The Role of Technology in Teaching Languages for Specific Purposes Courses
Author(s): ELISABET ARNÓ-MACIÀ
Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 96, Focus Issue: Languages for Specific Purposes
in the United States in a Global Context: Update on Grosse and Voght (1991) (2012), pp. 89-
104
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
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The Role of Technology in Teaching
Languages for Specific Purposes
Courses
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) PLAYS A
crucial role in our society, which is characterized
by the increasing internationalization of the personal,
academic, and professional domains. In
recent years, technological advances have transformed
the ways we manage information and communicate
with others. The growth of academic
and professional communication across borders
has generated new needs for learners of languages
for specific purposes (LSP). At the same time,
technology has also provided LSP teachers and
researchers with further opportunities to explore,
The Modern Language Journal, 96, Focus Issue, (2012)
DOI: 1 0.1 111 /j .1540-478 1.20 12. 01 299.x
0026-7902/ 1 1 /89-1 04 $1.50/0
©2012 The Modern Language Journal
analyze, and learn more about professional and
academic communication. For many years, IT has
also played a key role in language learning, with
the development of computer-assisted language
learning (CALL) applications and networked environments
(e.g., Lafford, 2009).
Drawing on different trends in language teaching
and applied linguistics, the applications of
technology have attracted the attention of LSP
teachers and researchers, with new and hybrid
genres, computer tools for gathering and analyzing
specialized discourse, and the development
of online materials and courses. This interest
has been reflected in collections that have
addressed the relationship between IT and LSP
from different angles, such as a special issue
of the journal Ibérica on how the Internet has
Within the integration of technology into language education, special attention needs to be
paid to languages for specific purposes (LSP), drawing on developments in computer-assisted
language learning and applied linguistics, on the one hand, and on the pervasive use of
technology in academic and professional communication, on the other. From a definition of
LSP centered on learner need, specificity of activities and materials, and teacher and learner
profiles, this article examines how technology has transformed LSP teaching and learning.
Through technology, LSP teachers and researchers can access discipline-specific materials
and situations and compile corpora of specialized texts. Computer-mediated communication
provides learning tools and a gateway to the discourse community. Technology also provides
opportunities for collaborating, creating virtual environments and online courses, and fostering
learner autonomy. These applications are examined within the current LSP scenario, paying
attention to conditions and challenges for implementation, as well as to the roles of teachers and
learners. This article also points to areas that merit further analysis from an LSP perspective,
such as the use of different technologies and modes for effective learning, the analysis of
specialized texts, and the integration into LSP of emerging technologies that have made their
way into social uses.
Universität Politècnica de Catalunya
Dept. Projectes dEnginyeria. Secció d'Anglès
Escola Politècnica Superior d'Enginyeria de Vilanova i la Geltrú
Av. Víctor Balaguer, sn
08800 Vilanova i La Geltrú ( Barcelona )
Spain
Email: elisabet. arno@upc. edu
ELISABET ARNÓ-MACIÀ
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90 The Modern Language Journal 96 (2012)
affected specialized communication and LSP
teaching (Posteguillo, 2005), as well as edited
books on the role of IT in different areas of LSP
research and pedagogy (Arno, Soler, & Rueda,
2006a) and on the design and implementation
of online LSP materials (González-Pueyo, Foz,
Jaime, & Luzon, 2009). In addition, the annual
conference of the European Association of Languages
for Specific Purposes (AELFE) also has a
specific panel devoted to IT in LSP teaching and
research.
Analysis of the role of IT should start with
a definition of the term "languages for specific
purposes," which, in applied linguistics, refers
to an approach to language teaching based on
the learner's need to participate effectively in
the target academic or professional community.
LSP courses are thus cost-effective and rooted in
the texts and practices of the target disciplines
(e.g., Dudley-Evans 8c St John, 1998). Some central
issues underlying this definition were raised
by Grosse and Voght (1991) in their review article,
including (a) context, (b) authentic materials
and situations, (c) needs analysis, (d) the
LSP teacher profile, and (e) cross-cultural and interdisciplinary
dimensions of specialized communication.
Each of these issues will be dealt with
in turn in the remainder of this section, with
special emphasis on the profound changes that
LSP teaching has undergone in the past 20 years,
largely due to the impact of technology. Given this
impact, Grosse and Voght (2012) have included
technology in the revisited agenda for LSP. This
article will take these central issues as the point
of departure to analyze the role of technology in
teaching and learning LSP.
Grosse and Voght (1991) referred to context
as one of the distinguishing features of LSP, using
the term to mean the use of texts, situations,
and methodology drawn from the students' disciplines.
Thus, LSP makes use of authentic materials
and simulations to familiarize learners with
genuine target situations. Twenty years ago, emphasis
was placed on written - and, to a lesser
extent, spoken - texts, while simulations involved
role plays, with the video and language laboratory
as technological resources. This scenario has
changed completely, given that the LSP curriculum
today must include electronic communication
and digital genres (with the new communicative
situations they generate), as well as the
possibilities that technology offers for accessing
authentic materials and engaging in realistic simulations.
According to Grosse and Voght (1991),
two characteristics of LSP teaching methodology
are the use of authentic materials and the creation
of opportunities for situational practice , which is
relevant to students and, therefore, fosters motivation.
Since 1991, technology has greatly contributed
to incorporating situational practice into
LSP teaching, for example, by facilitating the
recording of events such as lectures or meetings which
can be made available online - and by increasing
the exposure to authentic materials, via
the vast number of resources available on the
Internet.
In LSP courses, context, authenticity, and motivation
are closely related to the concept of need.
Grosse and Voght (1991) situated needs analysis
at the center of LSP teaching, "since by definition
LSP courses are designed around the specific
language needs of the learner" (p. 186).
Thus, as a key step in course design, needs analysis
should involve gathering information about
learners' profiles, the learning situation, and the
demands of the target situation (e.g., through
discipline-related texts, the views of professionals
in the field) . LSP methodology makes important
demands on the teacher, whose role has evolved
from the general language and literature profile
described by Grosse and Voght (1991) to a
more sophisticated and specialized one. DudleyEvans
and St John (1998) defined the multiple
roles for the LSP instructor: teacher, materials
provider, researcher, collaborator, and evaluator.
In the new millennium, IT has broadened the
scope of these roles. Computer networks allow
collaboration with fellow LSP teachers and subject
matter specialists in remote locations, while
the Internet and multimedia resources provide
endless possibilities for designing materials suited
to learners' needs.
Another key concept stressed by Grosse and
Voght (1991) was the integration of cross-cultural
issues in LSP teaching. Among the prospects for
the 21st century, Grosse and Voght envisaged
specialized communication as interdisciplinary
and cross-cultural, driven by economic motivations
and a global economy. In this sense, technology
has contributed to a shrinking world in
ways that were completely unexpected in 1991.
Nowadays, with increased mobility and international
exchange, academic and professional communication
is mostly intercultural in nature. Belz
and Thorne (2006) noted the terminological shift
from cross-cultural to intercultural , which is a term
that captures the dynamic processes produced
both in target settings and in teaching situations,
with the powerful impact of IT on facilitating interaction
across borders.
This article provides an overview of the role
of IT in LSP, taking into account the profiles
of teachers and learners, the different settings
in which LSP courses are taught, and the
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Elisabet Arnó-Macià
characteristics of the target situations in which
students need to communicate. After tracing the
historical developments in the field, it explores
the main areas in which IT is applied in LSP so as
to identify the main opportunities and challenges.
Different types of programs are presented with a
look at their conditions for implementation and
the roles of LSP teachers and learners. Special
emphasis is placed on the social and collaborative
dimensions of IT in LSP, given that technology
allows teachers and learners to engage in partnerships
with different stakeholders worldwide
(other learners/ teachers, discipline experts, professionals,
potential employers, etc.). Taking into
account the fast-paced evolution of technological
applications that are attracting growing interest
in the educational arena, this article will identify
areas of current concern and topics for further
research on the integration of IT in LSP.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
The relationship between IT and LSP is heavily
influenced by the evolution of CALL alongside
developments in applied linguistics and
language teaching. CALL is a vast area that
has evolved dramatically in the last 20 years,
as attested, for example, by The Modern Language
Journal Focus Issue devoted to CALL.
From that issue, it is important to consider
Garrett's (2009) definition of CALL as "the full
integration of technology into language learning"
(p. 719). Going beyond the mere use of technology
to teach languages, Garrett (2009) stated
that CALL should be based on the interrelation
of its different elements: pedagogy, theory, and
technology. The evolution of CALL has also been
analyzed from the perspective of its underlying
learning theories and available technology,
with distinctions established by Warschauer and
Healey (1998) for the different CALL stages,
namely: the behaviorist stage (in which the computer
had a central role as the provider of controlled
activities focusing on accuracy); the communicative
stage (which focused on meaning and
process); and the integrative stage (in which the
computer served as a tool for online communication,
learning, and information management
purposes, within a paradigm of learning as a social
activity) .
Developments in technology and language
teaching have brought about concepts such
as network-based language teaching (Warschauer
& Kern, 2000), which involves communication
and collaboration, and a second wave of online
learning (Kern, Ware, 8c Warschauer, 2004),
which goes beyond language learning by focus-
91
ing on culture and social discourses. Even the
very concept of CALL can be extended to embrace
other technologies apart from the computer
(e.g., mobile devices that can run games,
such as Mentira [Holden 8c Sykes, 2011], for
place-based language learning) that now form
part of our everyday life (Kern, 2006). According
to Bax (2003), the integration of technology
should aim toward normalization , reaching
inconspicuousness.
The applications of IT have turned out to be
especially appropriate for LSP, given its focus
on clearly defined learner needs, materials creation/adaptation,
and a methodology that draws
on target activities and disciplines. For example,
it is quite significant that in a collection of articles
specifically devoted to LSP pedagogy (Orr,
1995), special emphasis was placed on the role
of IT (then, "new technologies"). One of the articles,
by Bowers (1995), identified the potential
of the Web to provide tuition for students who
had specific needs or who could not attend regular
classes due to their study and work situations.
In another article, Shilhavy (1995) pointed
to the benefits of multimedia packages for integrating
English for academic purposes (EAP)
skills, in terms of immediate feedback, interaction,
and navigation. A third contributor, Vilmi
(1995), reported on a pioneering international
exchange among English for science and technology
students through email. As technology made
its way into language classes, LSP teachers used
multimedia packages, Web resources, and authoring
tools to create specialized materials and promote
learners' engagement with relevant target
situations.
The Internet has given rise to important
changes in language learning, which Warschauer,
Shetzer, and Meloni (2000) summarized in the
acronym ALIVE, which stands for the concepts
of authenticity , literacy , interaction , vitality , and
empowerment. These concepts are especially relevant
to LSP learners, who aspire to enter a
certain discourse community. Internet resources
provide a wealth of authentic materials as well as
opportunities to engage in meaningful communication
with members of the discourse community
(through forums, blogs, etc.). The idea of empowerment
for language learners is of particular
importance, given that students can publish and
disseminate their own texts - even more so today
with Web 2.0 applications. Similarly, because of
the presence of IT in our everyday life, language
teaching needs to consider computer-mediated
communication skills in addition to traditional
writing and speaking skills (e.g., Chapelle, 2003;
Garrett, 2009). Thus, expanded notions of
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92
literacy and communicative competence should
now include online communication, collaborative
writing, and dealing with hypertext and multimedia
(Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000). This concern
with new literacies is reflected, for example, in a
special issue of Language Learning & Technology
(Kern, 2000). The growth of the Internet has also
called for a reappraisal of traditional EAP skills
so as to incorporate issues of critical literacy associated
with the use of the Web for study and
research (Slaouti, 2002; Stapleton & Helms-Park,
2006).
With the proliferation of resources for online
learning, together with the increase of technological
resources used in education, LSP teaching
can facilitate real-life interaction and engagement
with genuine situations, as attested by the
examples cited by Belcher (2004). For example,
she reported on medical English courses in
which students recorded real hospital interactions
that were then used as the basis for LSP teaching.
The insights offered by IT have led us to
reconsider some key concepts in LSP, such as
needs, authenticity, specificity, and cost effectiveness
(e.g., Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Grosse
8c Voght, 1991). For example, apart from using
authentic resources and individualizing learning,
course designers may complement face-toface
instruction with online resources to develop
cost-effective LSP courses. In this sense, Garrett
(2009) noted the potential of technology to address
large numbers of students through collaboration
between institutions and to offer both
support to existing LSP courses and online materials
for independent learners - thereby catering
to very specific needs and diverse languages which
may be difficult to address through
traditional courses.
In relation to the use and teaching of different
languages, not only has the Internet reinforced
the presence of English as a lingua
franca , but it has also contributed to the visibility
and revitalization of minority languages, precisely
because of the relatively low cost of setting
up online resources in different languages,
and because of the possibility of connecting users
through cyberspace (Warschauer, 2001). In Europe,
Internet-based projects related to linguistic
diversity include Euromosaic,1 a collection
of resources and information on different languages,
and the ATLANTIS project (academic
training, language acquisition, and new technologies
in the information society), which is
devoted to the analysis and classification of online
learning resources and cultural information
about minority languages, such as Catalan
The Modern Language Journal 96 (2012)
(Strubell 8c Torres, 2003). Other resources specifically
geared to language learning, such as
the e-Tandem project (http://www.slf.ruhr-unibochum.de/index.html)
with its online learner
partnerships, make it possible for virtually any
speaker to become a teacher of his or her own
language in a globalized learning environment.
APPLICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY IN
LANGUAGES FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
PEDAGOGY
Technology has provided invaluable tools for
LSP, to help us learn about the academic or work
situations relevant to students and to provide realistic
experience from a socially situated perspective.
The affordances of technology facilitate LSP
research, "aimed at deeper knowledge of texts
and contexts" (Belcher, 2004, p. 178). Technology
provides access to authentic texts, tools for their
analysis, and online communication resources. It
has also become a powerful tool to facilitate students'
immersion in the discourse community. For
example, Warschauer (2002a) showed that the
Internet can provide a gateway for students to
"network" into the academic discourse community
through gradual apprenticeship (i.e., using
computer-mediated communication for collaboration
in the classroom and for further participation
in authentic networks within the broader discourse
community) . Thus, the Internet becomes
not only a teaching tool, but also a learning goal,
given the pervasive use of online communication
in academic and professional communities (see
Warschauer, 2002b).
The Internet has also added a new dimension
to questions of authenticity and specificity of LSP
materials. It provides unlimited access to all types
of texts of varied degrees of specialization, which
is now accentuated by the current trend toward
sharing open access resources. LSP students can
therefore engage with online resources related to
their discipline, such as authentic academic and
professional forums. However, as Garrett (2009)
reminded us that the mere use of authentic Webbased
resources does not constitute CALL; rather,
the true integration of technology involves the
challenge of designing appropriate tasks to work
with those resources. For example, the EAP textbook
by Barahona and Arnó (2001) provided examples
of tasks that involved critical skills and
language awareness, as students were encouraged
to explore discipline-specific resources and evaluate
them from a disciplinary/ educational point of
view, while reflecting explicitly on language and
genre features.
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Elisabet Arnó-Macià
From the perspective of LSP and learner
characteristics, Arno, Soler, and Rueda (2006b)
identified different areas for the integration of
technology: (a) in analyzing specialized language
and genres, (b) in online communication, (c) in
CALL applications, (d) in distance and blended
learning, and (e) in learner autonomy. Based on
these areas, the remainder of this section discusses
specific IT applications in different LSP
contexts, considering some central LSP concerns,
such as authenticity (of materials and tasks), specialized
resources, induction in relevant discourse
communities, and intercultural communication,
which are, in turn, interrelated with the main profiles
involved in the field, namely, learners, teachers,
researchers, institutions, and members of the
target discourse communities.
Analyzing Specialized Language and Genres
Technology has provided new insights into
the language and genres of different disciplines,
thanks to the development of corpora and tools
for their analysis. The studies in Arno et al.
(2006a) focused on small specialized corpora
for their relevance to particular genres in LSP.
In relation to specialized corpora, Flowerdew
(1998) compared a corpus of expert texts with
learner-produced texts, analyzing how causeeffect
relationships are expressed. She suggested
that this type of analysis can inform materials designers
not only about the features used in target
texts, but also about the characteristics of learners'
production (i.e., overuse of certain structures,
inappropriate markers, etc.). In fact, comparisons
between native speaker and learner corpora are
attracting interest by developers of EAP writing
materials (Guilquin, Granger, & Paquot, 2007).
Flowerdew (1998) also suggested that, apart from
providing information to materials writers and
teachers, corpora can also be incorporated in the
classroom as learning tools, provided that they
are accompanied by appropriate activities. Several
studies have looked specifically at students'
use of corpora in the classroom. In the field of
EAP, Charles (2007) reported on the use of corpora
of theses to develop students' awareness of
constructing arguments in academic writing, focusing
on the level of discourse. Also in academic
writing, Yoon (2008) looked at students' use of
a general corpus to develop awareness and autonomy.
In addition, Varley (2009) kept track of
students' work on projects involving the analysis
of general and specialized corpora and provided
suggestions for the implementation of corpus use
in the classroom. Beyond academic texts, Hafner
93
and Candlin (2007) reported on the use of a specialized
professional corpus by law students working
on their writing assignments.
Although most of these corpora involve written
texts, greater attention is being paid to spoken
genres, especially with resources such as the Michigan
Corpus of Academic Spoken English , or MICASE
(Swales, 2006) - which provides access to a wide
range of academic speech events - at the disposal
of teachers and researchers. Swales also showed
how this corpus can be used to engage EAP students
in discourse analysis. Given that technology
has transformed the way people communicate,
questions may arise as to whether electronic discourse
constitutes an evolution from traditional
genres or if it has given rise to a set of new genres.
Drawing on genre theory, Huckin (2007) argued
for the consideration of electronic genres as new
genres and for their inclusion in LSP teaching by
combining explicit instruction with students' own
experience in their use.
Online Communication
Earlier in this article, online communication
was identified as part of everyday communication
in academic and professional situations. As
such, it has become not only a means for language
learning but also a goal for LSP students,
who must learn to cope with new genres, or cybergenres
(Shepherd & Watters, 1998). Thus, through
participation in online forums, email, Facebook,
Twitter, and other digital media, LSP students can
engage in authentic discursive practices related
to their disciplines in unprecedented ways. In the
LSP literature (e.g., Dudley-Evans 8c St John, 1998;
Grosse & Voght, 1991; Hutchinson 8c Waters,
1987), emphasis is placed on authentic communication
and student engagement through meaningful
tasks and projects that involve interaction
and simulations of real situations. The possibility
of interacting with other users worldwide on
topics that are relevant to students' disciplines increases
motivation and can help students become
part of the discourse community (Warschauer,
2002a).
Attention has been paid to the impact of online
communication on general language teaching
(see, e.g., the review by Chapelle, 2003) as well
as on learners' use of new genres (e.g., Abraham
8c Williams, 2009) . Research on online communication
within LSP is still scarce but has received increased
attention in the past few years, especially
as Web 2.0 applications open up new possibilities
for users to write, collaborate, and publish. As
these new forms of communication have brought
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The Modern Language Journal 96 (2012)
eryday lives) , the frontier between the face-to-face
classroom and CALL becomes more and more
blurred (e.g., Neumeier, 2005; van Lier, 2002).
Among the areas for the application of technology
in LSP, Arno et al. (2006b) pointed at the
potential of CALL not only to improve students'
language and literacy skills but also to incorporate
sociocultural and collaborative dimensions,
in the context of the second wave of online learning
(Kern et al., 2004).
Within a framework of integrative CALL, the
development of computer-based materials has reinforced
and expanded the traditional role of the
LSP teacher as a materials designer and provider
who deals with authentic, discipline-specific contents
and tasks - with the issues of authenticity and
specificity being part of the ongoing debates in
LSP (e.g., Belcher, 2006; Dudley-Evans & St John,
1998; Hyland, 2002) . There are many examples of
computer-based LSP materials to suit a variety of
purposes and learner needs. Materials range from
those dealing with common-core interdisciplinary
EAP contents, such as the Web-based learning
environment Quantum LEAP : Learning English
for Academic Purposes (Arnó, Rueda, & Soler,
2009), to discipline-specific materials that recreate
students' target academic or professional contexts,
such as the Web-based environment MarEng
(English for Maritime Studies) . Developed by different
European universities with the collaboration
of maritime experts (López de Vergara,
2006), MarEng reproduces authentic work situations.
Other examples of these materials include
the online workshops for nursing and academic
writing developed by Hussin (2006) in Australia,
or the online game It's a Deal , which focuses on
intercultural communication through business
English simulations (Guillén-Nieto, 2009). Such
resources exemplify how LSP materials design
takes into account both the stakeholders
involved - learners, teachers, discipline experts,
potential employers, and, in general, members of
the target discourse communities - and the intercultural
dimension of specialized communication
in global contexts.
Thus, technology provides new opportunities
for immersion in real situations, which are
becoming more and more realistic in the
communities that are emerging in virtual environments.
Thorne, Black, and Sykes (2009)
classified these environments into social virtualities
(e.g., Second Life), massively multiplayer
online games (e.g., World of Warcraft), and synthetic
immersive environments (SIE) especially designed
for language learners, such as Croquelandia,
which focuses on Spanish pragmatics. In
94
about new genres, new literacies have emerged
(Kern, 2006) . Focusing specifically on these new
literacies, and drawing on the experiences of
online EAP students, Rueda, Arnó, and Soler
(2007) proposed an explicit focus on electronic
EAP literacy skills in order to help students
make the most of the Internet for both academic
work and language learning, through activities
of exploration, reflection, analysis, and interaction
(both inside and outside the classroom). For
these activities, students use a variety of tools for
communication and collaboration, such as classroom
forums, external Internet forums, and wikis,
within a paradigm based on the notion of electronic
literacy mentioned previously (Shetzer 8c
Warschauer, 2000) , and they use the Internet as
both a learning tool and a target communicative
context (see Posteguillo, 2003, for a discussion of
English for Internet Purposes) .
With regard to students' interaction in asynchronous
EAP forums, some studies have identified
its particular traits, which are distinct from
those of face-to-face discussion and academic
writing but share some characteristics of both
(Hopkins, 2005; Kol & Schcolnik, 2008). On the
one hand, while participating in the forums, students
have time to plan their writing and provide
support for their assertions. On the other
hand, this writing reflects the dialogic nature of
forum interaction, with references to other interlocutors'
contributions, questions, or expressed
opinions on controversial topics, for example.
Research has also focused on online collaboration
through wikis. In her study of collaborative
EAP writing, Kuteeva (2011) found that using
wikis contributes to students' heightened awareness
of audience and genre and greater attention
to text organization and form. These findings resonate
with interactionist theories applied to online
communication, namely, that text-based interaction
offers the potential to focus on form
and content (Kern, 2006). Regarding focus on
form versus focus on meaning in wiki-based writing,
a study by Kessler (2009), with nonnative
pre-service teachers of English, showed that students
tend to focus on content, at the expense of
form. Furthermore, students engage in collaboration,
which develops their autonomy as they work
jointly on the texts, gaining ownership and adapting
the wiki space to their own purposes (Kessler
8c Bikowski, 2010).
CALL
As technology is increasingly integrated in language
teaching and learning (as well as in our evThis
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Elisabet Arnó-Macià
their extensive review of the potential of these
environments for language learning, Thorne
et al. pointed out the opportunities that such
communities provide for socialization and real
communication practice. Due to their immersive,
multimodal, and realistic nature, these environments
can facilitate language learning benefits
such as greater motivation, participation in
real-life tasks, collaboration and negotiation of
meaning, and intercultural and pragmatic competence,
as well as the development of speaking
skills (Deutschmann 8c Panichi, 2009; Peterson,
2010; Thorne et al., 2009). Such authentic scenarios
have great potential for LSP teaching because
they enable students to participate in highly realistic
settings (e.g., business, medical, educational
contexts) or to engage in authentic online communities.
For example, the Second Life destination
guide (http://secondlife.com/destinations)
provides links to selected business, educational
(e.g., university campuses), or science and technology
resources that are present in the virtual
world.
Distance and Blended Learning
The development of programs and materials
for distance learning, to overcome geographical
distance and time constraints, has spurred the creation
of a variety of LSP courses and materials.
Online learning - whether in distance or blended
programs - seems to be especially appropriate for
LSP, given that it allows for the customization of
learning to suit students' needs, as well as for the
provision of highly specialized courses that would
not be feasible in traditional classes (see discussion
by Garrett, 2009). Interest in online learning
for LSP is attested by the different projects presented
by González-Pueyo et al. (2009), including
both standard learning management systems and
dedicated environments. There is a long tradition
in the development of online learning materials
for LSP (see review by Luzon, 2009), probably
out of the need to create materials adapted to
specific needs and to offer ample learning opportunities
to students who have time and place
constraints. Examples of these materials can be
found in two projects within the field of health sciences.
Mungra's (2009) blended course for medical
students in Italy related writing skills to simulated
practice, thus providing a relevant context
for meaningful work to students who had to fit
their courses to their clinical practice. The second
project showed how technology can be used
for LSP courses in workplace situations that lend
themselves to connecting language skills and pro-
95
fessional knowledge. This project, the blended
course e-Support4U (Griffith & Nicolis, 2010), addressed
practicing nurses in the United Kingdom
with the goal of developing their academic writing
skills, while encouraging them to reflect on and
learn from their professional practice. Technology
is thus used to encourage professional reflection,
while providing support in academic writing
and digital literacy (with tools such as wikis) .
Universities specialized in distance education
also offer a variety of courses in different
languages (e.g., the Open University in the
United Kingdom and the Universität Oberta de
Catalunya, in Catalonia, Spain).2 Online platforms
for distance courses often result from collaboration
among institutions, extending beyond
a single campus (Garrett, 2009). Apart from such
advantages as reaching larger numbers of students,
availability, and flexibility, these courses
also help students develop their electronic literacies
and learner autonomy. These aims, for example,
fostered the creation of the online course,
English for Academic Purposes: Learning English
Through the Web (Arnó, Rueda, Soler, 8c
Barahona, 2003), in Catalonia (Spain), through
the Intercampus Programme, which, as a result
of collaboration among different Catalan universities,
provides jointly offered elective distance
courses.3 The design of online courses and materials
at relatively low cost also offers the possibility
of tailoring materials to very specific needs,
as shown by Lankamp (2008), who, rather than
using or adapting existing online academic writing
resources, decided to create a specific online
learning environment to help language and literature
students write their master's theses.
Blended courses, which combine classroombased
and online tuition, have long been used
and seem to be especially appropriate for LSP
by providing teaching tailored to students with
timetable constraints. Research into optimal conditions
for the design and implementation of
blended learning in LSP contexts has emphasized
the idea that both components - face-to-face and
computer-based interactions - need to be carefully
planned and integrated. Attention needs to
be paid to how the multiple possible combinations
can be optimized for effective teaching and learning,
a task that entails a reappraisal of the roles
of teachers and learners, who must adopt flexible,
shifting roles as experts, tutors, collaborators, and
so on (Neumeier, 2005). Using Neumeier's characterization
of blended learning, Trinder (2009)
evaluated a business English course, analyzing
how the different components are used to enhance
different contents and skills. On the basis of
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The Modern Language Journal 96 (2012)
as long as appropriate conditions are met, such
as providing choices, relevant materials, learner
training, reflection, scaffolding, and support.
The relationship between IT and learner autonomy
from an LSP perspective has been discussed
further by Arno et al. (2006b) and Luzon (2009).
It can be related to constructivist approaches,
given that learners can choose appropriate materials
at their own pace, thereby building up their
own learning routes. In this sense, the hypertextual
structure of the Web is in line with these
approaches because it provides connectivity (i.e.,
interaction, creativity, collaboration, information
exchange) rather than predetermined content
(Felix, 2002). Along the lines of connectivity, and
taking advantage of the wealth of materials available
on the Internet, Luzon and González (2006)
proposed a set of criteria for developing materials
for learner autonomy in LSP that are based
on authenticity, motivation, collaboration, integration
in the curriculum, learner-centeredness,
and strategy development. They suggested that
the Webquest4 is a particularly appropriate format,
both for its relationship to students' intrinsic
motivation in discipline-related topics and for the
challenge of engaging in authentic open-ended
tasks that involve collaboration and problem solving,
while providing a scaffolded environment to
encourage learning.
Being able to interact with others and contribute
to a collective effort is an important aspect
of autonomy (White, 2003) , which can be referred
to as collaborative autonomy (Ding, 2005; Kessler &
Bikowski, 2010). For example, Ding (2005) describes
one British university's virtual self-access
center for EAP learners that exploits the potential
of the Internet to help students find appropriate
learning resources and use computer-mediated
communication for interaction with other learners
and tutors. As Ding suggested, encouraging
collaborative autonomy is difficult in a virtual selfaccess
center, and the challenge that remains is to
raise students' awareness of the need to collaborate
online.
The objectives of the virtual self-access center
reported by Ding (2005) were similar to
those of an online EAP course mentioned earlier
(English for Academic Purposes: Learning
English through the Web), namely, developing
learner autonomy and exploiting Internet resources
for language learning. In the context
of this EAP course, a study was conducted to
find out whether and to what extent students
were displaying autonomous behavior (Arnó
et al., 2003; Soler, Rueda, Sc Arnó, 2005). Analysis
of the students' performance on course tasks
showed a variety of actions and attitudes related
96
different parameters applied to the classroom and
the online environment (interaction, authenticity
of tasks, variety of input sources, learner autonomy,
anxiety, feedback, and cognition), she found
that combining both modes, with different contents
and aims assigned to each, can maximize the
learning potential of a course and cater to a wide
range of learner profiles. With regard to the effectiveness
of online LSP courses, Chen, Belkada,
and Okamoto (2004) showed how, by drawing
on second language acquisition research, a Webbased
EAP course can incorporate both tasks and
different modes of interaction together with the
possibility of offering learning paths with varying
degrees of flexibility. On the evaluative comparison
of a distance versus a blended EAP course,
Harker and Koutsantoni (2005) concluded that
both modes result in similar degrees of student
achievement and high levels of satisfaction, although
there was a higher dropout rate in the
distance course. From the lessons learned,
they proposed increasing student support
and teacher-student interaction in distance
courses.
Learner Autonomy
Learner autonomy has been described
throughout this article with regard to the potential
of technology for the development of
LSP courses and materials that are adapted
to specific needs and that, at the same time,
allow the learner to make choices and create
alternative learning routes. Considering that
the LSP learner is characterized by a high level
of motivation, technology can help provide
appropriate materials and resources to carry
out meaningful activities related to specific
disciplines. Learner autonomy involves assuming
control over one's own learning (Holec, 1981)
and is based on the central notions of learner
choice and responsibility (van Lier, 1996). Autonomy
has become a central issue in language
teaching, especially since the developments
of technology have facilitated: (a) access to a
wide range of authentic materials in different
modalities (text, audio, image, video, etc.);
(b) the possibility of interaction and exchange
with partners worldwide; and (c) a greater
degree of learner initiative and control over
materials and activities. Thus, the relationship
between learner autonomy and information
technology has aroused considerable interest in
the literature (see, e.g., Benson, 2001; Hurd,
2005; Hurd, Beaven, & Ortega, 2001; White,
2003). Although technology per se does not
guarantee autonomy, it can become a facilitator,
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97
room. From the programs discussed throughout
this article, two implications can be derived:
First, the role of the teacher involves becoming
a course and materials designer who creates
meaningful activities that should provide students
with guidance; second, the role of the online
teacher goes beyond the design of materials and
involves active participation (monitoring and supplying
feedback and support). These new roles
require the integration of multiple skills - in the
technological, pedagogic, organizational, and affective
dimensions - which, in turn, call for further
research and specific training programs (e.g.,
Compton, 2009; Murphy, Shelley, & Baumann,
2010). Online teaching is becoming more and
more common in LSP and may be perceived by
institutions as an economical solution to the need
to provide tuition to increasing numbers of students.
However, this shifting context places important
demands on teachers and may lead to contradictory
views from the institutional and teaching
sides - for example, there may be a large number
of students but little teacher support and
recognition - which may compromise the quality
of teaching (see discussions by Arno et al., 2006b;
Lankamp, 2008).
The projects reviewed in the preceding sections
illustrate the convergence of the traditional
roles of teacher and materials provider in online
LSP teaching. In addition, the Internet, with a
growing body of open-access academic and professional
content, provides input for developing
tailor-made materials and engaging in projectbased
learning, while enabling students to become
familiar with the real discourse and genres
of their discipline. These teacher roles are
integrated with those of researcher and evaluator,
which the incorporation of IT has also transformed
(e.g., learning about new discourses and
genres, designing, implementing and evaluating
IT courses and materials).
The role of collaborator is crucial in a multidisciplinary
field such as LSP. Drawing on the
traditional collaborative nature of LSP teachers,
Arno et al. (2006b) identified collaboration
both among LSP teachers and between the
teachers and subject-matter specialists as one of
the driving forces for the integration of IT in
LSP in order to advance and adapt to a changing
context. Butler-Pascoe (2009) also emphasized
the potential of collaboration with discipline
experts and reported on the potential
of technology for authentic projects involving
learners' interaction with discipline experts. Most
of the technology-based projects reviewed previously
are based on collaboration, both among
teachers and between the teachers and discipline
Elisabet Arnó-Macià
to autonomous behavior, such as setting learning
objectives, identifying needs, evaluating learning
materials and tasks, and reflecting on their own
learning process. One question that can be raised
is whether students would continue to take responsibility
for their own learning after the end
of the course.
CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENTATION AND
IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGES FOR
SPECIFIC PURPOSES PRACTICE
The previous sections analyzed the impact of
technology on LSP teaching and learning and
examined the different areas in which it can be
used to provide materials and courses suited to
learners' specific needs. In the following section,
there is a discussion of the opportunities and challenges
involved in the use of IT, which, taking
into account the particular roles of LSP teachers
and learners, will also be discussed in connection
with other stakeholders involved in LSP: administrators,
international partners, and discipline experts,
as well as audiences worldwide. In line with
the second wave of online learning mentioned
previously, special attention will be paid to the social
and collaborative uses of technology in LSP
projects.
Roles of LSP Teachers
The reappraisal of the role of the LSP teacher
needs to consider ideological and societal stances,
both in terms of the use of technology and of
the values involved in LSP teaching. Regarding
the integration of technology in English-language
teaching, Chapelle (2003) examined different
trends (uncritical acceptance, reluctance, and
taking a middle view) and advocated a "critical,
technologically-informed pragmatism" (p. 9).
Similarly, within the field of LSP, Arno et al.
(2006b) identified technology as a "double-edged
sword," in that the technophile teacher may be
fascinated by the mere use of technology, whereas
the technophobe teacher may find it difficult
to keep pace with these transforming changes
and with the new generations of digital natives
(Prensky, 2001) - those individuals who have always
been surrounded by technology so that it is
fully integrated in their everyday lives.
The application of IT in LSP practice has affected
the multiple roles of the LSP teacher mentioned
previously: teacher, materials provider,
researcher, collaborator, and evaluator (DudleyEvans
8c St John, 1998). The increase of distance
and blended courses has extended the role
of the LSP teacher beyond the traditional classThis
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The Modern Language Journal 96 (2012)
allow them to become active agents of innovation
in their own contexts.
Computer networks, and the Internet in particular,
allow LSP students to engage in genuine
intercultural experience through exchange
with other participants worldwide in order to develop
the necessary awareness and competences
for academic and professional communication in
international settings. Xing, Wang, and Spencer
(2008) reported on the use of e-learning for
the development of Chinese students' awareness
of cross-cultural rhetorical patterns in academic
writing, through peer- and self-reflection encouraged
by their electronic collaboration with native
speakers of English. Electronic exchange
and collaboration offer LSP teachers and students
the opportunity to engage in real-life activities
similar to those found in today's globalized
workplace, which includes electronic communication
across borders and with multiple stakeholders.
For example, in the field of technical
communication, Starke-Meyering, Duin, and
Palvetzian (2007) advocated a method to adapt
teaching to this reality, through the design of
globally networked learning environments. Explicitly
ascribed to this trend, two technology-based
projects have promoted exchange and collaboration
between students in Europe and the United
States. In the first project, technical communication
students collaborated on the online peer editing
of their texts (Anderson, Bergman, Bradley,
Gustafsson, 8c Matzke, 2010) and, in the second
project, the Trans-Atlantic Project, there was collaboration
between students of translation and
students of technical writing, with a focus on crosslinguistic
issues (Maylath, Vandepitte, & Mousten,
2008).
Apart from enabling students to access information
and collaborate with partners at remote locations,
technology can also be used to challenge
and modify students' views of learning. Devaux,
Otterbach, and Cheng (2006) used Internet resources
with Asian students of English for specific
purposes to instill in them a view of the language
learner as an active participant who takes responsibility
for the learning process, thus responding
to one of the main challenges in current LSP
teaching: to prepare students for work and study
in a rapidly changing globalized society. From a
similar perspective, Thang and Bidmeshki (2010)
also stressed the potential of online courses
for learner training and support. From their
analysis of Asian students' perceptions of an online
English for science and technology course,
they pointed out the importance of adopting a
notion of autonomy that is flexible enough to
be embraced by students from different cultures
98
experts who can advise on specialist knowledge.
Furthermore, within the paradigm of content versus
connectivity discussed earlier, the role of LSP
students as providers of content cannot be dis-
missed.
Roles of LSP Learners
Throughout this article, emphasis has been
placed on the profile of LSP learners in terms of
needs and motivation, as well as on their role as
independent and autonomous learners. As it is for
teachers, online learning is not exempt from challenges
for learners, for whom self-direction is both
a requisite for participation in such courses and
a learning goal, for which they need training and
support (White, 2003). Apart from the characteristics
of distance learners in general (e.g., selfdiscipline
and commitment), distance language
learners show certain characteristics that relate to
the added difficulty of learning a language without
face-to-face contact with a teacher or partners,
which is why affective factors become key (Hurd,
2007). In her study on students' reflections, Hurd
found that distance language students possessed
high levels of commitment and self-awareness and
used different types of strategies to manage learning,
in spite of their low use of affective strategies.
She further suggested that distance language
learners should be provided with support, clear instructions
and feedback, and structured guidance.
In fact, the notions of guidance and structure turn
out to be crucial in the effectiveness of online tasks
at a distance. For example, in their study of a collaborative
e-tandem exchange with LSP students
of Spanish and English (in Ireland and Spain) , Appel
and Gilabert (2006) found that achievement
and progress depended on a clearly designed task
structured around a meaningful goal, in the context
of a task-based approach.
Social and Collaborative Dimensions of Information
Technology in Language for Specific Purposes
In this context of international partnership and
collaboration through technology, some projects
have been developed to promote the use of IT
resources to bridge the digital divide (i.e., the
gap between those who have access to technology
and those who do not) , with technology as a tool
for promoting development. Warschauer (2002b)
and Healey (2006) reported on two projects that
focused on international collaboration for language
teacher education in Egypt and Tunisia,
respectively, with a specific LSP focus in the latter.
The underlying premise was to equip language
teachers with the necessary resources to
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99
CURRENT NEEDS AND PRIORITIES
Because of the pervasive influence of IT as a tool
for learning and for actual academic and professional
communication practices, the integration
of technology in LSP deserves special attention.
Taking into account both the definition of LSP,
as teaching based on clearly identified needs, and
the affordances and challenges that technology
brings into the teaching/learning context, it is
necessary to identify priority areas that should
be specifically addressed. These areas include the
following: (a) incorporating emerging technologies,
(b) developing IT-based teaching projects
grounded on a clear rationale, (c) training LSP
teachers and learners, (d) designing courses and
materials rooted in socially situated international
practices, and (e) setting a research agenda linked
to current LSP teaching.
One of the challenges for LSP teachers is the
need to keep pace with students' technological
skills (Arno et al., 2006b), especially in the
case of younger students who are digital natives
(Prensky, 2001). However, rather than regarding
themselves as digital immigrants (i.e., newcomers
to the latest technologies) , LSP teachers can help
students make the most of the emerging technologies
at which students are already adept, as a
point of departure to maximize their opportunities
for language learning, especially now that the
digital divide goes beyond mere access to technology.
In this sense, Vie (2008) proposed the
concept of digital divide 2.0 , to refer to the fact
that despite their familiarity with such technologies,
young students may lack critical literacy skills
for their effective use. She suggested that teachers
should integrate these technologies into their
classes for critical literacy development. Similarly,
Murray, Hourigan, andjeanneau (2007) showed
how blogging can be used to develop students'
academic writing skills, and the previously mentioned
study by Kuteeva (2011) related the use
of wikis to academic writing concerns. Although
Web 2.0 applications and social networking are
relatively new in mainstream language teaching,
in the field of LSP they resonate with earlier Internet
practices, given that many LSP students,
as members of their discourse communities, already
have experience participating in specialized
Internet forums, discussion lists, and newsgroups
to exchange information about their discipline.
New technological applications have further expanded
the possibilities for learners' immersion
in and authentic interaction with specialized
online communities.
This article has reviewed a variety of technologybased
projects for different LSP contexts. Given
Elisabet Arnó-Macià
and that promotes the development of skills for
progressive autonomous behavior, while taking
into account the preferences of some students for
direct teacher guidance.
In addition, in relation to the social dimension
of technology use, it is important to consider the
potential of the Internet for increasing the visibility
of different languages, as mentioned earlier in
this article. On this topic, Garrett (2009) pointed
out that technology may allow the development
of teaching materials and resources for less commonly
taught languages (LCTLs) and for heritage
speakers (i.e., speakers whose family language is
different from that used in their environment,
and who may have varying degrees of proficiency
in it) . Garrett further established some parallels
between heritage language speakers and LSP students:
(a) some heritage speakers may have needs
similar to those of certain LSP students, especially
those who need to develop academic skills; and
(b) because of the relatively small numbers of
students, it may not be feasible to set up regular
courses for some highly specific LSP groups, heritage
learners, and learners of an LCTL. Therefore,
technology may help provide online learning
environments and collections of multimodal
texts (audio, visual, textual) for learners to access,
as well as shared resources extending beyond single
institutions. Examples of IT resources in the
United States for LCTLs and heritage speakers
can be found in Garrett (2009).
Blake and Zyzic (2003) studied online communication
exchanges between learners of Spanish
and heritage speakers of Spanish. They suggested
that because of their specific characteristics, heritage
speakers can provide a useful resource from
the perspective of language acquisition, bringing
together, on the one hand, the benefits of native
speaker-nonnative speaker interaction and
learner-learner interaction and, on the other
hand, the affordances of online communication
in terms of availability, planning, and reduced
anxiety. Further research on the use of technology
with heritage speakers has shown, for example,
how heritage Korean learners - proficient in
conversation, but not in formal registers - use the
Internet to enter the discourse of Korean-based
communities, engaging in authentic communication
and developing their linguistic and cultural
knowledge, together with their digital literacy
(Sook Lee, 2006). In addition, the development
of dedicated Web-based environments, common
in mainstream LSP, can also be useful for learners
of LCTLs and heritage speakers, as attested, for
example, by the work of Kourtis-Kazoullis (2008)
on an online environment for the learning of
academic skills in Greek.
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The Modern Language Journal 96 (2012)
of the characteristics of the specialized communication
in which students will be expected to engage.
In this sense, the main focus still remains on
the analysis of written discourse, although there
is an increased interest in the spoken language.
Further research should be devoted to the development
of spoken skills and the analysis of spoken
texts in LSP. Given the increasing use of electronic
communication in academic and professional settings,
further research should be devoted both to
the analysis of electronic texts (see Bowles, 2012)
and to the development of students' electronic
literacy skills.
Research into IT in LSP also needs to keep
pace with technological advances and their social
uses. In this sense, as mobile devices are making
their way into language teaching, more research
is needed on their use and effectiveness - see,
for example, Rosell-Aguilar (2007) on podcasting
and Stockwell (2010) on mobile phones - and further
research should focus specifically on LSP contexts.
Because of their special relevance to LSP,
attention should also be paid to Web 2.0 applications,
examining their relationship to some of the
key concepts in LSP, such as discourse community,
genre, authenticity, and the role of discipline
knowledge.
CONCLUSIONS
This article has reflected on how technology
is integrated into LSP teaching by considering
key notions in LSP pedagogy raised by Grosse
and Voght in 1991, such as context, needs anal
ysis, authenticity, teacher roles, collaboration
and specificity of materials and courses. A wide
ranging approach to technological applications
has been presented, based on their integration
within a sound pedagogic framework, including
both older and newer technologies.
In relation to LSP teaching, technology provides
us with the opportunity to deal with differen
languages (and across languages) and to design
activities for a variety of learning contexts, preparing
students to deal with specific target needs,
thus integrating target community practices into
the LSP classroom. Using technology as a gateway
to the discourse community allows teachers
and learners to bridge the gap between th
learning situation and professional contexts by en
gaging in genuine interaction and collaboratio
with other learners, teachers, discipline experts
and professionals/students worldwide.
Interconnected courses and materials open up
new perspectives for LSP teaching in unprecedented
ways: sharing knowledge and views in th
100
the rapid advances in technology and the dynamic
nature of globalized academic and professional
settings, one of the challenges in LSP is to develop
IT-based projects that are effective and grounded
on a sound rationale. On this subject, Kennedy
and Levy (2009) pointed out that approaching
long-term CALL projects may appear incompatible
with the fast-paced evolution of technology,
but suggested that rather than being concerned
with implementing the latest technology, it is important
to devise projects that are technologically
robust and have a sound pedagogic rationale.
These authors discussed the question of sustainability
in CALL (i.e., they evaluated the implementation
of long-term IT projects both for LSP and
general language learning) . Among the key factors
for success they identified were (a) the tailoring
of projects to specific learning needs; (b) the
lecturers' skills; (c) the teamwork of participants
involved in the project (d) the sound integration
of a technological and pedagogic rationale; and
(e) the development of projects through a cyclical
process of experimentation, evaluation, and
improvement.
Another key aspect that emerges from the use
of technology in LSP teaching is the training
of teachers and learners, which involves preparing
teachers for the effective integration of the
technologies that students already use, as well as
training learners to make the most of technology
for successful participation in the academic
and professional communities. In relation to this
point, technology provides access to authentic
discipline-specific materials and opportunities for
genuine interaction, so that now, more than ever,
LSP teachers can design courses and materials tailored
to specific, realistic needs by drawing on actual
practices in the target settings. Thus, through
exchanges or partnerships that extend across borders,
students can be exposed to the challenges
they will encounter in globalized academic and
professional contexts. These approaches can help
bridge the gap between the LSP classroom and
workplace demands, which involve collaboration
and communication with different types of stakeholders
and require a special focus on intercultural
communication.
With LSP teaching and research being closely
interrelated, it is necessary to set a research
agenda related to the use of technology in current
LSP teaching in order to evaluate the effectiveness
of IT-based LSP teaching projects. In this area, special
attention has been paid to the use of different
technologies and modes (i.e., distance, blended,
face to face) for LSP teaching. Another important
area of research relates to the investigation
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Elisabet Arnó-Macià
open arena through networked resources and forums;
obtaining discipline-specific input from different
sources; and integrating emerging technologies
into social, learning, and professional
practices.
To face the demands of globalized workplace
and educational settings, it is necessary
to help LSP students develop their capacity for
intercultural communication, critical reflection,
and learner autonomy. By creating new learning
opportunities - accompanied by research into
their effectiveness - LSP teachers will be better
equipped to support students to make the most
of technology for independent, lifelong learning,
a crucial skill for students and professionals who
must adapt to rapidly changing environments.
In their 1991 article, Grosse and Voght identified
technological innovation as part of the
agenda for LSP. However, 20 years ago one could
hardly imagine the extent to which information
technology would shape language learning and
communication in general and LSP in particular.
As a result of the enormous social and technological
changes of the past 20 years, LSP teachers
are faced with the challenge of making the
most of technology to help students develop the
communication, literacy, critical, and technological
skills that they will need to work and study in
international contexts.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Barbara Lafford and Leo van Lier for giving
me the opportunity to contribute to this volume
as well as for their guidance and useful feedback during
the process. I am especially indebted to Barbara for
her patient and careful reading of an earlier version of
this article. Thanks are also due to three anonymous
reviewers for their insightful suggestions.
NOTES
*See the Web site of the Euromosaic project: http://
www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/
2 See information and language course listings
on the Web sites of the Open University (UK),
http://www3.open.ac.uk/study/undergraduate/
languages/index.htm, and the UOC (Catalonia,
Spain), http://www.uoc.edu
3For general information on the Intercampus
Programme, see http://www.catcampus.org
4 Originally developed by B. Dodge at the University
of San Diego in 1995, http://webquest.org
101
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