Detecting the environmental impact of the Baltic Crusades on a late-medieval
(13the15th century) frontier landscape: palynological analysis from Malbork
Castle and hinterland, Northern Poland
Alex Brown*, Aleks Pluskowski
Department of Archaeology, School of Human and Environmental Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 227, Reading, RG6 6AB, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 25 January 2011
Received in revised form
14 April 2011
Accepted 15 April 2011
Keywords:
Paleoecology
Human impact
Agricultural intensiﬁcation
Crusades
Poland
Palynology
a b s t r a c t
Palaeoecological analysis of peat deposits from a small bog, combined with pollen analysis of sediments
inﬁlling the moat of the nearby Teutonic Order castle at Malbork, have been used to examine the
ecological impact of the Crusades on the late-medieval landscape of Northern Poland. Studies of the
environmental impact of the Crusades have been almost exclusively informed by written sources; this
study is the ﬁrst of its type to directly investigate the environmental context of Crusading as a force of
ecological transformation on the late-medieval Baltic landscape. The pollen evidence from Malbork
Castle and its hinterland demonstrate that the 12th/13the15th centuries coincide with a marked
transformation in vegetation and land-use, characterized by clearance of broadleaved woodland and
subsequent agricultural intensiﬁcation, particularly during the 14th/15th centuries. These changes are
ascribed to landscape transformations associated with the Teutonic Order’s control of the landscape from
the mid-13th century. Human activity identiﬁed in the pollen record prior to this is argued to reﬂect the
activities of Pomeranian settlers in the area. This paper also discusses the broader palaeoecological
evidence for medieval landscape change across Northern Poland.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
In the early-13th century, the Teutonic Order and its allies
directed a series of military campaigns framed as crusades against
the Prussian tribes in the SoutheEastern Baltic region, with the aim
of protecting Christian converts in the region. The crusades were
initially launched from Polish territory in the Kulmerland (Ziemi
Che1minskie), and then proceeded north down the Vistula towards
the Baltic coast and subsequently eastwards. The conquest of
Prussian tribal lands is documented to have lasted from 1235e1287
(Urban, 2003). The Order ultimately defeated its pagan and Christian
enemies and established its own state in the region, which
expanded in 1309 with the annexation of Gdansk (then Danzig) and
Pomeralia. The conquest was followed by colonization and the
development of networks of towns and settlements, all secured
with heavily fortiﬁed castles (Urban, 1980; Biskup et al., 2009).
Population increased within the Teutonic State following the
crusades, particularly with the construction of towns. Estimates
suggest that by the start of the 14th century the population of the
Order’s State stood at around 220,000, comprising a mixture of
Prussian, Slavic and German ethnicities (Biskup, 2002); the densest
populations clustered developed around the towns and castles.
Construction of the castle at Marienburg (today Malbork in
northern Poland; Fig. 1) began in 1280, situated on an outcrop of
high ground overlooking the River Nogat in a frontier region
between Pomeralia and Prussian Pomesania. In 1309, the Order
relocated its headquarters from Venice to this site, which prompted
the expansion of the castle over the course of the 14th century into
one of the largest fortiﬁed structures in the world. The landscape
around Malbork was substantially re-organised to meet the
requirements of the castle, not only the headquarters for the
Order’s state in Prussia, but also the centre of an administrative
region known as a commandery, stretching from the Baltic coast to
the southernmost edge of the forest of Sztum (Fig. 1). By the mid-
14th century the castle complex became a key hub of trade and
communication for the Order’s state, as well as a point of departure
for crusading expeditions against pagan Lithuania.
The ecological impact of castles, such as Malbork, have often only
been referred to indirectly from a predominantly economic perspective
in discussions of provisioning, hunting, water management,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ44 (0) 118 378 7877.
E-mail address: a.d.brown@reading.ac.uk (A. Brown).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Archaeological Science
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas
0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.04.010
Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1957e1966
construction materials and fuel. These discussions have almost
exclusively been informed by written sources, which predominantly
date from the end of the 14th century (e.g. Joczcwiak and Trupinda,
2007; Che˛c, 2007). These sources, often in the form of inventories,
demonstrate the diversity and intensity of natural resource exploitation,
particularly the importance of ﬁsh, animal and agriculture
produce(Joachim,1973).Morerecently,a rangeof environmentaldata
recovered from archaeological contexts has been investigated to
assess the transformation of the landscape resulting from the
dramatic cultural changes following the Crusades of the Teutonic
Order and the unfolding of a network of castles, towns and colonizing
settlementswithinitsstate.From2007e2009,aseriesofcollaborative
projects involved the analysis of faunal assemblages predominantly
recovered from the outer bailey or przedzamcze of this site (Maltby
et al., 2009; Pluskowski et al., 2010). In 2008, this collaboration was
extended to include palaeobotanical analysis of cores obtained from
the NortheEastern castle moat, the ﬁshpond north of the castle and
from peat deposits to the south (Fig.1). These, and other pilot studies
(e.g. Valk et al., 2009) suggest that the period of crusading and colonization
coincides with a marked intensiﬁcation in the exploitation of
plant and animal resources, and associated landscape changes in the
Eastern Baltic.
This paper demonstrates the contribution that palaeoecological
analytical techniques can make to the study of the ecological
impact of the Crusades in the SoutheEastern Baltic, using as an
example Malbork Castle and its hinterland in northern Poland.
Particular attention is paid to the palaeoecological evidence
for landscape transformation (e.g. woodland clearance) and
Fig. 1. Map showing: a location of that part of Poland (ﬁlled in rectangle) shown in b; b location of earlier pollen studies (numbered sites named in text) and towns mentioned in
text; c detailed map of the landscape of Malbork Castle and location of off-site pollen sequence (POL-MAL-08-3); d plan of Malbork Castle and location of sequence POL-MAL-08-1.
Pollen studies listed in Fig. 1b: 1. Wolin Island (Lata1owa, 1992, 1999); 2. S1owinski B1ota (Lamentowicz et al., 2009); 3. Darzlubie Forest (Lata1owa, 1982); 4. Lake Maly Suszek; 5.
Suszek; 6. Kesowo (Berglund et al., 1990; Miotk-Szpiganowicz, 1992); 7. Tuchola (Lamentowicz et al., 2008); 9. K1adkowe Bagno (Kupryjanowicz, 2004); 10e11. Site I and II,
Bia1owie_za Forest (Mitchell and Cole, 1998); 12. Lake Wigry (Kupryjanowicz, 2007); 13. Lake Mi1kowski (Madeja et al., 2010).
A. Brown, A. Pluskowski / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1957e19661958
agricultural intensiﬁcation. By taking a long-term perspective it
will be possible to assess the extent to which local environments in
the Baltic were transformed from the 13the15th centuries as
a result of archaeologically and historically documented colonization.
To what extent does the crusading movement represent
a force of ecological transformation at the frontiers of medieval
Christian Europe?
2. History and archaeology of Malbork Castle and hinterland
The Lower Vistula and its tributary the Nogat represented
a frontier zone between Slavic Pomeralia (eastern Pomerania) and
Prussian Pomesania, which had been settled by the Balts between
the 6the10th centuries AD. The Nogat itself did not mark this
boundary as Pomeranian settlements, strongholds and ceramics are
noted east of the tributary in the 11the12th century (including at
Malbork), and Slavic place names are recorded around Sztum. In
1236 the area is recorded as a parish linked to the Premonstratensian
monastery in Wroc1aw, granted by the Dukes of Pomerania
(Powierski, 1965a). In the 13th century this was a landscape of
predominantly Slavic settlement under the political inﬂuence of
Pomerania and has been mapped by Haftka (1987), with Prussian
settlement largely present on the eastern side of the belt of
woodland stretching from Kwidzyn to Lake Dru_zno. The region was
a target for missionary activity launched from sites such as Zantyr,
which had been given to the ﬁrst Bishop of Prussia by the Pomeranian
Dukes. Prussian expansion resulted in raids on Pomeranian
strongholds and shortly after the Teutonic Order arrived, obtained
Zantyr around 1236 and established itself at Elbla˛g the following
year. After the war with Duke Sventopelk of Pomerania, the political
situation stabilised in the early 1250s and the Order established the
commandery (an administrative region) of Zantyr (Powierski,
1965b). In 1279, the castle at Zantyr was relocated down the
Nogat to the site of Malbork, which became the centre of the new
commandery of Marienburg. Here, the castle was constructed in
three phases (Joczcwiak and Trupinda, 2007, 53e71). The earliest,
high castle was established as a square, conventual castle or fortiﬁed
convent by 1309. In this year the Order annexed Gdansk and
Pomeralia, shifting the frontier of their territory westwards and
setting up Malbork as the headquarters of their new Prussian state.
This prompted a programme of expansion which lasted into the
15th century. From 1310e1350 an enclosed set of buildings was
constructed north of the high castle and came to be referred to as
the middle castle, whilst the high castle was rebuilt. Further north,
an outer bailey was constructed (defensive wall and enclosed area
surrounding the high and middle castle) which included industrial
buildings, stables and barns. From the second quarter of the 14th
century, an outer wall (the third defensive wall) was built in stages
to enclose all three areas of the castle complex. A bridge was also
constructed across the Nogat. In 1411e1414, embankments were
constructed beyond the outer wall and between 1417 and 1448 new
defensive structures were installed in the eastern and southern side
of the castle complex, encompassing by then an area of around
21 ha. This was the last phase of castle building and all subsequent
modiﬁcations have involved reﬁning the existing structure. The
castle remained the property of the Order until it was sold to
the Polish Crown in 1457 and from the late-19th century it was the
object of restoration and conservation which continues into the
present day. In 1997 the castle was designated a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
The landscape around Malbork was re-organised to meet the
requirements of the castle, not only the headquarters for the
Order’s state in Prussia, but also the centre of a commandery
stretching from the Baltic coast to the southernmost edge of the
Forest of Sztum (Fig. 1). The landscape around Malbork was recolonised
and developed following the establishment of the
commandery. A town grew up around the castle by the mid-14th
century and the whole complex became a key hub of trade and
communication for the Order’s state, as well as a point of departure
for crusading expeditions against pagan Lithuania. There is no
evidence of continuity between the pre- and post-crusade settlement
pattern in the landscape south of Malbork (Haftka, 1987),
although the integrity of the Forest of Sztum was respected, indicating
careful woodland management by the Order. Hydrological
modiﬁcations included the construction of a canal, linking Lake
Da˛brówka (in turn fed by a number of smaller lakes) to the moat
complex at Malbork, 12 km northwest. The canal (Marienburger
Mühlgraben ‘Marienburg mill race’), which is still visible today, is
a major hydrological feature in the landscape, and was constructed
as a channel for conduiting water through several mills located
along its length (D1ugoke˛cki et al., 2004: 17).
The castle at Malbork has been extensively studied from
multiple perspectives, particularly with regards to the conservation
and restoration of its architecture. The castle has an impressive
archive of written sources, in part reﬂecting its role as the chancellery
of the Order’s state and the seat of the Grand Master. Its
impact on the environment, however, has often only been referred
to indirectly from a predominantly economic perspective in
discussions of provisioning, hunting, water management,
construction materials and fuel. These discussions have been
almost exclusively informed by written sources, which predominantly
date from the later period of the castle, i.e. the end of the
14th century (Joczcwiak and Trupinda, 2007; Che˛c, 2007; Che˛c and
Gancewski, 2009).
3. Study area
The study area extends from Malbork Castle southwards to the
northern fringes of the Forest of Sztum (Fig. 1). Malbork Castle
(540202300 N, 190104000 E) is located on the SoutheEastern bank of
the River Nogat, a tributary of the Vistula in the Pomeranian Voivodeship
of north-central Poland. It is located on the edge of the
Vistula Delta Fens which were drained between the 16th and 19th
centuries, signiﬁcantly altering the landscape between Malbork
and the Baltic coast (Kowalik, 2008). Today, the landscape is characterised
by a relatively low relief (0e50 m a.s.l), largely composed
of intensively cultivated arable land, grasslands and some woodland
dominated by Pinus sylvestris. The local geology is dominated
by late Cretaceous rocks of the Maastrichtian stage (65e70 million
years) overlain by brown lessivé and alluvial soils (Wasylikowa,
2004). The climate of northern Poland lies at the transition
between oceanic and continental climates, with mean January and
July temperatures of À3 to À5 C and 17 to 18.5 C respectively.
Mean annual precipitation is between 500 and 700 mm.
4. Pollen sample sites
Samples for pollen analysis were taken from two locations to
enable comparison of on- and off-site (hinterland) palaeoenvironmental
data (Fig. 1). The ﬁrst core (sequence POL-MAL-08-
1; Fig. 1c) was taken along a coring transect from the eastern
section of the outer moat adjacent to the inner curtain wall of
Malbork Castle where sediments reached a maximum depth of
1.5 m. The outer moat originally encircled the castle to the north,
east and south, with the western side facing the river Nogat. Today,
the inner moat survives only along the eastern and northern inner
curtain wall.
The second core (sequence POL-MAL-08-3; Fig. 1d) was taken
from a small ﬁlled basin (54000 N,19020 E), 3 km south of Malbork
Castle; this was the closest wetland deposit identiﬁed in proximity
A. Brown, A. Pluskowski / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1957e1966 1959
to the castle. The basin, now in-ﬁlled and covered in scrubby
vegetation, is 40 m a.s.l, and is approximately 100 m long by 100 m
wide. A coring transect across the basin identiﬁed a complex
sequence of minerogenic and peat deposits to a depth of over
400 cm (see section 6.1 below). The minerogenic deposits at the
base of the sequence were not bottomed as sampling was focused
on retrieving late Holocene organic deposits; radiocarbon dating
suggests the basal minerogenic deposits are of late-glacial or early
Holocene date (Table 1). The sediments were sampled at the point
of maximum thickness of peat (160e265 cm depth), including the
underlying minerogenic sediments to a depth of 400 cm.
5. Materials and methods
A coring transect was taken across the basin to ﬁnd the greatest
depth of sediments. Half-metre cores were taken using a 10 cm
diameter Russian corer. Duplicate parallel cores were taken to give
an overlap between core segments. Cores were wrapped in cling
ﬁlm and foil, placed in plastic guttering and refrigerated prior to
sampling. Samples for pollen analysis ca. 1 cm3
in volume were
taken from sequence POL-MAL-08-1 (Fig. 3) at 4 cm intervals and at
1e2 cm intervals from sequence POL-MAL-08-3 (Fig. 4). Sampling
from POL-MAL-08-1 focused on the organic rich silt layers, rather
than intervening medium sands, where pollen was likely to be
better preserved. From sequence POL-MAL-08-3, samples were
taken between 50 and 200 cm, focussing on sediments dating from
the Iron Age to post medieval periods (see section 6.1 and 6.2). Two
Lycopodium tablets were added to enable calculation of pollen
concentrations. Samples were prepared following standard
laboratory techniques (Moore et al., 1991) and mounted in glycerol
jelly stained with safranin. A minimum of 500 pollen of terrestrial
species were counted for each level. Pollen percentages are calculated
based on terrestrial plants. Ferns spores, aquatics and
Sphagnum are calculated as a percentage of terrestrial pollen plus
the sum of the component taxa within the respective category.
Identiﬁcation of cereal pollen followed the criteria of Andersen
(1979). Indeterminable grains were recorded according to
Cushing (1967). The pollen diagram was produced using Psimpoll
version 4.10 (Bennett, 2002). Pollen zonation was achieved in
Psimpoll based upon a comparison of binary splitting by sum of
squares, optimal splitting by sum of squares and constrained cluster
analysis (CONISS). Microscopic charcoal was quantiﬁed using the
point count method of Clark (1982), but is not plotted for core POLMAL-08-3
as only very occasional fragments were recorded.
Seven 14
C AMS dates, six on peat from core POL-MAL-08-3 and
one on charcoal from core POL-MAL-08-1, were obtained, two from
Waikato, New Zealand and ﬁve from SUERC, UK (Table 1). An eighth
date, from the base of sequence POL-MAL-08-1 (moat) failed due to
insufﬁcient carbon. The 14
C dates were calibrated using the
program OxCal (ver. 3.10; Bronk-Ramsey, 2004) and the calibration
curve of Reimer et al. (2004).
6. Results
6.1. Sediments
Ten lithological units were distinguished in core POL-MAL-08-1.
The sediments principally comprise light brown medium sand
Table 1
AMS radiocarbon dates, sequence PAL-MAL-08-1 and POL-MAL-08-3.
Lab No. a
Depth (cm) Age (B.P) d13
C (%) Age range b
(cal BP) Age range b
(cal AD/BC)
Sequence POL-MAL-08-1 (Malbork Castle moat)
GU-23112 71.5e72 430 Æ 30 À25.4 540e430 AD 1410e1520 (88.2%)
360e330 AD 1590e1620 (7.2)
Sequence POL-MAL-08-3 (off-site core)
GU-20432 152e153 245 Æ 30 À27.7 430e380 AD 1520e1570 (9.1%)
320e260 AD 1630e1690 (53.9%)
190e140 AD 1760e1810 (26%)
20 Æ 10 AD 1930e1960 (6.5%)
GU-20433 160e161 515 Æ 30 À28.3 630e600 AD 1320e1350 (7.6%)
560e500 AD 1390e1450 (87.8%)
Wk-24853 163e165 865 Æ 30 À28.5 910e860 AD 1040e1090 (13.6%)
830e690 AD 1120e1260 (81.8%)
GU-20434 175e176 1115 Æ 30 À27.6 1090e930 AD 860e1020
GU-20435 187e188 1380 Æ 30 À27.7 1345e1265 AD 605e685
Wk-24854 260e262 9313 Æ 44 À28.7 10660e10370 8710e8420 BC (93.9%)
10320e10200 8370e8350 BC (1.5%)
a
Material dated: peat, apart from GU-23112 (wood bark).
b
2s range.
Fig. 2. Age-depth relationship of sequence POL-MAL-08-3.
A. Brown, A. Pluskowski / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1957e19661960
layers (150e117, 88e83, 74.5e73.5 and 71e58 cm) with sharp
boundaries to dark brown organic rich silts (117e88, 83e74.5,
73.5e71, and 58e50 cm), containing occasional ﬂecks of charcoal
and red brick, overlain by a dark brown compact silt (50e25 cm)
and topsoil constituting the uppermost 25 cm.
Eleven lithological units were distinguished in core POL-MAL-
08-3. The basal sediments comprised blue sandy loam
(400e365 cm), silty loam (365e291 cm) and yellow-brown organic
silts (291e265 cm). Above this are wood peat layers (265e192.5,
192e189 and 188e160 cm) and interleaved clayey silt bands
(192.5e192 and 189e188 cm), overlain by organic silty clay
(160e146 cm) and clay sands (146e50 cm). The top 50 cm of
sediment are disturbed, comprising modern refuse mixed with
topsoil.
6.2. Chronology
6.2.1. Malbork Castle moat
Although the sample for radiocarbon dating from the basal silt
layer failed (117 cm, sequence POL-MAL-08-1), the date for moat
construction is well established historically to ca. 1320e1340
(Joczcwiak and Trupinda, 2007) The AMS date 430 Æ 35 BP (GU-
23112, cal AD 1410e1520, 88.2%; cal AD 1590e1620, 7.2%), taken at
71.5e72.5 cm from the base of the third of four organic silt bands
Fig. 3. Pollen percentage diagram, sequence POL-MAL-08-1 (Malbork Castle moat). The black curve represents the percentage of the taxon; the hollow curve shows values
exaggerated Â 10.
Fig. 4. Pollen percentage diagram, sequence POL-MAL-08-3 (off-site proﬁle). The black curve represents the percentage of the taxon; the hollow curve shows values
exaggerated Â 10.
A. Brown, A. Pluskowski / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1957e1966 1961
(Table 1), suggests the basal 75 cm of sediment most probably
accumulated from the early/mid-14th to early 16th century. There
is no evidence for cutting or cleaning of the moat during this time. A
fourth silt band (50e50 cm) has not been dated, but is presumably
of 15the17th century date.
6.2.2. Malbork hinterland sequence (POL-MAL-08-3)
The AMS dates from sequence POL-MAL-08-3 cover a considerable
period of time from 8710 cal BC to cal AD 1960 (Fig. 2; Table 1).
Although this paper is primarily concerned with the vegetation
history of the late 1st and 2nd millennia AD, the 14
C dates at
262e260 cm (9313 Æ 44 BP; 8710e8350 cal BC) and 189e188 cm
(1380 Æ 30 BP; cal AD 605e685) would suggest that there is
a signiﬁcant hiatus in the sequence somewhere between 189 and
262 cm, or that the basal 14
C date relates to the incorporation of
organic material into the peat from an early Holocene context. The
upper peat (188e160 cm) accumulated over a period of as little as
635 years between cal AD 605e1450. Peat accumulates at a relatively
uniform average rate between 188 and 165 cm (2.2e2.3 mm/
yr), but at a much slower average rate between 165 and 160 cm
(8.8 mm/yr), most probably a result of compaction from overlying
minerogenic sediments (Fig. 2). The 14
C date 245 Æ 30 BP (cal AD
1520e1960) suggest the organic silty clay sealing the peat accumulated
from the 15th century, with the overlying 1.5 m of sediment
most likely deposited since the 19th century.
6.3. Pollen analysis, Malbork Castle moat (sequence POL-MAL-08-
1; Fig. 3)
The pollen record from the inner moat at Malbork castle focused
on the organic rich silt layers. These are considered to reﬂect the
ponding of ﬁne sediments within a low energy environment,
separated by sand bands deposited under higher energy environments,
perhaps related to periodic ﬂushing of the moat.
Pollen within the organic rich silts is characterized by high nonarboreal
pollen (NAP) values, particularly Poaceae, and low arboreal
pollen (AP) values. Arboreal pollen is represented primarily by
Pinus sylvestris, which constitutes the main component of the
remaining woodland within a predominantly open, cultivated
landscape, with stands of Alnus glutinosa, Salix and Betula most
probably growing on wetter soils with marshy areas and along the
banks of the river Nogat. Signiﬁcantly, high values for cereal-type
pollen occur within the moat sediments (Secale, Avena-Triticum
group, Hordeum group and occasional grains of Fagopyrum esculentum)
(Fig. 3), in addition to a range of herbaceous taxa (Centaurea
cyanus, Centaurea nigra, Ranunculus, Rumex acetosa, Plantago lanceolata,
Lactuceae, Plantago lanceolata, Aster-type). Microscopic
charcoal is present through the sequence in moderate values.
6.4. Pollen analysis, Malbork Castle hinterland (sequence POL-MAL-
08-3; Figs. 4 and 5)
6.4.1. Zone M1 (199e191.5 cm). ca. 5the6th century AD
High arboreal pollen (AP) values (Quercus, Corylus avellana-type,
Betula and Pinus sylvestris) and low non-arboreal pollen (NAP)
values indicate a heavily woodland landscape. Small percentages of
Poaceae, Secale, Plantago lanceolata, Ranunculus-type and Centaurea
cyanus strongly imply some cereal cultivation in the vicinity,
perhaps within small clearings in the surrounding woodland.
6.4.2. Zone M2 (191.5e184.5 cm). 6the7th century AD
This zone is marked by an increase in Carpinus, peaking 1 cm
after the 14
C date 1380 Æ 30 BP (cal AD 605e685), but declining
sharply by 184 cm. Corylus avellana-type, Betula and Quercus
decrease, whilst values for Alnus glutinosa, Tilia and Ulmus increase
towards the top of the zone. NAP values decrease further, although
occasional pollen grains of Secale imply continued, small-scale,
agriculture in the vicinity.
There is a broadly synchronous increase in the pollen concentrations
of all plant taxa (Fig. 5) that most probably reﬂect a lower
peat accumulation rate at 184e188 cm. The concentration and
percentage curves for arboreal taxa are broadly synchronous, apart
from Betula, Corylus avellana-type and Quercus, whose percentage
frequencies decrease markedly relative to concentration, most
probably in response to an increase in Carpinus as a component of
the surrounding vegetation.
6.4.3. Zone M3 (184.5e177 cm). 8the10th century AD
The zone is characterised by reduction in percentages and
concentrations for Carpinus and an increase in Betula and Corylus
Fig. 5. Pollen concentration diagram, sequence POL-MAL-08-3 (off-site proﬁle).
A. Brown, A. Pluskowski / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1957e19661962
avellana-type (Figs. 4 and 5). Pinus sylvestris and Quercus are
stabilized around 10%, whilst Tilia values ﬂuctuate and Ulmus
decreases from ca. 180 cm. Alnus glutinosa decreases through the
zone. NAP values remain low (ca. 5%).
6.4.4. Zone M4 (177e161.5 cm). 9the14th century AD
Low NAP values and high AP values (Betula, Carpinus, Quercus
and Pinus sylvestris) at the base of the zone suggest a predominantly
wooded environment. However, AP values decline through the
zone (98e68% AP), gradually at ﬁrst from 175 cm, 14
C dated
1115 Æ 30 BP (cal AD 800e1020), then more steadily from 166 cm,
just before the level 14
C dated to 865 Æ 30 BP (cal AD 1040e1260).
The decline in AP is most pronounced in Carpinus, Corylus avellanatype
and Betula; values for Pinus sylvestris and Quercus remain
relatively stable. NAP increases correspondingly, in many case only
one or two grains of individual taxa, but particularly Poaceae from
175 cm and cereal pollen (Secale, Avena-Triticum and Hordeumtype)
from 162 cm. The increase in the latter taxa is equidistant
between the levels 14
C dated to 865 Æ 30 BP (cal AD 1040e1260)
and 515 Æ 30 BP (cal AD 1320e1450). Pollen concentrations of all
plant taxa increase from 164 cm (Fig. 5), reﬂecting a lower peat
accumulation rate apparent also in the time-depth curve (Fig. 2).
6.4.5. Zone M5 (161.5e146 cm). 14th-early 19th century AD
The base of the zone, 14
C dated 515 Æ 30 BP (cal AD 1320e1450)
is characterised by a reduction in arboreal pollen percentages and
concentrations of all deciduous species and a signiﬁcant increase in
Pinus sylvestris (Figs. 4 and 5). The increase in Pinus sylvestris
reﬂects the ability of this species to expand in disturbed habitats,
representing the most common component of woodland stands in
Poland since the 15th century (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa et al., 2004).
The reduction in AP of deciduous species and increasing NAP
percentage and concentration values (Poaceae, Plantago lanceolata,
Centaurea cyanus, Sinapis, Chenopodiaceae, Caryophyllaceae),
including cereal-type pollen, particularly Secale, indicates largescale
clearance of the surrounding deciduous woodland and an
expansion in arable, grazed and disturbed habitats. An expansion in
grazed land is further suggested by an increase in Erica sp. from
162 cm. Secale pollen values reach their peak at the level 14
C dated
to 245 Æ 30 BP (cal A.D. 1520e1960).
7. Discussion
7.1. The environment of Malbork castle and its hinterland
The pollen evidence from both on- (POL-MAL-08-1) and off-site
(POL-MAL-08-3) cores provides important data for reconstructing
the landscape context, and ecological impact of, the Teutonic Order
castle at Malbork. The core from the outer moat at Malbork
provides a picture of the landscape within the immediate
surroundings of the castle over a relatively deﬁned time period
(14the16th century). The off-site hinterland sequence provides an
important context for the pollen data from the moat, providing
a picture of vegetation change at a broader spatial and temporal
scale (ca. 5the19th centuries). Pollen data from sequence POLMAL-08-3
demonstrates that the landscape surrounding the
sampling site was heavily wooded in the late Iron Age, dominated
in zone M1 (ca. 4the6th centuries AD) by Quercus and Corylus
avellana-type on drier soils with Alnus glutinosa most probably
growing on waterlogged soils within the wetland. Because of their
wide ecological preferences, Betula is equally likely to have formed
a component of the woodland canopy on both dry and waterlogged
soils.
Evidence for human impact is apparent during this time in the
form of occasional cereal pollen grains of Secale, associated with
small increases in pollen of Poaceae, Rumex acetosa-type, Astertype
and Plantago lanceolata, suggesting some mixed pastoralarable
land-use in the vicinity. Interestingly, the curves for Pinus
sylvestris and Betula in zone M1 show an inverse relationship. Pinus
sylvestris increases during periods of anthropogenic activity, most
probably reﬂecting the ability of this species to expand in disturbed
habitats, followed by increases in Betula, perhaps reﬂecting periods
of deciduous woodland regeneration that out-competed Pinus;
Betula is often one of the ﬁrst trees to recolonize cleared areas of
woodland (Falinski, 1997).
Carpinus forms the dominant component of the local woodland
canopy from the ca. 6th century AD, reaching its greatest Holocene
distribution at this time across northern and western Poland
(Ralska-Jasiewiczowa et al., 2004; Fig. 36). The expansion of Carpinus
is argued to reﬂect a period of general forest regeneration
following the migration period (Makohonienko, 2004). Carpinus
remains an important woodland component in sequence POLMAL-08-3,
declining gradually, along with Betula and Corylus
avellana-type type from ca. AD 1000. A gradual decline in Carpinus
is likewise visible in pollen sequences across Poland from ca.
1000e100 BP (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa et al., 2004).
There is a gradual decline in arboreal pollen from the mid-11th
century, accompanied by increasing herbaceous pollen frequencies
and the start of a continuous cereal pollen curve, perhaps reﬂecting
the activities of archaeologically-attested Pomeranian settlers
within the surrounding landscape (Powierski, 1965a,b). However,
evidence for human activity in the pollen record is comparatively
limited in scale until the late 12th/13th century, broadly contemporary
with the Crusades, when there is a signiﬁcant increase in
cereal pollen, particularly rye, and other anthropogenic indicators
characteristic of arable and grazed land. The occurrence and
increase in Centaurea cyanus pollen, in particular, is argued to
strongly reﬂect the presence of permanent ﬁeld systems (Vuorela,
1986). Agricultural intensiﬁcation is accompanied by the development
of heathland in the 14th/15th centuries, typically maintained
through grazing activity. There is little evidence to suggest that ﬁre
formed a component of land-use practises; microscopic charcoal
was only very occasionally recorded through core POL-MAL-08-3.
Despite the evidence for woodland clearance, there is a signiﬁcant
increase in Pinus sylvestris, forming the primary component of
Polish woodlands from the 14th/15th century. This reﬂects the
ability of pine as a pioneer tree to expand within disturbed habitats,
and in the last 200 years through sivicultural practises, as the
primary planted tree in Poland (Lata1owa, 2004).
The pollen evidence from the inner moat at Malbork (POL-MAL-
08-1; Fig. 3) suggests an environment similar to that apparent from
equivalent dated deposits from sequence POL-MAL-08-3 (Fig. 4).
However, the comparatively low levels of arboreal pollen, although
similarly dominated by Pinus sylvestris, suggest woodland had been
largely cleared from the landscape immediately surrounding the
castle. Pollen grains of the full range of cereals occur, in addition to
pollen taxa strongly associated with cultivation (Centaurea cyanus,
Centaurea nigra) and pastureland (Ranunculus, Rumex acetosa,
Plantago lanceolata, Lactuceae, Plantago lanceolata, Aster-type),
though these taxa can also occur in waste ground. Although the
pollen assemblage suggests the nearby presence of arable ﬁelds,
cereal pollen and other plant taxa indicative of cultivated and
grazed ground, may equally derive from agricultural waste deposited
into the moat. Likewise, other herbaceous pollen could derive
from discarded food waste, including cultivated species of Apiaceae
(c.f. Coriandrum sativum, Pastinaca sativa, Anethum graveolens) and
Sinapis-type (c.f. Sinapis alba, S. nigra). Microscopic charcoal is
recorded in consistently high levels, but is also likely to be derived
from a variety of contexts relating to activity both within and in the
immediate landscape surrounding the castle.
A. Brown, A. Pluskowski / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1957e1966 1963
The region south of the castle, surrounding the northernmost
stretches of the Forest of Sztum, sees a general discontinuation of
the Iron Age settlement pattern during this time and the establishment
of new, more intensive settlement on either side of the
Nogat (Haftka, 1987). With the incorporation of Pomeralia into the
Teutonic Order’s state in 1309, this region ceases to represent an
active frontier, and is re-deﬁned as part of the heartland of the
Ordensstaat. However, the changes in vegetation, particularly
reﬂecting localized deforestation, are most likely to be typical of the
impact on the landscape between the Order’s castles and signiﬁcant
areas of woodland, such as the Forest of Sztum, which are documented
as actively managed landscapes in the 14th and 15th
centuries (Che˛c and Gancewski, 2009). The Forest of Sztum was
surrounded by a number of Teutonic Order sites: on its western side
by outposts at Zantyr and Benowo, and a manor at Ryjewo; on it
eastern side by the procurator’s castle at Szthum and a manor at
Barlewice and on its northern side by the castle and town at Malbork.
Whilst colonizing settlements appear to have respected the
pre-existing forest boundaries, this distribution may, in part, reﬂect
the lack of detailed archaeological investigations within wooded
areas. However, the analysis of faunal assemblages from the outer
bailey at Malbork and from Bia1a Góra (tentatively identiﬁed as the
outpost at Zantyr; Sawicki pers. comm.) conﬁrm the continued
exploitation of woodland species such as bear, polecat, marten and
cervids, wetland species such as beaver and a diverse range of ﬁsh
(Maltby et al., 2009; Pluskowski et al., in press).
7.2. Vegetation change in northern Poland during the late-medieval
period
Although there is evidence from Polish pollen sequences for
human activity throughout prehistory, what marks the top of many
pollen proﬁles is the evidence for substantial vegetation and landuse
change on a scale not previously encountered (RalskaJasiewiczowa
et al., 2004). Earlier phases of woodland clearance
and cultivation are typically smaller in scale and often more limited
in duration, followed by woodland regeneration. Vegetation and
land-use changes in the medieval period are characterized by
a substantial decline in woodland, particularly broadleaved species,
an intensiﬁcation of agricultural activity, marked by a continuous
cereal pollen curve (particularly rye) with little subsequent
evidence for woodland regeneration. These changes in many ways
deﬁne the modern vegetation landscape of Poland.
However, there is poor radiocarbon coverage of this horizon,
with dates available on only 23 cores with medieval deposits from
across northern Poland (Fig. 1b). Despite this poor coverage, a clear
distinction in the dating and extent of major woodland clearance
and cultivation can be observed between NortheWestern and
NortheEastern Poland, albeit with some variability. The earliest
dates for substantial woodland clearance and cultivation generally
occur in NortheWestern Poland from c. AD 1000, primarily in
Pomerania and along the southern Baltic coast between the Orda
estuary and Vistula delta, connected with the development of
urban ports from the 9th century. Pollen cores from several locations
on Wolin Island, NortheWestern Poland (Fig. 1b, no. 1), reveal
substantial deforestation and intensive cultivation of rye, wheat,
barley, oat, buckwheat and hemp, associated with the construction
of a large urban port that ﬂourished between the 9the11th
centuries (Lata1owa, 1989, 1992, 1999). However, a much earlier
continuous increase in rye was recorded from a sequence in the
Darzlubie Forest, eastern Pomerania (Fig. 1b, no. 3), dating to the
7th century (Lata1owa, 1982), whilst at S1owinskie B1ota (Fig. 1b, no.
2), cereal pollen does not increase signiﬁcantly until AD 1300
(Lamentowicz et al., 2009). By the late 13th century, the densely
populated, already deforested western regions became increasingly
important in the production of rye for export to Western Europe
and Scandinavia, with shipments of grain up the Vistula, bound for
England, recorded from the early 14th century (Hybel, 2002).
Moving east towards the Vistula Basin (the heartland of the
Teutonic Order), the dates for large-scale woodland clearance are
progressively later. Pollen sequences from three lakes in Bory
Tucholskie, eastern Pomerania (Lake Ma1y Suszek, Suszek and
Ke˛sowo; Fig. 1b, nos. 4e6), and from Tuchola (Lamentowicz et al.,
2008; Fig. 1b, no. 7), show a gradual increase in cereal pollen
from the 11th century, with arable activity intensifying in Bory
Tucholskie in the 12th and 13th centuries and the almost complete
disappearance of deciduous woodland (Berglund et al., 1990;
Miotk-Szpiganowicz, 1992). Buckwheat, which produces only
small quantities of poorly dispersed pollen, occurs in signiﬁcant
quantities in the Ke˛sowo sequence, suggesting cultivation in the
immediate vicinity of the lake, which is surrounded by numerous
settlements, including strongholds at Gostycyn, Obrowo and
Raciạz. A similar pattern of deforestation and cultivation, although
undated, is apparent from the upper portions of the pollen
sequence from Lake Druzno, 5 km south of Elbla˛g (Zachwicz and
Kepinska, 1987; Fig. 1b, no. 8). Elbla˛g, like Malbork, is a 13th
century Teutonic Order foundation. Situated on the banks of the
Vistula, it was the administrative headquarters of the Order’s state
in the 13the14th centuries, and a key port in the rye trade
(Lata1owa et al., 2007). The greater proportion of the plant remains
from 13th to 14th century occupation deposits were derived from
habitats outside the town, indicative of meadows, pasture and
arable land, but also included ﬁnds of nutmeg, originating from
Indonesia, and ﬁgs, from the Mediterranean, pointing towards
longer distant trade routes at this time (Lata1owa et al., 2003).
From the 13th century onwards, large quantities of Baltic timber
were also exported through harbours at Elbla˛g, Gdansk and
Konigsberg to Western Europe, where it was prized for ship
building, but also oak panelling used in paintings and sculptures
(Wazny, 2005). The source of wood used in art-historical objects
across Western Europe has recently been investigated though
a comparison with detailed oak dendrochronologies constructed
from archaeological sited across Poland (Haneca et al., 2005). The
dendro-provenancing data provides additional supporting
evidence for patterns of woodland clearance visible in the pollen
record from Malbork and across northern Poland. Wood from
NortheWestern Poland is rarely found in art-historical objects,
most probably reﬂecting the earlier clearance of woodland west of
the Vistula and the lack of suitable timber by the 13th century. The
majority of tree sequences before AD 1450 show a distinct correlation
with the regional chronologies for northern Poland around
Gdansk (eastern Pomerania and Warmia), including Malbork, and
to the south within the Masovian lowlands. Documentary records
detailing the timber trade show that from 1389 to 1415 the Teutonic
Order transported almost one and half million pieces of timber,
most along the Vistula from Masovia. Customs records from Bia1a
Gora,15 km southwest of Malbork, indicate that most of this timber
was in the form of wainscots (high-quality oak boards), rather than
logs or beams (Wazny, 2005). Trees felled after AD 1450 show
a stronger correlation with the regional chronologies of the Podlasie
lowlands of eastern Poland (Haneca et al., 2005). This suggests
that as demand for high-quality timber grew by the late 14th and
early 15th century, the primary source of timber moved from the
denuded woodlands of northern Poland to the dense woodlands of
eastern Poland.
The few dated pollen sequences from NortheEastern Poland
suggest, in common with the dendro-provenancing evidence, that
woodland clearance and agricultural activity occurred at a later
date, and at a lower intensity than that experienced to the west.
Today, the area remains dominated by large swathes of woodland,
A. Brown, A. Pluskowski / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1957e19661964
including the Puszcza Augustowska, Puszcza Knyszynska and
Bia1owie_za Forests, considered to be the last remnants of primeval
forest that once covered large parts of central Europe. Within the
Puszcza Knyszynska forest, close to the border with Belarus, pollen
analysis from K1adkowe Bagno bog shows that clearance of
woodland for arable and pastoral activities did not occur on a largescale
until the 16th century, following successive invasions of the
region from the 13th to mid 15th centuries that had led to signiﬁcant
disruption of the settlement pattern in the region
(Kupryjanowicz, 2004). Similarly, there is little disturbance related
to human activity within the Bia1owie_za Forest until the 15th
century and evidence for cultivation is extremely sparse (Mitchell
and Cole, 1998; Fig. 1b, nos. 10-11). Palynological analysis in the
vincinty of lake Wigry, located within the Puszcza Augustowska
Forest (Fig. 1b, no. 12), likewise suggested low-intensity human
activity during the late-Medieval period (Kupryjanowicz, 2007).
However, palynological from Lake Mi1kowski (Fig. 1b, no. 13)
produced evidence for substantial anthropogenic impact on the
vegetation around the lake from cal AD 1000e1150, prior to the
Teutonic Order, linked to indigenous Galindian settlement (Madeja
et al., 2010). Although this suggests a degree of spatial variability in
the intensity of human activity within the more sparsely populated
NortheEastern areas of Prussia, it remains the case that those sites
along the eastern frontier (close to the current Belarus and Lithuanian
borders), where substantial woodland survives today, experienced
lower intensities of human activity than sites located
further to the west.
8. Conclusions
The study described in this paper highlights the contribution of
palaeoenvironmental analytical techniques towards the study of
historic landscapes otherwise more typically informed through
written sources. This research shows that the 12th/13th to 15th
centuries witnessed a fundamental change in the nature of the
vegetation landscape and land-use of Malbork, from one dominated
by deciduous woodland, with only limited evidence for
human impact, to an increasingly open landscape with evidence for
intensive cultivation of cereals, particularly rye, with pastureland
and heathland. Evidence for human activity prior to the 13th
century is likely to reﬂect the activities of archaeologically-attested
Pomeranian settlers in the landscape. Subsequent vegetation
change during the 13the15th centuries, characterized particularly
by the evidence for agricultural intensiﬁcation, coincides with the
construction of the conventual castle at Malbork in the last decades
of the 13th century, the establishment of its commandery and the
dramatic expansion of the castle complex over the course of the
14th century until the early decades of the 15th century. The two
waves of colonization within this frontier region can therefore be
linked to two phases of exponentially increasing landscape transformation.
Faunal evidence from nearby Bia1a Gora for the
continued exploitation of woodland species, as well as later written
sources, also demonstrate, however, that whilst large areas were
deforested, woodland in other parts of the castle commandery was
carefully retained and managed as an important resource. This
highlights the importance of combining analysis of on-site environmental
date with that contained within off-site sequences,
ideally from multiple locations within the castle commandery,
thereby enabling critical investigation of spatial variability in landuse.
This study therefore points the way forward for further
comparative studies of land-use within the Malbork landscape
focused on testing hypotheses of woodland continuity and
management.
The broader palaeoenvironmental record from northern Poland
suggests that the 13the15th centuries represent an important
ecological horizon in the vegetation history of those lands most
closely associated with the Teutonic Order. The continued development
of ports like Gdansk, the foundation of new towns by the
Teutonic Order, and the growth of the Hanse and pan-European
trading networks, progressively opened up the Polish hinterland
to foreign knights, settlers and traders. These linked processes
resulted in deforestation and farming on an increasingly intensive
scale from the 13th century. This pattern, based on an admittedly
restricted number of radiocarbon dated pollen sequences, is supported
by a growing body of zooarchaeological, dendroprovenancing
and documentary data, but nonetheless requires
further testing through targeted analysis and dating of late Holocene
palaeoenvironmental sequences.
Acknowledgements
The project was funded by grants to Aleks Pluskowski from the
British Academy and the University of Reading. Additional radiocarbon
dating (GU-20432 to GU-20435) was funded by a research
grant to the authors from the School of Human and Environmental
Science, University of Reading. The authors would like to thank Dr
Zbigniew Sawicki, Dr Waldemar Jaszczynski and Dr Janusz Trupinda
for their continuing support and hospitality at the Castle
Museum in Malbork. We would also like to extent our thanks to Dr
Helena Burg and Chantel Summerﬁeld who contributed to the
ﬁeldwork leading up to this publication. We are grateful to Dr LisaMarie
Shillito, two anonymous referees and the editor, Chris O
Hunt, for helpful comments on the draft text.
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