COMING OF THE IRON AGE orientalising period – Ha C–D1 – East Hallstatt area LYDIA EGYPT Ionian poleis ASSYRIA URARTU FRYGIA 714 aC 705 aC 695 aC 652 aC 637 aC …… 626 aC….. Cimmerians 612-539 – neo-Babylonian empire 539 → Persian empire LYDIA EGYPT Ionian poleis 550 aC 547 aC 539 aC 525 aC 612-539 – neo-Babylonian empire 539 → Persian empire 512 aC – Darius‘ campaign against the Scythians across the Danube => Scythians in Carpath. basin IX–VIII BC – expansion of Phoenicians (IX–VIII BC) and Greeks (VIII–VII BC) in the Western Mediterranean Greece in the VIII–VII BC -massive social and economic transformation -arristocratic oligarchies replaced with tyrannies relying on middle class -surge in production and trade => Birth of poleis, city states ruled by citizen bodies -new artistic style of oriental inspiration -depiction of humans and animals (real or fantastic) usually arranged in friezes Etruria Italy in the Orientalising period VIII–VII/VI BC Populonia Volterra Clusium Volsinii Veii Cerae Tarquinii Vulci Vetulonia When we left, protourban centres of Villanova culture were being established and were steadily developing Over the VIII BC, villanovan burials undergo transormation of furnishing: -a small part of the society is given burial richer in gravegoods with emphasis put on the role of the dead in the society (warrior role in male graves, housekeeper role in the female graves) Volterra Verucchio Veii -in late VIII and begining of the VII BC, the roledenoting objects are accompanied by more objects linked more to prestige (luxurious materials, imported goods) the Bocchoris tomb Tarquinia late VIII c. BC (as an example) -Late VIII / early VII century BC: thorough transformation of the grave goods nothing is left of the role markers – the grave goods consist in feasting vessels, imported goods (Greek painted pottery, Phoenician egyptising faiance vessel and uashabti figurines), golden jewellery villanova culture = ‚role‘ × Orientalising = ‚status‘ Elite communicating with the whole community Burial = statement of the person‘s significance for all Elite communicating only with other members of the elite Burial = statement of sharing a common exclusively elite culture Competition in lavish spending indispensable and obligatory elite trait t.d. Capanna t.d. dolii t.d. vasi grecit.d. letti funebri -only elite burials are known (mainly because no one cared to publish non-elite graves) Monumental underground chambre tombs covered by large tumuli (up to 40 m in diameter)Banditaccia necropolis, Caere Casale Marittimo Caere Ceri Ceri – tomba delle statue, 2/4 VII c. BC Cerveteri – tomba delle cinque sedie 2/2 VII c. BC Ceri – tomba delle statue, 2nd quart. VII c. BC Cerveteri – tomba delle cinque sedie 2nd half VII c. BC Five 0.5m terracotta figurines in a separate sidechambre, each with a small table in front of it Two near-life size figures flanking entrance to the tomb Three? stone figures standing on the tumuls body Heroized ancestor figures warranting the superhuman status of elite families? Caere/Cerveteri Regolini-Galassi tomb (Caere) (as an example of high orientalising period tomb) -exceptional because discovered (in mid.19th century) intact (i.e. was robbed only by the excavators) 1st half VII c. BC -lenght of the burial corridor/chamber. ca 20m Regolini Galassi tomb: Small selection of finds dozens of bronze shields Reconstruction of one of two (three?) wagons /chariots Phoenician gold bowl Gold brooch (ca. 25 × 20 cm) Silver wine-service featuring phoenician (ph), greek (gr), and italic (it) forms (pottery was dumped during the excavation…) ph gr it Murlo Poggio Civitate VII – VI BC elite mansion in Northern Tuscany With 60×60 m it is the largest structure known in Italy of the period Relief terracotta slabs decorating the inner court -scenes of elite life activities Bologna Italy in the Orientalising period VIII–VII/VI BC -prevalently villanovan down to the end of VI BC -a proto-urban centre of ca 200 ha -little evidence of exceptionally rich burials -large amount of stone sculpture of orientlising inspiration Bologna tomba degli ori And some rare luxury Verucchio Italy in the Orientalising period VIII–VII/VI BC -burials of basically villanovan type through the VII/ VI BC -large number of rich burials -status demonstrated by muliplication of prestige objects of villanovan type -enornous quantities of amber Picenum Italy in the Orientalising period VIII–VII/VI BC - A region neither carrying on the crematory tradition of the urnfield burial rite nor showing settlement structure characteristic of Etruria or Po valley -inhumations -entirely dispersed population with complete absence of urbanisation Fabriano –t. 3 (as an example) 2 (or 3?) chariots, 17 bronze vessels…. For a single burial bronze silver -imported Greek vessels (very few) -local use of orientalising imaginary and style -development of orientlising-inspired imaginary in local style -massive use of luxurious materials (including ostrich eggs and ivory) nad mainly of amber in personal ornament Capestrano (AQ) -several instances of moumental stone statuary Veneto the Este culture Italy in the Orientalising period VIII–VII/VI BC -occupation around two protourban centres of Este and Padua VIII-VII BC Este Padova VI BC Padova Este Este II late 675-610 Este II early 800–700 BC -Orientalising period elite representation is sobre but still present The Situla art -developing in the second half of VII BC in Este -early punched and engraved decoration - - - > -relief repousé decoration which then becomes the norm of the situlae -animal and human friezes of orientalising inspiration situla Benvenuti 126 lid Rebato 187 the Golasecca culture Lombardy – Piemont Italy in the Orientalising period VIII–VII/VI BC GOLASECCA I B- IIB (VIII-VI c. BC) Como Golasecca (/Castelletto Ticino/ Sesto Calende) -occupation concentrating around two protourban centres of Como and Golasecca VIII BC -prevalently poor cremations -exceptional presence of weapons - In late VIII BC exceptional appearance of prestige objects Como, Ca‘ Morta – tomba del carretino Sesto Calende – tomba di guerriero (VII/VI aC) -a wagon, weaponry (Picenian helmet and greaves, Hallstatt culture weapons) -a bronze situla with figural decoration (besides other bronze vessels)  All around Italy there is a relatively uniform social development regardless of the degree of urbanisation (advanced in Etruria, Bologna, Este; decent in Golasecca; none in Picenum) West Hallstatt area East Hallstatt area Western - wagon burials; sword → dagger -geometric style → La Tène art -“proto-Celts“ (whatever it means) Eastern -axe, armour -figural elements → the situla art -“Veneto-Illyrians“ (whatever it means) the Hallstatt culture Early Iron Age in Central Europe (-to simplify) Ca 800 BC -the Bronze Age urnfield cultures of central Europe are substituted by the Hallstatt culture(s) -traditionally Western and Eastern Hallstatt are distinguished based on feeble criteria -principally in the earlier period rather a series of small cultural groups than large uniform phenomena -all ethnic labels used in the 19th/20th century archaeology are just BS Bylany culture Hallstatt tumuli culture Billendorf culture Horákov culture Kallendenberg culture Silesia-Platěnice culture Ha C –D 1 = 800–550/540 aC Hallstatt Ha D2–3 = 550/540 – 480/450 aC Hallstatt culture Hallstat (not culture but site) Hallstat salt mines operating in ca 800-400 aC -cca 5-6000 (?) burials -800-400 BC -excavations in mid-1850s Ivory and amber gold inlay ~ Pitino S. Severinio  Hallstatt is similar to Etruscan metropoleis -run by an elite managing valuable raw material -long time occupation -extraordinary population … ….but in the early phases of the Hallstatt period it is the only site like this around in this period (mainly in the west) West Hallstatt area ca 800 aC -hilltop settlements and aglomerations of the urnfield culture get abbandoned -sudden decrease of population power and territorial fragmentarisation rise of (tiny and petty) local elites -lack of central sites -poor knowledge of settlements -relatively good knowledge of cemeteries with research emphasis put on (rare) elite burials on wagons CHAMBER TOMBS Hradenín u Kolína Hradenín u Kolína -the early Ha elites are individual, independent .. and petty -not controlled but also not controlling much… -breakdown / weakening of Late Bronze Age interregional exchange nets => breakdown of bronze age social systems - Inaccessibility of bronze in sufficient quantity => beginnings of iron working -very little in common with what was going on in Italy both socialy and artefactually -no Italic anallogy for the four-wheeled wagons nor for the long swords characterising Ha C–D1 elite Předměřice, okr. Hradec Králové -emphasis on wagon driving may be due to impulses from the east of which there are various indications in late Urnfield and early Hallstatt period -chronologically these impulses correspond with the information about Cimmerians in the Near East Býčí Skála cave (okr. Blansko) -distribution of ‚Cimmerian‘ bimetalic daggers Cimmerian and ‚Cimmerian‘ horse bits Not all ‚Cimmerian‘ stuff necesarilly came from the steppes – some types are characteristic only of the Carpathian basin or central Europe Italian (Etruscan) metal ware VII–(VI) BC -clearly distinct Italian types -beyond the Alp present in elite graves -concentration in Bologna, Golasecca and Este with further presence in the Rhine valley and the Eastern Alps => presaging contacts in the decades to come Italian (Etruscan) metal ware VII–(VI) BC -other vessels types remain uncertain and translpine production is not excluded (×) or is probable ( ) Perlrandbecken/ Basins with beaded rim/ Bacini ad orlo perlinato Rippencisten/ Ribbed cistae/ Ciste a cordoni Hallstatt period pottery decoration Makes part of a koiné of geometric styles shared with the Early Iron Age cultures in Italy -incised, applied (as in Italy), or painted (unlike Italy) -shared tradition rather than contacts Golasecca Este Verucchio Este Nesactium Picenum ‚Adriatic koine‘ = shared material culture between: -the Adriatic coast of Italy (Este culture, Picenum) and -the Japodian culture of the eastern Adriatic coast (types of objects, predilection for amber, stone statuary on both coasts) -Este culture is closely linked with the East Hallstat culture of the eastern Alps and frankly is as much and East Hallstatt culture grouop as it is part of Italian Early Iron Age Strettweg Pitino di San Severino Bisenzio Smolenice-Molpír Šoproň-Krautaker East-Hallstatt culture -more immediate link with Italy -hillforts on the perifery of the Carpathian basin – earlier and more systematic than in the west (Molpír and Sopron as only two examples) -systematic presence of figural art (e.g. Sopron) east Hallstatt area Este culture = Veneti Lusatian culture -links between Eastern Halstatt culture and the Este culture (in the regions ihnabited by Veneti in historical period) and their closeness to Japodic culture + wild linguistics  In late 19th and 20th century the East Hallstatt and Lusatian cultures are variably considered to be those of ‚Venetian‘ or ‚Illyrian‘ peoples - Those are just aretefacts of history of research.. Don‘t take them seriously… Kleinklein East Hallstatt ‚Princely graves‘ The example of Kleinklein -Kleinklein – a series of tumuli with rich burials spanning from VIII to early VI century BC The Kröllkogel tumulus (early VI BC) – overview of the grave-goods (yes, the people other than the buried person may have been goods, too) East Hallstatt area Este culture = Veneti Lusatian culture Szentes-Vekerzug culture -later in the VI BC, a new element appears in the Carpathian basin, the SzentesVekerzug culture -chronologically it corresponds with information on arrival of Scythians (~ Persian campaign in the Balkans) -archaeologically it is characterised with numerous nomadic features with analogies in the steppes of Eurasia (though as in case of Cimmerians, these elements are blended with local features) -many (not all) earlier Hallstatt hillforts come to their end – often accredited to Scythian incursions (though ….) https://www.academia.edu/8148653/Horse_Bow_and_Arrow_- _A_Comparison_between_the_Scythian_Impact_on_the_Mediterranean_and_on_the_Eastern_Middle_Europe_Medi terranean_Review_7-1_2014_1-38 Molpír–destructionhorizon Arrowheads Humanremains https://www.academia.edu/6145896/Smolenice- Molpir_im_Licht_skythischer_Angriffe_auf_die_hallst attzeitlichen_Siedlungen_n%C3%B6rdlich_und_s%C3%B Cdlich_der_M%C3%A4hrischen_Pforte_Slovenska_Arc heologia_LIV-2_2006_191-208 -the most emblematic ‚Scythian‘ artefact are three-winged or three-sided arrowheads -widespread in burials and settlements of Eurasia, Caucassus, Near East, and Carpathian basin -400 ‚Scythian‘ arrowheads were found in the destruction horizon of Molpír hillfort (but the destruction of Molpír dates to mid-VII century BC => 70–100 years before establishment of Vekrezug culture in Carpathian basin  Scythian vanguard?  Late Cimmerians?  Or is everything more complicated than we immagine? Molpír Halstatt Vekerzug axe-heads Vettersfelde – Witaszkowo A hoard of golden objects decorated in Ionian style (characteristic of western Anatolia in mid-VI BC) -a series of sew-on plates -Scythian type sword (akinakes) in a scabbard -golden fish (???) Sopron - Krautacker Bologna – tomba degli ori Points of contact between Italy and East Hallstatt area Iconography and elite ideology  A variation on situla art from Kleinklein Not entirely unlike some ‚would-be-situla‘ art from Golasecca In the VI BC situla art production shifts from Este to east Alpine area The style and iconography remain largely identical Este VII BC Kuffern VI BC Kuffern Murlo Parading on chariots Assemblies or baquets -from Tuscany through Veneto to Eastern Alps the activities any ways through which elite represents themselves are identical -shared values or only shared iconography? Sporting events with prestigueous prizes