The Complete Archaeology of Greece From Hunter-Gatherers to the 20th Century AD John BintlifF © WI LEY- BLACKWELL A }ohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication Contents List of Figures and Tables ix List of Color Plates xxii Acknowledgments xxv Introduction 1 Part I The Landscape and Aegean Prehistory 9 1 The Dynamic Land 11 2 Hunter-Gatherers: The Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic in Greece 28 3 Early Farming Communities: Neolithic Greece 46 4 Complex Cultures of the Early Bronze Age 83 5 The Middle to Early Late Bronze Age on Crete: The Minoan Civilization 123 6 The Middle to Early Late Bronze Age on the Cyclades and the Mainland 155 7 The Mature Late Bronze Age on the Mainland and in the Wider Aegean: The Mycenaean Civilization 181 Part II The Archaeology of Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman Greece in its Longer-term Context 207 8 The Greek Early Iron Age and the Concept of a "Dark Age" 209 9 The Archaeology of the Archaic Era: Demography, Settlement Patterns, and Everyday Life 234 11) The Built Environment, Symbolic Material Culture, and Society in Archaic Greece 252 Vlll CONTENTS 11 The Archaeology of Classical Greece: Demography, Settlement Patterns, and Everyday Life 12 Symbolic Material Culture, the Built Environment, and Society in Classical Greece 13 The Archaeology of Greece in Hellenistic to Early Roman Imperial Times: Demography, Settlement Patterns, and Everyday Life 14 Symbolic Material Culture, the Built Environment, and Society in Hellenistic and Early Roman Greece 15 The Archaeology of Greece from Middle Roman Imperial Times to Late Antiquity: Demography, Settlement Patterns, and Everyday Life 16 Symbolic Material Culture, the Built Environment, and Society in Middle to Late Roman Greece Part III The Archaeology of Medieval and post-Medieval Greece in its Historical Context 17 The Archaeology of Byzantine Greece: Demography, Settlement Patterns, and Everyday Life 18 Symbolic Material Culture, the Built Environment, and Society in the Byzantine Aegean 19 The Archaeology of Frankish-Crusader Society in Greece 20 The Archaeology of Ottoman and Venetian Greece: Population, Settlement Dynamics, and Socio-economic Developments 21 Material Culture, the Built Environment, and Society in Ottoman andVenetian Greece 22 The Archaeology of Early Modern Greece Index 265 285 310 337 351 369 379 381 402 416 436 [59 478 498 List of Figures and Tables The author and publisher gratefully acknowledge the permission granted to reproduce the copyright material in this book Figures o.i i.i 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 German excavations at the Heroon in Olympia, 1880. In the foreground are Richard 3 Borrmann andWilhelm Dorpfeld. © bpk, Berlin. Distribution of the major modern olive-production zones with key Bronze Age sites indicated. 12 The shading from A to C indicates decreasing olive yields, D denotes no or minimal production. Major Bronze Age sites are shown with crosses, circles, and squares. C. Renfrew, The Emergence of Civilization (Study in Prehistory), London 1972, Figure 18.12. © 1972 Methuen & Co. Reproduced by permission ofTaylor & Francis Books UK. Major geological zones of Greece. 13 FL C. Darby et alt Naval Geographical Intelligence Handbook, Greece, vol. 1. London: Naval Intelligence Division 1944, Figure 4. Average annual rainfall in Greece. 16 H. C. Darby et til., Naval Geographical Intelligence Handbook, Greece, vol. 1. London: Naval Intelligence Division 1944, Figure 59. The vertical zonation of crops in the Mediterranean lands. 18 J. M. Houston, The Western Mediterranean World. London 1964, Figure 28. Courtesy ofj. M. Houston. Vegetation sequence in Greece, from Mediterranean lowland (right) to inner mountain 19 peaks (left). Modified from J. Kautzky, Natuurreisgids Griekenland. Vasteland en Kuststreken. De Bilt 1995, diagram on p. 23. Soils of Greece. 22 H. C. Darby et ai, Naval Geographical Intelligence Handbook, Greece, vol. 1. London 1944, Figure 7. Cross-section of the infill of the Plain ofTroy, Northwestern Anatolia, since die last glacial era. 23 Note the dominance of marine deposits and of river sediments laid down in a former sea inlet almost to the innermost part of the plain, and the late and superficial progradation (advance) of the modern dry land plain alluvia. FIGURES AND I'ABLLS FIGURES AND TABLES 2.1 2.3 2.4 Author after J. C. Kraft et a/./'Geomorphic reconstructions in the environs of ancient Troy," Science 209 (1980), 776-782, Figure 3. Reproduced by permission of American Association for the Advancement of Science. Peneios River open valley terraces,Thessaly, with archaeologists recording lithic finds from Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer activity. Courtesy of Curtis Runnels. Key Mesolithic sites in Greece. N. Galanidou and C. Pedes (eds.), The Greek Mesolithic. Problems and Perspectives. London 2003, Figure 1.1. Upper Mesolithic stone-tool assemblage from Franchthi Cave. Most of the small tools or microliths (right) are related to fishing: tools for preparing nets and traps for the capture of fish and then their processing for eating and storage. Shellfish collection and processing would also benefit from some of these small tools but also from some larger tools (left).The curved trapezoidal arrows however (upper right) could also be used for the land game, red deer and boar, identified in the Cave deposits. Many of the larger cutting and scraping tools (left) would be useful for processing land animals. Plant remains include wild fruits, nuts, and cereals, but no specific tools can yet be associated with these. C. Perles, Tfte Early Neolithic in Greece. Cambridge University Press 2001, Figures 2.4 and 2.5. Mesolithic settlement system in the Argolid. C. Runnels et ah,"A Mesolithic landscape in Greece: Testing a site-location model in the Argolid at Kandia "Jiwmfll of Mediterranean Archaeology 18 (2005), 259-285, Figure 2. The setting of the Klithi Cave and other sites in the Epirus upland and lowland region with likely seasonal moves of game animals. Arrowed routes between uplands and lowlands mark migrations of deer, cattle and horse. Routes purely within the uplands those of ibex and chamois. Low glacial sea levels made Corfu island part of the mainland. G. Bailey (ed.), Klithi: Palaeolithic Settlement and Quaternary Landscapes in Northwest Greece, vol. 2. Cambridge University Press 1997, Figure 30.25. The spread of Neolithic farming and herding during the Holocene (our current Interglacial, ca. 10,000 BP [before present] till now). Dates are in years BC. L. Louwe Kooijmans, Between Geieert and Banpo. The Agricultural Transformation of Prehistoric Society, 9000-4000 BC. Amsterdam, Archaeology Centre, Amsterdam University 1998, Figure 2. Early Neolithic house from Nea Nikomedeia (left) and Middle Neolithic house from Sesklo acropolis (right). D. R.Theochares, Neoliihikos potitismos. Suntomi episkopisi tis tieolithikis ston hciladiko chow. Athens 1993, Figures 19 and 48. The author's model for fissive and corporate community settlement systems. ■ J. L. Binttiff, "Emergent complexity in settlement systems and urban transformations." In U. Fellmeth et al. (eds.), Historische Geographic der Altai Welt. Festgabefiir Eckart Olshausen. Georg OlmsVerlag, Hildesbeim 2007, 43-82, Figure 7. Reconstruction of the Upper Town at Sesklo. D. R.Theochates, Neolithikos politismos. Suntomi episkopisi tis neolithikis ston hciladiko choro. Athens 1993, Figure 43. 3.5 Plan of excavated areas at Dhimini and reconstruction drawing. D. Preziosi and L. A. Hitchcock, Aegean Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press 1999, Figures 7 and 8. Distribution map of EN tells of the Thessalian Eastern Plain and Central Hill Land. TheThiessen polygon analysis suggests territory packing. C. Perles, The Early Neolithic in Greece. Cambridge University Press 2001, Figure 7.9. 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.6 34 36 38 41 4S 53 54 56 57 61 3.7 Characteristic tableware pottery forms from the Neolithic sequence ofThessaly. Phase 1 = EN, 2 = MN, 3-4 = early then late LN, 5 = FN. Note that in the last three phases a wide range of undecorated domestic and cookwares are in use, not shown here. J.-P. Demoule and C. Perles, "The Greek Neolithic: A new review." Journal of World Prehistory 7/4 (1993), 355-416, Figure 8. London: Springer Verlag. 3.8 Characteristic stone tools of the Greek Neolithic. J.-P. Demoule and C. Perles, "The Greek Neolithic; A new review.''Journal of World Prehistory 7/4 (1993), 355-41 6, Figure 6. London: Springer Verlag. 3.9 The spread of exotic lithic raw materials (obsidian, andesite and honey flint) and the location of the emery source on Naxos. C. Perles, "Systems of exchange and organization of production in Neolithic Greece." journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 5 (1992), 115-164, Figure 1. 3.10 Middle Neolithic double figurine fromThessaly. Drawing by Professor Lauren Talalay, University of Michigan. 4.1 Olive and wine presses from the rural mansion of Vathypetro, Late Minoan Crete, Photos J. Lesley Fitton. 4.2 Proposed Early Helladic settlement hierarchy for the Argolid Survey: size of circle reflects site extent and implied political status. M.H.Jameson et al (eds.), A Greek Countryside. The Southern Argolid from Prehistory to the Present Day. Stanford 1994, Figure 6.9. © 1994 Board ofTrustees of the Leland Stanford Jr. University. 4.3 Monumental structure ("House of the Tiles") at Lerna. D. Preziosi and L. A. Hitchcock, Aegean Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press 1999, Figure 17. 4.4 (Upper) Male status graves with weapons (Schwert = sword, Dolch — dagger, Lanze = lance, and Rasiermesser — razor-knives) in the EH2 R Grave tumuli at Nidri, Levkas. (Lower) Precious metal in the same graves (Silber = silver,Werkzeug = symbolic craft-tools). I, Kilian-Dirlmeier, Die Bronzezeitlichen Gräber hei Nidri auf Lcukas. Bonn 2005, Abb. 95-96. Courtesy of Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz. 4.5 A Mcsara communal tomb or tholos, Early and Middle Minoan.Whether the stone roof was a corbelled dome, or flat, is still disputed. S. Hood, The Minoans. Crete in the Bronze Age. London 1971, Figure 127. Reconstruction drawn by Martin E. Weaver. Plan drawn by Patricia Clarke. 4.6 The Agiofarango Valley in Minoan times. j. L. Bintliff, Natural Environment and Human Settlement in Prehistoric Greece. Oxford British Archaeological Reports 1977, Chapter 8, Figure 9. 4.7 Selected Early Minoan wares, emphasizing the significance of drinking sets. K. Branigan (ed.). Cemetery and Society in the Aegean Bronze Age. Sheffield 1998, Figures 1.5 and 8.1. Reproduced by permission of Continuum International Publishing Group. 4.8 Early Cycladic boats. tBroodbauk, An Island Archaeology of the Early Cydades. © Cambridge University Press 2000, Figure 23. 4.9 Travel ranges in the Early Cycladic Aegean from major island foci. The chief centers indicated, north to south, are Aghia Irini (Kea), Chalandriani (Syros), Grotta Aploinata (Naxos).and Daskaleio (Keros). C. Broodbank, An Island Archaeology of the Early Cydades.© Cambridge University Press 2000, Figure 85. 68 71) 75 84 87 88 90 98 99 KU 105 106 Xll FIGURES AND TABLES 4.10 Typical ceramic and metal pot forms of Early Cycladic 2. 108 C. Broodbank, An bland Archaeology of the Early Cydadcs. © Cambridge University Press 2000, Figure 60. 4.1 1 The fortified enclosure site at Chalandriani, Syros. 109 0. Dickinson, The Aegean Bronze Age. © Cambridge University Press 1994, Figure 4.5. 4.12 Cycladic symbolic culture. Typology of figurines by period, oldest at the top of the sequence. 115 C. Renfrew, The Emergence of Civilization (Study in Prehistory). London 1972, Figure 11.8. © 1972 Methuen & Co. Reproduced by permission ofTaylor & Francis Books UK. 5.1 TheVrokastro Survey in Eastern Crete shows the progressive infill of the Cretan landscape 126 between the Final Neolithic and First Palace period (above) and the Second Palace period (facing page). J.B. HaydenJ.A. Moody, and O. Rackbam, "TheVrokastro Survey Project, 1986-1989. Research design and preliminary results." Hesperia 61/3 (1992), 293-353, Figures 16 and 17. Reproduced by permission of American School of Classical Studies at Athens © 1992. 5.2 The mature plan of the major palace at Phaistos. 129 D. Preziosi and L. A. Hitchcock, Aegean Art and Architecture. © Oxford University Press 1999, Figure 62. 5.3 The reconstructed small palace within the country town of Gournia. 129 J. L. Fitton, Minoans. Peoples of the Past. London 2002, Figure 54. 5.4 A possible settlement hierarchy in Palatial Crete.The following centers are suggested 130 to have possessed palaces, large or small, in the First and/or Second Palace period: Khania, Monastiraki, Phaistos, Knossos, Arkhanes, Galatas, Malia, Gournia, Petras, Zakro. E. Adams,"Social strategies and spatial dynamics in Neopalatial Crete:An analysis of the North-Central area." American Journal of Archaeology 110 (2006), 1-36. Reproduced by permission of Archaeological Institute of America (Boston). 5.5 Knossos palatial fresco taken to represent public ceremonies in the outer West Court. 133 J. Driessen, "The King Must Die: Some Observations on the Use of Minoan Court Compounds." In J. Driessen, et ai. (eds.), Monuments of Minos, Austin: University of Texas at Austin Press, 2002,1-14. Courtesy of J. Driessen. 5.6 Knossos palatial fresco taken to represent public ceremonies in the inner Central Court. 133 J. Driessen, "The King Must Die: Some Observations on the Use of Minoan Court Compounds." In Driessen, Laffineur, Schoep eds., Monuments of Minos, Austin: University ofTexas at Austin Press, 2002, 1-14. Courtesy of J. Driessen. 5.7 The early First Palace (Protopalatial) court-complex at Malia set against its New Palace 134 (Neopalatial) successor. 1. Schoep, "Looking beyond the First Palaces: Elites and the agency of power in EMIII-MMU Crete." American journal of Archaeology 110 (2006), 37-64, Figure 3. Reproduced by permission of Archaeological Institute of America (Boston). 5.8 Malia palace and town. 135 I. Schoep, "Social and political organization on Crete in the Proto-Palatial Period: The case of Middle Minoan II Malia*' Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 15 (2002), 101-132, Figure 1. 5.9 Carved serpentine cup, known as the Chieftain's Cup, found at the Minoan site 137 of Ayia Triada on Crete. © RogerWood/CORBIS. 5.10 Clay archive records in Minoan Linear A script. 143 P. M. Warren, The Making of the Past. The Aegean Civilizations. Ekdotiki Athenon SA, Athens 1975,37. Heraklion Museum, Crete. Photo: Ekdotiki Athenon, Athens. FIGURES AND TABLES Xlll 5.11 Typical painted fine wares of First Palace date. 144 0. Dickinson, The Aegean Bronze Age. © Cambridge University Press 1994, Figure 5.8. 5.12a Scene on Isopata engraved ring gem showing ritual dancing in a natural setting 147 with a small floating figure. Drawn by V.-P. Herva after Platon and Pini 1984: no. 51, from V-P. Herva,"Flower lovers, after all? Rethinking religion and human-environment relations in Minoan Crete." World Archaeology 38 (2006), 590, Figure 2, 5.12b Engraved ring gem. Offerings to a seated temale figure before a mystical tree. 147 Clyde E. Keeler, Apples of Immortality from the Kuna Tree of Life. New York 1961/ Hathi Trust Digital Library. 6.1 Major and minor settlements on the Middle Cycladic Cyclades. 156 C. Broodbank, An Island Archaeology of the Early Cyclades. © Cambridge University Press 2000, Figure 109. 6.2 The development of the Middle then Late Cycladic town at Phylakopi. 158 T. Whitelaw,"A tale of three cities: Chronology and Minoisation at Phylakopi in Melos." In A. Dakouri-Hild and S. Sherratt (eds.), Autochthon. Papers Presented to O.T.P. K. Dickinson. Oxford 2005, 37-69, Figure 1. 6.3 Minoan cultural radiations. 160 C, Broodbank, An Island Archaeology of the Early Cyclades. © Cambridge University Press 2000, Figure 121. 6.4 The present-day outline ofThera island with the location of the Bronze Age town at Akrotiri. 162 J. Chadwick, The Mycenaean World. Cambridge 1976, Figure 4. 6.5 Middle Helladic gray Minyan ware goblet. 164 ©Trustees of the British Museum. 6.6 Middle Helladic village at Malthi, Peloponnese. 165 E.Vermeule, Greece in the Bronze Age. Chicago 1964, Figure 14. 6.7 From left to right, development over time of male dress and gifts in the Shaft Graves. 172 Areas shaded black are in gold. 1. Kilian-Dirlmeier,"Beobachtungen zu den Schachtgrabern von Mykenai." Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 33 (1986), 159—198, Figures 14—16- Courtesy of Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz. 6.8 Plan of the late "Treasury of Atreus" tholos at Mycenae. 174 W.Taylour, T!ie Myceneans. London 1966, Figure 43. 6.9 The great settlement mound orToumba at Thessaloniki. 176 Author. 7.1 Mycenaean krater (LH3) depicting an octopus, from Ialysos (modern Trianda), Rhodes, 1 82 Aegean Sea, h. 41 cm. ©Trustees of the British Museum. 7.2 The earliest clear palace plan at Pylos, LH3A period (left) shows some resemblance 183 to a Minoan "court-complex," whilst the later palace, LH3B period (right) has more controlled access and is less permeable to the public. U.Thaler, "Constructing and reconstructing power." In J. Maran et at. (eds.), Constructing Power:Architecture, Ideology and Social Practice. Hamburg 2006, 93-116,Tafel 16,1-2. 7.3 A first attempt to model the settlement hierarchy for the Mycenaean Plain of Argos: primary, 186 secondary, and tertiary settlements are shown as triangles then larger and smaller circles. J. L. Bintliff, Natural Environment and Human Settlement in Prehistoric Greece. Oxford 1977, Appendix A, Figure la. 7.4 The palace at Pylos in LH3B: the Great Megaron reconstructed. 188 xiv FIGURES AND TABLES Watercolor by Piet de Jong, digitally edited by Craig Mauzy. Courtesy of Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati. 7.5 View and partial plan of Mycenaean fortress at Gla, Central Greece. 190 Photo R.V. Schoder, SJ, © 1989 Loyola University of Chicago. Plan from R.V. Schoder, SJ, Ancient Greece from the Air. London: Thames and Hudson 1974,79. 7.6 Mycenaean-style chamber tomb construction. 193 S. Hood, The Minoans. Crete in the Bronze Age. Thames and Hudson, London 1971, Figure 29. Drawn by Patricia Clarke. 7.7 Mycenaean ceramic findspots abroad. Shaded areas and black squares mark areas 196 and settlements with important concentrations, isolated dots mark small findspots. Black circles denote key Mycenaean centers in the Aegean homeland. G.-J. van Wijngaarden. Use and Appreciation of Mycenaean Pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy. Amsterdam 2002, Figure 2. 7.8 Halstead's model for the Mycenaean palatial economy. 198 P. Halstead,"The Mycenaean palatial economy: Making the most of the gaps in the evidence." Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 38 (1992), 57-86, Figure 4. © Cambridge University Press. 8.1 Characteristic fine ware, early Iron Age (Protogeometric style), a grave assemblage 210 from the Kerameikos cemetery in Athens. ©Trustees of the British Museum. 8.2 Lefkandi elite mansion and/or cult burial structure, ca. 1000 BC, with subsequent 211 cemetery to its east. A. Snodgrass, An Archaeology of Creece. The Present State and Future Scope of a Discipline. Stanford 1987, Figure 54. Reproduced by permission of University of California Press Books. 8.3 (Upper) The El A to Archaic evolution of settlement foci in Boeotia. Known and 216 hypothesized (question mark) nucleated settlements in later Geometric and Archaic times. By Classical times these multiple local foci have become separated into city-states (solid triangles) and their dependent villages (solid circles). Possible agricultural territories are marked by the polygons. (Lower) Territorial analysis of the historically and archaeologically located rural villages in the territory of Classical Athens, also showing urban (intramural) administrative units (rural and urban "denies"). Possible agricultural territories are marked by the polygons. J. L. Bintliff, "Territorial behaviour and the natural history of the Greek polis." In E. Olshausen and H. Sonnabend (eds.). Stuttgarter Kolloquiutn zttr historischen Geographie des Altenums, vol. 4. Amsterdam 1994, 207-249. Published there as Figure 20 on Plate XXXIX, and Figure 36 on Plate LV1. 8.4 Settl ement-cbamber migration of nucleations in the Valley of the Muses. Askra is the sole 219 nucleation in Early Bronze Age and Greco-Roman to Byzantine times, site VM4 is the sole village in Middle-Late Bronze Age, Frankish/Crusader, and Early Ottoman times, and the modern village is the only nucleation from Late Ottoman times to today. Author. 8.5 Settlement plan of Emborio on the island of Chios in the Early Iron Age. 222 A. Snodgrass, An Archaeology of Creece. The Present State and Future Scope of a Discipline. Stanford 1987, Figure 57. Reproduced by permission of University of California Press Books. 8.6 Elaboration of houses at Zagora during Late Geometric rimes. 224 FIGURES AND TABLES XV F. Lang, Archdische Siedlungen in Griechenland: Struktur mid Fntwicklung. Berlin ! 996, Figures 55-56. © Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.Wemheim. 8.7 Eighth-century wooden temples of apsidal form underlying a later rectangular stone 229 temple at Eretria. J.Whitley, The Archaeology of Ancient Greece. Cambridge 2001, Figure 7.6. 9.1 Map of the distribution of city-states or poleis in Classical Greece.The remaining areas 235 were organized in "ethne" (tribal or confederate states) and/or kingdoms. A. Snodgrass, Archaic Creece. 'The Age of Experiment. London11980, Figure 43 (after Kirsten 1956). Courtesy of Professor A. Snodgrass. 9.2 Early scene of a hoplite phalanx piped into battle ca. 675 BC. 239 Chigi jug, detail of warriors, c. 640 BC. Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia. © 2011. Photo Scala, Florence. Courtesy of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attivita Culturali. 9.3 Reconstruction of the city of Old Smyrna in the late Archaic period. 241 R. Cook."Old Smyrna, 1948-1951." Annual of the British School at Athens 53 (1958-1959), 1-181. 9.4 Reconstruction of the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delphi in about 160 AD. 244 Model by Hans Schleif, scale 1:200. General view showing Temple of Apollo and Theater from the south. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Dodge Fund, 1950 (30.141.2). Photo © 2011 Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. 9.5 Waves of population and urbanization over time in the Aegean, from intensive 246 and extensive survey data. J. L. Bintliff, "Regional survey, demography, and the rise of complex societies in the Ancient Aegean: Core-periphery Neo-Malthusian, and other interpretive models." Journal of Field Archaeology 24 (1997), 1-38, Figure 10, revised. 9.6 Greek colonization in Late Geometric-Archaic times. 248 A. A. M. van der Heyden, Atlas van de antieke wereld. Amsterdam 1958, Map 3. 10.1 The development of male kouros statues from Early to Late Archaic times. 253 Colossal marble kouros from Cape Sounion (left). © Lie Agostini/SuperStock. Funerary kouros of Kroisos, Paros marble, ca. 525 BC, from Anavyssos (right). ©The Art Archive/National Archaeological Museum Athens/Gianni Dagli Orti. 10.2 Proto-Corinthian ceramic, fine ware from the final eighth to seventh centuries BC. 254 ©Trustees of the British Museum. 10.3 Black-Figure Attic vase, typical fine ware from the late sixth to early fifth centuries BC. 255 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston/Henry Lillie Pierce Fund/The Bridgeman Art Library. 10.4 Red-Figure Attic calyx krater depicting Hercules wearing a laurel wreath with 256 Athena and other Greek heroes, typical fine ware from the fifth to fourth centuries BC. Niobid Painter (ca. 475-450 BC). Louvre, Paris/The Bridgeman Art Library. 10.5 Late Archaic temple ofAphaea on the island ofAegina. 258 A. A. M. van der Heyden, Atlas van de antieke wereld, Amsterdam 1958, 30. 10.6 The proto-historic dispersed plan of Athens with the later city wall. 260 1. Morris, "The early polis as city and state." In J. Rich and A.Wallace-Hadrill (eds.), City and Country in the Ancient World. London 1991, 25-58, Figure 2. © 1991 Routledge. Reproduced by permission ofTaylor &' Francis Books UK. 11.1 The Athenian Acropolis in Hellenistic times. Key Periclean monuments: immediately 268 at the head of the entrance ramp is the Propylaea gate-complex, to its far right on a projecting wing the tiny temple of Athena Nike, then in the raised centre of the citadel jCVJ FIGURES AND TABLES is the temple of Athena Parthenos, and to its left adjacent to the perimeter wall the complex temple called the Erechtheion (dedicated to Athena and Poseidon Erechtheios). Reconstruction drawing courtesy of Professor M. Korres. 11.2 The site of LSE1. (Top left) Local surface pottery density around the site (gridded in white). 278 (Right and lower) Sherd foci for Classical, Roman, and Late Roman times. Elements taken from J. L. Bintliff and P. Howard, "A radical rethink on approaches to surface survey and the rural landscape of Central Greece in Roman times." In E Kolb and E. Muller-Luckner (eds.), Chora imd Fofa.Munchen 2004, 43-78, Figures 11, 22,23, and 24. 11.3 (Upper) Surface survey ofThespiae city shows its maximum extent of 70-100 ha during 280 the Classical to Early Hellenistic era. (Lower) Total rural survey south of the city revealed an inner ring of small rural cemeteries (C), then a ring of large to medium-sized farms (MF, LE) and hamlets (H), followed by small farms (F), and finally a large hamlet (Askris Potamos). Upper: author. Lower: J. L. Bintliff et at., Testing the Hinterland: The Work of the Boeotia Survey (1989—1991) in the Southern Approaches to the City ofThespiai. Cambridge 2007, Figure 9.4. 11.4 Domestic ceramics of the Classical era. 282 B. A. Sparkes,"The Greek kitchen." Journal of Hellenic Studies 82 (1962), 121—137, composite from Plate IV pots 1, 2, 3, 5; PlateV pots 2,6, 7; PlateVI pots 2, 5. 12.1 The decorative scheme of the Parthenon. 288 M. D. Fullerton, Greek Art. Cambridge 2000. Figure 35. © Cambridge University Press. 12.2 The Doric architectural order. 290 A.W. Lawrence and R. A.Tomlinson, Greek Architecture. New Haven 1996, xiv, unnumbered figures. 12.3 The Ionic architectural order. 291 A.W. Lawrence and R. A.Tomlinson, Greek Architecture. New Haven 1996, xv, unnumbered figures. 12.4 Red-Figure Attic vase showing a household scene. 292 ©Trustees of the British Museum. 12.5 The Cnidos Aphrodite. Marble. Roman, ca. 180 AD. Slightly altered copy of the Aphrodite 293 of Cnidos by Praxiteles, ca. 350 BC. Vatican Museums, Rome, inv. no. 474. akg-images/Nimatallah. 12.6 The Garlanded Youth (Diadumenos) by Polycleitos. Marble, h. 186 cm. Fifth century BC, 294 Ancient copy from Delos. akg-images/De Agostini Picture Library. 12.7 A series of house blocks on the North Hill, Olynthus. 298 N. Cahill, Household and City Organization at Olynthus. New Haven:Yale University Press 2002, Figure 7. 12.8 A typical Olynthus house plan. 299 M. H. Jameson,"Domestic space in the Greek city-state." In S. Kent (ed.), Domestic Architecture and the Use of Space. © Cambridge University Press 1990, Figure 7.6. 12.9 An example of Cahill s Olynthus house analysis. 302 N. Cahill, Household and City Organization at Olynthus. New HavemYale University Press 2002, Figure 16. 12.10 Access analysis for the settlement atTrypetos, Crete. 304 R. C.Westgate, "House and society in Classical and Hellenistic Crete." American Journal of Archaeology 111 (2007), 423—457, Figure 12. Reproduced by permission of Archaeological Institute of America (Boston). FIGURES AND TABLES XVII 12.11 Atene domes thin eroded soil allows Classical farm foundations to stand on the 306 modern surface. Three farms, numbered, are shown with circular threshing-floors and estate boundaries. H. Lehmann, Atene. Forschungen zu Siedlungs- und Wirtschqfisstruktur des klassischen Attika. Köln 1993, Figure 36. 13.1 (Top) Rural settlement decline in the region of Boeotia, Central Greece belonging 314 to the ancient cities ofThespiae and Haliartos (located in the Southeast and Northwest of the maps). Many rural farms and hamlets disappear between Classical-Hellenistic and LH-ER times, many more cease to be flourishing settlements (low ceramic finds indicate site shrinkage or temporary rather than permanent use = "probable/possible" occupation). J.L. Bintliff, "The Roman countryside in Central Greece: Observations and theories from the Boeotia Survey (1978-1987)." In G. Barker and J. Lloyd (eds.), Roman Landscapes. Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Region. London 1991, 122—132, Figures 2 and 4. (Below) Surface collections from the small town of Askra show severe contraction between Classical Greek and Early Roman times. Open circles denote sample areas lacking finds of the mapped period, grayscale shading increases in darkness with higher density of dated finds for the mapped phase. J. L. Bintliff and A.M. Snodgrass, "Mediterranean survey and the city." Antiquity 62 (1988), 57-71, Figures 2b and 2c. 13.2 Early Roman Greece, its provinces, colonial foundations by Caesar (colonies cesariennes) 316 and Augustus (fondations augusteennes), and privileged indigenous cities (libres, peregrines). R. Etienne et ah, Archeologie Iristorique de la Grece antique. Paris 2000, Figure 137. 13.3 Pella: palace/acropolis to north, agora center, and wealthy mansions to its south. 320 M. Lilimpaki-Akamati and l.M, Akamatis (eds.), Pella and Its Environs. Athens 2004, Figure 8. 13.4 The gridplan of the Roman colony of Corinth was set within the pre-Roman city-walls. 324 Also marked is the acropolis (far southwest) and the former Long Walls (to the north running to the coast), together with the Roman agricultural land-division for the colonists around the city. R. Etienne et a!., Archeologie historique de fa Grece antique. Paris 2000, Planche XIV.3. 13.5 Development of Thessaloniki from a secondary center within the Macedonian Hellenistic 327 state, to the capital of the Roman province of Macedonia. D.V. Grammenos (ed.),"Roman Thessaloniki."Thessaloniki, Archaeological Museum Publications, 2003, 124. 13.6 Argos: Roman bath complex. 328 M. Pierart and G.Touchais, Argos. Une villegrecque de 6000 ans. Paris 1996, 79. 13.7a Drawings. A typical assemblage of Hellenistic date.Top: (left to right) table cups, jug, and serving 331 bowls. Lower: (left to right) cookpot, unguentaria (oil-flasks), casserole, and amphorae. Courtesy of Mark van der Enden. 13.7b Early Roman ceramics. Upper left; tablewares. Upper right: amphorae and cooking ware. 332 Below, unguentaria, kitchen, and other plain wares. Philip Bes after H.S. Robinson, Pottery of the Roman Period. Chronology {= Tfie Athenian Agora,Vo\. 5). Princeton 1959, with permission of Professor J. Camp. 14.1 Plan of the Aegai palace. 338 R. Etienne et a!., Archeologie historique de la Grece antique. Paris 2000, Figure 113. 14.2 Access diagram for three houses in Delos. Note the focus on entry toward the 339 display courts with adjacent mosaic-floored entertainment rooms and the marginalization of family and service suites. r XVÍJi FIGURES AND TABLES R. C. Westgate, "House and society in Classical and Hellenistic Crete-" American Journal ojArchaeology 111 (201)7), 423-457, Figure 1. Reproduced by permission of Archaeological Institute of America (Boston). 14.3 The Baroque: defeated Barbarians from the Attalid dedication on the Parthenon. Left: National Archaeological Museum of Venice. Right: © 2011. DeAgostini Picture Library/Scala, Flotence. 14.4 A Roman entrepreneur from Delos, first century BC, in Classicizing physique, a "pseudo-athlete." © Erin Babnik/Alamy. 15.1 Sequence of landscape change in the countryside ofThespiae, Boeotia in MR-LR times.Villas (V) and putative villa-estate hamlets (H) concentrate in the southwest and west districts, with an increase in site area over time. Redrawn from J. L. Bintliff et ah, Testing the Hinterland: The Work of the Boeotia Survey (Í989-Í99Í) in the Southern Approaches to the City o/Thespiai. Cambridge 2007, Figures 9.10 and 9.15. 15.2a The fortified hilltop of Aghios Constantinos represents a class of walled villages typical for the Balkans in the fifth to seventh centuries AD. 15.2b The Late Roman wall of Athens. Author. 15.3 Marble sarcophagus fromThessaloniki, third century AD. Archaeological Museum ofThessaloniki, inv. no. M0 1247. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism/Archaeological Receipts Fund. 15.4 A Late Roman ceramic assemblage. Upper left: tablewares. Right upper and lower: kitchen and other domestic wares. Below left: storage and transport amphorae. Philip Bes after K.W. Slané and G.D.R. Sanders,"Corinth: Late Roman horizons." Hesperia 74/2 (2005), 243-297. Reproduced with permission of American School of Classical Studies at Athens. 16.1 The fifth-century palace in the Old Agora, Athens, lying outside the new city wall on its right. J. M. Camp, The Archaeology of Athens. New Haven 2001, Figure 224. 16.2 The "Theseion" (Hephaistcion) converted to a church,Athens. J. M. Camp, The Archaeology of Athens. New Haven 2001, Figure 231. 16.3 Image of the victorious Christian emperor Justinian. Byzantine, early sixth century AD ivory diptych relief, made in Constantinople. The Art Archive/Musée du Louvre, Paris/Gianni Dagli Orti. 17.1 (Upper) Generalized distribution of major foci of settlement in Byzantine and Frankish Boeotia, from extensive and localized intensive survey, compared with (Lower) the distribution of Greco-Roman cities (triangles) and villages (circles) in Boeotia. A high proportion of settlements are in use in both eras, but their names changed in the intervening period. J. Bintliff,"Reconstructing the Byzantine countryside: New approaches from landscape archaeology." In K. Blelke ct al. (eds.), Byzanz als Rťwm.Wien 2000, 37—63, Figures 11 and 12. 17.2 The Byzantine Empire in 1025. C. Mango (ed.), Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford 2002, 178 (unnumbered figure). © Oxford University Press. 3-1-1 317 356 35') 362 364 365 370 372 37 1 386 389 FIGURES AND TABLES XIX 17.3 (a) Deserted medieval villages (black circles) in the region of ancient Tanagra city, 392 Boeotia. (b)The chronology of their surface finds. A.Vionis, "Current archaeological research on settlement and provincial life in the Byzantine and Ottoman Aegean." Medieval Settlement Research 23 (2008), 28-41, Figures 5 and 13. 17.4 Chronology of church construction in Messenia. 393 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 187. 17-5 The fragmented territorial powers of the Aegean in 1402 (Venice, Genoa, Serbia, Bulgaria, 396 the Ottomans). Albanian colonization is also indicated. Residual pockets under Byzantine rule are in black. A. Ducellier, Byzance et ie immde orthodoxe. Paris 1986, 8, bottom figure. By permission of Editions Armand Colin. 18.1 Saint Demetrius mosaic, Thessaloniki (ca. 620 AD). 403 E. Kourkoutidou-Nieolaidou and A.Tourta, Wandering in Byzantine Thessaloniki. Athens 1997, Figure 191. Photo © Kapon Editions. 18.2 The center of the town of Corinth in the eleventh to twelfth centuries. 410 C. Mango (ed.), Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford 2002, 200 (unnumbered figure). © Oxford University Press. 18.3 Mistra: general town plan. Citadel = 16, UpperTown = Kastro, LowerTown = Mesokhorion, 413 Extramural Settlement = Katochorion. S. Runciman, Mistra: Byzantine Capital of the Peloponnese. London:Thames and Hudson Ltd 1980. 94. Drawn by Hanni Bailey. 18.4 The"Laskaris House"an aristocratic mansion at Mistra. 4 14 N.V Georgiades, Mistra, 2nd edn. Athens 1973, Figure 6. Drawn by A. K. Orlandos, The Archaeological Society at Athens. 19.1 Distribution of Frankish-era feudal towers and urban centers in Boeotia.The now 420 destroyed tower on the Athens'Acropolis is also marked. P. Lock,"The Frankish towers of Central Greece." Annual of the British School at Athens 81 (1986), 101-123, Figure 1. 19.2 Castle settlement at Geraki, Peloponnesc. 422 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004,202. 19.3a Astypalaia town with its focal Venetian castle. 424 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 7. 19.3b Plan of the old town on Antiparos centering on the lord's castle or tower. 424 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 12, 19.4 The Frankish Athenian Acropolis. Lower right, the Propylaea converted into an impressive 426 palace for the Dukes of Athens. The Parthenon, already a Byzantine church, was rededicated as a Catholic cathedral to the Virgin Mary. The entire hill was massively refortified. On the left are the ruins of the older temple of Athena and next to them the Erechtheum. © DimirnsTsalkanis, www.aticiLMit.ithens3d.com. 19.5a The Frankish dynastic church of Saint Sophia, Andravida, Elis, Western Peloponnesc. 427 Photo Tasos D. Zachariou. 19.5b Plan from R.Traquair,"Frankish Architecture in Greece." 427 Journal of the RIBA 31 (1923), 34-48 and 73-83 (also monograph, London 1923). 19.6 Boeotian settlements in 1466 by ethnicity and size after the Ottoman tax records 430 (translated by Prof. M. Kiel). J. L. Bintliff, "The two transitions: Current research on the origins of the traditional village in Central Greece." In J. L. Bintliff and H. Hamerow (eds.), Europe Between Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Oxford 1995, 111-130, Figure 11. xx FIGURES AND TABLES 20.1 Settlement size and ethnicity from the Ottoman tax defter for Boeotia in 1570, locatable 440 and approximately-locatable villages only shown (Ottoman texts translated by Prof. M. Kiel). J.L. Bintliff, "The two transitions: Current research on the origins of the traditional village in Central Greece." In J. L. Bintliff and H. Hamerow (eds.), Europe Between Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Oxford 1995, 111-130, Figure 12. 20.2 Maximum expansion of the deserted village of Zaratova (Frankish era)/Panaya (Ottoman era), 442 occurs in the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries Al) or Early Ottoman phase.The spread of dated finds covers some 11 ha. J.L. Bintliff,''Reconstructing the Byzantine countryside: New approaches from landscape archaeology." In K. Blelke et al. (eds.), Byzanz ais Raum.Wien 2000,37-63, Figure 16. Table source: ibid., Figure 17. 20.3 The decline of Boeotia between 1570 and 1687 is vividly revealed by the shrinking 446 number and size of settlements by the latter tax date (Ottoman archives translated by Prof. M. Kiel). J. L. Bintliff, "Reconstructing the Byzantine countryside: New approaches from landscape archaeology." In K. Blelke el al. (eds.), Byzanz ah Raum. Wien 2000,37-63, Figure 13. 20.4 Eighteenth-century Ottoman complex behind the Tower of the Winds, Athens, in the 453 early nineteenth century. Painting from Theodore de Moncel, Vues pittoresques des monuments d'Athenes. Paris 1845. © 2011 The British Library Board. All rights reserved. 648.a.28. 20.5 Eighteenth-century Ottoman complex behind the Tower of the Winds, Athens, today. 453 Author. 21.1 Town house in Ioannina. 464 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 60. 21.2 A ruined overhang-house, main street. Ottoman Livadheia, 466 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 167. 21.3 The Venetian-era monastic church at Arcadi, Crete. 467 Shutterstock Images/Paul Cowan. 21.4 Seventeenth-century Venetian palace in Corfu (The Nobles' Lounge). 467 Author. 21.5 Ottoman-period painting of a ciftlik with peasant houses, towerhouse, and church. 468 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 137. 21.6a Ottoman-period rural elite mansion: towerhouse type, Lesbos. 469 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 18. 21.6b Rural elite mansion: archontiko type, Epiros. Historic photograph. 469 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 58. 21.7 Aalen's model for rural farm evolution on Kephallenia, developing through phases A to C. 470 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 31. 21.8 Middle Period (Late Ottoman) wealthy house in Mount Pelion. 471 E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 50. 21.9 Interior of a peasant single-story longhouse (makrinari) in early nineteenth-century Attica 474 (by Stackelberg). The house form is a longhouse variant with a central semi-division wall along its length (kamara). Note the limited possessions and the dining mode of low table and central large shared dish, and the absence of high chairs or benches. A. Diniitsantou-Kremezi, Attiki. Elliniki paradosiaki architektoniki. Athens 1984, Figure 49. 22.1a Historic photograph of Thespies-Erimokastro longhouse-village, Boeotia, ca. 1890. 483 ©EFA/P.Jamot. FIGURES AND TABLES xxi 22.1b Deserted village of Rhadon. House ruins and two churches. Late Ottoman 483 to mid-nineteenth century. E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 43. 22.2 Neoclassical village house in Messenia. 485 Courtesy E. Sigalos. 22.3 Neoclassical Main Building of Athens University, late nineteenth century. 489 Wikipedia image. 22.4a Surviving remains from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries 492 of the Lake Copais Company's establishment, Haliartos. Offices and barns for the produce of the drained lake. Author. 22.4b Surviving remains from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries of the 492 Lake Copais Company's establishment, Haliartos. The "bungalow villas" for the clerical-supervisor class of expatriates. Author. Tables 5.1 11.1 11.2 19.1 20.1 Hypothetical food-sustaining radii for Bronze and Iron Age towns in the dry-farming Mediterranean. Residual Analysis for site LSE1. Actual = recorded density, Predicted = expected density from surrounding fields for this district of the chora. 500-sherd sample. Changing site sizes (ha) and functions in the south chora of Thespiae city, Boeotia, together with the size of the contemporary city of Thespiae. Better-quality tableware on typical Italian tural sites (after Blake), for comparison with the Greek evidence. Economic and demographic records from the Ottoman defters for the village of Panaya (siteVM4). M. Kiel,"The rise and decline of Turkish Boeotia, 15th—19th century." In J. L. Bintliff (ed.), Recent Developments in the History and Archaeology of Central Greece. Oxford 1997,315-358. 131 279 279 428 443 COLOR PLATES XXÜi List of Color Plates The author and publisher gratefully acknowledge the permission granted to reproduce the copyright materia! in this hook 0.1 Map of Greece and the Aegean Sea with ancient regions and major ancient sices indicated. A. A. M. van der Heyden, Atlas van dc antieke wereld. Amsterdam 1958, Map 1. 1.1 Earthquake and volcanic arcs in the Southern Aegean. Active volcanic areas in recent geological time shown in red. W. L. Fricdrich, Fire in the Sea. Tlie Stmtorini Volcano: Natural History and the Legend of Atlantis. Cambridge 2000, Figure 2.3. 1.2 Greek landscape types 1. (a) Rocky islands and sea.Aegina. (b) Large fertile alluvial plains of Northern Greece. (a) Author, (b) © Ekdotiki Athenon, Athens. 1.3 Greek landscape types 2. (a) Dry Pleistocene plains of Southern Greece with soft limestone hills leading to hard limestone mountains, Plain of Argos. (b) Deep soft limestone hill land, Plain of Sparta. Author. 1.4 Zonal vegetation map of Greece Modified from J. Kautzky, Natuurreisgids Griekenland. \4isteland en Kuststreken. I )e Hilt 1995, map on p. 21. 5.1 Jumping bull fresco from Knossos, restored, h. 86 cm, Minoan, sixteenth century BC. © akg-images/Erich Lessing. 6.1 Scene from the Miniature Fresco including a sea battle, and a town with emerging soldiers and residents. Akrotiri.Thera, Late Cycladic period. National Archaeological Museum, Athens. © akg-images/John Hios. 8.1 Late Geometric elite burial marker vase with funeral scene.The abundant figures mark a clear break to preceding Protogeometric and Early-Middle Geometric ceramic decoration. Dipylon series, Kerameikos cemetery, Athens. The Art Archive/National Archaeological Museum. Athens/Gianni Dagli Orti. 9.1 (a) Silver stater from Aegina, late 6th century BC; obverse: turtle; reverse: abstract design. (b) Athenian silver five-drachma coin, '"owl" ca. 480 BC; obverse: head of Athena; reverse: owl. Silver stater, with a turtle and Goddess Athena tetradrachm of Athens. Both images ©TheTrustees of the British Mtiscum. 11.1 The Athenian Empire (green) and its enemies (yellow) during the Peloponnesian Wars, 457—404 BC. A. A. M. van der Heyden, Atlas van de antieke wereld. Amsterdam 1958, Map 6. 11.2a OiTsite sherd densities in the outer countryside; sherds per hectare. Rural sites marked by blue circles and numbered. J. L. Bintliffr"The Leiden University Ancient Cities of Boeotia Project: 2005 season atTanagra." Pharos. Journal of the Netherlands Institute in Athens 13 (2006), 29-38, Figures 2-4. 11.2b Oftsite sherd densities in the innermost countryside of the ancient city ofTanagra, Boeotia; sherds per hectare. Rural sites marked by blue circles, numbers or function.Tanagra city marked by its city wall in red. Author. 12. la Classical sculpture group, Harmodius and Aristogeiton, the "Tyrant Slayers," Roman marble copy, after a Creek bronze original of the fifth century BC. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. © akg-images/Dc Agostini Picture Library. 12.1b Restored and coloured cast of the Peplos Kore. © Museum of Classical Archaeology, Cambridge. 13.1a The Empire of Alexander the Great, 336-323 BC. A. A. M, van der Heyden, Atlas van dc antieke wereld. Amsterdam 1958, Map 7. 13.1b The Hellenistic Successor Kingdoms: the Ptolemies in Egypt, Seleucids in the central Near East, the Antigonids in Macedonia and the Attalids in Pergamum. A. A. M. van der Heyden, Atlas van de antieke wereld. Amsterdam 1958, Map 8. 14.1a "The Deer Hunt": mosaic floor from the andron of the House of the Abduction of Helen, Pclla, fourth century BC. ©World HistoryArchive/Alamy. 14.1b "Tomb of Philip" atVergina, Greece (ancient Aigai, principal city of the Macedonian kings), discovered in 1978, if not for Philip II then possibly the grave of Alexander IV, murdered in 311 BC.View from the outside. © akg-images/Herve Champollion. 15.1 The conquests ofjustinian. F. Delouche (ed.), Illustrated History of Europe. London 1993, Figure 2, p. 96. 16.1 a The later fifth-century AD basilica church of Acheiropiitos.Thessaloniki, view and plan. E. Kourkoutidou-Nicolaidou andA.Tourta, Wandering in ByzantineThessaltmiki.Athens 1997, Figures 219 and 220. © Kapon Editions. 16.1 b The Acheiropiitos church, interior photo: it retains its original marble floors, pillars, and mosaics. E. Kourkoutidou-Nicolaidou andA.Tourta, Wandering in Byzantine TkessabniU. Athens 1997, Figure 223. © Kapon Editions. 16.2 A military saint from the fifth-century AI ) mosaics of the Rotunda,Thessaloniki. E. Kourkoutidou-Nicolaidou andA.Tourta, Wandering in Byzantine Thessaloniki. Athens 1997, Figure 59. © Kapon Editions. 17.1 Early to Middle Byzantine ceramic forms. From left to right: Slav ware from the Olympia cemetery: Cretan painted ware; Green-and-Brown Painted Ware; Fine Sgraffito Painted Ware; Slip-Painted Ware. Courtesy of A.Vionis. 18.1 Plan of the Middle Byzantine double-churches at the monastery of Osios Loukas, Central Greece. Upper: the Panagfiia. Lower: the Katholikon.The Katholikon has two entrance halls, the outer numbered 135-137. The crossing of the cross plan with the main dome is marked in the two churches by numbers 139 and 134. The most exclusive sacred areas are the two apse groups to the east (right of the image) shielded by screens. J. Lowden, Early Christian & Byzantine Art. London 1997, Figure 133. Courtesy of Professor J. Lowden. 18.2 The domed centre of the Katholikon of Osios Loukas, ca. 101 1 -1030 AD, interior view looking east toward the screened apse. © akg-images/Paul Ancenay. 18.3a Middle Byzantine mosaic of Holy Luke in the Katholikon church at Osios Loukas. © akg-images/Paul Ancenay. XX1V COLOR PLATES 18.3b Late Byzantine Resurrection fresco, Chora monastic church, Constantinople (Istanbul), fourteenth century AD. © Godong/Robert Harding. 19.1 The Crusader feudal estate centre at Klimmataria. Plan with ceramics of all periods at the site plotted by type.The central tower is in purple, the internal courtyard to its right. E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, 202. 19.2 Late Byzantine-Frankish ceramics, (a) Zeuxrppos ware bowl and fragment of Green and Brown Sgraffito, (b) Pro to-Majolica dish. Courtesy ofA.Vionis. 20.1 The sixteenth-century Mediterranean territories of the Ottoman Empire. F. Delouche (ed.), Illustrated History of Europe. London 1993, Figure 4. 20.2a Sixteenth-century Iznik ware tulip mug. © Chris Hellier/CORBIS. 20.2b Eighteenth-century Kutahya plate. Courtesy ofA.Vionis. 20.3 Ottoman-Venetian era ceramics, (a) Polychrome painted Majolica jug from Pesaro, Italy, mid-eighteenth to early nineteenth century, (b) Aegean imitation of Italian Majolica jug and Late Green and Brown Sgraffito pottery fragment. Courtesy ofA.Vionis. 21,1a Distribution of vernacular house types in Greece based on a survey of published surviving historic buildings. Note the dominance of the longhouse-style (Agricultural) for the southern Mainland, Frankish-Venetian styles (Aegean-Venetian) on the islands and Ottoman for the northern Mainland. E. Sigalos, Housing in Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece. Oxford 2004, Figure 82. 21.1b The traditional single-story or one-and-a-half-story longhouse is the commonest form within the category Agricultural of the distribution map. A seventeenth-century example is illustrated here from Boeotia. N. Stedman,"Land-use and settlement in post-medieval central Greece: An interim discussion," in P. Lock and G.D.R. Sanders (eck), Hie Archaeology of Medieval Greece. Oxford: Oxbrow, 1996, p. 189, Figure 2. Courtesy of the author. 22.1 The growth of the Modern Greek State. Wikipedia image. 22.2a Early Modern Aegean decorated wares. Left to Right: Polychrome Sgraffito jug (from West and Northern Greece), late eighteenth to late nineteenth century; Qanakkale Ware dish (Northwest Turkey), eighteenth to mid-nineteenth century. Courtesy ofA.Vionis. 22.2b Early Modern Aegean decorated wares. Left to Right: Transfer-printed dish (from Syros/Europc), late eighteenth to early twentieth century; Grottaglie Ware bowl {Southern Italy), late eighteenth to early twentieth century, Benson Collection, Zurich and Montefioralle. 22.3a Traditional meets modern rural housing. Outside of abandoned longhouse on the main street of Aghios Thomas village, Boeotia. Author. 22.3b Traditional meets modern rural housing. A modern villa and behind it the original family longhouse of the plot still in secondary use along the same street, Aghios Thomas village, Boeotia. Author. 22.4 Traditional female costume of Tanagra village, Boeotia. Dora Stratou Dance Theatre,Athens www.grdance.org. 22.5a An Achilles statue in the garden of the Achilleion, Corfu. Author. 22.5b Village cemetery at Asi Gonia, Crete. wwwimagesotgreece.co.uk. r Acknowledgments First and foremost to my family, Elizabeth, David, Esther, and Aileen, for suffering my mental absence of several years as I wrote this book. Then the following helped with advice on chapters or through sending me offprints and references: Fred Aalen, Polyxena Adam-Veleni, Sue Alcock, Penelope Allison, Stelios Andreou, Pamela Armstrong, EfBe Athanassopoulos, Marc Bajema, John Bennet, Leslie Beaumont, Philip Bes, Andrew Bevan, Sebastiaan Bommelje, Joe Carter,John Casey, Bill Cavanagh,John Cherry,Jan-Paul Crielaard,Jim Crow,Jack Davis, Oliver Dickinson, Peter Doom, Panagiotis Doukellis, Jan Driessen, Archie Dunn, Nikos Efstratiou, Harry Fokkens, Hainish Forbes, Michaelis Fotiadis, Lynn Foxhill, Kevin Greene, Catherine Grandjean,Timothy Gregory, Paul Halstead, Mogens Hansen, Alan Harvey, K.-J. Hölkeskamp, Mamoru Ikeguchi, Jorrit Keldcr, Machiel Kiel, Jost Knauss, Johannes Koder, Frank Kolb, Kostas Kotsakis, Franziska Lang, Gunnar Lehmann, Quentin Letesson, Philippe Leveau, Luuk de Ligt, Peter Lock, Hans Lohmann, Nino Luraghi, Christina Marangou, Ian Morris, Joseph Maran, Peter Marzolff, Chris Mee.Maarlen Mouliou, Stelios Mouzakis, Christel Müller, Frits Naerebout, Richard Osborne, Tassos Papacostas, John Papadopoulos, Kostas Papagiannopoulos, Catherine Perles, David Pettegrew, Jeroen Poblome, Andrew Poulter, Marcus Rautman, Reinder Reinders, Athanasius Rizakis, Wil Roebroeks, David Romano, Jim Roy, Curtis Runnels, Jerry Rutter, Erwin Sabelherg,Yannis Saitas, Guy Sanders, Paul Sant Cassia, Friedrich Sauerwein, Kostas Sbonias, Use Schoep, Graham Shipley, Eleni Simoni, Jean-Pierre Sodini, Natascha Sojc, Anthony Snodgrass, Tony Spawforth, Andrew Stewart, Vladimir Stissi, Lauren Talalay, Thomas Tartaron, PeterTomkins,VangelisTourloukis, Dimitris and Eleni Tsougarakis, SofiaVoutsaki,Vance Watrous, Ruth Westgate, James Whitley, Eleni Zavvou. Finally immense gratitude to Rinse Willet for many days work on the figures, to Aileen for her valiant attempts to improve its prose, and to the always encouraging Wiley-Blackwell editors Julia Kirk and Rosalie Robertson. Introduction This book results from my own exposure, through surface survey in many regions of Greece since the early 1970s, to the incredible richness and variety of Greek archaeology beyond the traditional foci of the Classical Greek and Bronze Ages. As a doctoral student, traveling frequently on the bus from Athens to Navplion in the Peloponnese, I was struck by the diversity of historic landscapes, monuments, and ruins which I passed through. Isolated Byzantine churches far from any village, or the crumbling Medieval castellated walls of the Acrocorinth, seemed to hint at another kind of Greek archaeology from that found in popular textbooks. Since then, so much has developed in our archaeological understanding of the whole span of Greek Prehistory and History, from the Palaeolithic to the Early Modern era, that it seemed to me timely to make a first attempt .it .1 synthesis of the key points both for the student and for the general reader fascinated by Greece, its past, its landscape, and its people. David Clarke, in his iconoclastic textbook for a more truly scientific "New Archaeology." Analytical Archaeology (1968), admitted candidly that inventing, and at the same time composing a guide to, a new-form of archaeology was rash, premature, but necessary. In humility, and with a nod to this book s reviewers, I feel in the same position regarding this first book, to my knowledge, which treats "The Archaeology of Greece"quite literally. Understandably, in the scope of 22 chapters, coverage of each phase can only paint the general picture. Period specialists might regret the inevitable superficiality, but hopefully not find erroneous oversimplification. However, my aim is to give the reader, within one volume, an understanding of the development of human society in Greece from the earliest human traces up till the early twentieth century ad. For the contemporary visitor to Greece, whether you are there for a beach-based holiday, or a cultural tour, or as a student, I would like to think that this volume can give you a basis for contextualizing your casual or detailed encounters with museums, Bronze Age palaces, Classical city walls or great intercity sanctuaries, Roman stadia, Byzantine churches, isolated Frankish towers, Ottoman mosques, and traditional villages, without forgetting those ubiquitous broken potsherds that you can find in the open fields or on the shore. The archaeology of Greece is an ever-expanding tree but with more limited roots (MacKendrick 1962, Snodgrass 1987, McDonald and Thomas 1990, Etienne and Etienne 1992, Schnapp 1993, Morris 1994, Fitton 1996, Shanks 1997, Etienne et al. 2000, Whitley 2001, Morris 2004). Its foundation is the investigation of Classical Greece, emanating from Renaissance and Enlightenment scholarship during the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries ad. But precocious beginnings can be dated to Roman times, when the new rulers of the Mediterranean toured the The Complete Archaeology of Greece: From Hunter-Gatherers to the 20th Century AD, First Edition. John Bintliff © 2012 John Bintliff Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. INTKODUC HON Aegean Sea to discover that Classical tradition of which they saw themselves as inheritors. An interest in Greek antiquity could link the intellectual Cicero, one of many members of the Roman elite who were educated in Greece, and those Roman former slaves who resettled Corinth a century after its Roman destruction in the second century BC and pillaged Classical cemeteries for items for the Italian antiquities trade. The Romanized Greek travel-writer Pausanias, in the second century ad, represents the ancient model for Baedekers Early Modern handbook of sites worthy to be visited by foreigners, focusing on major monuments and works of art, with selective historical titbits to bring them to life (Eisner 1992, Alcock el a/. 2001). Ancient Greece and Rome were of fundamental importance for European national identities and a sense of special providence in the time of European world hegemony in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries (Morris 2004), each civilization providing complementary origin myths for the assumed superior qualities of Western civilization and empires. Apart from the surviving ancient texts, objects of Greco-Roman culture were attributed the same qualities of exceptional sophistication, even as works of genius whenever there was clear artistic merit (not merely temples and sculptures, but vases with painted scenes, and coins). Greek archaeology was essentially synonymous with Classical Greece and with an approach linking ancient texts with Art History, mostly focused on large-scale works of public art or private art objects belonging to the elite of ancient society. It this led to an emphasis on museum cases filled with fine art, a parallel tradition was rapidly evolving, topographic fieldwork. For educated people whose imagination was stirred by ancient texts describing cities, sanctuaries, and battlefields, but who were unable to travel to Greece to see what was left of these places, a small army of "Travelers" sprang up to offer the fireside reader a taste of modern and ancient Greece (Tsigakou 1981, Angelomatis-Tsougarakis 1990, Eisner 1991). Beginning as early as the fifteenth century (for example Uuondelmonti), learned travelers from Western Europe voyaged in increasing numbers to Greece, especially in the nineteenth century, to compose travelogues frequently illustrated by maps and pictures. The primary aim was to identify major towns and shrines mentioned by Classical sources, record inscriptions, and describe (often with the aim of removing them to Western Europe), works of mobile and immobile art. If the main focus remained Classical and Hellenistic Greece, minor attention was given to Roman sites, and even occasionally to Medieval and later monuments. The scientific ethos in European scholarship, growing with increasing Enlightenment influence during the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries, led to such detailed Travelers' descriptions that only modern scholars with other aims appreciate such information. Lolling's meticulous guidebook, rejected by Baedeker, has only recently been published (1989). Today the incidental detail on Early Modern villages, and many ancient monuments now lost, make such books invaluable for long-term landscape history (Bennet et al. 2000, Bintliff2007). During the late nineteenth century, Greek archaeology's scope widened, with the discovery and then systematization of the tire-Classical or prehistoric eras, and a rising interest in the history and monuments of the post-Classical eras, which meant Medieval times (the Byzantine and occasionally the Crusader-Frankish periods). The polymath approach which nineteenth-century scholarship aspired to and which could still be accomplished within the limits of available information, reached its peak in Greece in the decades around 1900. For example, young scholars associated with Alan Wace could publish on prehistoric and Classical sites, Byzantine churches (Fletcher and Kitson 1895-1896), Medieval castles (Traquair 1905-1906), Crusader sculpture (Wace 1904-1905), ethnography (Wace and Thompson 1914), and even traditional Cycladic embroidery (Wace 1914). In Turkey, Heinrich Schlieniann's Troy project invok'ed the history of metallurgy, regional geomorphological developments, and local epidemiology (Asian andThumm 2001). This was also a critical era in the wider development of the Science of Archaeology, and as a result we see the inception of research excavations at key Aegean sites. Naturally Greco-Roman towns and sanctuaries are the primary focus, with a secondary emphasis on major centers of the newly-discovered Bronze Age civilizations of the Miiioan on Crete and the Mycenaean on the Southern Mainland. Yet the INTRODUCTION Figure 0.1 German excavations at the Heroon in Olympia, 1880. In the foreground are Richard Borrmann and Wilhelm Dörpfeld. ©bpk, Berlin. open-minded scholarship of this phase allowed the relatively unspectacular Neolithic tell (artificial settlement mound) cultures of Northern Greece to be discovered and excavated by Tsountas (1908), whilst another innovative Greek, Xanthoudides (1924), brought to light the tholos-tomb culture of Crete, an important Early Bronze Age predecessor to the Minoan palatial societies of the later Bronze Age periods. Most of the twentieth century is dominated by long-term excavation projects, usually the responsibility of one Foreign School of archaeologists. Bronze Age Mycenae (French 2002) has been investigated by German, British, and Greek expeditions, but more typically the Classical sanctuaries of Delphi (Bommelacr and Laroche 1991) and Olympia (Kyrieleis 2002: see Figure 0.1) remain associated with the French and German Schools. Classical Athens' central square (the Agora) (Camp 1986, 2006), and the city of Corinth (Williams and Bookidis 2003), have been essentially American excavations. These major projects have produced bookshelves of specialist monographs representing 100-150 years of ongoing research. One by-product of these excavation programs has been increasing attention to all the archaeological information they offer. At first they emphasized major architecture and the finer works of mobile art. But the vast quantities of everyday household objects revealed, encouraged study in their own right. Yet till recently domestic pottery and houses were relatively neglected in Greek historical archaeology. Likewise, a traditional emphasis on Classical Greece inhibited research into Roman, Medieval, and post-Medieval times (Mouliou 1994, 2009).The Bronze Age fared better, envisaged as a uniquely ''European" civilization underlying Classical Greece. Again, since Classical Greece in ancient texts was basically that of the cities of the Southern Mainland, archaeological research in Northern Greece, Crete, and the other Aegean islands was far more limited till the latter part of the twentieth century, with the exception of major Bronze Age centers, since it was recognized that in contrast the Minoan-Mycenaean (and the related Cycladic) civilizations of the Bronze Age occupied a wider zone of the Aegean. Despite this broadening of methods and timescales which Greek archaeology adopted between the later nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries, the special relationship to Classical texts and the History of Art led by the 1960s to an increasing "Great Divide" between developments in "mainstream" archaeology ("The New Archaeology": Greene 2002) and approaches in use in Aegean research (Renfrew 1980, Snodgrass 1985). In the succeeding generation, there has been considerable integration into mainstream practices, yet the picture at the start of the 2000s remains patchy. Greek national archaeology and that of the Foreign Schools show a mosaic of traditions of work and interpretation. In terms of the more science-focused "New Archaeology" agenda, still only a minority of excavations in the Aegean collect environmental data or "ecofacts" (animal bones, seeds, etc.), or submit human remains for anthropological study. The commonest remnant from the Greek past, the broken potsherd, provides a similar disparity: few field projects publish domestic wares as well as the decorated table and funerary wares. Physical and chemical scientific analysis of artifacts and sites remains a rare addition to traditional forms of excavation and object study. More radical developments are visible in the types of site being investigated. Classical rural farms and Roman villas are being excavated in increasing numbers, with Greek scholars leading the way.The excellent museum in the new Athens Airport showing the rural landscape revealed during its construction (Tsouni 2001) is symptomatic, and advertises the international quality of contemporary Greek museums. Greater engagement with the Greek and foreign public is occurring at a rapid scale, with the refurbishing of museums throughout the country and with major changes to school textbooks, in particular emphasizing local history and archaeology of all periods. An excellent model for "outreach" from a regional excavation project is offered by Kostas Kotsakis and his team on the Paliambela Project in Macedonia (Kotsakis 2007, cf. also Bintliff 2004a). Recent interactions between mainstream archaeology and that of Greece have been more positive. Since the 1980s a significant trend in archaeology has been Post-Processualism, which forefronts approaches where Classical archaeology has long been a world leader (Shanks 1997, Morris 2004).These include an emphasis on symbolic representations (essentially artistic creations), and seeing artifacts or architecture as "texts" relatable to the written sources, lifestyles, and mentalities of past peoples. Also from the late twentieth century new perspectives emerged with the rapid takeoff of archaeological surface survey. Aegean scholarship was always a pioneer in landscape archaeology, but the mapping of ancient sites took on new dimensions with the arrival of regional interdisciplinary survey projects. Pride of place goes to the 1960s Minnesota University extensive survey in Messenia (McDonald and Rapp 1972), followed elsewhere during the 1970s with the first intensive (field by field) surface surveys (Cherry 1983, Bintliff 1994).These latter transect blocks of countryside on foot, recording spreads of surface pottery, lithics, and building material, which mark the disturbed deposits of archaeological sites of all sizes, from a few graves, through farms and villages, to ancient cities of a square kilometer or more (Bindiff and Snodgrass 1988a, Bintliff 2000a, Akock and Cherry 2004). In the 1980s, mapping all visible "sites" was supplemented by "siteless" survey, in which the occurrence of pre-Modern artifacts, rather than "sites" (foci of concentrated human activity), is the primary focus. It appears that much of lowland Greece is "an artifact," since such signs of human activity are almost continuously encountered between settlements (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1988b, Bintliff and Howard 2004). Alongside mapping settlement patterns, period by period, other forms of human impact on the Greek landscape now- became apparent. Although some "off-site" debris represents eroded settlements, and the scattering of finds by weather and cultivation, the denser "carpets" probably record intense land use, especially through manuring (still a controversial theory, cf. Alcock et at. 1994 with Snodgrass 1994). Intensive survey from the 1970s onwards discovered that the Aegean countryside is as rich in surface sites of post-Roman as of Greco-Roman and Bronze Age date. Dealing with the surface ceramics of the post-Roman era, and exploring the rich archival resources for these 1500 years, has encouraged vigorous new research into Byzantine, Frankish-Crusader, Ottoman-Venetian, and Early Modern archaeology in Greece (Lock and Sanders 1996, Bintliff2000b, Davies and Davis 2007). Turning now to this volume's structure, the core is a period-based overview of material culture and society, preceded by an introduction to the Greek landscape. Where the evidence is very rich, I have split period treatment into a chapter focusing on more "functional" aspects such as demography, settlement patterns, and the forms of material culture, followed by a chapter dealing with "symbolic" or "representational" culture (the ways in which architecture and portable objects can reveal the social order or the mentalities of past societies). Summing-up each period, I have reflected on our knowledge of each era in two ways. Firstly through the approach of French historians called the Annates group, where we trace the interaction of processes operating at different timescales. Secondly, I offer a "reflexive" view, with my own reactions to our current "biopic" or scenario for each period. The French historians who focused their work around the journal Annates (1929—present, with various forms of title), most notably Fernand Braudel and Le Roy Ladurie, developed an insightful model of analysis for past societies (Bintliff 1991, Knapp 1992, Bintliff 2004b). They argued that History is made through a dialectic (mutual interaction) of forces.Any event is the product of short-term actions and factors (the world of eveuements) interacting with processes unfolding on a longer timescale, the medium term of several generations or centuries (the moyerine duret), but also with processes at a far longer timescale (the tongue duree).The real historical outcomes are unpredictable, but through seeking to isolate both the key elements at each layer of parallel time, and their mutual interplay, the historian can come closer to comprehending why the past developed the way it appears to have done.This has been termed "postdic-tiorf'by the historian of science Stephen Jay Gould, as opposed to "prediction" (Gould 1989, cf. Bintliff 1999). Significantly, the Annates historians see historical processes as combining the actions and beliefs of communities and of individuals, emphasizing that History was made not just by actions and factors of production such as technology or economy, but also by ideas, by symbolic culture and ways of seeing the world {mentaliies). The brief injection of my own reflexive response to our current knowledge of each period of Greek archaeology, which rounds off each chapter or chapter-pair, has been encouraged by that aspect of "Post-Processual" archaeological theory which reminds us of the dialectic in which archaeologists and historians are always engaged when they encounter past societies. We cannot help but reflect on the ways a past world differs or compares to our own, and must use our embedded knowledge of the world today to comprehend past worlds. On the other hand, 1 am far from being a relativist. Our interpretative concepts are certainly influenced by our own lives, but we also have a wealth of anthropology and history to broaden our interpretative models of the past beyond our own meager physical experience, and when you are doing Archaeology and History honestly and attentively, the past will constantly surprise you with evidence you were not prepared for and may have difficulty in making sense of. This volume involved very wide-ranging reading, and inevitably the time required for its authoring and production processes has meant that quite a few important new books and papers could not be studied and incorporated into the text before you. In addition INTRODUCTION there is much more detail that I gathered together which had to be left out due to constraints on this book's length. Happily the publishers Wiley-Blackwell have set up an on-line resource for purchasers of this volume, in which I have been able not only to add an extensive set of additional notes to all the chapters, but also to update the book on some key recent publications. Color Plate 0.1 has been provided in order to orient the reader to the main provinces of Greece and the key modern and ancient centers, as well as the physical geography of the country. Finally to help the reader navigate through the many periods of time which a complete Archaeology of Greece should encompass, there follows a basic time-chart. General Time Chart for the Archaeology of Greece These ranges are generalized approximations and at least from the Neolithic onwards different provinces of Greece can vary in detail from these dates. Additionally some periods still remain under controversy over their timespans, especially in the Middle and Late Bronze Age. PALAEOLITHIC: ca. 300,000-400,000 years before present (BP) to ca. 9000 BC EPIPALAEOLITHIC/MESOLITHIC:ca. 9000 BC to ca. 7000 BC NEOLITHIC: ca. 7000 BC to ca. 3500/3200 BC EARLY BRONZE AGE: ca. 3500/3200 BC to ca. 2100/1900 BC MIDDLE BRONZE AGE: ca. 2100/1900 BC to ca. 1700 BC LATE BRONZE ACE: ca. HOOBCtoca. 1200/1100 BC "DARK AGE"/EARLY IRON AGE: ca. 1200/ !W0 BCtoca. 800/700 BC ARCHAIC ERA: ca. 700 BC to ca. 500 BC CLASSICAL ERA:ca. 500 BC BC to 323 BC EARLY HELLENISTIC PERIOD: 323 BC to ca. 200 BC LATE HELLENISTIC TO EARLY ROMAN ERA: ca. 200 BC toca. 200 AD MIDDLE TO LATE ROMAN PERIOD: ca. 200 AD to ca. 650 AD "DARK AGE" / EARLY BYZANTINE ERA: ca. 650 AD to 842 AD MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD: 842 AD to 1204 AD LATE BYZANTINE/FRANKISH-CRUSADER ERA: 1204 AD to ca. 1400AD OTTOMAN PERIOD: ca. 1400 AD to 1830 AD EARLY MODERN ERA: 1830 AD to 1950 AD References Alcock, S. E.,J. F. Cherry, and J. L. Davis (1994). "Intensive survey, agricultural practice and the classical landscape of Greece." 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"The history of the Greek countryside: As the wave breaks, prospects for future research." In P. N. Doukellis and L. CI. Mendoni (eds.). Structures mrales et socictes antiques. Paris: Les Belles Lectres, 7-15. BintliffJ. L. (1999). "Structure, contingency, narrative and timelessness." In J. L. Bintliff (ed.), Structure mid Contingency in the Evolution of Life, Human Evolution and Human History. London: Cassell, 132-148. BintliffJ. (2000a)."Beyond dots on the map:The future of artefact survey in Greece." In J. Bintliff, M. Kuna, and N.Vendova (eds.). The Future of Archaeological Field Survey in Europe. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 3-20. BintlifFJ. (2000b)."Reconstructing the Byzantine countryside: New approaches from landscape archaeology." In INI" RODUCTION K. Blelke et