz a priori sein. ther.
6.32 Das Kausalitätsgesetz ist kein Gesetz, The law of causality is not a law but The law of causality is not a law but
sondern die Form eines Gesetzes. the form of a law.* the form of a law.
6.321 „Kausalitätsgesetz“, das ist ein Gat- “Law of Causality” is a class name. ‘Law of causality’—that is a general
tungsname. Und wie es in der Mechanik, And as in mechanics there are, for in- name. And just as in mechanics, for examsagen
wir, Minimum-Gesetze gibt—etwa stance, minimum-laws, such as that of ple, there are ‘minimum-principles’, such
der kleinsten Wirkung—so gibt es in der least actions, so in physics there are as the law of least action, so too in physics
Physik Kausalitätsgesetze, Gesetze von causal laws, laws of the causality form. there are causal laws, laws of the causal
der Kausalitätsform. form.
6.3211 Man hat ja auch davon eine Ahnung Men had indeed an idea that there Indeed people even surmised that
gehabt, dass es e i n „Gesetz der klein- must be a “law of least action”, before there must be a ‘law of least action’ before
sten Wirkung“ geben müsse, ehe man ge- they knew exactly how it ran. (Here, as they knew exactly how it went. (Here, as
nau wusste, wie es lautete. (Hier, wie im- always, the a priori certain proves to be always, what is certain a priori proves to
mer, stellt sich das a priori Gewisse als something purely logical.) be something purely logical.)
etwas rein Logisches heraus.)
6.33 Wir g l a u b e n nicht a priori an ein We do not believe a priori in a law of We do not have an a priori belief in a
Erhaltungsgesetz, sondern wir w i s s e n conservation, but we know a priori the law of conservation, but rather a priori
a priori die Möglichkeit einer logischen possibility of a logical form. knowledge of the possibility of a logical
Form. form.
6.34 Alle jene Sätze, wie der Satz vom All propositions, such as the law of All such propositions, including the
* [Ogden only] I.e. not the form of one particular law, but of any law of a certain sort (B. R.).
102
Grunde, von der Kontinuität in der Natur, causation, the law of continuity in nature, principle of sufﬁcient reason, the laws of
vom kleinsten Aufwande in der Natur etc. the law of least expenditure in nature, continuity in nature and of least effort
etc., alle diese sind Einsichten a priori etc. etc., all these are a priori intuitions in nature, etc. etc.—all these are a priüber
die mögliche Formgebung der Sätze of possible forms of the propositions of ori insights about the forms in which the
der Wissenschaft. science. propositions of science can be cast.
6.341 Die Newtonsche Mechanik z. B. bringt Newtonian mechanics, for example, Newtonian mechanics, for example,
die Weltbeschreibung auf eine einheitli- brings the description of the universe to a imposes a uniﬁed form on the description
che Form. Denken wir uns eine weiße uniﬁed form. Let us imagine a white sur- of the world. Let us imagine a white surFläche,
auf der unregelmäßige schwar- face with irregular black spots. We now face with irregular black spots on it. We
ze Flecken wären. Wir sagen nun: Was say: Whatever kind of picture these make then say that whatever kind of picture
für ein Bild immer hierdurch entsteht, I can always get as near as I like to its these make, I can always approximate as
immer kann ich seiner Beschreibung be- description, if I cover the surface with a closely as I wish to the description of it
liebig nahe kommen, indem ich die Flä- sufﬁciently ﬁne square network and now by covering the surface with a sufﬁciently
che mit einem entsprechend feinen qua- say of every square that it is white or ﬁne square mesh, and then saying of evdratischen
Netzwerk bedecke und nun black. In this way I shall have brought ery square whether it is black or white.
von jedem Quadrat sage, dass es weiß the description of the surface to a uniﬁed In this way I shall have imposed a unioder
schwarz ist. Ich werde auf diese Wei- form. This form is arbitrary, because I ﬁed form on the description of the surface.
se die Beschreibung der Fläche auf eine could have applied with equal success a The form is optional, since I could have
einheitliche Form gebracht haben. Die- net with a triangular or hexagonal mesh. achieved the same result by using a net
se Form ist beliebig, denn ich hätte mit It can happen that the description would with a triangular or hexagonal mesh. Posdem
gleichen Erfolge ein Netz aus drei- have been simpler with the aid of a tri- sibly the use of a triangular mesh would
eckigen oder sechseckigen Maschen ver- angular mesh; that is to say we might have made the description simpler: that
wenden können. Es kann sein, dass die have described the surface more accu- is to say, it might be that we could deBeschreibung
mit Hilfe eines Dreiecks- rately with a triangular, and coarser, than scribe the surface more accurately with a
Netzes einfacher geworden wäre; das with the ﬁner square mesh, or vice versa, coarse triangular mesh than with a ﬁne
heißt, dass wir die Fläche mit einem grö- and so on. To the different networks cor- square mesh (or conversely), and so on.
beren Dreiecks-Netz genauer beschreiben respond different systems of describing The different nets correspond to different
könnten als mit einem feineren quadra- the world. Mechanics determine a form systems for describing the world. Mechantischen
(oder umgekehrt) usw. Den ver- of description by saying: All propositions ics determines one form of description
schiedenen Netzen entsprechen verschie- in the description of the world must be of the world by saying that all proposidene
Systeme der Weltbeschreibung. Die obtained in a given way from a number tions used in the description of the world
Mechanik bestimmt eine Form der Welt- of given propositions—the mechanical ax- must be obtained in a given way from a
beschreibung, indem sie sagt: Alle Sätze ioms. It thus provides the bricks for build- given set of propositions—the axioms of
der Weltbeschreibung müssen aus einer ing the ediﬁce of science, and says: What- mechanics. It thus supplies the bricks
Anzahl gegebener Sätze—den mechani- ever building thou wouldst erect, thou for building the ediﬁce of science, and it
schen Axiomen—auf eine gegebene Art shalt construct it in some manner with says, ‘Any building that you want to erect,
und Weise erhalten werden. Hierdurch these bricks and these alone. whatever it may be, must somehow be
103
liefert sie die Bausteine zum Bau des wis- constructed with these bricks, and with
senschaftlichen Gebäudes und sagt: Wel- these alone.’
ches Gebäude immer du aufführen willst,
jedes musst du irgendwie mit diesen und
nur diesen Bausteinen zusammenbrin-
gen.
(Wie man mit dem Zahlensystem jede (As with the system of numbers one (Just as with the number-system we
beliebige Anzahl, so muss man mit dem must be able to write down any arbitrary must be able to write down any number
System der Mechanik jeden beliebigen number, so with the system of mechan- we wish, so with the system of mechanSatz
der Physik hinschreiben können.) ics one must be able to write down any ics we must be able to write down any
arbitrary physical proposition.) proposition of physics that we wish.)
6.342 Und nun sehen wir die gegenseitige And now we see the relative posi- And now we can see the relative poStellung
von Logik und Mechanik. (Man tion of logic and mechanics. (We could sition of logic and mechanics. (The net
könnte das Netz auch aus verschieden- construct the network out of ﬁgures of might also consist of more than one kind
artigen Figuren etwa aus Dreiecken und different kinds, as out of triangles and of mesh: e.g. we could use both trianSechsecken
bestehen lassen.) Dass sich hexagons together.) That a picture like gles and hexagons.) The possibility of deein
Bild, wie das vorhin erwähnte, durch that instanced above can be described by scribing a picture like the one mentioned
ein Netz von gegebener Form beschreiben a network of a given form asserts noth- above with a net of a given form tells us
lässt, sagt über das Bild n i c h t s aus. ing about the picture. (For this holds of nothing about the picture. (For that is
(Denn dies gilt für jedes Bild dieser Art.) every picture of this kind.) But this does true of all such pictures.) But what does
Das aber charakterisiert das Bild, dass es characterize the picture, the fact, namely, characterize the picture is that it can be
sich durch ein bestimmtes Netz von b e - that it can be completely described by a described completely by a particular net
s t i m m t e r Feinheit v o l l s t ä n d i g deﬁnite net of deﬁnite ﬁneness. with a particular size of mesh.
beschreiben lässt.
So auch sagt es nichts über die Welt So too the fact that it can be described Similarly the possibility of describing
aus, dass sie sich durch die Newtonsche by Newtonian mechanics asserts nothing the world by means of Newtonian meMechanik
beschreiben lässt; wohl aber, about the world; but this asserts some- chanics tells us nothing about the world:
dass sie sich s o durch jene beschrei- thing, namely, that it can be described in but what does tell us something about it
ben lässt, wie dies eben der Fall ist. Auch that particular way in which as a matter is the precise way in which it is possible
das sagt etwas über die Welt, dass sie of fact it is described. The fact, too, that it to describe it by these means. We are also
sich durch die eine Mechanik einfacher can be described more simply by one sys- told something about the world by the
beschreiben lässt als durch die andere. tem of mechanics than by another says fact that it can be described more simply
something about the world. with one system of mechanics than with
another.
6.343 Die Mechanik ist ein Versuch, alle Mechanics is an attempt to construct Mechanics is an attempt to construct
w a h r e n Sätze, die wir zur Weltbe- according to a single plan all true proposi- according to a single plan all the true
schreibung brauchen, nach Einem Plane tions which we need for the description of propositions that we need for the descrip-
104
zu konstruieren. the world. tion of the world.
6.3431 Durch den ganzen logischen Apparat Through their whole logical apparatus The laws of physics, with all their loghindurch
sprechen die physikalischen Ge- the physical laws still speak of the objects ical apparatus, still speak, however indisetze
doch von den Gegenständen der of the world. rectly, about the objects of the world.
Welt.
6.3432 Wir dürfen nicht vergessen, dass die We must not forget that the descrip- We ought not to forget that any deWeltbeschreibung
durch die Mechanik im- tion of the world by mechanics is always scription of the world by means of memer
die ganz allgemeine ist. Es ist in ihr quite general. There is, for example, chanics will be of the completely general
z. B. nie von b e s t i m m t e n materiel- never any mention of particular material kind. For example, it will never mention
len Punkten die Rede, sondern immer nur points in it, but always only of some points particular point-masses: it will only talk
von i r g e n d w e l c h e n. or other. about any point-masses whatsoever.
6.35 Obwohl die Flecke in unserem Bild Although the spots in our picture are Although the spots in our picture are
geometrische Figuren sind, so kann doch geometrical ﬁgures, geometry can obvi- geometrical ﬁgures, nevertheless geomeselbstverständlich
die Geometrie gar ously say nothing about their actual form try can obviously say nothing at all about
nichts über ihre tatsächliche Form und and position. But the network is purely their actual form and position. The netLage
sagen. Das Netz aber ist r e i n geo- geometrical, and all its properties can be work, however, is purely geometrical; all
metrisch, alle seine Eigenschaften kön- given a priori. its properties can be given a priori.
nen a priori angegeben werden.
Gesetze wie der Satz vom Grunde, etc. Laws, like the law of causation, etc., Laws like the principle of sufﬁcient
handeln vom Netz, nicht von dem, was treat of the network and not what the reason, etc. are about the net and not
das Netz beschreibt. network describes. about what the net describes.
6.36 Wenn es ein Kausalitätsgesetz gäbe, If there were a law of causality, it If there were a law of causality, it
so könnte es lauten: „Es gibt Naturgeset- might run: “There are natural laws”. might be put in the following way: There
ze“. are laws of nature.
Aber freilich kann man das nicht sa- But that can clearly not be said: it But of course that cannot be said: it
gen: es zeigt sich. shows itself. makes itself manifest.
6.361 In der Ausdrucksweise Hertz’s könn- In the terminology of Hertz we might One might say, using Hertz’s terminolte
man sagen: Nur g e s e t z m ä ß i g e say: Only uniform connections are think- ogy, that only connexions that are subject
Zusammenhänge sind d e n k b a r. able. to law are thinkable.
6.3611 Wir können keinen Vorgang mit dem We cannot compare any process with We cannot compare a process with ‘the
„Ablauf der Zeit“ vergleichen—diesen gibt the “passage of time”—there is no such passage of time’—there is no such thing—
es nicht—, sondern nur mit einem an- thing—but only with another process (say, but only with another process (such as
deren Vorgang (etwa mit dem Gang des with the movement of the chronometer). the working of a chronometer).
Chronometers).
Daher ist die Beschreibung des zeit- Hence the description of the temporal Hence we can describe the lapse of
lichen Verlaufs nur so möglich, dass wir sequence of events is only possible if we time only by relying on some other prouns
auf einen anderen Vorgang stützen. support ourselves on another process. cess.
105
Ganz Analoges gilt für den Raum. Wo It is exactly analogous for space. Something exactly analogous applies
man z. B. sagt, es könne keines von zwei When, for example, we say that neither of to space: e.g. when people say that neiEreignissen
(die sich gegenseitig aus- two events (which mutually exclude one ther of two events (which exclude one anschließen)
eintreten, weil k e i n e U r - another) can occur, because there is no other) can occur, because there is nothing
s a c h e vorhanden sei, warum das eine cause why the one should occur rather to cause the one to occur rather than the
eher als das andere eintreten solle, da than the other, it is really a matter of other, it is really a matter of our being
handelt es sich in Wirklichkeit darum, our being unable to describe one of the unable to describe one of the two events
dass man gar nicht e i n e s der beiden two events unless there is some sort of unless there is some sort of asymmetry
Ereignisse beschreiben kann, wenn nicht asymmetry. And if there is such an asym- to be found. And if such an asymmetry
irgend eine Asymmetrie vorhanden ist. metry, we can regard this as the cause is to be found, we can regard it as the
Und w e n n eine solche Asymmetrie vor- of the occurrence of the one and of the cause of the occurrence of the one and the
handen i s t, so können wir diese als U r - non-occurrence of the other. non-occurrence of the other.
s a c h e des Eintreffens des einen und
Nicht- Eintreffens des anderen auffassen.
6.36111 Das Kant’sche Problem von der rech- The Kantian problem of the right and Kant’s problem about the right hand
ten und linken Hand, die man nicht zur left hand which cannot be made to cover and the left hand, which cannot be made
Deckung bringen kann, besteht schon in one another already exists in the plane, to coincide, exists even in two dimensions.
der Ebene, ja im eindimensionalen Raum, and even in one-dimensional space; where Indeed, it exists in one-dimensional space
wo die beiden kongruenten Figuren a und the two congruent ﬁgures a and b canb
auch nicht zur Deckung gebracht wer- not be made to cover one another without
den können, ohne aus diesem Raum
a
× ×
b a
× ×
b a
× ×
b
herausbewegt zu werden. Rechte und lin- moving them out of this space. The right in which the two congruent ﬁgures, a and
ke Hand sind tatsächlich vollkommen and left hand are in fact completely con- b, cannot be made to coincide unless they
kongruent. Und dass man sie nicht zur gruent. And the fact that they cannot be are moved out of this space. The right
Deckung bringen kann, hat damit nichts made to cover one another has nothing to hand and the left hand are in fact comzu
tun. do with it. pletely congruent. It is quite irrelevant
that they cannot be made to coincide.
Den rechten Handschuh könnte man A right-hand glove could be put on a A right-hand glove could be put on the
an die linke Hand ziehen, wenn man ihn left hand if it could be turned round in left hand, if it could be turned round in
im vierdimensionalen Raum umdrehen four-dimensional space. four-dimensional space.
könnte.
6.362 Was sich beschreiben lässt, das kann What can be described can happen too, What can be described can happen too:
auch geschehen, und was das Kausalitäts- and what is excluded by the law of causal- and what the law of causality is meant to
gesetz ausschließen soll, das lässt sich ity cannot be described. exclude cannot even be described.
106
auch nicht beschreiben.
6.363 Der Vorgang der Induktion besteht The process of induction is the process The procedure of induction consists in
darin, dass wir das e i n f a c h s t e Ge- of assuming the simplest law that can be accepting as true the simplest law that
setz annehmen, das mit unseren Erfah- made to harmonize with our experience. can be reconciled with our experiences.
rungen in Einklang zu bringen ist.
6.3631 Dieser Vorgang hat aber keine logi- This process, however, has no logical This procedure, however, has no logische,
sondern nur eine psychologische Be- foundation but only a psychological one. cal justiﬁcation but only a psychological
gründung. one.
Es ist klar, dass kein Grund vorhan- It is clear that there are no grounds It is clear that there are no grounds
den ist, zu glauben, es werde nun auch for believing that the simplest course of for believing that the simplest eventuality
wirklich der einfachste Fall eintreten. events will really happen. will in fact be realized.
6.36311 Dass die Sonne morgen aufgehen That the sun will rise to-morrow, is an It is an hypothesis that the sun will
wird, ist eine Hypothese; und das heißt: hypothesis; and that means that we do rise tomorrow: and this means that we do
wir w i s s e n nicht, ob sie aufgehen wird. not know whether it will rise. not know whether it will rise.
6.37 Einen Zwang, nach dem Eines gesche- A necessity for one thing to happen There is no compulsion making one
hen müsste, weil etwas anderes gesche- because another has happened does not thing happen because another has haphen
ist, gibt es nicht. Es gibt nur eine exist. There is only logical necessity. pened. The only necessity that exists is
l o g i s c h e Notwendigkeit. logical necessity
6.371 Der ganzen modernen Weltanschau- At the basis of the whole modern view The whole modern conception of the
ung liegt die Täuschung zugrunde, dass of the world lies the illusion that the so- world is founded on the illusion that the
die sogenannten Naturgesetze die Erklä- called laws of nature are the explanations so-called laws of nature are the explanarungen
der Naturerscheinungen seien. of natural phenomena. tions of natural phenomena.
6.372 So bleiben sie bei den Naturgesetzen So people stop short at natural laws Thus people today stop at the laws of
als bei etwas Unantastbarem stehen, wie as something unassailable, as did the an- nature, treating them as something inviodie
Älteren bei Gott und dem Schicksal. cients at God and Fate. lable, just as God and Fate were treated
in past ages.
Und sie haben ja beide Recht, und Un- And they are both right and wrong. And in fact both are right and both
recht. Die Alten sind allerdings insofern but the ancients were clearer, in so far wrong: though the view of the ancients
klarer, als sie einen klaren Abschluss an- as they recognized one clear terminus, is clearer in so far as they have a clear
erkennen, während es bei dem neuen Sy- whereas the modern system makes it and acknowledged terminus, while the
stem scheinen soll, als sei a l l e s erklärt. appear as though everything were ex- modern system tries to make it look as if
plained. everything were explained.
6.373 Die Welt ist unabhängig von meinem The world is independent of my will. The world is independent of my will.
Willen.
6.374 Auch wenn alles, was wir wünschen, Even if everything we wished were to Even if all that we wish for were to
geschähe, so wäre dies doch nur, sozusa- happen, this would only be, so to speak, happen, still this would only be a favour
gen, eine Gnade des Schicksals, denn es a favour of fate, for there is no logical granted by fate, so to speak: for there is
107
ist kein l o g i s c h e r Zusammenhang connexion between will and world, which no logical connexion between the will and
zwischen Willen und Welt, der dies ver- would guarantee this, and the assumed the world, which would guarantee it, and
bürgte, und den angenommenen physika- physical connexion itself we could not the supposed physical connexion itself is
lischen Zusammenhang könnten wir doch again will. surely not something that we could will.
nicht selbst wieder wollen.
6.375 Wie es nur eine l o g i s c h e Notwen- As there is only a logical necessity, so Just as the only necessity that exists
digkeit gibt, so gibt es auch nur eine l o - there is only a logical impossibility. is logical necessity, so too the only imposg
i s c h e Unmöglichkeit. sibility that exists is logical impossibility.
6.3751 Dass z. B. zwei Farben zugleich an For two colours, e.g. to be at one place For example, the simultaneous preseinem
Ort des Gesichtsfeldes sind, ist in the visual ﬁeld, is impossible, logically ence of two colours at the same place in
unmöglich, und zwar logisch unmöglich, impossible, for it is excluded by the logical the visual ﬁeld is impossible, in fact logdenn
es ist durch die logische Struktur structure of colour. ically impossible, since it is ruled out by
der Farbe ausgeschlossen. the logical structure of colour.
Denken wir daran, wie sich dieser Wi- Let us consider how this contradic- Let us think how this contradiction apderspruch
in der Physik darstellt: Unge- tion presents itself in physics. Somewhat pears in physics: more or less as follows—
fähr so, dass ein Teilchen nicht zu glei- as follows: That a particle cannot at the a particle cannot have two velocities at
cher Zeit zwei Geschwindigkeiten haben same time have two velocities, i.e. that at the same time; that is to say, it cannot be
kann; das heißt, dass es nicht zu gleicher the same time it cannot be in two places, in two places at the same time; that is to
Zeit an zwei Orten sein kann; das heißt, i.e. that particles in different places at the say, particles that are in different places
dass Teilchen an verschiedenen Orten zu same time cannot be identical. at the same time cannot be identical.
Einer Zeit nicht identisch sein können.
(Es ist klar, dass das logische Produkt It is clear that the logical product of (It is clear that the logical product of
zweier Elementarsätze weder eine Tauto- two elementary propositions can neither two elementary propositions can neither
logie noch eine Kontradiktion sein kann. be a tautology nor a contradiction. The be a tautology nor a contradiction. The
Die Aussage, dass ein Punkt des Gesichts- assertion that a point in the visual ﬁeld statement that a point in the visual ﬁeld
feldes zu gleicher Zeit zwei verschiedene has two different colours at the same time, has two different colours at the same time
Farben hat, ist eine Kontradiktion.) is a contradiction. is a contradiction.)
6.4 Alle Sätze sind gleichwertig. All propositions are of equal value. All propositions are of equal value.
6.41 Der Sinn der Welt muss außerhalb ih- The sense of the world must lie out- The sense of the world must lie outrer
liegen. In der Welt ist alles, wie es ist, side the world. In the world everything is side the world. In the world everything
und geschieht alles, wie es geschieht; es as it is and happens as it does happen. In is as it is, and everything happens as it
gibt i n ihr keinen Wert—und wenn es it there is no value—and if there were, it does happen: in it no value exists—and if
ihn gäbe, so hätte er keinen Wert. would be of no value. it did exist, it would have no value.
Wenn es einen Wert gibt, der Wert hat, If there is a value which is of value, it If there is any value that does have
so muss er außerhalb alles Geschehens must lie outside all happening and being- value, it must lie outside the whole sphere
und So-Seins liegen. Denn alles Gesche- so. For all happening and being-so is acci- of what happens and is the case. For all
hen und So-Sein ist zufällig. dental. that happens and is the case is accidental.
108
Was es nichtzufällig macht, kann What makes it non-accidental cannot What makes it non-accidental cannot
nicht i n der Welt liegen, denn sonst wäre lie in the world, for otherwise this would lie within the world, since if it did it would
dies wieder zufällig. again be accidental. itself be accidental.
Es muss außerhalb der Welt liegen. It must lie outside the world. It must lie outside the world.
6.42 Darum kann es auch keine Sätze der Hence also there can be no ethical So too it is impossible for there to be
Ethik geben. propositions. propositions of ethics.
Sätze können nichts Höheres aus- Propositions cannot express anything Propositions can express nothing that
drücken. higher. is higher.
6.421 Es ist klar, dass sich die Ethik nicht It is clear that ethics cannot be ex- It is clear that ethics cannot be put
aussprechen lässt. pressed. into words.
Die Ethik ist transzendental. Ethics is transcendental. Ethics is transcendental.
(Ethik und Ästhetik sind Eins.) (Ethics and æsthetics are one.) (Ethics and aesthetics are one and the
same.)
6.422 Der erste Gedanke bei der Aufstellung The ﬁrst thought in setting up an ethi- When an ethical law of the form, ‘Thou
eines ethischen Gesetzes von der Form cal law of the form “thou shalt . . . ” is: And shalt . . . ’ is laid down, one’s ﬁrst thought
„Du sollst . . . “ ist: Und was dann, wenn what if I do not do it? But it is clear that is, ‘And what if I do not do it?’ It is
ich es nicht tue? Es ist aber klar, dass die ethics has nothing to do with punishment clear, however, that ethics has nothing
Ethik nichts mit Strafe und Lohn im ge- and reward in the ordinary sense. This to do with punishment and reward in the
wöhnlichen Sinne zu tun hat. Also muss question as to the consequences of an ac- usual sense of the terms. So our question
diese Frage nach den F o l g e n einer tion must therefore be irrelevant. At least about the consequences of an action must
Handlung belanglos sein.—Zum Minde- these consequences will not be events. For be unimportant.—At least those consesten
dürfen diese Folgen nicht Ereignisse there must be something right in that for- quences should not be events. For there
sein. Denn etwas muss doch an jener Fra- mulation of the question. There must be must be something right about the quesgestellung
richtig sein. Es muss zwar ei- some sort of ethical reward and ethical tion we posed. There must indeed be
ne Art von ethischem Lohn und ethischer punishment, but this must lie in the ac- some kind of ethical reward and ethical
Strafe geben, aber diese müssen in der tion itself. punishment, but they must reside in the
Handlung selbst liegen. action itself.
(Und das ist auch klar, dass der Lohn (And this is clear also that the reward (And it is also clear that the reward
etwas Angenehmes, die Strafe etwas Un- must be something acceptable, and the must be something pleasant and the punangenehmes
sein muss.) punishment something unacceptable.) ishment something unpleasant.)
6.423 Vom Willen als dem Träger des Ethi- Of the will as the subject of the ethical It is impossible to speak about the will
schen kann nicht gesprochen werden. we cannot speak. in so far as it is the subject of ethical at-
tributes.
Und der Wille als Phänomen interes- And the will as a phenomenon is only And the will as a phenomenon is of
siert nur die Psychologie. of interest to psychology. interest only to psychology.
6.43 Wenn das gute oder böse Wollen die If good or bad willing changes the If the good or bad exercise of the will
Welt ändert, so kann es nur die Gren- world, it can only change the limits of does alter the world, it can alter only the
109
zen der Welt ändern, nicht die Tatsachen; the world, not the facts; not the things limits of the world, not the facts—not
nicht das, was durch die Sprache ausge- that can be expressed in language. what can be expressed by means of landrückt
werden kann. guage.
Kurz, die Welt muss dann dadurch In brief, the world must thereby be- In short the effect must be that it beüberhaupt
eine andere werden. Sie muss come quite another, it must so to speak comes an altogether different world. It
sozusagen als Ganzes abnehmen oder zu- wax or wane as a whole. must, so to speak, wax and wane as a
nehmen. whole.
Die Welt des Glücklichen ist eine an- The world of the happy is quite an- The world of the happy man is a difdere
als die des Unglücklichen. other than that of the unhappy. ferent one from that of the unhappy man.
6.431 Wie auch beim Tod die Welt sich nicht As in death, too, the world does not So too at death the world does not aländert,
sondern aufhört. change, but ceases. ter, but comes to an end.
6.4311 Der Tod ist kein Ereignis des Lebens. Death is not an event of life. Death is Death is not an event in life: we do
Den Tod erlebt man nicht. not lived through. not live to experience death.
Wenn man unter Ewigkeit nicht un- If by eternity is understood not end- If we take eternity to mean not inﬁendliche
Zeitdauer, sondern Unzeitlich- less temporal duration but timelessness, nite temporal duration but timelessness,
keit versteht, dann lebt der ewig, der in then he lives eternally who lives in the then eternal life belongs to those who live
der Gegenwart lebt. present. in the present.
Unser Leben ist ebenso endlos, wie Our life is endless in the way that our Our life has no end in just the way in
unser Gesichtsfeld grenzenlos ist. visual ﬁeld is without limit. which our visual ﬁeld has no limits.
6.4312 Die zeitliche Unsterblichkeit der See- The temporal immortality of the hu- Not only is there no guarantee of the
le des Menschen, das heißt also ihr ewiges man soul, that is to say, its eternal sur- temporal immortality of the human soul,
Fortleben auch nach dem Tode, ist nicht vival also after death, is not only in no that is to say of its eternal survival afnur
auf keine Weise verbürgt, sondern way guaranteed, but this assumption in ter death; but, in any case, this assumpvor
allem leistet diese Annahme gar nicht the ﬁrst place will not do for us what we tion completely fails to accomplish the
das, was man immer mit ihr erreichen always tried to make it do. Is a riddle purpose for which it has always been inwollte.
Wird denn dadurch ein Rätsel ge- solved by the fact that I survive for ever? tended. Or is some riddle solved by my
löst, dass ich ewig fortlebe? Ist denn die- Is this eternal life not as enigmatic as our surviving for ever? Is not this eternal life
ses ewige Leben dann nicht ebenso rätsel- present one? The solution of the riddle of itself as much of a riddle as our present
haft wie das gegenwärtige? Die Lösung life in space and time lies outside space life? The solution of the riddle of life
des Rätsels des Lebens in Raum und Zeit and time. in space and time lies outside space and
liegt a u ß e r h a l b von Raum und Zeit. time.
(Nicht Probleme der Naturwissen- (It is not problems of natural science (It is certainly not the solution of any
schaft sind ja zu lösen.) which have to be solved.) problems of natural science that is re-
quired.)
6.432 W i e die Welt ist, ist für das Höhere How the world is, is completely indif- How things are in the world is a matvollkommen
gleichgültig. Gott offenbart ferent for what is higher. God does not ter of complete indifference for what is
sich nicht i n der Welt. reveal himself in the world. higher. God does not reveal himself in the
110
world.
6.4321 Die Tatsachen gehören alle nur zur The facts all belong only to the task The facts all contribute only to setting
Aufgabe, nicht zur Lösung. and not to its performance. the problem, not to its solution.
6.44 Nicht w i e die Welt ist, ist das Mysti- Not how the world is, is the mystical, It is not how things are in the world
sche, sondern d a s s sie ist. but that it is. that is mystical, but that it exists.
6.45 Die Anschauung der Welt sub spe- The contemplation of the world sub To view the world sub specie aeterni
cie aeterni ist ihre Anschauung als— specie aeterni is its contemplation as a is to view it as a whole—a limited whole.
begrenztes—Ganzes. limited whole.
Das Gefühl der Welt als begrenztes The feeling that the world is a limited Feeling the world as a limited whole—
Ganzes ist das mystische. whole is the mystical feeling. it is this that is mystical.
6.5 Zu einer Antwort, die man nicht aus- For an answer which cannot be ex- When the answer cannot be put into
sprechen kann, kann man auch die Frage pressed the question too cannot be ex- words, neither can the question be put
nicht aussprechen. pressed. into words.
D a s R ä t s e l gibt es nicht. The riddle does not exist. The riddle does not exist.
Wenn sich eine Frage überhaupt stel- If a question can be put at all, then it If a question can be framed at all, it is
len lässt, so k a n n sie auch beantwortet can also be answered. also possible to answer it.
werden.
6.51 Skeptizismus ist n i c h t unwiderleg- Scepticism is not irrefutable, but pal- Scepticism is not irrefutable, but obvilich,
sondern offenbar unsinnig, wenn er pably senseless, if it would doubt where a ously nonsensical, when it tries to raise
bezweifeln will, wo nicht gefragt werden question cannot be asked. doubts where no questions can be asked.
kann.
Denn Zweifel kann nur bestehen, wo For doubt can only exist where there is For doubt can exist only where a queseine
Frage besteht; eine Frage nur, wo a question; a question only where there is tion exists, a question only where an aneine
Antwort besteht, und diese nur, wo an answer, and this only where something swer exists, and an answer only where
etwas g e s a g t werden k a n n. can be said. something can be said.
6.52 Wir fühlen, dass, selbst wenn alle We feel that even if all possible scien- We feel that even when all possible
m ö g l i c h e n wissenschaftlichen Fra- tiﬁc questions be answered, the problems scientiﬁc questions have been answered,
gen beantwortet sind, unsere Lebenspro- of life have still not been touched at all. the problems of life remain completely
bleme noch gar nicht berührt sind. Frei- Of course there is then no question left, untouched. Of course there are then no
lich bleibt dann eben keine Frage mehr; and just this is the answer. questions left, and this itself is the anund
eben dies ist die Antwort. swer.
6.521 Die Lösung des Problems des Lebens The solution of the problem of life is The solution of the problem of life is
merkt man am Verschwinden dieses Pro- seen in the vanishing of this problem. seen in the vanishing of the problem.
blems.
(Ist nicht dies der Grund, warum Men- (Is not this the reason why men to (Is not this the reason why those who
schen, denen der Sinn des Lebens nach whom after long doubting the sense of life have found after a long period of doubt
langen Zweifeln klar wurde, warum diese became clear, could not then say wherein that the sense of life became clear to them
111
dann nicht sagen konnten, worin dieser this sense consisted?) have then been unable to say what constiSinn
bestand?) tuted that sense?)
6.522 Es gibt allerdings Unaussprechliches. There is indeed the inexpressible. There are, indeed, things that cannot
Dies z e i g t sich, es ist das Mystische. This shows itself; it is the mystical. be put into words. They make themselves
manifest. They are what is mystical.
6.53 Die richtige Methode der Philosophie The right method of philosophy would The correct method in philosophy
wäre eigentlich die: Nichts zu sagen, be this: To say nothing except what can would really be the following: to say nothals
was sich sagen lässt, also Sätze der be said, i.e. the propositions of natural sci- ing except what can be said, i.e. proposiNaturwissenschaft—also
etwas, was mit ence, i.e. something that has nothing to do tions of natural science—i.e. something
Philosophie nichts zu tun hat—, und with philosophy: and then always, when that has nothing to do with philosophy—
dann immer, wenn ein anderer etwas someone else wished to say something and then, whenever someone else wanted
Metaphysisches sagen wollte, ihm nach- metaphysical, to demonstrate to him that to say something metaphysical, to demonzuweisen,
dass er gewissen Zeichen in he had given no meaning to certain signs strate to him that he had failed to give
seinen Sätzen keine Bedeutung gegeben in his propositions. This method would be a meaning to certain signs in his propohat.
Diese Methode wäre für den anderen unsatisfying to the other—he would not sitions. Although it would not be satisunbefriedigend—er
hätte nicht das Ge- have the feeling that we were teaching fying to the other person—he would not
fühl, dass wir ihn Philosophie lehrten— him philosophy—but it would be the only have the feeling that we were teaching
aber s i e wäre die einzig streng richtige. strictly correct method. him philosophy—this method would be
the only strictly correct one.
6.54 Meine Sätze erläutern dadurch, dass My propositions are elucidatory in My propositions serve as elucidations
sie der, welcher mich versteht, am Ende this way: he who understands me ﬁnally in the following way: anyone who underals
unsinnig erkennt, wenn er durch sie— recognizes them as senseless, when he stands me eventually recognizes them as
auf ihnen—über sie hinausgestiegen ist. has climbed out through them, on them, nonsensical, when he has used them—
(Er muss sozusagen die Leiter wegwerfen, over them. (He must so to speak throw as steps—to climb up beyond them. (He
nachdem er auf ihr hinaufgestiegen ist.) away the ladder, after he has climbed up must, so to speak, throw away the ladder
on it.) after he has climbed up it.)
Er muss diese Sätze überwinden, He must surmount these propositions; He must transcend these propositions,
dann sieht er die Welt richtig. then he sees the world rightly. and then he will see the world aright.
7 Wovon man nicht sprechen kann, dar- Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one What we cannot speak about we must
über muss man schweigen. must be silent. pass over in silence.
112
Index (Pears/McGuinness)
[Original note by Pears and McGuinness.]
The translators’ aim has been to include all
the more interesting words, and, in each case,
either to give all the occurrences of a word,
or else to omit only a few unimportant ones.
Paragraphs in the preface are referred to as
P1, P2, etc. Propositions are indicated by numbers
without points [—the points have been
restored for the side-by-side-by-side edition—];
more than two consecutive propositions, by
two numbers joined by an en-rule, as 202–
2021.
In the translation it has sometimes been
necessary to use different English expressions
for the same German expression or the same
English expression for different German expressions.
The index contains various devices
designed to make it an informative guide to
the German terminology and, in particular, to
draw attention to some important connexions
between ideas that are more difﬁcult to bring
out in English than in German.
First, when a German expression is of any
interest in itself, it is given in brackets after
the English expression that translates it, e.g.
situation [Sachlage]; also, whenever an English
expression is used to translate more than
one German expression, each of the German
expressions is given separately in numbered
brackets, and is followed by the list of passages
in which it is translated by the English expression,
e.g. reality 1. [Realität], 55561, etc. 2.
[Wirklichkeit], 206, etc.
Secondly, the German expressions given in
this way sometimes have two or more English
translations in the text; and when this is so,
if the alternative English translations are of
interest, they follow the German expression inside
the brackets, e.g. proposition [Satz: law;
principle].
The alternative translations recorded by
these two devices are sometimes given in an
abbreviated way. For a German expression
need not actually be translated by the English
expressions that it follows or precedes, as it is
in the examples above. The relationship may
be more complicated. For instance, the German
expression may be only part of a phrase
that is translated by the English expression,
e.g. stand in a relation to one another; are
related [sich verhalten: stand, how things;
state of things].
Thirdly, cross-references have been used to
draw attention to other important connexions
between ideas, e.g. true, cf. correct; right: and
a priori, cf. advance, in.
In subordinate entries and cross-references
the catchword is indicated by ∼, unless the
catchword contains /, in which case the part
preceding / is so indicated, e.g. accident; ∼al
for accident; accidental, and state of /affairs;
∼ things for state of affairs; state of
things. Cross-references relate to the last preceding
entry or numbered bracket. When references
are given both for a word in its own right
and for a phrase containing it, occurrences of
the latter are generally not also counted as
occurrences of the former, so that both entries
should be consulted.
about [von etwas handeln: concerned with;
deal with; subject-matter], 3.24, 5.44, 6.35;
cf. mention; speak; talk.
abstract, 5.5563
accident; ∼al [Zufall], 2.012, 2.0121, 3.34,
5.4733, 6.031, 6.1231, 6.1232, 6.3, 6.41
action, 5.1362, 6.422
activity, 4.112
addition, cf. logical.
adjectiv/e; ∼al, 3.323, 5.4733
advance, in [von vornherein], 5.47, 6.125; cf. a
priori. aesthetics, 6.421
afﬁrmation [Bejahung], 4.064, 5.124, 5.1241,
5.44, 5.513, 5.514, 6.231
afﬁx, [Index], 4.0411, 5.02
agreement
1. [stimmmen: right; true], 5.512
2. [Übereinstimmmung], 2.21, 2.222, 4.2,
4.4, 4.42–4.431, 4.462
analysis [Analyse], 3.201, 3.25, 3.3442, 4.1274,
4.221, 5.5562; cf. anatomize; dissect;
resolve.
analytic, 6.11
anatomize [auseinanderlegen], 3.261 ; cf.
analysis.
answer, 4.003, 4.1274, 5.4541, 5.55, 5.551,
6.5–6.52
apparent, 4.0031, 5.441, 5.461; cf. pseudo–.
application [Anwendung: employment], 3.262,
3.5, 5.2521, 5.2523, 5.32, 5.5, 5.5521,
5.557, 6.001, 6.123, 6.126
a priori, 2.225, 3.04, 3.05, 5.133, 5.4541,
5.4731, 5.55, 5.5541, 5.5571, 5.634, 6.31,
6.3211, 6.33, 6.34, 6.35; cf. advance, in.
arbitrary, 3.315, 3.322, 3.342, 3.3442, 5.02,
113
5.473, 5.47321, 5.554, 6.124, 6.1271
argument, 3.333, 4.431, 5.02, 5.251, 5.47,
5.523, 5.5351; cf. truth-argument.
∼-place, 2.0131, 4.0411, 5.5351
arithmetic, 4.4611, 5.451
arrow, 3.144, 4.461
articulated [artikuliert] 3.141, 3.251; cf.
segmented.
ascribe [aussagen: speak; state; statement;
tell] 4.1241
assert
1. [behaupten], 4.122, 4.21, 6.2322
2. [zusprechen], 4.124
asymmetry, 6.3611
axiom, 6.341
∼ of inﬁnity, 5.535
∼ of reducibility, 6.1232, 6.1233
bad, 6.43
basis, 5.21, 5.22, 5.234, 5.24, 5.25, 5.251,
5.442, 5.54
beautiful, 4.003
belief, 5.1361, 5.1363, 5.541, 5.542, 6.33,
6.3631
bound; ∼ary [Grenze: delimit; limit], 4.112,
4.463
brackets, 4.441, 5.46, 5.461
build [Bau: construction], 6.341
calculation, 6.126, 6.2331
cardinal, cf. number.
case, be the
1. [der Fall sein], 1, 1.12, 1.21, 2, 2.024,
3.342, 4.024, 5.1362, 5.5151, 5.541,
5.5542, 6.23
2. [So-Sein], 6.41
causality, 5.136–5.1362, 6.32, 6.321, 6.36,
6.3611, 6.362; cf. law.
certainty [Gewißheit], 4.464, 5.152, 5.156,
5.525, 6.3211
chain, 2.03; cf. concatenation.
clariﬁcation, 4.112
class [Klasse: set]. 3.311, 3.315, 4.1272, 6.031
clear, P2, 3.251, 4.112, 4.115, 4.116
make ∼ [erklären: deﬁnition; explanation],
5.452
colour, 2.0131, 2.0232, 2.0251, 2.171, 4.123,
6.3751
∼-space, 2.0131
combination
1. [Kombination], 4.27, 4.28, 5.46; cf. rule,
combinatory; truth-∼.
2. [Verbindung: connexion], 2.01, 2.0121,
4.0311, 4.221, 4.466, 4.4661, 5.131,
5.451, 5.515, 6.12, 6.1201, 6.121,
6.1221, 6.124, 6.23, 6.232; cf. sign.
common, 2.022, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.2, 3.31,
3.311, 3.317, 3.321, 3.322, 3.333, 3.341,
3.3411, 3.343–3.3441, 4.014, 4.12, 5.11,
5.143, 5.152, 5.24, 5.47, 5.4733, 5.512,
5.513, 5.5261, 6.022
comparison, 2.223, 3.05, 4.05, 6.2321, 6.3611
complete
1. [vollkommen: folly], 5.156
2. [vollstädig], 5.156;
analyse ∼ly, 3.201, 3.25;
describe ∼ly, 2.0201, 4.023, 4.26, 5.526,
6.342
complex, 2.0201, 3.1432, 3.24, 3.3442, 4.1272,
4.2211, 4.441, 5.515, 5.5423
composite [zummmengesetzt], 2.021, 3.143,
3.1431, 3.3411, 4.032, 4.2211, 5.47, 5.5261,
5.5421, 5.55
compulsion, 6.37
concatenation [Verkettung], 4.022; cf. chain.
concept [Begriff: primitive idea], 4.063,
4.126–4.1274, 4.431, 5.2523, 5.521, 5.555,
6.022; cf. formal ∼; pseudo-∼.
∼ual notation [Begriffsschrift], 3.325,
4.1272, 4.1273, 4.431, 5.533, 5.534
∼-word, 4.1272
concerned with [von etwas handeln: about;
deal with; subject-matter], 4.011, 4.122
concrete, 5.5563
condition, 4.41, 4.461, 4.462; cf. truth-∼.
conﬁguration, 2.0231, 2.0271, 2.0272, 3.21
connexion
1. [Verbindung: combination], 6.124, 6.232
2. [Zusammenhang: nexus], 2.0122, 2.032,
2.15, 4.03, 5.1311, 5.1362, 6.361, 6.374
consequences, 6.422
conservation, cf. law.
constant, 3.312, 3.313, 4.126, 4.1271, 5.501,
5.522; cf. logical ∼.
constituent [Bestandteil], 2.011, 2.0201, 3.24,
3.315, 3.4, 4.024, 4.025, 5.4733, 5.533,
5.5423, 6.12
construct [bilden], 4.51, 5.4733, 5.475, 5.501,
5.503, 5.512, 5.514, 5.5151, 6.126, 6.1271
construction
1. [Bau: build], 4.002, 4.014, 5.45, 5.5262,
6.002
2. [Konstruktion], 4.023, 4.5, 5.233, 5.556,
6.343
contain [enthalten], 2.014, 2.203, 3.02, 3.13,
3.24, 3.332, 3.333, 5.121, 5.122, 5.44, 5.47
content
1. [Gehalt], 6.111
2. [Inhalt], 2.025, 3.13, 3.31
continuity, cf. law.
contradiction
1. [Kontradiktion], 4.46–4.4661 , 5.101,
114
5.143, 5.152, 5.525, 6.1202, 6.3751
2. [Widerspruch], 3.032, 4.1211, 4.211,
5.1241, 6.1201, 6.3751; cf. law of ∼.
convention
1. [Abmachung], 4.002
2. [Übereinkunft], 3.315, 5.02
co-ordinate, 3.032, 3.41, 3.42, 5.64
copula, 3.323
correct [richtig], 2.17, 2.173, 2.18, 2.21, 3.04,
5.5302, 5.62, 6.2321; cf. incorrect; true.
correlate [zuordnen], 2.1514, 2.1515, 4.43,
4.44, 5.526, 5.542, 6.1203
correspond [entsprechen], 2.13, 3.2, 3.21,
3.315, 4.0621, 4.063, 4.28, 4.441, 4.466,
5.5542
creation, 3.031, 5.123
critique of language, 4.0031
cube, 5.5423
Darwin, 4.1122
deal with [von etwas handeln: about;
concerned with; subject-matter], 2.0121
death, 6.431–6.4312
deduce [folgern], 5.132–5.134; cf. infer.
deﬁnition
1. [Deﬁnition], 3.24, 3.26–3.262, 3.343,
4.241, 5.42, 5.451, 5.452, 5.5302, 6.02
2. [Erklärung: clear, make; explanation],
5.154
delimit [begrenzen: bound; limit], 5.5262
depiction [Abbildung: form, logico-pictorial;
form, pictorial; pictorial], 2.16–2.172, 2.18,
2.19, 2.2, 2.201, 4.013, 4.014, 4.015, 4.016,
4.041
derive [ableiten], 4.0141, 4.243, 6.127, 6.1271;
cf. infer.
description [Beschreibung], 2.0201, 2.02331,
3.144, 3.24, 3.317, 3.33, 4.016, 4.023,
4.0641, 4.26, 4.5, 5.02
∼ of the world [Weltb.], 6.341, 6.343, 6.3432
designate [bezeichnen: sign; signify], 4.063
determin/ate [bestimmt], 2.031, 2.032, 2.14,
2.15, 3.14, 3.23, 3.251, 4.466, 6.124; cf.
indeterminateness; undetermined.
∼e, 1.11, 1.12, 2.0231, 2.05, 3.327, 3.4, 3.42,
4.063, 4.0641, 4.431, 4.463
difference [Verschiedenheit], 2.0233, 5.135,
5.53, 6.232, 6.3751
display [aufweisen], 2.172, 4.121; cf. show.
dissect [zerlegen], 3.26; cf. analysis.
doctrine [Lehre: theory], 4.112, 6.13
doubt, 6.51, 6.521
dualism, 4.128
duration, 6.4311
dynamical model, 4.04
effort, least, cf. law.
element, 2.13–2.14, 2.15, 2.151, 2.1514,
2.1515, 3.14, 3.2, 3.201, 3.24, 3.42
∼ary proposition [Elementarsatz],
4.21–4.221, 4.23, 4.24, 4.243–4.26,
4.28–4.42, 4.431, 4.45, 4.46, 4.51, 4.52,
5, 5.01, 5.101, 5.134, 5.152, 5.234,
5.3–5.32, 5.41, 5.47, 5.5, 5.524, 5.5262,
5.55, 5.555–5.5571, 6.001, 6.124,
6.3751
elucidation [Erläuterung], 3.263, 4.112, 6.54
empirical, 5.5561
employment
1. [Anwendung: application], 3.202, 3.323,
5.452
2. [Verwendung: use], 3.327
enumeration, 5.501
equal value, of [gleichwertig], 6.4
equality/, numerical [Zahlengleichheit], 6.022
sign of ∼ [Gleichheitszeichen: identity, sign
for], 6.23, 6.232
equation [Gleichung], 4.241, 6.2, 6.22, 6.232,
6.2323, 6.2341, 6.24
equivalent, cf. meaning, ∼ n. [äquivalent],
5.232, 5.2523, 5.47321, 5.514, 6.1261
essence [Wesen], 2.011, 3.143, 3.1431, 3.31,
3.317, 3.34–3.3421, 4.013, 4.016, 4.027,
4.03, 4.112, 4.1121, 4.465, 4.4661, 4.5, 5.3,
5.471, 5.4711, 5.501, 5.533, 6.1232, 6.124,
6.126, 6.127, 6.232, 6.2341
eternity, 6.4311, 6.4312; cf. sub specie aeterni.
ethics, 6.42–6.423
everyday language [Umgangssprache], 3.323,
4.002, 5.5563
existence
1. [Bestehen: hold; subsist], 2, 2.0121,
2.04–2.06, 2.062, 2.11, 2.201, 4.1, 4.122,
4.124, 4.125, 4.2, 4.21, 4.25, 4.27, 4.3,
5.131, 5.135
2. [Existenz], 3.032, 3.24, 3.323, 3.4, 3.411,
4.1274, 5.5151
experience [Erfahrung] 5.552, 5.553, 5.634,
6.1222, 6.363
explanation [Erklärung: clear, make;
deﬁnition], 3.263, 4.02, 4.021, 4.026, 4.431,
5.5422, 6.371, 6.372
exponent, 6.021
expression [Ausdruck: say], P3, 3.1, 3.12, 3.13,
3.142, 3.1431, 3.2, 3.24, 3.251, 3.262,
3.31–3.314, 3.318, 3.323, 3.33, 3.34, 3.341,
3.3441, 4.002, 4.013, 4.03, 4.0411, 4.121,
4.124, 4.125, 4.126, 4.1272, 4.1273, 4.241,
4.4, 4.43, 4.431, 4.441, 4.442, 4.5, 5.131,
5.22, 5.24, 5.242, 5.31, 5.476, 5.503, 5.5151,
5.525, 5.53, 5.5301, 5.535, 5.5352, 6.124,
6.1264, 6.21, 6.23, 6.232–6.2323, 6.24
mode of ∼ [Ausdrucksweise], 4.015, 5.21,
115
5.526
external, 2.01231, 2.0233, 4.023, 4.122, 4.1251
fact [Tatsache], 1.1–1.2, 2, 2.0121, 2.034, 2.06,
2.1, 2.141, 2.16, 3, 3.14, 3.142, 3.143, 4.016,
4.0312, 4.061, 4.063, 4.122, 4.1221, 4.1272,
4.2211, 4.463, 5.156, 5.43, 5.5151, 5.542,
5.5423, 6.2321, 6.43, 6.4321; cf. negative ∼.
fairy tale, 4.014
false [falsch: incorrect], 2.0212, 2.21, 2.22,
2.222–2.224, 3.24, 4.003, 4.023,
4.06–4.063, 4.25, 4.26, 4.28, 4.31, 4.41,
4.431, 4.46, 5.512, 5.5262, 5.5351, 6.111,
6.113, 6.1203; cf. wrong.
fate, 6.372, 6.374
feature [Zug], 3.34, 4.1221, 4.126
feeling, 4.122, 6.1232, 6.45
ﬁnite, 5.32
follow, 4.1211, 4.52, 5.11–5.132, 5.1363–5.142,
5.152, 5.43, 6.1201, 6.1221, 6.126
foresee, 4.5, 5.556
form [Form], 2.0122, 2.0141, 2.022–2.0231,
2.025–2.026, 2.033, 2.18, 3.13, 3.31, 3.312,
3.333, 4.002, 4.0031, 4.012, 4.063, 4.1241,
4.1271, 4.241, 4.242, 4.5, 5.131, 5.156,
5.231, 5.24, 5.241, 5.2522, 5.451, 5.46, 5.47,
5.501, 5.5351, 5.542, 5.5422, 5.55, 5.554,
5.5542, 5.555, 5.556, 5.6331, 6, 6.002, 6.01,
6.022, 6.03, 6.1201, 6.1203, 6.1224, 6.1264,
6.32, 6.34–6.342, 6.35, 6.422; cf. ∼al;
general ∼; propositional ∼; series of ∼s.
logical ∼, 2.0233, 2.18, 2.181, 2.2, 3.315,
3.327, 4.12, 4.121, 4.128, 5.555, 6.23,
6.33
logico-pictorial ∼ [logische Form der
Abbildung], 2.2
pictorial ∼ [Form der Abbildung: depiction;
pictorial], 2.15, 2.151, 2.17, 2.172,
2.181, 2.22
representational ∼ [Form der Darstellung:
present; represent], 2.173, 2.174
formal [formal], 4.122, 5.501
∼ concept, 4.126–4.1273
∼ property, 4.122, 4.124, 4.126, 4.1271,
5.231, 6.12, 6.122
∼ relation [Relation], 4.122, 5.242
formulate [angeben: give; say], 5.5563
free will, 5.1362
Frege, P6, 3.143, 3.318, 3.325, 4.063, 4.1272,
4.1273, 4.431, 4.442, 5.02, 5.132, 5.4, 5.42,
5.451, 5.4733, 5.521, 6.1271, 6.232
fully [vollkommen: complete], ∼ generalized,
5.526, 5.5261
function [Funktion], 3.318, 3.333, 4.126,
4.1272, 4.12721, 4.24, 5.02, 5.2341, 5.25,
5.251, 5.44, 5.47, 5.501, 5.52, 5.5301; cf.
truth-∼.
Fundamental Laws of Arithmetic
[Grundgesetze der Arithmetik], 5.451; cf.
primitive proposition.
future, 5.1361, 5.1362
general [allgemein], 3.3441, 4.0141, 4.1273,
4.411, 5.1311, 5.156, 5.242, 5.2522, 5.454,
5.46, 5.472, 5.521, 5.5262, 6.031, 6.1231,
6.3432
∼ form, 3.312, 4.1273, 4.5, 4.53, 5.46, 5.47,
5.471, 5.472, 5.54, 6, 6.002, 6.01, 6.022,
6.03
∼-ity-sign, 3.24, 4.0411, 5.522, 5.523, 6.1203
∼ validity, 6.1231, 6.1232
generalization [verallgemeinerung], 4.0411,
4.52, 5.156, 5.526, 5.5261, 6.1231 ; cf. fully.
geometry, 3.032, 3.0321, 3.411, 6.35
give [angeben: formulate; say], 3.317, 4.5,
5.4711, 5.55, 5.554, 6.35
given [gegeben], 2.0124, 3.42, 4.12721, 4.51,
5.442, 5.524, 6.002, 6.124
God, 3.031, 5.123, 6.372, 6.432
good, 4.003, 6.43
grammar, cf. logical
happy, 6.374
Hertz, 4.04, 6.361
hierarchy, 5.252, 5.556, 5.5561
hieroglyphic script, 4.016
higher, 6.42, 6.432
hold [bestehen: existence; subsist], 4.014
how [wie], 6.432, 6.44; cf. stand, ∼ things.
∼) (what, 3.221, 5.552
hypothesis, 4.1122, 5.5351, 6.36311
idea, cf. primitive ∼.
1. [Gedanke: thought], musical ∼, 4.014
2. [Vorstellung: present; represent], 5.631
idealist, 4.0412
identical [identisch], 3.323, 4.003, 4.0411,
5.473, 5.4733, 5.5303, 5.5352, 6.3751; cf.
difference.
identity [Gleichheit], 5.53
sign for ∼ [Gleichheitszeichen: equality, sign
of], 3.323, 5.4733, 5.53, 5.5301, 5.533;
cf. equation.
illogical [unlogisch], 3.03, 3.031, 5.4731
imagine [sich etwas denken: think], 2.0121,
2.022, 4.01, 6.1233
immortality, 6.4312
impossibility [Unmöglichkeit], 4.464, 5.525,
5.5422, 6.375, 6.3751
incorrect
1. [falsch: false], 2.17, 2.173, 2.18
2. [unrichtig], 2.21
independence [Selbständigkeit], 2.0122, 3.261
independent [unabhängig], 2.024, 2.061, 2.22,
116
4.061, 5.152, 5.154, 5.451, 5.5261, 5.5561,
6.373
indeterminateness [Unbestimmtheit] 3.24
indicate
1. [anzeigen], 3.322, 6.121, 6.124
2. [auf etwas zeigen: manifest; show],
2.02331, 4.063
individuals, 5.553
induction, 6.31, 6.363
infer [schließen], 2.062, 4.023, 5.1311, 5.132,
5.135, 5.1361, 5.152, 5.633, 6.1224, 6.211;
cf. deduce; derive.
inﬁnite, 2.0131, 4.2211, 4.463, 5.43, 5.535,
6.4311
inﬁnity, cf. axiom.
inner, 4.0141, 5.1311, 5.1362
internal, 2.01231, 3.24, 4.014, 4.023,
4.122–4.1252, 5.131, 5.2, 5.21, 5.231, 5.232
intuition [Anschauung], 6.233, 6.2331
intuitive [anschaulich], 6.1203
judgement [Urteil], 4.063, 5.5422
∼-stroke [Urteilstrich], 4.442
Julius Caesar, 5.02
Kant, 6.36111
know
1. [kennen], 2.0123, 2.01231, 3.263, 4.021,
4.243, 6.2322; cf. theory of knowledge.
2. [wissen], 3.05, 3.24, 4.024, 4.461, 5.1362,
5.156, 5.5562 [—the previous entry
was mistakenly listed as 5.562 in Pears
and McGuinness’s original index—],
6.3211, 6.33, 6.36311
language [Sprache], P2, P4, 3.032, 3.343,
4.001–4.0031, 4.014, 4.0141, 4.025, 4.121,
4.125, 5.4731, 5.535, 5.6, 5.62, 6.12, 6.233,
6.43; cf. critique of ∼; everyday ∼; sign-∼.
law
1. [Gesetz: minimum-principle; primitive
proposition], 3.031, 3.032, 3.0321,
4.0141, 5.501, 6.123, 6.3–6.3211,
6.3431, 6.35, 6.361, 6.363, 6.422;
∼ of causality [Kausalitätsg.], 6.32,
6.321;
∼ of conservation [Erhaltungsg.], 6.33;
∼ of contradiction [G. des Widerspruchs],
6.1203, 6.123;
∼ of least action [G. der kleinsten
Wirkung], 6.321, 6.3211;
∼ of nature [Naturg.], 5.154, 6.34, 6.36,
6.371, 6.372
2. [Satz: principle of sufﬁcient reason;
proposition], 6.34;
∼ of continuity [S. von der Kontinuität],
6.34;
∼ of least effort [S. von kleinsten
Aufwande], 6.34
life, 5.621, 6.4311, 6.4312, 6.52, 6.521
limit [Grenze: bound; delimit], P3, P4, 4.113,
4.114, 4.51, 5.143, 5.5561, 5.6–5.62, 5.632,
5.641, 6.4311, 6.45
logic; ∼al, 2.012, 2.0121, 3.031, 3.032, 3.315,
3.41, 3.42, 4.014, 4.015, 4.023, 4.0312,
4.032, 4.112, 4.1121, 4.1213, 4.126, 4.128,
4.466, 5.02, 5.1362, 5.152, 5.233, 5.42,
5.43, 5.45–5.47, 5.472–5.4731, 5.47321,
5.522, 5.551–5.5521, 5.555, 5.5562–5.557,
5.61, 6.1–6.12, 6.121, 6.122, 6.1222–6.2,
6.22, 6.234, 6.3, 6.31, 6.3211, 6.342,
6.3431, 6.3631, 6.37, 6.374–6.3751; cf.
form, ∼al; illogical.
∼al addition, 5.2341
∼al constant, 4.0312, 5.4, 5.441, 5.47
∼al grammar, 3.325
∼al multiplication, 5.2341
∼al object, 4.441, 5.4
∼al picture, 2.18–2.19, 3, 4.03
∼al place, 3.41–3.42, 4.0641
∼al product, 3.42, 4.465, 5.521, 6.1271,
6.3751
∼al space, 1.13, 2.11, 2.202, 3.4, 3.42, 4.463
∼al sum, 3.42, 5.521
∼al syntax, 3.325, 3.33, 3.334, 3.344, 6.124
∼o-pictorial, cf. form.
∼o-syntactical, 3.327
manifest [sich zeigen: indicate; show], 4.122,
5.24, 5.4, 5.513, 5.515, 5.5561, 5.62, 6.23,
6.36, 6.522
material, 2.0231, 5.44
mathematics, 4.04–4.0411, 5.154, 5.43, 5.475,
6.031, 6.2–6.22, 6.2321, 6.233, 6.234–6.24
Mauthner, 4.0031
mean [meinen], 3.315, 4.062, 5.62
meaning [Bedeutung: signify], 3.203, 3.261,
3.263, 3.3, 3.314, 3.315, 3.317, 3.323,
3.328–3.331, 3.333, 4.002, 4.026, 4.126,
4.241–4.243, 4.466, 4.5, 5.02, 5.31 , 5.451,
5.461, 5.47321, 5.4733, 5.535, 5.55, 5.6,
5.62, 6.124, 6.126, 6.232, 6.2322, 6.53
equivalent in ∼ [Bedeutungsgleichheit],
4.243, 6.2323
∼ful [bedeutungsvoll], 5.233
∼less [bedeutungslos], 3.328, 4.442, 4.4661,
5.47321
mechanics, 4.04, 6.321, 6.341–6.343, 6.3432
mention [von etwas reden: talk about], 3.24,
3.33, 4.1211, 5.631, 6.3432; cf. about.
metaphysical, 5.633, 5.641, 6.53
method, 3.11, 4.1121, 6.121, 6.2, 6.234–6.24,
6.53; cf. projection, ∼ of; zero-∼.
117
microcosm, 5.63
minimum-principle [Minimum-Gesetz: law],
6.321
mirror, 4.121, 5.511, 5.512, 5.514, 6.13
∼-image [Spiegelbild: picture], 6.13
misunderstanding, P2
mode, cf. expression; signiﬁcation.
model, 2.12, 4.01, 4.463; cf. dynamical ∼.
modus ponens, 6.1264
monism, 4.128
Moore, 5.541
multiplicity, 4.04–4.0412, 5.475
music, 3.141, 4.011, 4.014, 4.0141
mystical, 6.44, 6.45, 6.522
name
1. [Name], 3.142, 3.143, 3.144, 3.202, 3.203,
3.22, 3.26, 3.261, 3.3, 3.314, 3.3411,
4.0311, 4.126, 4.1272, 4.22, 4.221, 4.23,
4.24, 4.243, 4.5, 5.02, 5.526, 5.535, 5.55,
6.124; cf. variable ∼.
general ∼ [Gattungsn.], 6.321
proper ∼ of a person [Personenn.], 3.323
2. [benennen; nennen], 3.144, 3.221
natur/e, 2.0123, 3.315, 5.47, 6.124; cf. law of
∼e.
∼al phenomena, 6.371
∼al science, 4.11, 4.111, 4.1121–4.113,
6.111, 6.4312, 6.53
necessary, 4.041, 5.452, 5.474, 6.124; cf.
unnecessary.
negation
1. [Negation], 5.5, 5.502
2. [Verneinung], 3.42, 4.0621, 4.064, 4.0641,
5.1241, 5.2341, 5.254, 5.44, 5.451, 5.5,
5.512, 5.514, 6.231
negative [negativ], 4.463, 5.513, 5.5151
∼ fact, 2.06, 4.063, 5.5151
network, 5.511, 6.341, 6.342, 6.35
Newton, 6.341, 6.342
nexus
1. [Nexus], 5.136, 5.1361
2. [Zusammenhang: connexion], 3.3, 4.22,
4.23
non-proposition, 5.5351
nonsense [Unsinn], P4, 3.24, 4.003, 4.124,
4.1272, 4.1274, 4.4611, 5.473, 5.5303,
5.5351, 5.5422, 5.5571, 6.51, 6.54; cf. sense,
have no.
notation, 3.342, 3.3441, 5.474, 5.512–5.514,
6.1203, 6.122, 6.1223; cf. conceptual ∼.
number
1. [Anzahl], 4.1272, 5.474–5.476, 5.55, 5.553,
6.1271
2. [Zahl: integer], 4.1252, 4.126, 4.1272,
4.12721, 4.128, 5.453, 5.553, 6.02,
6.022; cf. equality, numerical;
privileged ∼s; series of ∼s; variable ∼.
cardinal ∼, 5.02;
∼-system, 6.341
object [Gegenstand], 2.01, 2.0121,
2.0123–2.0124, 2.0131–2.02, 2.021,
2.023–2.0233, 2.0251–2.032, 2.13, 2.15121,
3.1431, 3.2, 3.203–3.221, 3.322, 3.3411,
4.023, 4.0312, 4.1211, 4.122, 4.123, 4.126,
4.127, 4.1272, 4.12721, 4.2211, 4.431,
4.441, 4.466, 5.02, 5.123, 5.1511, 5.4, 5.44,
5.524, 5.526, 5.53–5.5302, 5.541, 5.542,
5.5561, 6.3431 ; cf. thing.
obvious [sich von selbst verstehen: say;
understand], 6.111; cf. self-evidence.
Occam, 3.328, 5.47321
occur [vorkommen], 2.012–2.0123, 2.0141,
3.24, 3.311, 4.0621, 4.1211, 4.23, 4.243,
5.25, 5.451, 5.54, 5.541, 6.1203
operation, 4.1273, 5.21–5.254, 5.4611, 5.47,
5.5, 5.503, 6.001–6.01, 6.021, 6.126; cf.
sign for a logical ∼; truth-∼.
oppos/ed; ∼ite [entgegengesetzt], 4.0621, 4.461,
5.1241, 5.513
order, 4.1252, 5.5563, 5.634
paradox, Russell’s, 3.333
particle, 6.3751
perceive, 3.1, 3.11, 3.32, 5.5423
phenomenon, 6.423; cf. natural ∼.
philosophy, P2, P5, 3.324, 3.3421, 4.003,
4.0031, 4.111–4.115, 4.122, 4.128, 5.641,
6.113, 6.211, 6.53
physics, 3.0321, 6.321, 6.341, 6.3751
pictorial
1. [abbilden: depict; form, logico-∼], 2.15,
2.151, 2.1513, 2.1514, 2.17, 2.172,
2.181, 2.22; cf. form, ∼.
2. [bildhaftig], 4.013, 4.015
picture [Bild: mirror-image; tableau vivant],
2.0212, 2.1–2.1512, 2.1513–3.01, 3.42,
4.01–4.012, 4.021, 4.03, 4.032, 4.06, 4.462,
4.463, 5.156, 6.341, 6.342, 6.35; cf. logical
∼; prototype.
place [Ort], 3.411, 6.3751; cf. logical ∼.
point-mass [materieller Punkt], 6.3432
positive, 2.06, 4.063, 4.463, 5.5151
possible, 2.012, 2.0121, 2.0123–2.0141, 2.033,
2.15, 2.151, 2.201–2.203, 3.02, 3.04, 3.11,
3.13, 3.23, 3.3421, 3.3441, 3.411, 4.015,
4.0312, 4.124, 4.125, 4.2, 4.27–4.3, 4.42,
4.45, 4.46, 4.462, 4.464, 4.5, 5.252, 5.42,
5.44, 5.46, 5.473, 5.4733, 5.525, 5.55, 5.61,
6.1222, 6.33, 6.34, 6.52; cf. impossibility;
truth-possibility.
postulate [Forderung: requirement], 6.1223
predicate, cf. subject.
118
present
1. [darstellen: represent], 3.312, 3.313, 4.115
2. [vorstellen: Idea; represent], 2.11, 4.0311
presuppose [voraussetzen], 3.31, 3.33, 4.1241,
5.515, 5.5151, 5.61, 6.124
primitive idea [Grundbegriff] 4.12721, 5.451,
5.476
primitive proposition [Grundgesetz], 5.43,
5.452, 6.127, 6.1271; cf. Fundamental
Laws of Arithmetic; law.
primitive sign [Urzeichen], 3.26, 3.261, 3.263,
5.42, 5.45, 5.451, 5.46, 5.461, 5.472
Principia Mathematica, 5.452
principle of sufﬁcient reason [Satz vom
Grunde: law; proposition], 6.34, 6.35
Principles of Mathematics, 5.5351
privileged [ausgezeichnet], ∼ numbers, 4.128,
5.453, 5.553
probability, 4.464, 5.15–5.156
problem
1. [Fragestellung: question], P2, 5.62
2. [Problem], P2, 4.003, 5.4541, 5.535, 5.551,
5.5563, 6.4312, 6.521
product, cf. logical.
project/ion; ∼ive, 3.11–3.13, 4.0141
method of ∼ion, 3.11
proof [Beweis], 6.126, 6.1262, 6.1263–6.1265,
6.2321, 6.241
proper, cf. name.
property [Eigenschaft], 2.01231, 2.0231,
2.0233, 2.02331, 4.023, 4.063,
4.122–4.1241, 5.473, 5.5302, 6.111, 6.12,
6.121, 6.126, 6.231, 6.35; cf. formal ∼.
proposition [Satz: law; principle], 2.0122,
2.0201, 2.0211, 2.0231, 3.1 (& passim
thereafter); cf. non-∼; primitive ∼;
pseudo-∼; variable, ∼al; variable ∼.
∼al form, 3.312, 4.0031, 4.012, 4.5, 4.53,
5.131, 5.1311, 5.156, 5.231, 5.24, 5.241,
5.451, 5.47, 5.471, 5.472, 5.54–5.542,
5.5422, 5.55, 5.554, 5.555, 5.556, 6,
6.002
∼al sign, 3.12, 3.14, 3.143, 3.1431, 3.2, 3.21,
3.332, 3.34, 3.41, 3.5, 4.02, 4.44, 4.442,
5.31
prototype [Urbild], 3.24, 3.315, 3.333, 5.522,
5.5351; cf. picture.
pseudo-, cf. apparent.
∼-concept, 4.1272
∼-proposition, 4.1272, 5.534, 5.535, 6.2
∼relation, 5.461
psychology, 4.1121, 5.541, 5.5421, 5.641,
6.3631, 6.423
punishment, 6.422
question [Frage: problem], 4.003, 4.1274,
5.4541, 5.55, 5.551, 5.5542, 6.5–6.52
range [Spielraum], 4.463, 5.5262; cf. space.
real [wirklich], 2.022, 4.0031, 5.461
realism, 5.64
reality
1. [Realität], 5.5561, 5.64
2. [Wirklichkeit], 2.06, 2.063, 2.12, 2.1511,
2.1512, 2.1515, 2.17, 2.171, 2.18, 2.201,
2.21, 2.222, 2.223, 4.01, 4.011, 4.021,
4.023, 4.05, 4.06, 4.0621, 4.12, 4.121,
4.462, 4.463, 5.512
reducibility, cf. axiom.
relation
1. [Beziehung], 2.1513, 2.1514, 3.12, 3.1432,
3.24, 4.0412, 4.061, 4.0641, 4.462
4.4661, 5.131, 5.1311, 5.2–5.22, 5.42,
5.461, 5.4733, 5.5151, 5.5261, 5.5301;
cf. pseudo-.
2. [Relation], 4.122, 4.123, 4.125, 4.1251,
5.232, 5.42, 5.5301, 5.541, 5.553,
5.5541 ; cf. formal.
3. stand in a ∼ to one another; are related
[sich verhalten: stand, how things;
state of things], 2.03, 2.14, 2.15, 2.151,
3.14, 5.5423
represent
1. [darstellen: present], 2.0231, 2.173, 2.174,
2.201–2.203, 2.22, 2.221, 3.032, 3.0321,
4.011, 4.021, 4.031, 4.04, 4.1, 4.12,
4.121, 4.122, 4.124, 4.125, 4.126,
4.1271, 4.1272, 4.24, 4.31, 4.462, 5.21,
6.1203, 6.124, 6.1264; cf. form,
∼ational.
2. [vorstellen: idea; present], 2.15
representative, be the ∼ of [vertreten], 2.131,
3.22, 3.221, 4.0312, 5.501
requirement [Forderung: postulate], 3.23
resolve, cf. analysis.
1. [auﬂösen], 3.3442
2. [zerlegen], 2.0201
reward, 6.422
riddle, 6.4312, 6.5
right [stimmen: agreement; true], 3.24
rule [Regel], 3.334, 3.343, 3.344, 4.0141,
5.47321, 5.476, 5.512, 5.514
combinatory ∼ [Kombinationsr.], 4.442
∼ dealing with signs [Zeichenr.] 3.331, 4.241,
6.02, 6.126
Russell, P6, 3.318, 3.325, 3.331, 3.333, 4.0031,
4.1272–4.1273, 4.241, 4.442, 5.02, 5.132,
5.252, 5.4, 5.42, 5.452, 5.4731, 5.513,
5.521, 5.525, 5.5302, 5.532, 5.535, 5.5351,
5.541, 5.5422, 5.553, 6.123, 6.1232
say
1. [angeben: give], 5.5571
119
2. [audrücksen: expression], 5.5151
3. [aussprechen: words, put into], ∼ clearly,
3.262
4. [sagen], can be said, P3, 3.031, 4.115,
4.1212, 5.61 5.62, 6.36, 6.51, 6.53;
said) (shown, 4.022, 4.1212, 5.535, 5.62,
6.36;
∼ nothing, 4.461, 5.142, 5.43, 5.4733,
5.513, 5.5303, 6.11, 6.121, 6.342,
6.35
5. [sich von selbst verstehen: obvious;
understand], ∼ing,
go without, 3.334, 6.2341
scaffolding, 3.42, 4.023, 6.124
scepticism, 6.51
schema, 4.31, 4.43, 4.441, 4.442, 5.101, 5.151,
5.31
science, 6.34, 6.341, 6.52; cf. natural ∼.
scope, 4.0411
segmented [gegliedert], 4.032; cf. articulated.
self, the [das Ich], 5.64, 5.641
self-evidence [Einleuchten], 5.1363, 5.42,
5.4731, 5.5301, 6.1271; cf. obvious.
sense [Sinn; sinnvoll], P2, 2.0211, 2.221,
2.222, 3.11, 3.13, 3.142, 3.1431, 3.144,
3.23, 3.3, 3.31, 3.326, 3.34, 3.341, 3.4,
4.002, 4.011, 4.014, 4.02–4.022,
4.027–4.031, 4.032, 4.061, 4.0621–4.064,
4.1211, 4.122, 4.1221, 4.1241, 4.126, 4.2,
4.243, 4.431, 4.465, 4.52, 5.02, 5.122,
5.1241, 5.2341, 5.25, 5.2521, 5.4, 5.42,
5.44, 5.46, 5.4732, 5.4733, 5.514, 5.515,
5.5302, 5.5542, 5.631, 5.641, 6.124, 6.126,
6.232, 6.41, 6.422, 6.521
have the same ∼ [gleichsinnig], 5.515
have no ∼; lack ∼; without ∼ [sinnlos], 4.461,
5.132, 5.1362, 5.5351; cf. nonsense.
∼ of touch [Tastsinn], 2.0131
series [Reihe], 4.1252, 4.45, 5.1, 5.232, 6.02
∼ of forms [Formenr.], 4.1252, 4.1273, 5.252,
5.2522, 5.501
∼ of numbers [Zahlenr.], 4.1252
set [Klasse: class], 3.142
show [zeigen: indicate; manifest], 3.262, 4.022,
4.0621, 4.0641, 4.121–4.1212, 4.126, 4.461,
5.1311, 5.24, 5.42, 5.5261, 5.5421, 5.5422,
5.631, 6.12, 6.1201, 6.1221, 6.126, 6.127,
6.22, 6.232; cf. display; say.
sign [Zeichen], 3.11, 3.12, 3.1432, 3.201–3.203,
3.21, 3.221, 3.23, 3.261–3.263, 3.315,
3.32–3.322, 3.325–3.334, 3.3442, 4.012,
4.026, 4.0312, 4.061, 4.0621, 4.126, 4.1271,
4.1272, 4.241–4.243, 4.431–4.441, 4.466,
4.4661, 5.02, 5.451, 5.46, 5.473,
5.4732–5.4733, 5.475, 5.501, 5.512, 5.515,
5.5151, 5.53, 5.5541, 5.5542, 6.02, 6.1203,
6.124, 6.126, 6.1264, 6.53; cf. primitive ∼;
propositional ∼; rule dealing with ∼s;
simple ∼.
be a ∼ for [bezeichnen: designate; signify],
5.42
combination of ∼s [Zeichenverbindung],
4.466, 5.451
∼ for a logical operation [logisches
Operationsz.], 5.4611
∼-language [Zeichensprache], 3.325, 3.343,
4.011, 4.1121, 4.1213, 4.5, 6.124
signif/y
1. [bedeuten: meaning], 4.115
2. [bezeichnen: designate: sign], 3.24, 3.261,
3.317, 3.321, 3.322, 3.333, 3.334,
3.3411, 3.344, 4.012, 4.061, 4.126,
4.127, 4.1272, 4.243, 5.473, 5.4733,
5.476, 5.5261, 5.5541, 6.111;
mode of ∼ication [Bezeichnungsweise],
3.322, 3.323, 3.325, 3.3421, 4.0411,
5.1311
similarity, 4.0141, 5.231
simple, 2.02, 3.24, 4.21, 4.24, 4.51, 5.02,
5.4541, 5.553, 5.5563, 6.341, 6.342, 6.363,
6.3631;
∼ sign, 3.201, 3.202, 3.21, 3.23, 4.026
simplex sigillum veri, 5.4541
situation [Sachlage], 2.0121, 2.014, 2.11,
2.202, 2.203, 3.02, 3.11, 3.144, 3.21, 4.021,
4.03, 4.031, 4.032 4.04, 4.124, 4.125, 4.462,
4.466, 5.135, 5.156, 5.525
Socrates, 5.473, 5.4733
solipsism, 5.62, 5.64
solution, P8, 5.4541, 5.535, 6.4312, 6.4321,
6.521
soul, 5.5421, 5.641, 6.4312
space [Raum], 2.0121, 2.013, 2.0131, 2.0251,
2.11, 2.171, 2.182, 2.202, 3.032–3.0321,
3.1431, 4.0412, 4.463, 6.3611, 6.36111,
6.4312; cf. colour-∼; logical ∼; range.
speak/ about [von etwas sprechen], 3.221,
6.3431, 6.423, 7; cf. about.
∼ for itself [aussagen: ascribe; state;
statement; tell], 6.124
stand/, how things [sich verhalten: relation;
state of things], 4.022, 4.023, 4.062, 4.5
∼ for [für etwas stehen], 4.0311, 5.515
state [aussagen: ascribe; speak; statement;
tell], 3.317, 4.03, 4.242, 4.442, 6.1264
statement [Aussage], 2.0201, 6.3751
make a ∼ [aussagen: ascribe; speak; state;
tell], 3.332, 5.25
state of/ affairs [Sachverhalt: ∼ things],
2–2.013, 2.014, 2.0272- 2.062, 2.11, 2.201,
3.001, 3.0321, 4.023, 4.0311, 4.1, 4.122,
120
4.2, 4.21, 4.2211, 4.25, 4.27, 4.3
∼ things
1. [Sachverhalt: ∼ affairs], 2.01
2. [sich verhalten: relation; stand, how
things], 5.552
stipulate [festsetzen], 3.316, 3.317, 5.501
structure [Struktur], 2.032–2.034, 2.15,
4.1211, 4.122, 5.13, 5.2, 5.22, 6.12, 6.3751
subject
1. [Subjekt], 5.5421, 5.631–5.633, 5.641;
∼-predicate propositions, 4.1274
2. [Träger], 6.423
3. ∼-matter [von etwas handeln: about;
concerned with; deal with], 6.124
subsistent [bestehen: existence; hold], 2.024,
2.027, 2.0271
sub specie aeterni, 6.45; cf. eternity.
substance [Substanz], 2.021, 2.0211, 2.0231,
2.04
substitut/e, 3.344, 3.3441, 4.241, 6.23, 6.24
∼ion, method of, 6.24
successor [Nachfolger], 4.1252, 4.1273
sum, cf. logical.
sum-total [gesamt: totality; whole], 2.063
superstition, 5.1361
supposition [Annahme], 4.063
survival [Fortleben], 6.4312
symbol [Symbol], 3.24, 3.31, 3.317, 3.32, 3.321,
3.323, 3.325, 3.326, 3.341, 3.3411, 3.344,
4.126, 4.24, 4.31, 4.465, 4.4661, 4.5,
5.1311, 5.473, 5.4733, 5.513–5.515, 5.525,
5.5351, 5.555, 6.113, 6.124, 6.126
∼ism [Symbolismus], 4.461, 5.451
syntax, cf. logical.
system, 5.475, 5.555, 6.341, 6.372; cf.
number-∼.
tableau vivant [lebendes Bild: picture], 4.0311
talk about [von etwas reden: mention], P2,
5.641, 6.3432; cf. about.
tautology, 4.46–4.4661, 5.101, 5.1362, 5.142,
5.143, 5.152, 5.525, 6.1, 6.12–6.1203,
6.1221, 6.1231, 6.124, 6.126, 6.1262, 6.127,
6.22, 6.3751
tell [aussagen: ascribe; speak; state;
statement], 6.342
term [Glied], 4.1273, 4.442, 5.232, 5.252,
5.2522, 5.501
theory
1. [Lehre: doctrine], 6.1224;
∼ of probability, 4.464
2. [Theorie], 4.1122, 5.5422, 6.111;
∼ of classes, 6.031;
∼ of knowledge, 4.1121, 5.541;
∼ of types, 3.331, 3.332
thing, cf. object; state of affairs; state of ∼s.
1. [Ding], 1.1, 2.01–2.0122, 2.013, 2.02331,
2.151, 3.1431, 4.0311, 4.063, 4.1272,
4.243, 5.5301, 5.5303, 5.5351, 5.5352,
5.553, 5.634, 6.1231
2. [Sache], 2.01, 2.15, 2.1514, 4.1272
think [denken: imagine], P3, 3.02, 3.03, 3.11,
3.5, 4.114, 4.116, 5.4731, 5.541, 5.542,
5.61, 5.631
∼able [denkbar] P3, 3 3.001, 3.02, 6.361; cf.
unthinkable.
thought [Gedanke: idea], P3, 3, 3.01, 3.02,
3.04–3.1, 3.12, 3.2, 3.5, 4, 4.002, 4.112,
6.21
∼-process [Denkprozeß], 4.1121
time, 2.0121, 2.0251, 6.3611, 6.3751, 6.4311,
6.4312
totality [Gesamtheit: sum-total; whole], 1.1,
1.12, 2.04, 2.05, 3.01, 4.001, 4.11, 4.52,
5.5262, 5.5561
transcendental, 6.13, 6.421
translation, 3.343, 4.0141, 4.025, 4.243
tru/e
1. [Faktum], 5.154
2. [wahr], 2.0211, 2.0212, 2.21, 2.22,
2.222–2.225, 3.01, 3.04, 3.05,
4.022–4.024, 4.06–4.063, 4.11, 4.25,
4.26, 4.28, 4.31, 4.41, 4.43, 4.431, 4.442,
4.46, 4.461, 4.464, 4.466, 5.11, 5.12,
5.123, 5.13, 5.131, 5.1363, 5.512,
5.5262, 5.5352, 5.5563, 5.62, 6.111,
6.113, 6.1203, 6.1223, 6.1232, 6.125,
6.343; cf. correct; right.
come ∼e [stimmmen: agreement; right],
5.123
∼th-argument, 5.01, 5.101, 5.152, 6.1203
∼th-combination, 6.1203
∼th-condition, 4.431, 4.442, 4.45–4.461,
4.463
∼th-function, 3.3441, 5, 5.1, 5.101, 5.234,
5.2341, 5.3, 5.31, 5.41, 5.44, 5.5, 5.521,
6
∼th-ground, 5.101–5.121, 5.15
∼th-operation, 5.234, 5.3, 5.32, 5.41, 5.442,
5.54
∼th-possibility, 4.3–4.44, 4.442, 4.45, 4.46,
5.101
∼th-value, 4.063
type, 3.331, 3.332, 5.252, 6.123; cf. prototype.
unalterable [fest], 2.023, 2.026–2.0271
understand [verstehen: obvious; say], 3.263,
4.002, 4.003, 4.02, 4.021, 4.024, 4.026,
4.243, 4.411, 5.02, 5.451, 5.521, 5.552,
5.5562, 5.62; cf. misunderstanding.
make oneself understood [sich verständigen],
4.026, 4.062
undetermined [nicht bestimmt], 3.24, 4.431
121
unit, 5.155, 5.47321
unnecessary, 5.47321
unthinkable, 4.123
use
1. [Gebrauch], 3.326, 4.123, 4.1272, 4.241,
6.211;
∼less [nicht gebraucht], 3.328
2. [Verwendung: employment], 3.325, 4.013,
6.1202
validity, 6.1233; cf. general ∼.
value [Wert], 6.4, 6.41 ; cf. truth-∼.
∼ of a variable, 3.313, 3.315–3.317, 4.127,
4.1271, 5.501, 5.51, 5.52
variable, 3.312–3.317, 4.0411, 4.1271, 4.1272,
4.1273, 4.53, 5.24, 5.242, 5.2522, 5.501,
6.022
propositional ∼ [Satzvariable], 3.313, 3.317,
4.126, 4.127, 5.502
∼ name, 3.314, 4.1272
∼ number, 6.022
∼ proposition [variabler Satz], 3.315
visual ﬁeld, 2.0131, 5.633, 5.6331, 6.3751,
6.4311
Whitehead, 5.252, 5.452
whole [gesamt: sum-total; totality], 4.11, 4.12
will [Wille; wollen] 5.1362, 5.631, 6.373, 6.374,
6.423, 6.43
wish [wünschen], 6.374
word [Wort], 2.0122, 3.14, 3.143, 3.323, 4.002,
4.026, 4.243, 6.211; cf. concept-∼.
put into ∼s [aussprechen; unausprechlich:
say], 3.221, 4.116, 6.421, 6.5, 6.522
world, 1–1.11, 1.13, 1.2, 2.021–2.022, 2.0231,
2.026, 2.063, 3.01, 3.12, 3.3421, 4.014,
4.023, 4.12, 4.2211, 4.26, 4.462, 5.123,
5.4711, 5.511, 5.526–5.5262, 5.551, 5.5521,
5.6–5.633, 5.641, 6.12, 6.1233, 6.124, 6.22,
6.342, 6.3431, 6.371, 6.373, 6.374, 6.41,
6.43, 6.431, 6.432, 6.44, 6.45, 6.54; cf.
description of the ∼.
wrong [nicht stimmen: agreement; true], 3.24;
cf. false.
zero-method, 6.121
pLudwig Wittgenstein’s Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus is in the Public Domain.
See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/publicdomain/
cbaThis typesetting (including LATEX code), by Kevin C. Klement, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution—Share
Alike 3.0 United States License.
See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/us/
Latest version available at: http://people.umass.edu/klement/tlp/