Pearls from Bones: Relics, Chortens, Tertons and the Signs of Saintly Death in Tibet
Author(s): Dan Martin
Source: Numen, Vol. 41, No. 3 (Sep., 1994), pp. 273-324
Published by: BRILL
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NUMEN, Vol. 41 (1994), ? E.J. Brill, Leiden
PEARLS FROM BONES:
RELICS, CHORTENS, TERTONS AND THE SIGNS OF
SAINTLY DEATH IN TIBET*
DAN MARTIN
Summary
Although there has been much work, in recent years, on the sacrumof Christianity,
and some important studies have appeared on Buddhist relic cults and
related facets of Buddhism, so far very little has been written on Tibetan Buddhist
relics. This paper, while offering some material for a historical perspective, mainly
seeks to find a larger cultural pattern for understanding the interrelationships of
a complex of factors active in Tibetan religious culture. Beginning with problems
of relic-related terms and classifications, we then suggest a new assessment of the
role of the Terton ('treasure revealer'). Then we discuss 'miracles' in Tibet, and
the intersection of categories of 'signs of saintly death' and relics. Much of the
remaining pages are devoted to those items that fall within both categories,
specifically the 'pearls' that emerge miraculously from saintly remains and images
that appear in bodily or other substances connected with cremations. After looking
at a number of testimonials on these miraculous relics, we examine the possibility
that these items might be 'deceitfully manufactured', looking at a few Tibetan
polemical writings which raise this possibility. In the conclusion, we suggest that
there are some critical links between three spheres of Tibetan religiosity: 1. sacrum
which are not relics, 2. relics, and 3. signs of sainthood. Finally, we recommend
an approach to religious studies that takes its point of departure in actual practices,
and particularly the objects associated with popular devotional practice.
Tibetans have, and have had, very highly developed cults of
relics, as does North African Islam and as did medieval Christianity,
to give a few instances. The reasons are in all three cases
approximately the same. Buddha, Muhammed and Jesus,
regardless of other differences, all had human bodies; all died. All
of them being, in some sense, revealers of historical religions, they
as well as the later saints in their traditions have tended to sanctify
everything and everyone with which or with whom they came into
contact. This admitted, it will be rather obvious that the physical
things in the most intimate association with them, in particular
their physical remains (if available),' should above all be held
worthy of the greatest respect and reverence. In the experience of
the believer, however, the relics are no more merely passive and
Dan Martin
unresponsive objects of worship than the living revealers or saints
themselves could possibly be. Something palpable is given in return
for their veneration, something we might call grace or blessing.
What the Moroccan Maraboutist calls baraka2 and the early
medieval Christian might have called charis ('gift') or dynamis
('force', 'power'),3 a Tibetan would call byin-rlabs.
Byin-rlabsis commonly glossed as 'gift wave',4 but it more properly
goes back to a literal translation of a Chinese word5 which was
almost certainly made during the earliest introduction of Buddhism
into Tibet in the seventh or eighth centuries. It is not a literal
translation of the Sanskrit Buddhists term adhisthana.6 Its actual,
or rather its philologically correct, meaning is 'received by (way of)
giving'. The believer receives a 'gift' from the saint (in person or
in vision), relic or consecrated article. The nature of the 'gift' is and
always will remain a mystery to those most secularly oriented persons
who have existed in all times and places. For the sake of definition
it will be sufficient for our present purposes to say that, no matter
what qualities we may wish to include in our concept of sanctity
or spirituality, this 'gift' is intended to assist in the development of
those same qualities in the receiving individual. It is a gift that,
indeed, depends on the receptivity of the individual (faith, and so
forth), and hence the bafflement of the learned scholars confronted
with this most popular religion practiced by adherents of all
Tibetan schools. Sanctity is a quality possessed by particular persons
and things. Therefore, to speak about 'the holy' without any
reference to those things that are holy is equivalent, to my way of
thinking, to discussing 'brilliance' without mentioning what sort of
things might be brilliant, such as a lightbulb, an actor, a scientist,
a reflection, or a sunset.
In contrast to the paucity of English words, Tibetan has two most
commonly used words for relics in general and several less common
ones. The first general term, gdung, or sku-gdung, is the honorific
word for 'bone' (also, 'ancestry', 'clan') but its meaning is often
extended to mean 'remains' in general. The other, ring-bsrel,
means, etymologically speaking, 'kept for a long time', hence,
'cherished'. The English word 'relic', coming from Latin by way
of French, means 'remains' or 'something left over'. One of the less
common Tibetan terms is 'phel-gdung('increasing bone'), a word
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Pearlsfrom Bones
which has a more restricted meaning. Another, sha-ri-ram, is a
straight transliteration from the Sanskrit word for 'body', which is
used in Tibetan interchangeably with ring-bsrel,both of these words
(as well as gdung) occasionally having a more specific meaning.
Finally, there is byin-rten.
Byin-rten7is a contracted form of byin-rlabs-kyirten,which we may
translate, 'blessing support/receptacle'. The word rtenis difficult to
render precisely, having connotations of 'support, dependency,
prop, container', and so forth. It is used in several terms which
have a bearing on our subject. The Tibetan Buddhist world has
three major classifications (sometimes increasing to five8) of things
worthy of worship. The first is 'Body receptacles' (sku-rten), the
images of Buddhas, deities and saints. The second is 'Speech receptacles'
(gsung-rten),the words of Buddhas and saints embodied in
sacred texts of all sorts. The third is 'Thought receptacles' (thugsrten).
This third is, for all intents and purposes, identical with the
chorten (mchod-rten).9
The chorten is well known to many as the Tibetan counterpart
to the stupa, caitya, dagoba (from dhatugarbha,'relic container'),
pagoda, etc., of South, Southeast and East Asian architecture.
Here we are not so concerned with the form of the chorten, which
literally means 'worship' (mchod), 'receptacle' (rten) and functionally
(also, I believe, in origin) acts as a reliquary, as with the
objects it is meant to contain. Not all relics are always kept in
chortens; but we may, I think more or less correctly, assume temporarily
that everything that is placed inside a chorten is considered
to be a relic. By examining what articles are included when a
chorten is consecrated,10 we will have a fairly complete picture of
what things have been classified as relics as well as a beginning
toward discovering how different particular Tibetans or groups of
Tibetans have subclassified them.
For this purpose, we may feel fortunate to have a large number
of accounts of the construction of chortens by a wide variety of
authors. These were written with the basic motive of cataloguing
the materials, styles and workmanship used in their construction
and thus memorializing the merit of the craftsmen and donors as
well as the deceased saint in whose honor it might have been built,
as well as eulogizing the chorten and its surroundings as a holy
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place and describing the spiritual and other benefits to be derived
from visiting it or doing the ritual circumambulations and so on.
We will provide summarized samplings of some of these Guides, or
'Indices' (dkar-chag), which have been chosen in an attempt to
represent all the Tibetan sects, beginning with one from the early
seventeenth century. These have been placed in an appendix since,
although they supply the basic starting points (the 'data') for much
of our discussion, these listings of relics will not be of impelling
interest to the majority of readers. A brief look at the appendix will
be sufficient for most purposes.
What Does the Evidence Tell Us?
We will not be able to deal here with certain aspects of the relic
cult in Tibet due, in part, to a shortage of information. At this
stage, we could not pretend to give social science analyses along the
lines of patron-client relations, community structures and so on. It
is much more regrettable not to be able to supply evidence for the
impact of relics on people, either as individuals or as social entities.
(Pilgrimage Guides and biographies should prove helpful here.)
Were miraculous healings at chortens as frequent a phenomenon as
they were at medieval European saints' shrines? (At present, my
impression is that they were not.) Did the role of relics in Tibetan
culture change in significant ways over time? How do various
aspects of the Tibetan relic cults relate to Indian, Chinese, or
Khotanese (or other Central Asian) prototypes? Is there anything
uniquely Tibetan about it?11 These and many other questions, as
important as they may be for a well-considered view of the subject,
will have to find answers in the future, although some evidence supplied
here may be found useful.
The evidence does tell us, first of all, that while all schools of
Tibetan religion regard the same general sorts of things as relics,
there seems to have been no generally accepted sub-classification
scheme in use. Within the Gelugpa sect, there appears to have been
a rather standard three- or four-fold classification, while the
Nyingma (and possibly the Kargyudpa and Bonpo as well) preferred
five-fold classifications. A much larger body of evidence
would need to be collected in order to substantiate even this very
basic statement.
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Pearlsfrom Bones
By looking at the origins of the individual relics, we can easily
detect sectarian affiliations. Lha-btsun's Guide contains mostly
Nyingma, but also Kargyudpa, relics and nothing connected with
other sects. Zhu-chen's Guide contains predominantly Sakyapa
relics, and it does not include the 'images' or 'increasing bone'
(with the exception of two from the Buddha, and this apparently for
reasons of controversy to be clarified in due course). Gung-thangpa's
list emphasizes bodily and contact relics of Gelugpa saints,
although not exclusively. Kong-sprul's Guide contains mostly
Bonpo relics, but also consecrated articles and relics from all the
other major sects, as we might expect, it being sponsored by a
'nonsectarian' (ris-med-pa).
As for the nature of the relics as such, they may mostly be described
as the physical remains of the saints or things sanctified by
close proximity to them. The special types which may not appear
to fit with this description will be discussed later on. We may note
that, with few exceptions, the saints in question are both male and
clergy. There is only one bone relic derived from a woman. If we
limit ourselves to clearly historical personages (excluding Buddhas,
ancient sages, and so forth), there are about 57 cloistered religious
men, seven lay or uncloistered religious men, and three 'holy
madmen'. These numbers are not scientifically accurate, being
based only on the material produced in evidence in the appendix,
otherwise the proportion of cloistered religious men would be even
higher.
Various bodily emissions constitute a significant minority of the
relics: blood, urine, reproductive substances, mucus (handkerchiefs).
Many of these relics, especially the testicles included in
Lha-btsun's Guide, carry almost too obvious associations of
vitality, reproduction and growth. The theme of an underlying
vitality adhering to the mortal remains of saints finds its strongest
expression in the miraculous multiplication of relics referred to as
'increasing bone' ('phel-gdung)which will be dealt with below. The
closest to a European equivalent we can point to is the liquefaction
of blood. Although not reallyequivalent, both are examples of how
seemingly inert, 'dead' substances can take on life, especially in
response to devotion directed their way.'2 In Tibetan Buddhism,
the vitality of the relic is in no way reduced by its division and
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translation. There is little hint of the resistance to the division of the
saints' physical remains such as was noticeable in early medieval
European relic cults.13 This undoubtedly reflects the fact that
Tibetan Buddhists, like other Buddhists and unlike Christians,
have no widely shared idea of bodily resurrection. The cremated
remains of the Buddha Himself were immediately divided into
eight portions. Ordinarily, dead bodies are quickly consigned to the
elements (through burial, cremation, submersion or exposure,
which may be understood as earth, fire, water and air 'burial'),
although embalming is done in some extraordinary cases for highly
regarded teachers (the embalming salts then becoming greatly
valued as relics).
Finally, the Guides may tell us that the cults of saints were closely
connected to the cults of holy places. While earth, stones, and
plants from holy places are never included under the classification
'relic', yet they are mentioned in all the Guides studied, and this
is surely not without significance. We may speak not only of 'relics
of geography', but also of a geography of relics; for while relics
most generally stay where they have been deposited, making
pilgrimage necessary, they may also be moved, although this can
hardly be done lightly, and this subject also deserves some attention
in future comparative studies. Now we will have a few words to say
about the movers.
The CategoricalDistinction and theRole of the Terton
There are other remarkable things that should be observed from
the evidence. One is that the Tibetan terms for 'relic', specifically
ring-bsreland gdung, have both a broad and a narrow meaning. In
their broad meaning, they include more than one ordinary understanding
of the word 'relic':
1) They include mantras, dhdrani,scriptures, and commentarieson scriptures;
even the central pole of the chorten in view of the fact that it
is always inscribed with dhdranl.
2) They include images:
A) Molded images of clay which is often mixed with remains of saintly
bodies, clothing, etc. Called tsha-tsha,these images may be of small
chortens, Buddhas, deities, saints, etc.
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Pearlsfrom Bones
B) Wood, stone, metal (etc.) images which, of course, may also contain
saintly relics and/or dharanzi.
C) Images (chortens, letters, etc.) formed on or from the remains. These
are often formed of the same material as the objects in 4, below.
3) Although a somewhat distinct category, consecrated articles (damrdzas).This
means especially consecrated pellets which sometimes
include the followingor other types of relics. Consecratedarticlesare
not in themselves ring-bsrel(orgdung),but both togetherbelong to the
broad category of byin-rten.
4) They include ring-bsreland gdungin the narrow sense, the so-called
'mustard seed like relics', or 'increasing bone'.
Ultimately we intend to focus on the fourth category, but first a
few comments on the language problem with regard to the first two.
These items are not 'relics' in our sense of the word, but it might
be suggested that our failure to comprehend the fact that in Tibet
they are included in the same classification with bones, teeth, hair,
clothing, etc., of the saints has led to huge cultural misunderstandings
in the works of outside scholars. Intractable differences in
cultural values may underlie simple differences in categorization.
My case-in-point is the Rediscoveror of Hidden Treasure
(Terma/Gter-ma), the Terton (Gter-stonlGter-bton).This issue alone
could be grounds for a book,14 so we will limit ourselves to little
more than a hypothesis, since full substantiation would require a
huge collection of evidence. Why was the Terton such a controversial
figure? Was it because he, and (even if less frequently) she, dug
up literary works of more-or-less questionable religious authority?
"Yes" and "No." "Yes," because we may easily question the
authenticity of the Termas. "No," because that is not all there is
to it. There were reasons why their authenticity was in question,
reasons that may be more 'social' than 'theological'. If we use the
term 'popular religion' to mean religious practices with significant
social impact which arise from a broadly based popular appeal,
and, at least in point of origin, are somewhat divorced from, if not
at odds with, the established religious authorities, then 'popular
religion' must mean above all the cults of saints (the cults of holy
persons), the cults of relics (the cults of holy things) and pilgrimage
(the cults of holy places). My hypothesis is that the Terton filled
three important roles in the religious culture of Tibet: 1) Saint. 2)
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Translator of relics. 3)'Pilgrimage leader, or, to keep within a
Tibetan terminological framework, opener of Hidden Countries
(Sbas Yul). These Hidden Countries may be understood as
'rediscovered pilgrimage sites' although, in practice, the Terton
frequently became a 'translator' of populations, leading at times
thousands of people on revelation-inspired migration-pilgrimages
to previously unsettled 'promised' ('prophecied', to be more exact)
lands. 15
The key to this reassessment of the Terton lies in the fact that the
books they rediscovered were not, perhaps contrary to our cultural
expectations, viewed primarily as literary works to grace library
shelves, or even as rare 'first editions'. They were above all relics,
either as objects owned by ancient sages or manuscripts written by
their own hands. These books, as may be seen in a few instances
in the chorten Guides summarized below, could be inserted into
images or chortens prior to consecrations.'6 It is surely not by
chance that a large number of the Tertons' finds were made in
images, chortens, and temples;17 and usually together with all the
other items Tibetans have called relics (ring-bsrel), consecrated
articles (dam-rdzas),and images. To give just one of countless possible
examples, when Ratna-gling-pa was about thirty-five years old
(in 1438), he made the following rediscoveries together with several
volumes of precepts and ritual propitiations at Dge-ri'8 Brag-dmar.
Brahmin Flesh Pellets. Red and white reproductivesubstances. Elixir Pellets
and [Long] Life Pellets. 'Increasingbone' fromthe heartofPra-chen Ha-ti.19
'Increasing bone' from the tooth of O-rgyan-chen-po [ = Padmasambhava].
Hair and 'increasing bone' which came from the dried nasal blood (shangs
mtshal, 'nose vermillion') of the Lady Mtsho-rgyal [the Tibetan wife of
Padmasambhava]. Clothing and other articles belonging to the Guru [=
Padmasambhava]. 20
We would not make the claim that the Tertons are entirely
explainable as relic/pilgrimage entrepreneurs, only that this side of
their character has been glossed over in the past. We feel confident
that something close to this general picture of the Tertons' role will
emerge more clearly when detailed studies on the full-length
biographies of major Tertons such as are available for Ratna-glingpa
and Padma-gling-pa21 have been done. Meanwhile, we turn to
the problem of an item which, we will agree, is certainly a 'relic'
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in every sense of the word, but of which Euro-American cultural
history has no experience. These are the 'pearls'.
The 'Pearls' as Sign of Saintly Death and Relic Par Excellence
We turn to the Nyingma tantra, the Sku-gdung'Bar-ba('Blazing
Remains').22 It belongs to the highest of three classes within the
highest of the Nine Vehicles of the Nyingma school-the Precepts
Class (Man-ngag Sde) of the Ati-yoga Vehicle. It is one of the principal
seventeen tantras of the Precepts Class. It is written in the
form of a dialogue between the Buddha Vajradhara and the
Skygoer (Mkha'-'gro-ma) named Clear mind (Gsal Yid).
In chapter one, Clear Mind asks Vajradhara about the signs of
sainthood. Vajradhara describes, in response, various physical
marks which signify spiritual cultivation in previous lives, such as
the mark of a conch on the shoulder, etc., symbols of the Body,
Speech and Mind of the Buddha. In chapter two, various abilities
signifying previous cultivation are described: the ability to remain
unharmed in fire, to walk without sinking in the water, to walk
without touching the ground; to travel in the sky, crossing the continent
of Jambudvipa at six hundred leagues a moment like wind,
to pass through mountains and rocks, etc. Then there are signs
experienced by highly developed yogis as preludes to the complete
dissolution of the physical body into rainbow colored radiations.23
These signs, the special marks on the body in chapter one, and
the miracles of chapter two, may be understood respectively as
those signs of sainthood which emerge at birth and those that
accompany a saintly life. The third chapter, predictably, treats the
signs of saintly death24 which are:
1) Images left behind after cremation. Images of both peaceful and wrathful
deities. These signify that the saint is to attain liberation in the after-death
state. 25
2) 'Bone' (gdung). These are of five types:
A) Sha-ri-ram(Tathagata type/center) are white, bright and transparent, forming
in the fat. About the size of a pea, they develop from the bone
marrow.
B) Ba-ri-ram (Vajra type/east) are blue-green and darkish. About the size of
a mustard seed or small pea, they are formed from the essence of
(digestive?) heat, emerging from the interstices of the ribs.
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C) Chu-ri-ram(Ratna type/south) are yellow colored. They are about the size
of a mustard seed, forming in the blood, appearing on top of the liver.
D) Bse-ri-ram(Padma type/west) are bright and red. Size is about that of a
mustard seed. It forms from a combination of the elements, comes from
the kidneys.
E) Nya-ri-ram(Karma type/north). Sapphire blue, about the size of a
mustard seed, formed from the essence of knowledges, it occurs on the
lungs.26
All five of these are generally formed in spherical shapes and transparent.
Ring-bsrelare similar to these, only smaller, the size or sesame seeds or dust,
and they may be destroyedby the elements, whereasgdungare indestructible.
Ring-bsrelmay come from the head, from the backbone or other joints, or
from the skin and flesh.
3) Lightsare of three types:
A) Those that encircle the area around the corpse or the house in which it
lies.
B) Lights going up vertically.
C) Lights shining from the ribs of the corpse.
4) Mysterious soundscoming from the different directions surrounding the
corpse.
5) Earthtremorssignifyingdifferentdegrees of spiritualattainmentdepending
on the number of days which elapsed since the death.
6) Atmosphericphenomenon.Rain, storms, hail, wind, mist, fog, rings around
the moon, etc.
This third and final chapter ends as the audience expresses its
appreciation for the answers given by Vajradhara as, so to speak,
the curtain falls. The work was translated and verified by the
Indian Master Vimalamitra and the Tibetan translator Ka-ba
Dpal-brtsegs.
The first category of signs, the images left behind after cremation,
is known from a testimonial by a modern Mongolian Buddhist
leader, speaking about things he observed in about 1923. Sharil is
a Mongolian loan from Sanskrit (sarira)with the broad and narrow
meanings of the Tibetan ring-bsrel.
... when I was nine or ten years old and still residing at Serku Monastery in
the Amdo region, I had a friend Monon Serku gegen,two years older than
I. When he died and was cremated, I observed that his sharil(Skt. sarira;a
jewel-like deposit remaining after the cremation) was in the shape of an
image of Yamdagha (Skt. Yamantaka), "Conquerorof Yama," the supreme
deity of hell and the protector of the Buddha's Law. This phenomenon
greatly astonished me, and I bowed in veneration to it. On another similar
occasion, after the cremation of a venerable lama, I beheld that on the skull
of his remains were imprinted three images of the Buddha. Manjushri (Skt.
Mafijusri; Ch. Wen-shu p'u-sa) was situated in the middle, with Ariyabul
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(the thousand handed Kuan-yin p'u-sa or Avalokitesvara)on one side, and
Ochirbani (Skt. Vajrapani; Ch. P'u-hsien p'u-sa) on the other. This would
have been difficultfor me to believe had I not seen it with my own eyes. To
this day I still marvel at this miraculous occurrence.27
We have noticed some similar phenomena in the chorten Guides by
Kong-sprul and Lha-btsun, both of which, we should point out,
mention skulls with the Tibetan letter 'A' naturally formed on
them.28 We may see that these 'images' have been formed either
directly out of the bone or from the substance now to be described.
The second category of signs, the gdungand ring-bsrel( = ringsel)
are described by a contemporary western Buddhist and former nun
based, in part, on her own observations.
Ringsel are small spherical relics, usually white, though sometimes
manifesting the five colors, which emerge from the ashes of great teachers
after their death or from sacred places such as Buddha statues or stupas. It
is said that they are brought forth by the devotion of the disciples, and that
even when a very advanced practitioner dies, if there are no devoted
disciples, there will be no ringsel. There are also cases of ringsel appearing
after the ashes or bits of bones have been collected and kept for some time.
Someone might have some remnants and keep them very devotedly and
carefully, and after some time, look at them and they may have turned into
ringsel. Ringsel also have the ability to reproduce. One of them gets bigger
and bumps appearon the side and then the bumps become small ringsel. In
1970the stuipaof Swayambhuin Kathmanduproducedringselon the eastern
side of the stupa. There were thousands all over the ground and all the
monastery, including the highest lama, who almost never left his room, were
outside picking them up.29
I fully realize that there will be some readers who will take the
position that this source is too 'New Age' and therefore not admissible
as evidence in the higher courts of academia. Against this somewhat
condescending attitude, we present the following
unimpeachably Tibetan testimony drawn from the memoirs of
Rdo-ring Pandi-ta. The circumstances surrounding this testimony
hold their own fascination, but this story has already been summarized
in English.30 We will say only by way of introduction that
Rdo-ring Pandi-ta and the other Tibetan officials mentioned here
were under official arrest by the Nepalese government at the time
the following event took place (in about June 1792). This is all part
of the very complex chain of events that developed in the course of
Tibetan-Nepalese hostilities.
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Then, on the full moon holiday of Saga Dawa, 'three holidays in one',31 I
together with the Minister (Bka'-blon) G.yu-thog, Snya'-nang Sho-pa,
Rgyal-rtse Sne-stod-pa, Bkras-lhun Thang-smad Nor-dbang, and the Saskya
Secretary,all the nobles and servantstogether, were doing prostrations,
circumambulations, and aspiration prayers at the great chorten Bya-rungkha-shor
(Bodhanath).32First I alone found a piece of 'increasing bone'
('phel-gdung)aboutthe size of a 'fish eye'33on the circumambulationpath on
the east side of the great chorten. After that I and all the others startedlooking
for them. There were then to be gathered various sizes of increasing
bone, sha-ri-ram,'fish eyes' and so forthon top of the steppedlevels (bang-rim)
beneath the 'vessel' (bum-pa),and on the circumambulation path. A few
times some of them fell down from the thirteen disks ('Dharma wheels') of
the spire and from the vessel part at the center of the chorten proper with a
plunking sound, and people saw this with their own eyes. We told the village
people and monks from the Red Hat Lama's monasterythat they should get
some quickly, but not so many were found. In all there were about thirty of
these 'increasing bone' which we obtained as supportsof our faith, and they
remain in our possession even now.
On the next and following days, we as well as others searched for them
daily, but despite our efforts not a single one was found. This was quite
clearlya miracle forconfirmingour faith and forproducinggreatblessings.34
There are countless similar testimonies to be found in Tibetan
literature on ring-bsrelemerging from a variety of objects. Here are
a few instances from the biography of the famous Sakya scholar
Rong-ston Shes-bya-kun-rig (1367-1450?) which was written in
1474. When some time had passed after Rong-ston's death, the big
toenail of his right foot was found to have entirely transformed into
a substance like mother of pearl. Another person had procured a
tooth of the saint which later turned into a substance with the
appearance of amber, and it gave birth to hundreds of ring-bsrel
which finally filled up its container. Still another person received a
tooth which immediately produced a ring-bsrel.Later, a single ringbsrelappeared
on the same spot, and after it fell another appeared
there.35
The following example is quite intriguing for the fact that it
comes from an interesting episode in Buddhist history that is always
ignored in the general surveys. In the late thirteenth century, in
Tabriz (in the extreme northwest of Persia, and just to the west of
the south end of the Caspian Sea), the Mongol ruler Arghun was
a great supporter of both Buddhism and Buddhist monks. The
following took place in April of 1288 A.D.
Buka's envoys broughtback with them to Persia one of the relics so much
esteemed among the Buddhists, called Sharil. These are hard pieces of a
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substancewhich is said to be found in the ashes of some saintly personswhen
cremated. Von Hammer says that Buddha's heart was supposedto be made
of bone and not of flesh, similarlywith the hearts of great men, and that the
sharil is really held to be the ossified heart of the cremated person. Arghun,
we are told, treatedthis relic with the greatesthonour, gold was strewn over
it, while a feast was duly celebrated.36
The naturally formed images and 'pearls' or 'increasing bone'
('phel-gdung)have some things in common. They both may come
from cremated bodies.37 But the 'pearl' phenomenon is not limited
to a cremation context. 'Pearls' are also produced by living persons,
from their skin and particularly their hair. Sometimes they
are said to form from blood. They may, as in Kong-sprul's Guide,
be found on a tooth. They can come out of chortens or images.
Another thing the images and 'pearls' share is that both belong to
two otherwise distinct conceptual categories in religious life. They
both tend to belong equally to the category of relics and the
category of 'signs of saintly death'. We would argue that it is
precisely this intersection of categories that lends the 'pearls' their
unique place in the Tibetan cult of relics. Add to this their
smallness and relative availability to individual believers; their
insertion into images and chortens where, like other relics, they
would normally be wrapped and labelled to preseve knowledge of
the saint who produced them; 38and their use as a kind of death-bed
sacrament.39 All this amounts to a fairly large cultural weight for
what is, in actuality, a very small globe-shaped mass of tiny crystals
which I have personally handled and observed, to all appearances
in the process of growing out of both hairs and bones. They are said
to be continually produced long after the cremation in the case of
bones and after cutting in the case of hair. There are several possible
naturalistic explanations which we will not explore here, concerned
as we are with the classical Tibetan view in which they
might be either miraculous or fraudulent.
Disputing Relics
Fraudulent? Tibet, too, has had its skeptics. We have an early
and detailed criticism of 'popular religion'40 penned by the founding
father of Tibetan scholastic method, Sa-skya Pandi-ta Kundga'-rgyal-mtshan
(1182-1251).41 He was the proponent, perhaps
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the most prominent Tibetan proponent, of a Buddhism squarely
based on both textual authority (scriptures) and reason. His work
called The Classificationsof the Three[Typesof Buddhist] Vowstakes an
especially hard line against those who advocate instant or 'singly
caused' Enlightenment (what he calls dkar-pogcig-thub), including
those who make such extraordinary claims as, 'circumambulating
a chorten once is sufficient.'42 His criticism of popular religion
(cults of holy places included) is found in a context which
underscores his strong, even passionate, concern for philological
propriety in religion. Just preceding the passage which is translated
below is found a discussion on various scriptures then extant in
Tibet which he considered apocryphal or otherwise unreliable;
while immediately following are discussions of various Indian Buddhist
terms which were, according to him, either wrongly rendered
by Tibetan translators or wrongly etymologized by Tibetan
scholars. Sa-skya Pandi-ta may be a 'skeptic' in this passage, but
he is not questioning the possibility or actual occurrence of these
amazing phenomenon so much as he is questioning their etiology
and significance according to popular('foolish' or 'childish', to use
his own words) interpretations.
The reasons why ring-bsrel, hearts and tongues,43 images44 and so forth
emerge from the remains of cremated saints needs to be investigated a little.
The ring-bsrelof the three types of saints emerge through the force of their
saintly qualities. As receptacles for the merit of embodied beings,45 these
emerge [genuinely] like jewels from a [definite] origin.46 Some ring-bsrelare
made by malicious gdon spirits. Others emerge [naturally] from the four
elements. There are, as well, some which are brought into being as faith producing
manifestations by deities who delight in the Buddha's teachings. But
nowadays the majority of ring-bsrelare deceitfully manufactured.47 Hence, the
distinctions between these types must be examined by the wise [the scholars].
The emerging of hearts, tongues, images and so forth is not preached in
Buddhist scripture.48 Still, generally speaking, all these things are deceitfully
manufactured. Even if they were genuine, there is no scriptural authority or
rational method for distinguishing genuine from manufactured, hence the
difficulty of establishing whether or not they are positive signs.
The dawning of several suns, the approximation of windows in space, rainbows
at night, lights radiating from a corpse, sudden visions of deities and
spirits, the nondeceitful dripping of ring-bsrelfrom a living person's body...49
Such things the foolish may take for positive signs, but if wise persons saw
such things, they would know them to be signs of impediments.50 While the
foolish may be amazed at images crying, walking, dancing, or uttering
words; at showers of blood, sound of donkeys braying beneath the ground,
animals speaking human tongues, and so on,51 if wise persons perceive such
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things, they know that enemies are invading the country, or that other
calamities are headed their way. When people perceive things of this nature,
they would do well to consult the wise.
These are just a few examples of common misinterpretations.52
Although it may seem a bit of an irony, the death and cremation
of Sa-skya Pandi-ta himself was accompanied, according to his
biographers, by various miraculous signs, including those same
'images' which he had averred were not taught in Buddhist scripture.
In the version of his life according to the Sa-skya'i Gdung-rabs
by Kun-dga'-bsod-nams, completed in 1509 A.D., the signs at his
death included banners of victory, instrumental and vocal music,
and earth tremors. When his body was cremated, the smoke made
rainbows and there were sounds of instrumental music which
everyone present heard. His remains for the most part turned into
all sorts of naturally produced divine images and ring-bsrel.53Kundga'-bsod-nams
now cites a previous biography by one Yar-lungpa
Grags-pa-rgyal-mtshan:
On the middle of his 'crown protuberance' there occurred distinct and perfect
images of Hevajra and Mafijughosa. In the area of the forehead bone was
the [deity] assemblage of Cakrasamvara. On a piece of his collarbone was the
Buddha Bhagavan. On his shoulder bone was a Khasarp.ani. In the hollow
of his foot was an Avalokitesvara. On sections of his backbone were the four
'secret mothers' (gsang-ba'iyum, i.e., consorts). On his knee bones were Tara
and Acala. On the fingers of his right hand were images of Maitreya with
the gesture of turning the Wheel of Dharma [seated] above a ndgatree. These
ten [just listed] occurred as Body receptacles. The melodious speech of
Brahma-lion's roar of Voidness-the letter 'A', symbol of nonorigination,
appeared in relief [this being the Speech receptacle]. Above his two ears were
two Namgyal chortens. [There was] a Samaya [instrument] Vajra marked in
the center with [the syllable] Hum. His pure thoughts and intentions
emerged as self-produced Dharmakaya [the Mind receptacle]. Besides these,
an incalculable number of various sorts of ring-bsreloccurred.54
As this quote makes clear, Sa-skya Pandi-ta's failure to find scriptural
authority for 'images' did not put a stop to them, and this fact
was not missed by later critics.
One of the few persons in Tibetan history who argued against the
views expressed by Sa-skya Pandi-ta, but especially against his later
commentators, was Mkhas-dbang Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje (1569-
1645), a scholar of the Drukpa Kargyudpa school. In one of his
polemical works, most of them aimed at Mang-thos Klu-sgrub-
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rgya-mtsho (1523-1596) and his students, he comments on Sa Pan's
passage on relics. The general work55 is mainly given to the subject
of holy places, especially those two places in Tibet which were most
sacred to the Kargyudpa-Mount Kailash in western Tibet and
Tsari in the Assam borderlands in the east.56 Both were believed to
be identical to holy places mentioned in the Cakrasamvaraand other
tantras, a belief to which Sa Pan, needless to say, did not
subscribe.57 Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje discusses a few lines at a time, and
since it would not suit our purposes to reproduce the statements of
Sa Pan once more, the following is meant to convey the substance
of his critical response. Direct translations are enclosed in double
quote marks, the remainder being paraphrased.58
When Sa Pan says that the ring-bsrelof saints emerge through force of their
saintly qualities, Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje responds, "True." To the statements
on their being produced by malicious spirits, the four elements or deities, the
answer is, "Half-true." When Sa Pan says that most ring-bsrelnowadays are
deceitfully manufactured and that they must be distinguished by scholars,
Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje cries "Foul!"
"Of course, if the scholars honestly look into the problem, they will
know," Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje says, "but even we confused 'fools' can figure
it out if we look into it." But what Sa Pan is really doing here is casting aspersions
on the many stories of variously colored ring-bsrelwhich occurred as
signs of the spiritual accomplishments of the past Kargyudpa masters. What
he is really saying here when he says, "Nowadays the majority of ring-bsrel
are deceitfully manufactured," is this: 'If these supports of worship occur in
my case, they are not to be included.' We could just as well argue that these
ring-bsrel[of Sa Pan], even if not deceitfully manufactured, might belong to
the other classes of those made by malicious spirits, the four elements, or
deities.
"There have indeed been those few who take gangs-thig('snowdrop' stone),
pearls, etc. wrap them in cloth and place them in a reliquary box announcing
that these are ring-bsrel. These people shouldn't just be scolded, when even
fists would be appropriate."
On the statements about hearts, tongues and 'images' not being
taught in Buddhist scriptures, he responds by citing the passage
which we have just translated on the images that occurred on the
bones of Sa Pan himself. An empiricist, he pits the weight of
repeated observation against Sa Pan's scripture-based rationalism:
"All sorts of divine images, letters, deity insignia (phyag-mtshan) and
'increasing bone' composed of small bones, resinous exudations, ashes and
stones from the funerary pyres have adhered to the remains of many of the
masters of India and Tibet. Both talk about these as well as the articles themselves
have formed objective spheres of the sense organs." He makes an
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example of the relics of Rgya-ras-pa. "The great intellectuals have trouble
knowing what to make of such reports. [Sa Pan] added these misleading
verses which make the contrary [opinion] more obvious and without at all
thinking, involves himself in a mass of contradictions. Is he saying about
these divine images, which were not preached in Buddhist scriptures, but
which have nevertheless been engendered from the remains of our lamas,
that they are all deceitfully manufactured? Even if we took such a possibility
for a fact, since there is no scriptural authority or rational method to decide
one way or the other, we could not pretend to establish their goodness or say
that they are bad. Knowing this, we must count these ways that Body,
Speech and Mind receptacles occur as being among the great miracles.
Therefore, to assert that they are all false is like a deer chasing a mirage. It
[the argument] will lead to nothing but exhaustion.
"The Blazing Remains Tantra, which is counted among the Old Translations,
explains how hearts, tongues and images as well as entire heads emerge
whole [from the cremation fire]. If true, how could he write that they are not
taught in Buddhist scripture? And if he did not accept this tantra as a valid
scripture, he should have in the first place critically examined it. Therefore
people's arguments about the goodness or badness [of these signs] are in
broad terms only [arguments about] existence or nonexistence, and they
thereby commit one of the 'four extremes' [to be avoided in Buddhist philosophy]."
59
Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje goes on to discuss the other miracles mentioned
by Sa Pan. Going back to the scriptural sources on the crying,
walking, dancing and talking images, Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje
finds that those sources are talking specifically about images of
'wordly deities' (deities who assist or hinder worldly goals rather
than aiding toward the ultimate goal of Enlightenment). Consecrated
images of transworldly deities [to the contrary] perform
such actions as part of the Emanation Body deeds of Buddhas, in
order to aid and encourage people in their quest for Enlightenment.
About the other miraculous occurrences, Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje says
that they are, after all is said and done, miracles,and as such they
are naturally difficult things to explain even if one does ask the
scholars about them.
While the former arguments were part of a larger debate between
the Sakyapa and Kargyudpa sects, the following is from a debate
between the Sakyapa (?) 'Bri-gung Dpal-'dzin, and a Nyingma
apologist, Sog-bzlog-pa. The argument on the nature of 'signs of
saintly death' takes a slightly different twist. Dpal-'dzin (as cited by
Sog-bzlog-pa) wrote in his circular entitled 'How to Distinguish
What Is and Is Not Dharma' [Chos dang Chos-ma-yin-paRnam-par
Dbye-ba'i Rab-tu Byed-pa]:
290 Dan Martin
Some say that the adherents of Great Perfection are Buddhist (Chos)
because of good signs at their funerals. These good funeral signs to which
they refer have their textual authority in what sutra or tantra? When the
Completely Perfect Buddha[s], the Arhats and other saints died it is said that
there were bad omens such as earthquakes, a nearby fire (? phyogs tshig),
shooting stars and winds. When great personages such as these pass away,
it means the merit of creatures is used up. Therefore it is right that such [bad
omens] as these should occur. When one has been reborn in the divine realms
[i.e., nota saint!] flowers fall. Images, letters, hearts, tongues and eyes do not
occur [in the case of] saints. Images, letters, hearts and tongues do occur [in
the case of] Bonpos who despise Chos.60
The reply of Sog-bzlog-pa:
"The relics (ring-bsrel) of the three [types of] saints emerge through the
strength of their [saintly] qualities." This backing by the scriptural authority
of the sutras is sufficient [in the case of ring-bsrel].The occurrence of images
and letters is [however] one of the things that sets tantras apart from sutras.
The Reverend Lord [Atisa] said, "Deity images occur to those who have
[mastered] the Generation Stage. For those of pure conduct there are rainings
of flowers. For Bodhicitta, ring-bsreldrip out. To show the actual meaning
of the external and internal sensory potentialities (skye-mchedlayatana),the
letter 'A' [occurs]. For Nonreturners (Phyir-mi-ldog-pa/Anagamin), a spiraling
conch [occurs]. In the case of [Bodhi]sattvas who have not abandoned
samsdra, hearts and tongues occur." This and more may be found explained
in the [Bka'-gdams] Glegs-bam61itself.
It may well be that when great personages pass away, bad signs occur
because the merit of creatures is used up. But also receptacles of Body,
Speech and Mind occur for the multiplying of their own liberated saintly
qualities as well as of the merit of those whom they are meant to help. The
Reverend Sa-skya Pandi-ta had a Hevajra [image] in the middle of his usnisa,
a Khasarpani on his shoulder along with a great many other deity images.
The Lord of Beings, Gtsang-pa Rgya-ras-pa had twenty-one images of
Avalokitesvara on twenty-one sections of his backbone. The learned Gungru62had
the long Asta mantra in raised relief on his skull. There have been
an unimaginable number of spiritual teachers who had: the letter 'A' showing
the actual meaning of the external and internal sensory potentialities; the
Om Ah and Hum which are supports of Body, Speech and Mind; the six
syllables (Om Mani-padme Hium) and so forth. One may know by looking at
their individual biographies how many of the great personages of the past
[had such signs] including the peerless doctor from Dwags-po (Sgam-po-pa)
who had heart and tongue [unburnt]. Well now, how can you [Dpal-'dzin]
not think that these are good [signs]?63
One main point that emerges from these polemical statements is
that Tibetan thinkers have not been unanimous in their views
about the significance of relics and signs of saintly death. Neither
were they unanimous about the 'authority' of scriptures and other
writings (such as saintly biographies). Charges of fraudulence were
Pearlsfrom Bones
mainly exchanged along sectarian lines as footnotes to larger
disagreements. The scripture-based rationalist can accept only
miracles with their source in scripture, while the empiricist can say
little in reply except that these things happen, with or without direct
scriptural justification. We might argue together with the empiricist
position that nuclear explosions have happened, even if there is no
direct scriptural passage which could 'prove' them. On another
hand, the arguments might lead us to reflect on some sober issues
of religious studies-How much is the actual practice of a religion
prescribed by its scriptures? What aspects of religious culture might
be missed by comparative religionists who insist on limiting themselves
to the study of scriptures? What do we gain by giving this one
word 'scripture' to religious books which might mean different
things to different people, even within a single religion or tradition?
Students of religious culture might naturally feel more affinity with
the Tibetan empiricists on this issue while, no doubt, the learned
philologists, with their concern for textual propriety similar to that
of Sa Pan, will find this discussion slightly unsettling. Now we will
look at another work that some Tibetan Buddhists would treat as
'scripture' while others would not.
Making Relics
There is a text from the collected rediscoveries of the Terton
Padma-gling-pa64 which, we are given to believe, came from the
hand of Dga'-rab-rdo-rje, the founder of the Nyingma Ati-yoga
lineages, giving directions on how to produce ring-bsrel.It is, in
several ways, an exasperating text which I will summarize as well
as I am able. First, it tells the importance of realizing the first two
of the 'four appearances' (snang bzhz)65according to the Crossover
(Thod-rgal) teachings of the Precepts Class of Ati-yoga in order to
bring about the transformations in the body which will produce
ring-bsrelfor the sake of the faithful. Then a sadhana description
begins. It requires the use of a skull in which five mantras and five
drawings are to be inscribed with an ink composed of herbal
essences and liquid gold. Inside the skull (or skulls) is to be placed
[a?] ring-bsrelof a Sugata (Buddha or saint) or at least one that is
definitely from a Siddha (yoga practitioner with magical powers).
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The Five Good Medicinal Herbs66 are wrapped in pieces of cloth
and arranged upon the five inscribed mantras. Basic rituals are prescribed,
and a mantra given which is to be recited through a seven
day retreat.
When good results are achieved, attach the ring-bsrelto your armpit
without anyone seeing you. Then, either for yourself or someone
else, when it is time to die and the signs of death are complete,
take those same ring-bsreland, thinking they are the essence of all
Tathagatas, put them in the throat. When the body is cremated,
there will be a stack of ring-bsrel. If you want images, take a
naturally occurring image and do as above; place them in the
throat, and so they will emerge at cremation. Keep these deeds
secret. If someone sees or hears these things, bad people will make
exaggerated talk and those with wrong views will increase their
accumulation of sin. This being secret mantra, do it in secret. This
was written by Dga'-rab-rdo-rje for the sake of increasing the Buddha's
teaching, hidden by Padmasambhava, and brought out of the
chorten at Samye by Padma-gling-pa.
This work seems to convey an attitude in which certain deceits
are approved of for the promotion of faith. Indeed, Padma-gling-pa
was one of the most controversial of Tertons, and he often had to
defend himself against charges of fraudulence.67 Which is not to
belittle him. His autobiography is, for instance, one of the most
extraordinary and colorful pieces of Tibetan (and Bhutanese)
literature. If read carefully, this text on making ring-bsreldoes not
make all ring-bsrelout to be purposefully manufactured in order to
induce faith in the faithful; in fact, the process of making them
requires the use of a genuine ring-bsrel(or image), the multiplication
of which does not seem to be explained by the ingredients used. We
have what looks like a clear case of using a miracle to produce a
miracle.
An earlier Tibetan text, written in about 1170 to 1190 by Zhang
G.yu-brag-pa Brtson-' grus-grags-pa (1123-1193) also tells a way of
'making' ring-bsrel(here called sha-ri-ram),but in a very devotional
context. The text we are about to cite is one of a set of seven texts
with the collective title 'Seven Expedients [for Developing Devotion
toward] the Lama' (Bla-ma'i Lam-khyer Bdun). Before citing in
his support an otherwise unknown tantra,68 he says,
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Yogis, when their Lama has passed away, [should] take his powdered bones
(gdung-rus-kyiphye-ma),place a syllableHum made of gold in the middle, and
attach this to the neck or at the top of the head. Worshipping and making
prayers at intervals, when they have purity of intent toward the result that
they desire, in seven years the bones (gdung) will increase ('phel-ba) into an
incalculable [number of] sha-ri-ram.
A late nineteenth century medical missionary in Mongolia, the
Reverend James Gilmour, including ring-bsrelin his list of frauds
consciously perpetrated by lamas. Of course, as a missionary, he
had reasons of his own for making such charges:
When famous lamas die and their bodies are burnt, little white pills are
reported as found among the ashes, and sold for large sums to the devout,
as being the concentrated virtue of the man, and possessing the power of
insuring a happy future for him who swallows one near death. This is quite
common. I heard of one man who improved on this, by giving out that these
pills were in the habit of coming out through the skin of various parts of the
body. These pills called sharil, met with a ready sale, and then the man
himself reaped the reward of his virtue, and did not allow all the profit of it
to go to his heir.69
Although we may seem to be stacking the evidence in favour of
fraudulence, I personally do not believe that the cynical view is
necessarily the correct one. I think of these things rather as
anomalies, not yet investigated in any systematic way by natural
sciences, but meanwhile their occurrence is perfectly acceptable to
my generally rational if somewhat pragmatic way of thinking. Still,
I acknowledge that these anomalies ('miracles', if you will) could,
due to their popular appeal, encourage imitations or 'reproductions'
after the fact.
There is at least one other analogous phenomenon in Tibetan
religious culture which is not a relic perse, but rather a consecrated
article. We refer to what is known as the Mani Pellet (Ma-ni Rilbu).
This Mani Pellet is produced during a religious service,
usually lasting several days, the relatively wellknown "Mani
Rimdu" (Ma-ni Ril-bsgrub) of Nepal's Sherpas being one such
ritual. Its ingredients, primarily wheat flour, must include, according
to one source,70 both ring-bsrel and a Mani Pellet made
previously. The 'mother' pellet is capable of giving birth to a
number of smaller 'baby' pellets, a phenomenon I have not
observed.71 Unlike ring-bsrel, Mani Pellets are non-crystalline,
smooth, light or reddish brown and somewhat asymmetrically
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spherical. Evidently the 'baby' pellets emerge from their 'mother'
pellets in the same way in which the ring-bsrelemerge and ultimately
detach themselves from the bone or hair. These pellets are
decidedly not reproduced under conditions of extreme heat.
A Conclusion,or, It May Be Best Not to 'Conclude'Too Much
In summary, a considerable range of cultural phenomena and
popular beliefs have crystallized around the cults of relics in Tibet.
If we students of Tibetan culture have so far failed to realize any
general portraits of this complex of beliefs, objects, and practices,
it is, to my mind, not only because we have failed to predict it, but
also because we find certain of its manifestations extreme,
distasteful, or, so to speak, culturally surprising.72 Perhaps it is
because of our own cultural experience with similar phenomena.
Protestant Christianity in particular has led us toward a view of
scripture as the source of all presently available religious inspiration.
Except for a few relatively logocentric Tibetan scholars, here
represented by Sa-skya Pandita, Tibetan religious life as a whole
has recognized scripture as a contingent and integral part of a
broad array of sacred items, including temples and chortens,
humanly-made as well as 'natural' (self-produced) images, and
things we would recognize as relics. 'Relics' in the Tibetan case is
a broader category than our own, often including scriptural texts,
images, tsha-tsha. Consider the following simple chart for a
moment.
A
C
4 *0. 4 010
B * 0
4 .4 4 .
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The square of A which is inclusive of square B represents the holy
things in Tibetan Buddhism. A exclusive of B represents the holy
things that are not relics, while B represents relics, and C represent
signs of sainthood or what is practically its synonym here,
'miraculous events'. But the category walls that we have charted
out in black and white prove to be semipermeable membranes.
Mediating between A and B are: 1. Scriptural volumes that are also
relics of contact by virtue of belonging to a saint. 2. Scriptural
volumes that are bodily relics because bodily relics of saints have
been used for the ink, etc. 3. Chortens (and temples) that contain
relics of all types. 4. Images and tsha-tshathat contain relics of various
types. 5. Images that are relics of contact, or images that have
been thoroughly identified with saints (such as the excavated
'representatives', sku-tshab, or more generally images 'made from
life'). 6. Sacramental pellets which may contain some hints of various
relics.
Bridging the divide between relics (B) and miraculous events (C)
are: 1. ring-bsrelor 'increasing bone' ('phel-gdung).2. Images formed
on or of bodily relics. 3. Hearts, tongues, and eyes that emerge
intact from the cremation fires.
Although less emphasized here, there are bridges between nonrelic
holy things and miraculous events, such as talking images or
images produced 'naturally', signs of sainthood such as imprints of
hands and feet in solid rock, and so forth.
Finally, once the visual impact of the chart has done its work, the
boundaries may be permitted to dissolve, leaving a single sphere of
substantives and verbs standing for the holy substances and occurrences
of Tibetan Buddhism. The logical subject of all possible
sentences that might be generated from these particular nouns and
verbs is, of course, the holy person, the Buddhas and the whole
range of other Buddhist saints.
Although there can be no culturally unbound way of arguing for
or against a culture-bound attitude (and this holds true for 'scientific'
attitudes in all their varied, temporary expressions), I would
argue that our typical attitudes toward the cults of relics of past and
present in our own and other cultures is not due to our lack of
cultural relics. We are all collectors of relics of some sort or another.
Rather, we have these attitudes because we no longer have any
strongly shared popular cults of saints.73
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If saint recognition lies behind these relic-related cultural complexes,
then there is, in addition, a third factor behind recognized
sainthood. We refer to that inexplicable phenomenon which forms
the basis for the shared popular recognition of saints, to those
mysteriously diffusing spiritual influences which are the social contributions
of these strange, often reclusive and sometimes at least
superficially antisocial creatures. These blessings, these 'gifts',74
are the bedrock of all the cultural classifications and practices
outlined in this paper. Our failure to recognize their power
hampers even our less matter-ialistic attempts at social analysis
precisely because we do not see what it is that mattersmost in the
subject we want to investigate. It requires a basic acknowledgement
of this power to render the extreme manifestations, which may be
as shocking to the everyday normalities of their home culture as
they would be to others, intelligible. It is the living blessing of the
saint that touches us when we come in contact with the relic,
presuming some measure of openness, of faith. As an anonymous
Tibetan author of the thirteenth century said, employing
characteristically Tibetan metaphors,
If the white glacier of veneration has not formed,
from where will the flowing streams of blessings come?75
Popular religion, plainly put, has the capacity to widen the
margins of our intellectual as well as social outlooks; it strains our
credulity as well as our perception of our responsibilities which
seem so strongly outlined in our individual 'social contracts'. It is
hinged with imagination, beliefs, practices and sometimes even
'material' objects not so well covered by the usual understandings
of the situations we find ourselves in. This gives it an important
transformational role in the social and intellectual spheres, not only
in the private religious lives of individual believers.
Although the point is arguable, I would at least advance for the
sake of argument that we students of comparative religion have too
often looked for the source of the 'holy' in abstract concepts and
revealed words because of our own personal fondness for abstract
concepts and books. We sit embroiled in scholastic wranglings
about the nature of the Alayavijnaina, the Dharmakaya or the Holy
Spirit, while Tenzin the yak herder circumambulates the
neighborhood chorten telling his beads. Of course, Sonam the
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government official and some monks from a nearby monastery are
right there behind him. Who understands the 'holy' better? We
scarcely consider that we may be looking too hard and too far for
something Tenzin and Sonam know is right here with us. This
seems to be what we are really talking about when we invoke the
words 'popular religion', or is it perhaps something different from
'real' religion? What do historians know about sacred presence?In
actuality, we share similar ideas about the identity of these particular
pearls no matter how far away from them talk and controversy
and historical sifting seem to have taken us, but we
disagree about the nature of the bones from which they come. At
the very least, all this talk about 'popular religion' could help lead
us toward more self-critical and serious considerations on the identity
of the swine before whom they should not be thrown. They,
too, may be us, since miracles do tend to dissolve at the touch of
those whose worldview finds no place for them.
Appendix: Data on Tibetan Relics
Guideto the SikkimeseChortenNamed Sku-'bumMthong-baRang-grol
This Guide, written by Lha-btsun Nam-mkha'-'jigs-med (1597-
1653 A.D.),76 opens with a eulogy on the area surrounding the
chorten, noting such features as a naturally formed clay chorten
with drops of elixirial naga-water on it, the mere touching or tasting
of which will clear up an aeon's accumulation of defilements.77 Surrounding
this are four 'thrones' blessed by the Guru (Padmasambhava)
with hand and foot prints and likenesses of the eight
auspicious symbols in relief. The surroundings are like the eight
great cemeteries,78 filled with yogis, spirits, cannibals and animals
including leopards, bears and poisonous snakes. Scents of sandalwood
and camphor are in the air. The local human and animal
inhabitants have few desires, a sense of satisfaction. They have no
possessiveness toward their houses and wealth. They have no
miserliness, no stinginess.
Several wealthy people built this chorten as prophecied by Padmasambhava
in this place which is, in its non-vital aspects,79 a
divine palace, its 'vital' inhabitants constituting a mandala of
divinities. Its building was accompanied by dream signs as well as
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external signs: letters of the alphabet falling from the sky in a dream
consecration, a rainfall during the actual consecration ceremony,
etc.
Now the chorten itself is described. The contents are listed below
under the categories employed by the text itself:
1) Tantric dharanz:80In the uppermost tip, the Btags-grol Mthong-grol of Atiyoga
Tantra8l and the five great dhdraniincluding that of Usnisa[vijaya].82
In the base of the harmika('bre), dhalraniof the deities of Maha-, Anu-, and
Ati-yogas...83
2) The insertion of scriptures and relics (ring-bsrel): 'Increasing bone' ('phelgdung)
of Sakyamuni Buddha. In the base of the spire, a tooth of Sariputra84
and bones of Sangs-rgyas-gling-pa.85 In the bulge of the 'vessel' (bum-palkumbha):86
'increasing bone' from the White Chorten at Samye (Bsam-yas)87 as
well as from Rgyal-rtse88 and Rtse-la-sgang.89 Chu-ri-ram90 'increasing
bone' of the Buddha... Miraculous relics of Dga'-rab-rdo-rje.91 The forearm
of Rgyal-ba-mchog-dbyangs92 and bones of nine other Nyingma historical
figures of the eighth century (listed).
3) Consecrated substances (dam-rdzas)and blessing bestowing objects of worship
(rten byin-brlabs-can, = byin-rten):
A jewel blessed by Buddha Kasyapa,93 brought by Nagarjuna from the naga
land, concealed by Padmasambhava at Turquoise Lake in Tsari,94 and
rediscovered by Ye-shes-rdo-rje.95 Images of the Buddhas of the five types
(rigs, 'families'). A reddish bronze Buddha image. A fine, large image of
Maitreya made of golden bronze... A testicle (a-ril) rediscovered by 'Ja'tshon-snying-po96
at Kong-phrang-brag. The red and white Bodhicitta (in
this context, "reproductive substances") of Padmasambhava and his consort
rediscovered at Lha-ri Snang-mtha'. Hair of Padmasambhava. Hair of
Tibetan emperors. A testicle rediscovered at Bsam-yas Mchims-phu. A testicle
rediscovered from behind the Jowo (Jo-bo) image at Lhasa.97 Clothing,
hair, testicle[s], etc., of Padmasambhava rediscovered by Sangs-rgyas-glingpa98
along with an assortment of consecrated articles and manuscript pages
rediscovered by the various Rediscoverers (Terton, gter-ston, discussed
above). Relics and consecrated articles from Kargyudpa saints. Elixir Pellets
(bdud-rtsiril-bu).99 A tooth of 'Brug-smyon Kun-legs.100 More hair relics. A
skull of Khyung-po Ras-chen with a naturally formed letter 'A' on it along
with his forearm with a natural image of Amitayus. Special earths and stones
from India, Tibet and China. Brahmin flesh rediscovered by O-rgyan-glingpa
(b. 1323) and the same rediscovered by Rdor-'bum-chos-grags and Sangsrgyas-bla-ma.10'
Flesh of Ratna-gling-pa.'02 Loincloths (ang-rag) of Gtsangsmyon
and of Dbus-smyon.103 The sitting cushion and loincloth of Tilopa.104
The bones and shroud of Nyang Ta-tha-ga-ta.105 Milarepa's loincloth...
Long Life Pellets of the Karmapa school which include the 'increasing bone'
of Yang-ston-pa. A garuda bird106 claw discovered at Mdzo-nag. Earth and
stone from various parts of Tibet... Precious stones. Medicinal herbs. Food.
Grains. Cloth.
There follow several long quotes prophecying the opening of the
Hidden Country (Sbas Yul) of Sikkim, the author of this piece
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being the person credited with its 'opening' .07 Then there are more
'advertisements', saying that three years of meditation can be
accomplished in three days at this chorten; finally, more prophecies
and praises of Sikkim.
ChortenGuide by Zhu-chenTshul-khrims-rin-chen(1697-1774)108
Zhu-chen was a monk of the Sakyapa (Sa-skya-pa) school,
famous as a poet, but mainly remembered for his role as main
editor (zhu-chen) of the collection of Indic treatises in Tibetan
translation-the Tanjur-as it was printed in Derge (Sde-dge).
Among his works is a two volume catalogue of the Derge Tanjur.
Zhu-chen's description, beginning as is usual with scriptural citations
demonstrating the merits to be gained by building a chorten,
tells us how this particular chorten was constructed in Derge
through the efforts of the Lama Lhun-grub-ting-'dzin in memory
of the abbot 'Jam-dbyangs-bsod-nams.'09 Zhu-chen's list begins
with the insertion of dharant(which he calls by one of their common
names, 'Dharmabody relics') into various parts of the interior.
Then the listing of other relics (the gdung ring-bsrel)"0begins:
Two genuine 'increasingbone' of the Tathagata the size of mustardseeds.
Hair of Sa-skya Pandi-ta.11 Clothing of Chos-rje Bla-ma Dam-pa.112Tshatshall3
in the shape of White Tara containing relics of Dkon-mchog-dpalldan-pa.
Clothing of Dpal-ldan-don-grub. Powdered bone of Nam-mkha'rin-chen.
Tsha-tshain the shape of Hevajra containing relics of Mkhan-chen
Bzang-po-rgyal-mtshan.Clothing of Sangs-rgyas-phun-tshogs.'14The entire
head of hair of Bsod-nams-bzang-po. Clothing and powdered bone of Bkrashis-lhun-grub.
A single tooth, powdered bone, clothing of the All Knowing
Tshul-khrims-lhun-grub-pa. Bone ash of Mkhan-chen Sangs-rgyas-dpalbzang-pa.
Hair of Shug-ra-ba Kun-dga'-dpal-'byor. Bones of the
Vajraholder Bkra-shis-bzang-po. The Great Siddha Thang-stong-rgyalpo's115Long
Life Pellets. Seven Rebirth (as Brahmin) Pellets of Dga'-ldanpa.16
Pellets consecratedby the Panchen Lama. Elixir Pellets made by the
Lamas of Ngor."7
There follows a long list of images of saints and Buddhas which
were inserted, in other words, tsha-tshamade of clay which contained
the following relics:
Tooth of the Bodhisattva Chos-'phags.18 Bones of Sa-chen.19 Shroud (?
sku-chings)of Bsod-nams-rtse-mo.120Coat of Rje-btsun-grags-pa. Hair of Saskya
Pandi-ta. Dance costume of the previous [Sakyapa] masters. Sleeve
cloth and coat of Sa-lo.'12A cover used when transportinga leather mask (?
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bse 'bag) from India. Skull of Bdag-chen Ngag-dbang-po. Hair of 'Jamdbyangs-kun-dga'-bsod-nams.122
Sleeve cloth and bones of Glo-bo Mkhanchen...123
Bones of a long list of other Sakyapa saints. Earth and water from
holy places in India, Nepal and Tibet including Bodhgaya, the Nairafijana
River and so forth.
These relics, with yellow cloth and fragrances, filled the entire
chorten up to the top of the 'vessel' (bum-pa)part. Various types of
jewels and precious stones were enclosed. Sandalwood. Myrobalan
(a-ru-ra) fruits. Herbs. Incense. Sugar. Molasses. Honey. Grains.
Chinese tea. Mud from Lake Manasarovar. Pebbles from glacier
mountains. Various fruits. The work ends with a brief account of
the consecration carried out by the author himself, and the dedication
of merit.
Gung-thang-pa's(1762-1823) Guidesto the Contentsof SeveralChortens
includingone Erectedin Memoryof Blo-bzang-bkra-shis124
This Guide, unlike the others summarized here, is a simple list
of contents without further description of the chorten or surrounding
area. It is included within a larger work devoted to such 'content
lists' of both chortens and images.'25 The life of Gung-thangpa,
a renowned Gelugpa cleric, abbot of Tashikhyil Monastery126
in Amdo, Northeast Tibet, has already been described,127 so we will
go directly to the Guide itself:
Genuine 'increasing bone' of the Buddha. Clothing and hair of Atisa.128
Clothing of Sa-skya Pan.di-ta129 and of Chos-rje Don-grub Rin-po-che.130
Hair, clothing and shroud of Bdag-nyid-chen-po [one of the Sakya hierarchs,
unspecified]. Clothing of Lho-brag Grub-chen.'3 Clothing of the translator
from Rwa.'32 Hair and clothing of Thang-stong-rgyal-po.'33 Clothing of
Rgyal-tshab-rje.134 Hair and clothing of Mkhas-grub-rje.135 Clothing of
'Dul-'dzin-pa.'36 Hair and clothing of Ba-so Chos-rgyan.'37 Hair of the
Second Dalai Lama Dge-'dun-rgya-mtsho (1475-1542). Clothing of the
Third Dalai Lama Bsod-nams-rgya-mtsho (1543-1588). Hair of the Fourth
Dalai Lama Yon-tan-rgya-mtsho (1589-1616). Hair, a book, and clothing of
the First Panchen Lama Blo-bzang-chos-rgyan. 38Hair and fingernails of the
Great Fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682). Clothing of the Second Panchen Lama
Blo-bzang-ye-shes (1663-1737). Hair and clothing of the Seventh Dalai Lama
Bskal-bzang-rgya-mtsho (1708-1758). Clothing of Khri-chen Rgyal-mtshanseng-ge,139
Dung-dkar 'Brug-grags,140 the Bya-khyung abbot 14 and others.
Hair of Lcang-skya Rol-pa'i-rdo-rje,'42 the Kanjurwa Incarnate,143 Grubdbang
Stobs-ldan Rin-po-che,'44 the All Knowing 'Jigs-med-dbang-po,'45
Khri-chen Ngag-dbang-bkra-shis,'46 the Chas-pa Incarnation,'47 Smin-gling
Pearlsfrom Bones
Chos-kyi-rgyal-po
148 and the Sgom-chen Rin-po-che
49himself. Bones of Rje
Chos-skyong-rgya-mtsho and Khri Nam-mkha'-bzang.150 Embalming salts
(pur tshwa) of the Master of Spiritual Accomplishment 151 himself. Four thousand
images of the Rje Bla-ma,152 four thousand images of the Medicine
Buddha (Sman-bla), one thousand each of Amitayus and Tara, a little more
than a thousand other images, among them the eight Sugatas, Amitabha,
Mafijusri, Avalokitesvara, Bhairava and Vijaya. Many pellets containing
various objects of worship (rten) from India and Tibet. Wood, stone, earth
and water from holy places of India, China, Western Tibet (Mnga'-ris),
Nepal, Central Tibet (Dbus-gtsang) and Eastern Tibet (Mdo-smad). In addition,
fragrant herbs, types of incense, powder of precious substances, and so
on. These completely filled the interior without leaving any remaining space.
As the most important of the 'four types of relics','53 the Dharmabody relics,
or dharani, were inscribed according to custom and inserted into the upper,
lower and middle parts of the chorten.
Before leaving Gung-thang-pa, we would like to mention some
of the more interesting items from the other chorten content lists
within the same larger work. One content list includes books: the
'root tantras' of Cakrasamvaraand Guhyasamaja; the Bodhisattvacaryavatara,the
Lam-rim Chen-moof Tsongkhapa, etc.'54 There are
fingernails and blood ('body vermillion', sku-mtshal)relics. There
are Tsongkhapa's urine (gsang-chab)pellets,'55 nasal blood (shangs
khrag)of the Fifth Dalai Lama, rosaries, tsha-tshamade by the hands
of Smrti156 and the Panchen Lama.
Then there is one curious statement about a genuine starter
(phab-rgyun,as in 'yeast starter' for making beer or yoghurt) for
many ancient supports of worship (rten)'57which contained hair,
tooth, bone and clothing relics of an impressive array of saints;
Nyingma, Kargyudpa, Gelugpa and Sakyapa saints, about fortyfour
all told, if we count the Seven Rebirths (as Brahmins) Flesh.
As the yeast starter analogy makes clear, we are dealing with a
substance consecrated by minute, and probably extremely minute
traces of relics added to the 'brew' through centuries of consecration
rites, similar to the way Tibetan beer is made with the residues
from earlier batches, thus preserving and transmitting the mold
spores necessary for fermentation.'58
In a later list, we find hand and foot imprints (rjes), copies of texts
for chanting which belonged to many holy persons, double headed
ddmarudrums, vajras, bells, 159 and a natural syllable Om made of
bone.'60 In yet other lists are handkerchiefs (shangs-phyis),powder
of various persons' bones and clothing mixed together, pellets made
with bones of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
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Kong-sprul's (1813-1899) Guide to the ChortenBuilt to Enshrine the
Remains of his Bonpo TeacherG. yung-drung-phun-tshogs161
So far, we have examined one chorten Guide by a Nyingma Terton,
one by a Sakyapa literary figure, and another by a Gelugpa
hierarch. Now we turn to the fourth and last Guide by the most
famous of several great leaders of what has been called the Universalist
or Nonsectarian (Ris-med) movement. Kong-sprul started life
as a Bonpo (about which, more shortly), then entered a Nyingma
monastery and, finally, became a Kargyudpa monk. These moves
from monasteries of one sect to those of another were simply that
for him. He had a strong appetite for knowledge that could not be
satisfied by a single school. Indeed, it could not be confined to
religious studies; his medical works, for example, are contemporary
classics in the field. By entering the Nyingma monastery, he did
not, even if it may have been expected of him, renouncehis Bonpo
past. He devoted himself to Bon studies throughout his life and, the
present text being one proof, continued to hold his Bonpo teachers
in the highest esteem. Kong-sprul did not necessarily crusade
against intolerance; he was just not the sort of person who could
understand why intolerance should exist, or why others should find
sectarian affiliations so overwhelmingly important.162
The Bon school is not easy to characterize simply (and simple
characterizations are dangerous, generally). It claims direct descent
from a (not necessarily the) pre-Buddhist religion of Tibet which
had its founding moment when Gshen-rab-mi-bo (16,016-7,816
B.C.)163 visited Tibet in pursuit of stolen horses. Kong-sprul's
Guide begins with a sketch of Bon doctrine and history which,
despite its interest, cannot be disentagled here. Bon was and is the
subject of much polemic in Tibetan life and literature, but for our
purposes it is enough to say that, as it has existed in the last
millenium, it in any case supplies its adherents basically the same
sorts of answers to the same religious needs as do the other sects.
The teacher whose relics were to be enshrined in the chorten,
G. yung-drung-phun-tshogs, took monastic vows at Sman-ri
Monastery, the principal educational center for Bon studies in
Gtsang province of central Tibet, and spent much of his life
engaged in religious retreats. That his contemplative visualizations
included Old (Nyingma) and New Tantras as well as Bonpo
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divinities makes it a little more understandable that Kong-sprul, as
his student, would follow a career of intersectarian tolerance.
Kong-sprul tells further details of his teacher's life; but let us turn
now to the contents of the chorten built in his honor. The Bon relics
(ring-bsrel)are divided in five classes:
1) Bon Relics: The collected dharanlof Bon written in gold and silver on azure
colored paper. Many other canonical Bonpo dharantzand sutras (listed by
title). One volume, it should be noted, was printed on Chinese paper using
ink made of vermillion mixed with jewel (powder), herbs and relics (of the
most general category of 'blessing supports', byin-rten).
2) Mustard seed like relics: In the uppermost tip of the chorten, a relic (sha-riram)
larger than a Tibetan pea which came from the bone of Khyung-po
Rang-grol Blo-gros-rgyal-mtshan.164 A pea sized relic which came from the
bone of Sku-mdun Bsod-nams-blo-gros.165
3) Bon image relics: A thousand images each of some eleven Bonpo deities
and saints made from clay mixed with the ashes of Kong-sprul's teacher,
G. yung-drung-phun-tshogs. Other images.
4) Physical remains relics (sku-gdung-gi ring-bsrel):In the upper, east part of
the inside of the 'vessel' (bum-pa), a tooth of Bru Nam-mkha'-g.yungdrung166
marked by two white mustard seed like relics (sha-ri-ram). A dark
maroon colored letter 'M' which appeared on the heart of Stag-la of Khyungpo.
A skull relic of Do-shang Bla-ma marked by a golden color. Khyung-za
Chos-sgron's'67 skull with a naturally formed letter 'A'. Remains of many
learned and spiritually accomplished persons of all sects (not listed).
5) Clothing (etc.) relics: Hair, hats, clothing, rosaries, handprints, etc., of
some thirty-five different Bonpos (names listed), for the most part belonging
to the thirteenth century or later.
As a final, distinct category, Kong-sprul lists the consecrated
articles from the Chostraditions, by which is meant all the Tibetan
Buddhist sects besides Bon:
Consecrated articles of the Chos traditions: An Indian book which belonged
to the great translator Vairocana. Flesh of Seven Times Reborn as Brahmin
Pellets. Consecrated articles of the Karmapas [including] Great Black Pellets
(Ril Nag Chen-mo). Elixir Pellets (Bdud-rtsi Ril-bu) of the Ngor subsect of
the Sakyapa school. Other types of blessed, consecrated articles which were
contained in the 'worship box' (rten sgam) of the Derge ruling family (Saskyong
Sde-dge) including Nyingmapa, Karmapa, Drukpa ('Brug-pa),
Sakyapa and Gelugpa articles.
Then there is a description of the materials used to build the
chorten and the method used in its construction, in this case following
the instructions from a work by Kun-grol-grags-pa.168 Then
there is a list of holy places of India, Tibet and Nepal, whence came
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earth, stone, wood, grass, flowers, etc., which were enclosed.
Kong-sprul ends with quotations from Bon scriptures to demonstrate
the benefits of circumambulating, prostrating, and lighting
lamps at a chorten.
More Evidence:Consecrationand DharazniInsertionTexts
So far, we have looked at chorten Guides in some way connected
with all five of the major sects of Tibetan Buddhism; but let us now
have a look at a different type of literature, texts which describe the
actual process of consecration. One Gelugpa chorten consecration
has already been studied elsewhere. The author is the first Lcangskya
incarnate, Ngag-dbang-blo-bzang-chos-ldan (1642-1714).169
He supplies the following general classification of relics (ring-bsrel)
aside from the dharanzi,which are also included in his discussion:
1) Mustard seeds like relics: 'Increasing bone' of the Tathagata and so forth.
2) Remains (sku-gdung) relics: Remains of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
3) Clothing (sku-bal) relics: Hair, nails, clothing and so forth, of Buddhas
and Bodhisattvas.170
My second example of a chorten consecration text (or, more
technically speaking, a 'dharanziinsertion' text) is that of 'Bri-gung
Rig-'dzin Chos-kyi-grags-pa (b. 1595). The title of this work, written
in 1636 A.D., translates-Ocean of theTwoAccumulations[of Merit
and Total Knowledge]. Ritual Methodsfor Insertingthe Five [Types of]
Relics (ring-bsrel).171 It deals with consecration rites for images as
well as chortens. Beginning with comments on the correct mensuration
of images and chortens, it then quotes at length from the
KuitagaraSutra172on the merits of building chortens. Then we are
happily supplied with a most thorough classification of relics:
1) Dharmabody relics: These might be understood to be "Dharma incorporating"
73 relics. These relics, which indicate the nature of the Dharmabody,
include the eight chortens and tsha-tshas which in turn contain
dharani, for instance those of Sakyamuni, Usnisavijaya, Vimalosnisa, and so
on.
2) Mustard seed like relics: These come from the bones of special people such
as the three types of saints.174 Those which are transparent in color and as
big as a pea or larger are called gdung. Those smaller than this are called ringbsrel.
In the Sku-gdung 'Bar-baand other tantras of the Nyingma Secret Mantra,
there is a division into five: sha-ri-ram, ba-ri-rarm,chu-ri-ram, nya-ri-ram,
and panytsa-ram.'75But these are only divisions according to color. They, as
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well as all the other gdung and ring-bsrel,are included within the category of
mustard seed like relics.
3) Dharma relics: Mantras from Vajrayana literature and dharani from
Sutrayana literature. All the pronouncements of the Buddhas as well as
reliable commentaries on the same are included in this category.
4) Remains (sku-gdung) relics: The remains of the Root Guru or other
superior personages, of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Hearers and Solitary
Realizors. Body (images), Speech (scriptures) and Mind (chortens) receptacles
which include the preceding. This category generally includes such
things as their flesh, blood and bones.
5) Clothing (sku-bal) relics: Hair of those same sorts of personages. Their
finger or toe nails, clothing, etc. In general, anything blessed by its connection
with their bodies.
This work has many interesting details on the treatment of relics
(example: one should not insert entire articles of clothing, but
rather fragments or ashes) and on the consecration rituals themselves,
which cannot be treated here due to their great complexity
and variation.176
My final examples are from another work by Kong-sprul.177 He
supplies the following classification:
1) Dharmabody relics: dharanzand mantras.
2) Remains relics: remains of supreme personages.
3) Clothing relics: pieces of hair, fingernails and so forth.
4) Mustard seed like relics: Those things known as 'increasing bone' and
sha-rz-ram,particularly those from the Buddha.
Then he cites an alternative classification from a text that had been
"recently" translated from Chinese into Tibetan in the eighteenth
century,178 the Bodhigarbhalamkara:
1) Dharmabody relics:sdtstsha (= tsha-tsha) and chortens.
2) Tathagata relics: same as 2 in preceding list.
3) Clothing relics: same as 3 in preceding list.
4) Dharma relics: dharaznl,mantras and volumes of scripture.
5) Mere mustard seed relics (yungs-'bru tsam-gyi ring-bsrel): same as 4 in
preceding list.
Kong-sprul does not find these designations and definitions in any
essential conflict, although the very different definitions for Dharmabody
relics are worth noting.
Department of Sanskrit DAN MARTIN
Harvard University
Cambridge, MA 02138
U.S.A.
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* WITH THANKS to Dr. Gregory Schopen (formerly of Indiana University,
Bloomington) for giving new precision to the ambivalence of the term 'popular
religion' and strongly provoking and influencing the formation of any insights
which might be discovered here. For statements revealing a lack of insight, I must
reluctantly reserve some responsibility. Thanks also to Dr. Geoffrey Samuel
(Newcastle, New S. Wales) for his helpful criticism and corrections, to Professor
Emeritus Thubten J. Norbu (I.U. Bloomington) for preventing some errors of
interpretation, to Mr. Bruce Wilson for stimulating discussions, especially to Dr.
Yael Bentor who shared in the development of this project at every stage, and to
others.
Please note that part of this material, viewed in its historical dimension, is subject
of a short paper entitled 'Crystals and Images from Bodies, Hearts and
Tongues from Fire: Points of Relic Controversy from Tibetan History', forthcoming
in the proceedings of the Fifth International Association for Tibetan
Studies Conference held at Narita, Japan, on August 1989.
1
Jesus, of course, is believed to have ascended into heaven with His body, thus
limiting (but not entirely) the availability of His bodily remains. I have not learned
about the preservation of any of Muhammed's bodilyrelics, although the hairs of
his beard seem to be widely spread. I heard that a few hairs from Muhammed's
beard were kept in a reliquary box at the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. His
footprints are also said to be found there. Jesus's footprints are believed to be on
the Mount of Olives just across the valley from the Dome of the Rock. For more
on Christian relics and on relics generally, see Bentley, Restless Bones. This is the
most readable book I have found on the subject, although there are many. For an
interesting comparison between Buddhist and Christian relics, see Benard, 'Living
Among the Dead.'
2
Geertz, Islam Observed,p. 44. This is related to Hebrew brachah,with the same
meaning.
3 The Greek kharispneumatike, or dynamis; MacCulloch, 'Relics', p 654.
4 For example, Ekvall, Religious Observances,p. 156. One more imaginative
ethnographer has given the translation 'splendourous ripples' (Stablein, 'MedicalCultural
System', p. 195).
5
Inagaki, 'Kfikai's Sokushin-Jobutsu-Gi,p. 194.
6 Basic literal meaning of the Sanskrit word is 'being near, being at hand,
resting upon, indwelling', etc.
7 This is perhaps the most general term, being used to cover not only sacred
icons, but consecrated articles (about which, more below) and relics, as all are
'receptacles of blessings'.
8 The two optional categories, more frequently encountered in Nyingmapa and
Bon sources, are 'quality' (yon-tan) and 'action' ('phrin-las).
9 It should be noted that all three 'receptacles' may contain relics of some sort,
the 'Speech receptacles', or holy books, being no exception. Small quantities of
relics could be, and were (examples below), mixed with ink. Shakabpa (Bod-kyi
Srid-don, vol. I, p. 56) notes that cremation ash could be mixed with the ink used
in copying scriptures.
10 Of course, many reliquaries and images have been opened by museum
curators, art collectors and the like, and their contents 'scientifically' investigated.
This I leave to the scientists, not having any inclination for such morbid business.
I put this activity in one class with icon destruction, grave robbing and other such
acts which reflect a fundamental attitude of disrespect toward both the living and
Pearlsfrom Bones
the dead. It is, when done with the usual motivations, an insensitive act of desecration.
One exceptionally well informed and thorough example of this approach
should be mentioned; Robert A. Hatt, 'A Thirteenth Century Tibetan
Reliquary'.
n I have now dealt in some detail with this issue in Martin, 'Crystals and
Images.'
12 There is also a kind of dust, called manna, that was sometimes miraculously
emitted from saints' tombs (see Duncan-Flowers, 'Pilgrim's Ampulla', p. 128 ff.)
and the miraculous emissions of oil, called 'myrrh', noted in Bakirtzis, 'Byzantine
Ampullae', p. 141 ff.
13
See McCulloh, 'From Antiquity to the Middle Ages.'
14
Since writing these words, an extremely illuminating book on the nature of
Tertons and their rediscoveries has appeared-Thondup Rinpoche, Hidden
Teachingsof Tibet. One of the most remarkable things about this book, besides the
clarity with which it shows the identity of terma texts with relics, is the number
of full color pictures of relic-images (called sku-tshab,'representatives') which were
rediscovered together with texts (ibid., p. 151).
15 More often than not, these mass migrations to Hidden Countries were aimed
at southern 'uncivilized' (according to Tibetan perceptions) areas. For one such
attempt at Tibetan colonization in the first years of the twentieth century which
failed, see Lamb, McMahon, vol. 2, p. 320. For the Tibetan side of the same story,
see Bernbaum, The Way to Shambhala, pp. 69-70. See also Brauen-Dolma,
'Millenarianism' and works cited there.
16 See Lha-btsun's Guide, where rediscovered manuscripts as well as consecrated
articles and relics were enclosed during the consecration. Kong-sprul's
Guide includes canonical Bonpo suitras as well as "an Indian book which belonged
to the great translator Vairocana." Vairocana lived in the late eighth to early
ninth centuries. An "Indian book of the great translator Vairocana" is mentioned
among objects placed in the chorten for enshrining the remains of the Third Panchen
Lama. See Pan-chen III, CollectedWorks, vol. 13, p. 573.3.
17 An informal survey of the part of Dargyay's Rise of EsotericBuddhismwhere
she translates summary biographies of the Tertons shows, apart from sealed boxes
buried under earth or stone, the following rediscovery sites: temples (15), caves
(8), images (7), chortens (4), lakes (2), and pillars (1).
18 Dge-ri. An unidentified place name. See Roerich, Blue Annals, p. 1053,
where the building of a chorten in this place is mentioned.
19
Probably an eccentric representation of Prabhahasti (= Pra-bha-ha-ti), one
of the Eight Great Sages (Rig-'dzin) who also include Padmasambhava in their
number. Prabhahasti is especially connected with the revelation of the Nyingma
Vajrakila(Phur-pa) Tantra; Thondup, Tantric Tradition, pp. 16, 18, et passim. We
must note that the "red and white reproductive substances," or "red and white
Bodhicitta" (Byang-sems dkar dmar) are not just reproductive substances per se.
They derive from the parents and are believed to continue (somehow) in the body.
When saintly lamas die, they are sometimes said to emit these substances from
their right and left nostrils. See Barlocher, Testimonies, vol. 1, pp. 448 ff.
20
Ratna-gling-pa, CollectedRediscoveredTeachings,vol. 1, p. 159. This biography
was compiled by Nor-bu-yongs-grags (seventeenth century) who preserved earlier
biographical and autobiographical material intact.
21 See now Aris, Hidden Treasures.The nature of the rediscoveries themselves is
not so well covered in this treatment of the life of Padma-gling-pa. There is an
307
308 Dan Martin
interesting references to "a relic... spontaneously produced from one of his
teeth." (p. 66).
22
Rnying-ma Rgyud-'bum (1982, vol. 11, pp. 788-815; 1973, vol. 9, pp.
600-624).
23 This naturally makes it difficult to leave bodily relics. Allione, Women of
Wisdom, pp. 192-3 (note 42), gives a description which closely reflects some
Tibetan beliefs on these 'disappearing lamas'. It is interesting to note that they
are said to leave their hair and nails behind. We have seen how hair and nails
belong to the 'clothing' (sku-bal) relic category, as things closely connected with,
but not a part of, the body.
24 These same signs are discussed by Thondup, Tantric Tradition, pp. 194-5,
note 163.
25
Dargyay, Rise of Esoteric, p. 214 (note 60), calls these images rten. In my
experience (admittedly limited), they are always called simply sku ('body, image')
with the specific meaning known only by context. To quote Dargyay in full, "The
Tibetan language has different terms for the various kinds of relics. There are rten
and ring-srel-relics. rten signifies relics in the shape of Stupas or gods that
originated from parts of the corpse during the cremation. ring-bsreldenotes some
whitish pill-like stuff that also came from the cremation residues."
26
These types of relics will be discussed later on. It is interesting to compare
a text representing the words of Zhang G.yu-brag-pa (1123-1193) to his disciples
in a Wood Mouse year (1144?-This seems too early, and there is probably a
mistake in the date). This text identifies the five relics (gdung)of the Tathagata as:
1) sha-ri-ramwhich depends on the flesh; 2) chu-ri-ram,which depends on the blood;
3) nya-ri-ram, which depends on the marrow; 4) ba-ri-ram, which depends on the
bones and cartilage; 5) ka-ri-ram, which depends on the brain and sinews. This
passage occurs in Zhang, Bka'-rgya-ma, vol. 2, pp. 2.6-3.1. Further (Nyingmapa)
sources on these types of relics are cited in Sde-srid, 'Dzam-gling-rgyan-gcig, pp.
563-66.
27 Hyer and Jagchid, Mongolian Living Buddha, p. 12. Sanskrit spellings have
been corrected in the citation. 'Sharil' seems to have been borrowed into Tibetan
as sha-ril, to mean relics with images in relief (see Bod Rgya Tshig-mdzodChen-mo,
p. 2828).
28 In the Sku-tshab-gter-lnga temple in the Thak district of Nepal, D.
Snellgrove noticed, "a section of the skull of [a] ... lama with the Tibetan letter
A embossed as it were on the bone, for he had meditated so long on this basic
vowel-sound, which lies at the root of all existence, that it had produced its written
symbol miraculously inside his skull." Snellgrove, Himalayan Pilgrimage, p. 187.
29 Allione, Womenof Wisdom, pp. 203-4 (note 140; see also p. xxiv, note 1). Note
as well M. Slusser's (Nepal Mandala, vol. I, p. 151, no. 69) statement: "According
to a Buddhist monk I once talked with at Svayambhu, they [stupas] also contain
rincils, a divine substance which in the form of firm, white variously sized beads
mysteriously spews out of stupas on occasions. They are exceedingly precious and,
wrapped in brocade and silk, as I have shown, are conserved in phials as reli-
quaries."
30
See Shakabpa, Tibet. A Political History, pp. 153-182, the chapter entitled
'War with the Gurkhas and Dogras.'
31 It is on this day that Tibetans celebrate the birth, Enlightenment and final
Nirvana of Sakyamuni Buddha, hence 'three holidays in one' (dus-chen gsum
'dzom).
Pearlsfrom Bones 309
32
Bodhanath is the other great chorten of the Nepalese valley. Swayambhunath
is to the west of Kathmandu, while Bodhanath lies to the east.
33
nya-mig-ma. For another reference to 'fish eyes' in a relic context, see Dpa'bo,
Mkhas-pa'i Dga'-ston, vol. 2, p. 641.
34 Rdo-ring Bka'-blon, Rdo-ring Pandi-ta'i Rnam-thar, vol. 2, pp. 850-851. I
must thank Tashi Tshering of the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives
(Dharamsala) for pointing out this passage to me.
35 From the biography of Rong-ston as contained in Sakya-mchog-ldan, Complete
Works, vol. 16, pp. 299-378, at p. 365.
36
Howorth, History of theMongols, pt. 3, p. 321. Von Hammer's unique theory
about the nature of ring-bsrelmight be based on a misapprehension of the idea
(attested in the passage from the Bka'-gdams Glegs-bamcited elsewhere) that they
appear as signs of highly developed Bodhicitta ('awakened heart' being one possible
translation).
37
A reliably early account of ring-bsrelappearing after a cremation is found in
the biography of Sgam-po-pa (1079-1153) written by his disciple 'Ba'-rom-pa
(1127-1203?)-see O-rgyan-pa, Dkar-brgyud,pp. 267, 269.
38
Gyalzur, 'Spells on the Life-Wood', p. 180.
39
Sangay, Bod Mi'i 'Das Mchod, p. 1, where ring-bsrelare crushed and mixed
with 'yak' (the female 'bri, naturally) or cow butter and placed in the mouth of
the dying person. For an English summary of the same work by Sangay, see
TibetanMedicine, series no. 7 (1984), pp. 30-40, under the title 'Tibetan Ritual for
the Dead'. Shakabpa (Bod-kyi Srid-don, vol. 1, p. 56) also attests to this practice,
as does Rdo-ring Bka'-blon, Rdo-ring Pandi-ta'i Rnam-thar(vol. 2, p. 841), a work
dating to the end of the eighteenth or beginning of the nineteenth century.
40 In Tibetan, the word mi-choshas various uses, one of them in the field of law,
but it is also used to mean 'religion of the people'. In the latter case, the term is
in opposition to lha-chos, 'religion of the gods', which means Buddhist methods for
transcending the mundane realm. Comparing the meanings of mi-chos and our
term 'popular religion' only seems to complicate matters in this context, since they
share only a small part of their semantic fields. The greater part of Tibetans'
popular religious practices are very clearly Buddhist, having their justifications
and inspirations in Buddhists scriptures, while the goals of these practices (in any
case the final goals) are Buddhist ones.
41 The Nyingma teacher Rong-zom-pa Chos-kyi-bzang-po (eleventh century)
was also a scholastic, although his works do not focus so directly on problems of
method. Phywa-pa Chos-kyi-seng-ge (1109-1169) might deserve the title of 'founding
father' of Tibetan scholastic method even more than Sa-skya Pandi-ta, but
his works are no longer available (except in citations) and they have certainly not
had the enduring influence on Tibetan education as have those of Sa-skya Pandita.
For valuable material on Phywa-pa Chos-kyi-seng-ge, his influence on Sa-skya
Pandi-ta and many others during this period, see Kuijp, 'Phya-pa Chos-kyi Sengge's
Impact'.
42 See especially the passage in Sa-skya Pandi-ta, Sdom-paGsum-gyiRab-tu Dbyeba'i
Bstan-bcos,p. 69b (line 1, ff.), where he criticizes people for following the letter
rather than the intentions of these sorts of statements (which are, after all, commonly
found in many sutras). In effect, he criticizes them for not being sufficiently
educated or intelligent to recognize commonplace rhetorical devices. Dkar-pogcigthub
means 'white one-is-enough'. It is an epithet applied to more than one
medicinal substance meaning that a single ingredient is deemed sufficient for
Dan Martin
relieving the disease-most medicinal treatments prescribed by Tibetan doctors
are compounds, with those of 25 or more ingredients not at all unusual. Recent
discussions of dkar-pogcig-thub have focussed too narrowly on the philosophical
aspects, entirely missing Sa-skya Pandi-ta's uses of the term in relation to popular
religious practices (see especially Broido, 'Sa-skya Pandita', Jackson, 'Sa-skya
Pandita', and references supplied there).
43 To hearts and tongues we should add eyes. Sometimes when saints are
cremated, the hearts, tongue or eyes (or all three) remain unburned. This is a sign
that the mind, speech and body (respectively) of the saint have achieved close
approximation to the Mind, Speech and Body of Buddhahood. In the 1484 A.D.
history of the Bka'-gdams-pa sect by Bsod-nams-lha'i-dbang-po it is said that
when one of the greatest Bka'-gdams-pa teachers of the eleventh century, Po-to-ba
(1027-1105), was cremated, "heart, tongue and many ring-bsrelof the five different
colors emerged." (See Two Histories of the Bka'-gdams-pa Tradition, p. 314.8.)
44
The 'images (sku-gzugs) and so forth' referred to in this context are the divine
images and syllables which appear in relief on the bones of deceased saints. On
this point, the commentaries are in agreement. The fifteenth century commentary
by Spos-khang-pa (vol. 3, p. 337) quotes reports (while reserving judgement on
their truth value) to the effect that these images are caused by Generation Stage
contemplations and that ring-bsrel are produced by cultivation of Bodhicitta
(Enlightened Thought); but see Ramble, 'Status', p. 348, n. 24, for another
explanation. The probable source of Spos-khang-pa is the Bka'-gdams Glegs-bam
(see below).
45 As Mkhan-chen Sangs-rgyas-bstan-'dzin (writing in 1954) interprets in his
commentary (p. 260, line 4), these genuine ring-bsrelshould be a subject for confidence
since they become worship supports for the accumulation of merit by
embodied beings through touching, thinking or hearing about, and perceiving
them. The commentary of Spos-khang-pa (vol. 3, p. 334) has a different reading
for this passage which makes both the strength of the saintly qualities of the
deceased as well as the strength of merit of embodied ones to be causes for the
occurrence of ring-bsrel.
46
According to the same commentary by the Mkhan-chen (p. 260, line 5), the
genuine ring-bsrelis like a jewel which is known to have come from its place of
origin in the ocean or a mine and hence of unquestionable authenticity.
47
The Mkhan-chen (p. 261, line 2) suggests that they might be manufactured
out of various substances (including mother-of-pearl and ivory) and through
magical illusions.
48
It is significant that Sa-skya Pandi-ta did not include ring-bsrelamong the
items not mentioned in Buddhist scriptures. Go-rams-pa Bsod-nams-seng-ge
(1429-1489), in his commentary as contained in the Sa-skya Bka'-'bum (vol. 14, p.
193d, line 4) cites the Bskal-bzang(Bhadrakalpa)Sztra (Toh. no. 94) and the Meeting
of Fatherand Son Suttra(Toh. no. 60) of the Dkon-brtsegssection as scriptural sources
for ring-bsrel.That the 'images' are mentioned in the Sku-gdung 'Bar-ba, would not
impress Sa-skya Pandi-ta; he would not have accepted this tantra as a genuine
scripture, along with mostof the other Nyingma tantras and rediscoveries (gter-ma).
49
Spos-khang-pa (vol. 3, p. 338, line 4) specifies that these ring-bsrelproduced
by living persons come from their teeth, hair or armpits.
50
According to Mkhan-chen Sangs-rgyas-bstan-'dzin (p. 262, line 3), these
occurrences were said to be bad signs in the Stag Sna Avadana (i.e., Stag Rna; Toh.
no. 358). The fifteenth century commentary by Ngag-dbang-chos-grags (p. 431,
line 1) was his most likely source for this statement.
310
Pearlsfrom Bones 311
51 Mkhan-chen Sangs-rgyas-bstan-'dzin p. 262.6) cites a passage from the Mig
Bcu-gnyis-paSutra(Toh. no. 359) which says that moving or crying images are signs
of calamity. Ngag-dbang-chos-grags (p. 431, line 2) adds the birth of strange
animals to the list of prodigies and quotes a passage from the Mig Bcu-gnyis-pa(the
name means 'Twelve Eyes'). I have now discussed these sutra passages in Martin,
'Crystals and Images'.
52 The Tibetan text for the translated passage begins on page 318a, line 3, of
the Sdom-pa Gsum-gyi Rab-tu Dbye-ba as found in the collected works of Sa-skya
Pandi-ta in the Sa-skya Bka'-'bum (vol. 5, pp. 297-320). It may also be found in
Sa-skya Pandita, Sdom-pa Gsum-gyi Rab-tu Dbye-ba'i Bstan-bcos, pp. 88a-89b.
53
Kun-dga'-bsod-nams, Sa-skya'i Gdung-rabs,p. 144.
54
Ibid., p. 145. On the dating problem for the translator of Yar-lung who
worked in Kathmandu, Nepal, Grags-pa-rgyal-mtshan, who probably lived in the
late 13th to 14th centuries, see Kvaerne, An Anthology, p. 2. See now Martin,
'Crystals and Images'.
55
This work, entitled Gnas Gsum Gsal-byedNor-bu'i Me-long, is found in Sangsrgyas-rdo-rje,
Responses,pp. 327-463. Sa Pan's passage on relics was also noted by
Sde-srid Sangs-rgyas-rgya-mtsho in his work, first published in 1701, on the tombchorten
for the Fifth Dalai Lama (Sde-srid, 'Dzam-gling-rgyan-gcig, p. 563).
56 On Tsari, see Martin, 'For Love or Religion?', and Sorensen, Divinity
Secularized,pp. 113-142.
57 For his arguments, see Sa-skya Pandi-ta, Sdom-paGsum-gyi, pp. 65-70 (or the
same passage as contained in the Sa-skya Bka'-'bum, vol. 5, p. 312 ff.).
58 The passage rendered here is found in Sangs-rgyas-rdo-rje, Responses, pp.
430,3-435.5.
59
These four pairs of extremes are: 1. creationist positivism-cessationist
nihilism. 2. eternalist positivism-apocalyptic nihilism. 3. existence positivismnonexistence
nihilism. 4. phenomenal positivism-emptiness nihilism.
60
For this passage, see Sog-bzlog-pa, "Gsang-sngags Snga-'gyur-la," p.
427.2 ff. We have not yet been able to resolve the problem of the date of Dpal'dzin's
treatise to our satisfaction. It seems his 'circular' appeared not long after
the death of Klong-chen-pa in 1363, and Bod Rgya Tshig-mdzodChen-mo,vol. 3, p.
3244, gives 1400 as the year of composition. For some discussion, see Kuijp,
'Miscellanea', p. 173 (note). The dates of Sog-bzlog-pa Blo-gros-rgyal-mtshan are
1552-1624.
61 For the content and transmission of the Bka'-gdams Glegs-bam(or Jo-bo Glegsbam),
see Two Histories, pp. 33.6, 366.4 ff., 379.8. The present passage is also cited
in Sde-srid, 'Dzam-gling-rgyan-gcig,p. 563. An anonymous Kargyudpa work of the
thirteenth century (Anon., Gnad-kyiThem-bu,p. 27.3) has a rather similar passage:
These are the signs that occur at the time of deathWhen
one has realized [the unity of] voidness and compassion,
there is a shower of flowers.
When one speaks the truth without ulterior intentions,
free of artifice, tongues occur.
When realization has stabilized, hearts occur.
When the seminal (kun-da) bodhicitta is stablized,
ring-[b]srel occur.
When one has achieved stability in the generation stage,
images occur.
312 Dan Martin
62
This refers to the Sakya teacher Gung-ru-ba Shes-rab-bzang-po (1411-1475),
on whom see Jackson, Early Abbots, pp. 15-16.
63 One should also notice in the same work by Sog-bzlog-pa (p. 504.4 ff.), some
discussion about various types of gdung and ring-bsrelas signs of particular degrees
of spiritual development. He cites the Sku-gdung 'Bar-ba as well as a commentary
on the Gsang-baRing-bsrel(i.e., the Bodhigarbhalamkara)by Bodhibhadra (Slob-dpon
Byang-chub-bzang-po). The latter citation contains a four-fold classification: 1)
Remains (sku-gdung)relics. 2) Mustard seed like remains (sku-gdungyung-'bruIta-bu)
relics. 3) Clothing (sku-bal) relics. 4) Dharmabody (Chos-kyi Sku) relics.
64 He lived from 1445 to 1521. The best sources so far in English on the life
of Padma-gling-pa are Aris, Bhutan (index), and Aris, Hidden Treasures.The full
title of the work is Kun-bzang Dgongs-pa Kun-'dus-las. Gsang Khrid-kyi Rgyab-skor.
Ring-bsrel-gyi Sgrub-pa Dga'-rab-rdo-rjes Mdzad-pa-found in Padma-gling-pa,
RediscoveredTeachings, vol. 15, pp. 433-6.
65 For these 'four appearances' (Vier Aufgange), see Dargyay, 'Die Ausbildung
buddhistischer Monche in Tibet', p. 109.
66 Yuthok, Yuthok's Treatise, p. 290, where the Six Good Medicinals are:
1) dza-ti (nutmeg).
2) cu-gang (bamboo manna).
3) gur-gum (saffron).
4) li-shi (clove).
5) sukmel (lesser cardamon).
6) ka-ko-la (cardamon).
The Five Good Medicinals are the same, minus only the last.
67
Some readers of earlier drafts of this work have objected to our use of the
word 'fraudulence' in this context. It is, admittedly, problematic. We use the word
to mean simply that Padma-gling-pa's procedures for making ring-bsrel and
'images' emerge after cremation are quite different from what the believers are led
to expect. Aris (Hidden Treasures)has since called Padma-gling-pa (along with Tertons
generally) a fraud, although we see little reason to dwell on this issue here.
68 This tantra is cited under the title Rdo-rje Thugs-mchog 'Bar-ba. I was unable
to locate any other reference to this text (although the last word 'Bar-ba does
remind us of the Sku-gdung 'Bar-ba, mentioned elsewhere in these pages). For the
text by Zhang G.yu-brag-pa, with colophon title "Bla-ma'i Sku 'Bag-la Brtan-pa'i
[Brten-pa'i] Le'u," see Zhang, Writings, pp. 199.6-202.1 (translated passage at
pp. 199.6-200.2).
69
Gilmour, Among theMongols, p. 231.
70 The Ma-ni Ril-bsgrub-kyiCho-ga 'KhyerBde by Lcang-skya I Ngag-dbang-blobzang-chos-ldan
(1642-1714) found in supplement to the Suzuki reprint of the Peking
Kanjur and Tanjur, vol. 164, pp. 116-8; no. 6311. There are numerous other
Tibetan texts on the practice available. There have been several studies of the
Sherpa's Mani Rimdu, but the most recent and complete one is Kohn, Mani
Rimdu.
71
My own observations of the pills themselves form the basis for the description
which follows. On Mani Pellets, see Rockhill, 'Lamaist Ceremony'. This hundred
year old article also contains interesting information and views about 'increasing
bone'.
72 See, for example, Ramble, 'Status', pp. 351-353. In some cases the shock is
based on gross misperceptions. I am certain that stories of coprophagy among
Tibetans are, at base, travellers tales based on the alleged appearanceof some of the
Pearlsfrom Bones
medicinal pellets dispensed by lamas and physicians, and not on any knowledge
of their actual contents (I think in particular of Ekai Kawaguchi, the Japanese
Tibet traveller, who repeats a traveller's story that dates back to at least the seventeenth
century). Those who wish to trace the literary roots for this cultural
misconception should refer to the citations supplied in Bourke, Scatalogic, chapter
8, 'The Ordure of the Grand Lama of Thibet.' The statements of Bourke have
to be critically read in light of his scatophilia, his date, his comparativism, and his
considerable lack of familiarity with things Tibetan. Much of what he says is compromised,
also, by his evident confusion of 'phel-gdungwith ril-bu. Bourke received
a few ma-ni ril-bu from Rockhill, and had them analyzed by a Dr. W.M. Mew of
the U.S. Army. Dr. Mew sent back the following report to Bourke dated April
18, 1889,
I have at length found time to examine the Grand Lama's ordure, and write
to say that I find nothing at all remarkable in it. He had been feeding on a
farinaceous diet, for I found by the microscope a large amount of undigested
starch in the field, the presence of which I verified by the usual iodine test,
which gave an abundant reaction.
There was also present much cellulose, or what appeared to be cellulose, from
which I infer that the flour used (which was that of wheat) was of a coarse
quality, and probably not made in Minnesota.
A slight reaction for biliary matter seemed to show that there was no obstruction
of the bile ducts. These tests about used up the four very small pills of the
Lama's ordure.
Very respectfully and sincerely yours, (signed) M.W. Mew (Bourke, Scatalogic,
pp. 52-53).
Obviously, Bourke had already told Dr. Mew ahead of time that what he would
be analyzing was 'ordure' of a Tibetan lama. There is nothing (aside from the
"slight reaction for biliary matter") in Mew's scientificanalysis to persuade us that
the ril-bu he examined contained anything more than the flour which, as Rockhill
says in a quote on the preceding page (p. 51), is the primary ingredient used in
their manufacture.
It is entirely possible, however, that some ril-bu (the gsang-chabril-bu mentioned
in the appendix), might contain a hint of the urine of a highly revered lama. In
recent times, disciples of certain lamas have been known to sip a little of their urine
as an expression of strong devotion (see, for example, the biography of the late
Geshe Rabten). Here devotion is the primary factor, not a particular fondness (or
unusual aversion) for the ingestion of urine. Devotion overcomes natural aversion.
73 This is not to say that many of our sub-societies do not have strong relic and
saint cults. Tibetan Buddhism itself is fast forming sub-societies in North
America, Europe, Australia, Taiwan, Singapore, etc. It would be interesting to
know to what degree these groups preserve facets of the Tibetan relic cults.
74 What Turner (Image) called "flow" (a unitive experience emerging in the
course of play and worship) and what Eliade (Cosmos) would have described as a
re-connection with mythic, primordial time. Although these types of terms and
their accompanying explanations might be helpful in some sense, still they are at
best partial, generalized, and therefore inadequate representations for a spectrum
of possible personal experiences of the sacred(s?) which are terriblydifficult to
'explain', or even to describe. I propose that the undefinable is best left undefined,
or maybe left to define itself within its own appropriate context. That which is not
defined is not therefore unknown.
313
Dan Martin
75 Anon. Gnad-kyi Them-bu, p. 42.4.
76
Tibetan title: Sku-'bumMthong-ba-rang-grolDkar-chagMdor-bsdus:Don Gsal Melong.
This work is found in Nam-mkha'-'jigs-med, Collected Works, vol. 4, pp.
437-59.
77 The two defilements, or 'veils', are, according to Mahayana, those due to
afflictive emotions (klesa) and knowables (jneya) which are countered by the two
accumulations of Merit (punzya)and Total Knowledge (Jniana)respectively.
78 These eight great cemeteries are often depicted in one of the outermost circles
of mandalas, restricting, but what is considered more important, permitting
access.
79
Literally, 'vessel world' (snod-kyi jig-rten/= bhajanaloka)which contains the
'living beings world' (bcud-kyi 'ig-rten/ = sattvaloka). The Tibetan word bcud
emphasizes the vital aspect, meaning the life essence conceived as a sort of sap. I
have avoided the word 'material' (for the word snod), since it functions within a
different dialectical framework.
80 DharanZ(Gzungs) are rather like long mantras. Usually, they are extracted
from sfutra rather than tantra literature. They are used for a wide variety of purposes,
some of them quite this-worldly and magical.
81 Tantras pertaining to the ninth Vehicle of the Nyingma school. Btags-grol
mthong-grolmeans 'touch-liberation sight-liberation'.
82
PekingKanjur, no. 198. It seems that all the Usnisa deities (Usn.savijaya and
Vimalosnisa, in particular) are intended.
83 The three divisions of Inner Method Tantras (Nang Thabs-kyi Rgyud), a
classification of tantras particular to the Nyingma school.
84 A chief disciple of Sakyamuni Buddha.
85 A famous Terton born in 1340, died 1396 (?). Sangpo, BiographicalDictionary,
vol. 3, p. 541.
86
The central, rounded, part of the chorten.
87 One of the four large chortens at Samye (Bsam-yas).
88 Gyantse of the maps, a major trading center in southern Tibet.
89
Perhaps the same place as the Rtsa-sgang of Roerich, Blue Annals, pp. 946,
948, 962-3, 965-6.
90 This unusual word will appear again. See note 175, below.
91 The human originator of the Nyingma Ati-yoga lineages.
92 One of the twenty-five main Tibetan followers of Padmasambhava; Ferrari,
Mk'yen brtse's Guide, p. 117.
93 A preceding Buddha, i.e., one who preceded Sakyamuni Buddha. His relics
are said to be contained in the chorten of Bodhnath (which Tibetans call Bya-rungkha-shor),
just outside of Kathmandu, Nepal.
94 Rtsa-ri. Holy place in southern Tibet renowned for its beautiful and
dangerous natural features.
95
Gtsang-pa Rgya-ras-pa Ye-shes-rdo-rje (1161-1211 A.D.), disciple of the
Gling-ras-pa who founded the Drukpa ('Brug-pa) branch of the Kargyudpa
school. He 'opened' the Hidden Country of Tsari. 'Hidden countries' have been
discussed supra.
96 A contemporary of the author, he lived 1583-1656. See Sangpo, Biographical
Dictionary, vol. 3, p. 722. He was a famous Terton.
97 A celebrated Buddha image brought to Tibet by the Chinese wife of Srongbtsan-sgam-po
(reigned ca. 620-649).
98 Note 85, above.
314
Pearlsfrom Bones
99 Elixir or bdud-rtsiis used to render the Sanskrit amrta, which literally means
'deathless'. The Tibetan word frequently refers to the transfiguration, transubstantiation,
transformation or what-have-you of various disgusting substances
or deluded psychological constituents (the skandhas, dyatanas, etc.) into pure and
beneficial 'substances' (the bdud-rtsi Ingal= pancamrta) Total Knowledges (Yeshes/=Jfiana).
These alchemical denotations should be kept clear, while a literal
representation of the Sanskrit word behind the Tibetan as 'deathless' could not
convey this essential import. Often translated 'ambrosia', 'nectar', and so forth.
100One of the most famous Mad Saints (Smyon-pa) who lived 1455-1529. His
biography was translated into French by Rolf A. Stein, and more recently, into
English by Keith Dowman, and into German by Andreas Kretschmar.
101Two very early Tertons about whom relatively little has been written.
Sangs-rgyas-bla-ma is said to be the first Terton (although here we should specify
that he is said to be the earlist Terton of the Nyingma school, since Bonpo history
has claims to even earlier Tertons). He was active in the last half of the tenth
century.
102 Another, more famous Terton who lived 1403-1478. Sangpo, Biographical
Dictionary, vol. 3, pp. 583-5.
103 Two of several very famous Mad Saints active in the fifteenth to sixteenth
centuries. Gtsang-smyon is especially remembered as the editor of the most
popular biography of Milarepa. He lived 1452-1507.
104
The tenth century Indian originator of the Kargyudpa lineages.
105
The fifth Karma Kargyudpa Hierarch, or Black Hat (Zhwa Nag), usually
known as De-bzhin-gshegs-pa (= Tathagata), lived from 1384 to 1415. See
Roerich, Blue Annals, pp. 506 ff.
106
A mythical bird, enemy of the snake-like naga spirits.
107
See Bernbaum, The Way to Shambhala, p. 69. The life of Lha-btsun Nammkha'-'jigs-med
is told in Dargyay, Rise of Esoteric, pp. 166-9. But it is important
to note that "Sikkim" should be substituted in all places where "Bhutan" is mentioned.
This is a simple case of misidentification.
108 Zhu-chen, Collected Writings, vol. 7, pp. 305-315. Full Tibetan title is Debzhin-gshegs-pa'i
Byang-chub-chen-po'i Mchod-rten-gyiDkar-chag. Ngo-mtsharMe-long.
109The full name given is 'Jam-pa'i-dbyangs-bsod-nams-bzang-po-bkra-shis-
grags-pa'i-rgyal-mtshan-dpal-bzang-po.
110 There is no subclassification being employed here. Bodily relics, clothing
relics, and consecrated articles are all mixed together in no particular order.
11
Sa-skya Pandi-ta Kun-dga'-rgyal-mtshan (1182-1251), the famous author of
books on literary and scholastic subjects (including music) who was also important
in the propagation of Buddhism among the Mongols.
112 This title refers to Bsod-nams-rgyal-mtshan (1312-1375), teacher of the
famous Tsongkhapa and Bu-ston, as well as author of a well known history of the
Tibetan dynastic period, the Rgyal-rabs Gsal-ba'i Me-long.
113
Images of deities or chortens made from clay and (generally) containing
relics of some sort or another.
114 An abbot of Ngor; 'Jam-dbyangs-blo-gter-dbang-po, Rgyud-sde Kun Btus,
vol. 1, contents page.
115
Thang-stong-rgyal-po Brtson-'grus-bzang-po, probably born in 1385,
although his dates are problematic, is perhaps best known for his devotional works
which gained popularity in all the sects and his building of chain suspension
bridges.
315
Dan Martin
116
Sangpo, BiographicalDictionary, vol. 1, p. 858.
117
Ngor Monastery (= Ngor E-wam Chos-sdings), the seat of a Sakya subschool
founded in the early fifteenth century.
118
He plays a part in the Prajiipalramiti and other scriptures. See Roerich, Blue
Annals, p. 938, for references. The Sanskrit form of his name is Dharmodgata.
119 Sa-chen Kun-dga'-snying-po (1092-1158), famous Sakya patriarch.
120
Another important Sakya patriarch who lived from 1142 to 1182 A.D.
121
Sa-skya Lo-tstsha-ba 'Jam-dbyangs-kun-dga'-bsod-nams-grags-pa-rgyalmtshan
(1485-1533). Became abbot of Sakya Monastery in 1498.
122
Probably refers to the person in preceding note.
123
Glo-bo Mkhan-chen Bsod-nams-lhun-grub (1420-1489), well known for his
commentaries on the logical and scholastic treatises of Sa-skya Pandi-ta.
124 This is probably the sixty-fourth Chairholder (Khri-pa) of Ganden
Monastery (from 1789 to 1795) by the same name. See Sangpo, BiographicalDictionary,
vol. 6, p. 201.
125 This larger work with the title Gsung Thor-bu-las.Rten Gsum-gyiDkar-chagdang
Skor Tshad-kyiRim-pa PhyogsBkod is found in Gung-thang-pa, CollectedWorks,vol.
10, pp. 162-191. The part actually summarized here is found on pp. 179.1-181.1.
126
One of the largest monasteries in Amdo, Bkra-shis-'khyil.
127
Norbu, 'Gungthangpa's Text in Colloquial Amdowa', pp. 222-4.
128
Atisa (d. 1054) was the most celebrated Indian Master in Tibet at the time
of the Second Propagation (Phyi Dar) of Buddhism and the spiritual father of the
Kadampa (Bka'-gdams-pa) school which would later be absorbed into the Gelugpa
school. In the late eleventh through early thirteenth centuries, the Kadampa had
a strong influence on the other sects, the Kargyudpa in particular.
129 See note 111, above.
130
Probably the important teacher of Tsongkhapa from Amdo usually called
Don-grub-rin-chen. See Wayman, Calming the Mind, p. 16.
131
Lho-brag Grub-chen Nam-mkha'-rgyal-mtshan (1326-1401) was a
Kadampa/Nyingma visionary, both teacher and follower of Tsongkhapa.
132
Rwa Lo-tstsha-ba Rdo-rje-grags was the most famous propagator of
Yamantaka tantras in the tenth to eleventh centuries. His biography is one of the
most widely read classics of Tibetan literature, although it has yet to be translated.
133 See note 133, above.
134
Rgyal-tshab-rje Dar-ma-rin-chen (1364-1432) was one of the two most
celebrated followers of Tsongkhapa.
135
Mkhas-grub-rje Dge-legs-dpal-bzang (1385-1438) was the other of the two
most celebrated followers of Tsongkhapa. These two are routinely placed on the
left and right hand sides of Tsongkhapa in religious iconography. Mkhas-grub-rje
is the author of a work translated by Lessing and Wayman, Mkhas GrubRje's Fundamentalsof
the Buddhist Tantras, in addition to countless other works.
136
'Dul-'dzin-pa is almost certainly a reference to 'Dul-'dzin Grags-pa-rgyalmtshan,
the disciple of Tsongkhapa.
137 Ba-so Chos-kyi-rgyal-mtshan (1402-1473) was, like Rgyal-tshab-rje Darma-rin-chen
and Mkhas-grub-rje before him, a Chairholder of Ganden
Monastery.
138 This is a slighly abbreviated form of the name of Blo-bzang-chos-kyi-rgyalmtshan
(1579-1662) who was given the title of Panchen (Pan-chen) Lama by the
Great Fifth Dalai Lama. He served as abbot of both Tashilhunpo (in 1600) and
Depung (in 1617). See Ferrari, Mk'yen brtse's Guide, p. 145.
316
Pearlsfrom Bones 317
139
Rgyal-mtshan-seng-ge (1678-1756) was the fifty-third Chairholder of
Ganden (from 1732 to 1738). See Sangpo, BiographicalDictionary, vol. 6, p. 185.
140
An unidentified person, evidently from the Dung-dkar Monastery in the
Tromo Valley (Gro-mo Lung) in South Tibet between Sikkim and Bhutan.
141
Probably the abbot of Bya-khyung Monastery in Amdo who is intended here
was Rtsa-ba Blo-bzang-rgyal-mtshan (1700-1785), a student of Lcang-skya (see
following note). See Sangpo, BiographicalDictionary, vol. 5, p. 560.
142 The Second Lcang-skya Incarnate of Peking, Rol-pa'i-rdo-rje (1717-1786),
alias Ye-shes-bstan-pa'i-sgron-me. One of his biographies has been edited and
summarized in Kampfe, Ni ma'i 'od zer.
143
Bka'-'gyur-ba No-mon-han. Bka'-'gyur-ba is a title used for any lama who
is known to have read the entire Kanjur or one who frequently gives ritual reading
authorizations (lung) for the Kanjur (the collection of sutras and tantras in over
a hundred volumes). Therefore, it is difficult to know which of the many such
lamas of Tibet and Mongolia might be intended here.
144 Not identified.
145 Also called Dkon-mchog-'jigs-med-dbang-po (1728-1791). The Second
'Jam-dbyangs-bzhad-pa incarnate, he also signed his name as Ye-shes-brtson'grus-grags-pa'i-sde.
Several of his works have been translated into English. He
is especially known to Tibetan monks as author of most of the monastic textbooks
(yig-cha) in use at the Gomang Datsang of Depung Monastery (among others).
Like the other 'Jam-dbyangs-bzhad-pa incarnates, he resided primarily at
Tashikhyil (note 126, above).
146 Alias Khri-rgan-tshang, he was a pupil of the first 'Jam-dbyangs-bzhad-pa
Incarnation.
147 Not identified. All of the unidentified persons in the following text will be
left unfootnoted.
148 This is most certainly the Smin-gling No-mon-han Ngag-dbang-'phrin-lasrgyal-po
(1678-1739), a student of Lcang-skya Rol-pa'i-rdo-rje (note 142, above).
See Sangpo, BiographicalDictionary, vol. 5, p. 583.
149 The sixteenth Chairholder of Ganden (1473-1539). See Sangpo, Biographical
Dictionary, vol. 6, p. 136.
150 Nam-mkha'-bzang-po was the fifty-fifth Chairholder of Ganden from 1746
until 1750 when he died. He is also known as the first Zam-tsha Incarnation.
151 In other words, Blo-bzang-bkra-shis, in whose memory this chorten was
built.
152 This also refers back to the Blo-bzang-bkra-shis to whom the chorten was
dedicated.
153 Ring-bsrel rnam bzhi. For these, see the chorten consecration text of Lcangskya
Ngag-dbang-blo-bzang-chos-ldan mentioned below. This four-fold classification
is most usual with Gelugpa writers.
154
Op. cit., vol. 10, p. 176.4-5.
155 Op. cit., vol. 10, p. 176.6. 'Urine' pellets also appear on pp. 177.1 and
183.1.
156
Smrtisrijnana is an important transitional figure in the history of Tibetan
Buddhism. This Indian master was translating tantras in eastern Tibet when Rinchen-bzang-po
was introducing the 'new' translations in western Tibet and, so,
he is considered as the last of the 'old' tantra translators.
157
Op. cit., vol. 10, p. 177.3, ff.
318 Dan Martin
158
See especially Ardussi, 'Brewing and Drinking', p. 119, for other beer
making metaphors, which were quite popular in Tibet, a country with many beer
drinkers.
159
Op. cit., vol. 10, p. 181.
160
Op. cit., vol. 10, p. 182.1.
161 Full title: Mchog-gzigs Bla-ma Dam-pa G.yung-drung-phun-tshogs-kyiGdung-rten
Dkar-chag:Lha'i SgraSnyan. Contained in Kong-sprul, CollectedWorks,vol. 11, pp.
321-41.
162 See E. Gene Smith's long introduction to Kong-sprul, Kongtrul's
Encyclopedia, for the best English source on the life of Kong-sprul.
163
Kvaerne, 'Chronological', pp. 220-221.
164
Evidently the same as Rang-grol Bla-ma Rgyal-mtshan, born 1328 according
to Kvaerne, 'Chronological', no. 119.
165
Abbot of Sman-ri Monastery from 1810 to 1835 who lived 1785 to 1835. It
was he who ordained Kong-sprul as a Bonpo monk. Sangpo, Biographical Dictionary,
vol. 7, p. 642.
166
Lived 996-1054 A.D. (?): Kvaerne, 'Chronological', nos. 67, 76, 80.
167 The text reads Chog-sgron. She is a female saint, since Khyung-za means
'wife from the Khyung clan'. Chos-sgron is a rather common woman's name.
Unfortunately, I have not been able to identify her. The Khyung clan was also
the clan of Kong-sprul himself.
168 Born 1700, famous author and major figure in the 'New Bon' movement.
See Martin, 'Bonpo Canons', for biographical material.
169 In an 'extra' volume of the Suzuki reprint of the Peking Kanjur and Tanjur
(vol. 164, pp. 83 ff.; no. 6299). This work is the subject of a short article byJampa
Kalsang called 'Grundsitzliches zur Fiillung von mC'od Rten' which should be
consulted for further details.
170 In Lessing and Wayman, Mkhas Grub Rje's Fundamentals, pp. 106-107 is
another three-fold classification of relics:
1) Dharmabody relics: dhdrani.
2) Remains (sku-gdung)relics: mustard seed sized relics which come from the
remains.
3) Clothing (sku-bal) relics: images.
171
Ring-bsrel Lnga'i Gzhugs Tshul Lag-len: Tshogs Gnyis Rgya-mtsho. Found in
Gzungs 'Bul Lag-len, pp. 225-309. 'Bri-gung Rig-'dzin was a Drikung ('Bri-gung)
Kargyudpa who held many Nyingma lineages. He was also considered to be a
Terton.
172 Peking Kanjur, no. 998. This and a few other short, closely related sfitras,
were the subjects of Bentor, 'Miniature Stupas, Images and Relics'.
173 The concept of Dharmabody (Dharmakaya) is a very important one. In this
context, it may suffice to say that the 'Dharma' that is incorporated includes both
the Word of the Buddha (including scriptures) and the 'phenomenon' of the
world. These two are identical from a devotional point of view, since everything
that is of any substance in the universe is found in scripture, and everything that
is found in scripture is found in reality.
174
'Phags-pa gsum. This refers to: 1) Hearers. 2) Solitary Realizers. 3)
Bodhisattvas who have reached the Stage of Direct Vision (Mthong Lam/Darsanamarga)
according to the Mahayana's generally accepted doctrine of the Five
Staged Path derived from the Abhisamayalamkdra(itself based on the Prajinapdramitd)
Pearlsfrom Bones
and associated literature. This is the technical meaning of 'saint' ('phags-pal = arya)
in Tibetan Buddhism, although the relevance of this technical meaning for the
popular recognition of saints is at the very least problematic.
175
This list differs slightly from the list in the third chapter of the Sku-gdung
'Bar-ba (already cited). These curious terms were evidently formed by Tibetans
who falsely etymologized the loan word sha-ri-ramto mean 'flesh' (sha, in Tibetan)
ri-ramand, on that basis formed further compounds. This cannot necessarily prove
that there were no Indic terms or items behind them, although it may lend itself
to that conclusion. (This point is discussed in Sde-srid, 'Dzam-gling-rgyan-gcig,pp.
543-4.) Compare the categorization in the rediscoveries of Padma-las-'brel-rtsal
(1291-1315?) called the Mkha'-'gro Snying-thig-giChos-skor(p. 70.6): sha-ri-ram, churi-ram
ba-ri-ram nya-ri-ram and pan-rtsa-ri (=on p. 71.3, pantsa-ram; p. 131.6,
panytsa-ram). There are minor, not especially significant differences between this
presentation of the 'signs of saintly death' and that in the Sku-gdung 'Bar-ba. The
Sku-gdung'Bar-baas well as the Mkha'- 'groSnying-thigare dateable at the very latest
to the time of Klong-chen Rab-'byams-pa Dri-med-'od-zer (1308-1363) who was
the first to publicize them. Both the seventeen tantras (of which the Sku-gdung'Barba
is one) and the Mkha'-'gro Snying-thigbelong to the Precepts Class (Man-ngag
Sde) of the Ati-yoga Vehicle-the former as the main texts of the unbroken oral
tradition (Bka'-ma), the latter as one of four cycles which represent the
Rediscovered (Gter-ma) tradition of the Precepts Class. Therefore, it is nothing
strange that these collections should share some common contents. For insights
into the lives of Padma-las-'brel-rtsal and Klong-chen-pa, see Aris, Hidden
Treasures,pp. 27-30.
176 An excellent and highly recommended introduction to the business of
Tibetan Buddhist consecration is Gyalzur and Verwey, 'Spells on the Life-Wood'.
It is, however, mostly limited to the pre-consecration rituals of preparing and
inserting the sacred contents. For the consecration proper, see Sharpa Tulku,
'Ritual of Consecration', and Panchen Otrol, 'The Consecration Ritual.' Yael
Bentor, has devoted her dissertation research to this topic. See Bentor, Indo-Tibetan
Buddhist ConsecrationRitual.
177 This work, entitled Rten-la Gzhug 'Bul-ba'i Lag-len Lugs-srolKun Gsal Dri Bral
Nor-bu Chu-shel-gyiMe-long, is contained in Kong-sprul, Rgya-chenBka' Mdzod, vol.
12, pp. 97-153 (including a few related appendices). The passage rendered here
is found on pp. 101.5-102.
178 See Schopen, 'Bodhigarbhalankaralaksa', which contains a study of various
problems surrounding this text and its history, which is quite complicated
(evidently, to judge from Schopen's article, Kong-sprul's five-fold classification
does not in fact occur in the version of the Bodhigarbhalamkarawhich he [Schopen]
used; see also note 64, above). This article also has a very valuable discussion of
relic classifications which should be consulted. This work, cited by Kong-sprul
under the title (Rgya-nag gsar-'gyur, 'new translation [from] Chinese') Byang-chub
Snying-poRgyan-gyi Gzungs-kyiCho-gaZhib-mo, is cited also in Sde-srid, 'Dzam-glingrgyan-gcig.Studies
of this text and the problems associated with it may be expected
in the near future.
319
Dan Martin
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