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Syntax
Pavel Caha
6 Dec 2021
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Coreference
(1) A er [NP the baroness]1 had visited the lord, [NP she ]1 le
the house. (she = baroness)
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Coreference
(1) A er [NP the baroness]1 had visited the lord, [NP she ]1 le
the house. (she = baroness)
(2) A er [NP the baroness]1 had visited the lord, [NP she ]2 le
the house. (she ̸= baroness)
2 / 29
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Coreference
(1) A er [NP the baroness]1 had visited the lord, [NP she ]1 le
the house. (she = baroness)
(2) A er [NP the baroness]1 had visited the lord, [NP she ]2 le
the house. (she ̸= baroness)
(3) De ni on: Antecedent
A is the antecedent of B i (if and only if) (i) A precedes B, and
(ii) A and B corefer.
2 / 29
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Types of (non-)coreference
(4) obligatory coreference
a. Zelda1 bores herself1.
b. *Zelda1 bores herself2.
3 / 29
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Types of (non-)coreference
(4) obligatory coreference
a. Zelda1 bores herself1.
b. *Zelda1 bores herself2.
(5) obligatory non-coreference
a. She8 adores Zelda15’s teachers.
b. *She8 adores Zelda8’s teachers.
3 / 29
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Types of (non-)coreference
(4) obligatory coreference
a. Zelda1 bores herself1.
b. *Zelda1 bores herself2.
(5) obligatory non-coreference
a. She8 adores Zelda15’s teachers.
b. *She8 adores Zelda8’s teachers.
(6) op onal coreference
a. Zelda15 adores her15 teachers.
b. Zelda14 adores her5 teachers.
3 / 29
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Types of referen al expressions
(7) a. re exives and reciprocals (‘anaphors’):
himself, herself, itself, themselves, myself, yourself,
ourselves, yourselves each other, one another
b. non-re exive pronouns (‘pronominals’): he, she, it, him,
her, I, us, you, me, his, your, my, our
c. full NPs including names (‘r-expressions’): the baroness,
Peter, this, a disinherited Russian countess . . .
4 / 29
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Re exives must have a clause-bound antecedent
(8) a. That it rains bothers Peter.
b. That it rains bothers her/him.
c. *That it rains bothers himself/herself.
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Pronouns and nouns cannot have a clause-bound
antecedent
(9) a. *Peter4 watches Peter4 in the mirror.
b. *Peter4 watches him4 in the mirror.
c. Peter4 watches himself4 in the mirror.
6 / 29
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Pronouns can have a non-local antecedent
(10) a. *Carla4 thinks that I hate Carla4
b. Carla4 thinks that I hate her4.
c. *Carla4 thinks that I hate herself4.
7 / 29
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Binding Condi ons
(11) Binding Condi ons (preliminary)
a. A re exive pronoun must have an antecedent within its
local clause.
8 / 29
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Binding Condi ons
(11) Binding Condi ons (preliminary)
a. A re exive pronoun must have an antecedent within its
local clause.
b. A non-re exive pronoun must not have an antecedent
within its local clause.
8 / 29
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Binding Condi ons
(11) Binding Condi ons (preliminary)
a. A re exive pronoun must have an antecedent within its
local clause.
b. A non-re exive pronoun must not have an antecedent
within its local clause.
c. An r-expression must not have an antecedent
8 / 29
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Binding Condi ons
(11) Binding Condi ons (preliminary)
a. A re exive pronoun must have an antecedent within its
local clause.
b. A non-re exive pronoun must not have an antecedent
within its local clause.
c. An r-expression must not have an antecedent
(12) a. *That it rains bothers himself/herself.
(no antecedent)
b. *Carla4 thinks that I hate herself4.
(non-local antecedent)
c. Peter2 watches himself2 in the mirror.
(local antecedent)
8 / 29
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Binding Condi ons
(11) Binding Condi ons (preliminary)
a. A re exive pronoun must have an antecedent within its
local clause.
b. A non-re exive pronoun must not have an antecedent
within its local clause.
c. An r-expression must not have an antecedent
(12) a. That it rains bothers him/her.
(no antecedent)
b. Carla4 thinks that I hate her4.
(non-local antecedent)
c. *Peter3watches him3 in the mirror.
(local antecedent)
8 / 29
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Binding Condi ons
(11) Binding Condi ons (preliminary)
a. A re exive pronoun must have an antecedent within its
local clause.
b. A non-re exive pronoun must not have an antecedent
within its local clause.
c. An r-expression must not have an antecedent
(12) a. That it rains bothers Peter.
(no antecedent)
b. *Carla4/she4 thinks that I hate Carla4.
(non-local antecedent)
c. *Peter3/he3 watches Peter3 in the mirror.
(local antecedent)
8 / 29
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C-command
(13) Carlo a4’s dog accompanies her4//*herself4 to
kindergarten.
9 / 29
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C-command
(13) Carlo a4’s dog accompanies her4//*herself4 to
kindergarten.
(14) Binding Condi ons
a. A re exive pronoun must have an antecedent within its
local clause.
b. A non-re exive pronoun must not have an antecedent
within its local clause.
c. An r-expression must not have an antecedent
9 / 29
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C-command
(13) Carlo a4’s dog accompanies her4//*herself4 to
kindergarten.
(14) Binding Condi ons
a. A re exive pronoun must have a c-commanding
antecedent within its local clause.
b. A non-re exive pronoun must not have a
c-commanding antecedent within its local clause.
c. An r-expression must not have a c-commanding
antecedent
9 / 29
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The structure
VP
NP9
NP4
Carlo a’s
NP
dog
VP
V′
V
accompanies
NP4
*herself
PP
to the kindergarten
10 / 29
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The structure
VP
NP9
NP4
Carlo a’s
NP
dog
VP
V′
V
accompanies
NP4
*herself
PP
to the kindergarten
(15) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i
a. neither dominates the other, and
b. every (branching) node that dominates A also dominates B
10 / 29
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The structure
VP
NP9
NP4
Carlo a’s
NP
dog
VP
V′
V
accompanies
NP4
*herself
PP
to the kindergarten
(15) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i
a. neither dominates the other, and
b. every (branching) node that dominates A also dominates B
(16) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i you can go from
A to B by going one node up, and then only down, while never
crossing a branch twice
10 / 29
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The structure
VP
NP9
NP4
Carlo a’s
NP
dog
VP
V′
V
accompanies
NP4
*herself
PP
to the kindergarten
(15) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i
a. neither dominates the other, and
b. every (branching) node that dominates A also dominates B
(16) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i you can go from
A to B by going one node up, and then only down, while never
crossing a branch twice
(17) Binding Condi ons
a. A re exive pronoun must have a c-commanding antecedent
within its local clause. 10 / 29
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The structure
VP
NP9
NP4
Carlo a’s
NP
dog
VP
V′
V
accompanies
NP4
her
PP
to the kindergarten
11 / 29
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The structure
VP
NP9
NP4
Carlo a’s
NP
dog
VP
V′
V
accompanies
NP4
her
PP
to the kindergarten
(18) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i
a. neither dominates the other, and
b. every (branching) node that dominates A also dominates B
11 / 29
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The structure
VP
NP9
NP4
Carlo a’s
NP
dog
VP
V′
V
accompanies
NP4
her
PP
to the kindergarten
(18) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i
a. neither dominates the other, and
b. every (branching) node that dominates A also dominates B
(19) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i you can go from
A to B by going one node up, and then only down, while never
crossing a branch twice
11 / 29
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The structure
VP
NP9
NP4
Carlo a’s
NP
dog
VP
V′
V
accompanies
NP4
her
PP
to the kindergarten
(18) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i
a. neither dominates the other, and
b. every (branching) node that dominates A also dominates B
(19) Node A c-commands node B in a phrase marker i you can go from
A to B by going one node up, and then only down, while never
crossing a branch twice
(20) Binding Condi ons
b A non-re exive pronoun must not have a c-commanding
antecedent within its local clause. 11 / 29
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Asymmetries in binding
(21) a. Petr3
Petr
má rád
likes
svou3
himself’s
sestru
sister
‘Petr likes his sister’
12 / 29
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Asymmetries in binding
(21) a. Petr3
Petr
má rád
likes
svou3
himself’s
sestru
sister
‘Petr likes his sister’
b. *Svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister
má ráda
likes
Petra3
Petr
12 / 29
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Asymmetries in binding
(21) a. Petr3
Petr
má rád
likes
svou3
himself’s
sestru
sister
‘Petr likes his sister’
b. *Svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister
má ráda
likes
Petra3
Petr
c. *Petra3
Petr.ACC
má ráda
likes
svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister.NOM
12 / 29
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Asymmetries in binding
(21) a. Petr3
Petr
má rád
likes
svou3
himself’s
sestru
sister
‘Petr likes his sister’
b. *Svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister
má ráda
likes
Petra3
Petr
c. *Petra3
Petr.ACC
má ráda
likes
svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister.NOM
d. Jeho3
His
sestra
sister
má ráda
likes
Petra3
Petr
12 / 29
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Asymmetries in binding
(21) a. Petr3
Petr
má rád
likes
svou3
himself’s
sestru
sister
‘Petr likes his sister’
b. *Svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister
má ráda
likes
Petra3
Petr
c. *Petra3
Petr.ACC
má ráda
likes
svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister.NOM
d. Jeho3
His
sestra
sister
má ráda
likes
Petra3
Petr
(22) A subject-object asymmetry
a. A possessive re exive inside the object can be bound by
the subject
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Asymmetries in binding
(21) a. Petr3
Petr
má rád
likes
svou3
himself’s
sestru
sister
‘Petr likes his sister’
b. *Svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister
má ráda
likes
Petra3
Petr
c. *Petra3
Petr.ACC
má ráda
likes
svá3
himself’s
sestra
sister.NOM
d. Jeho3
His
sestra
sister
má ráda
likes
Petra3
Petr
(22) A subject-object asymmetry
a. A possessive re exive inside the object can be bound by
the subject
b. A possessive re exive inside the subject cannot be
bound by the object
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(23) A subject-object asymmetry
a. A possessive re exive inside the object can be bound by
the subject
b. A possessive re exive inside the subject cannot be
bound by the object
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(23) A subject-object asymmetry
a. A possessive re exive inside the object can be bound by
the subject
b. A possessive re exive inside the subject cannot be
bound by the object
VP
NP3
subject
VP
V NP
... REFL3 ...
13 / 29
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(23) A subject-object asymmetry
a. A possessive re exive inside the object can be bound by
the subject
b. A possessive re exive inside the subject cannot be
bound by the object
VP
NP3
subject
VP
V NP
... REFL3 ...
VP
NP
... REFL3 ...
VP
V NP3
object
13 / 29
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Missing subjects
Interac ons of binding and movement
14 / 29
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(24) Sentences with unexpressed subjects
a. Look there!
15 / 29
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(24) Sentences with unexpressed subjects
a. Look there!
b. The best way to succeed is to do what’s right
15 / 29
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(24) Sentences with unexpressed subjects
a. Look there!
b. The best way to succeed is to do what’s right
c. Sp
sleep
-í
pres
-m.
1.sg
‘I am sleeping.’
15 / 29
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(25) a. Behave yourself!
16 / 29
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(25) a. Behave yourself!
b. (You2) behave yourself2
16 / 29
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(25) a. Behave yourself!
b. (You2) behave yourself2
c. The best way to enjoy yourself is to do what is right
16 / 29
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(25) a. Behave yourself!
b. (You2) behave yourself2
c. The best way to enjoy yourself is to do what is right
d. The best way PRO4 to enjoy yourself4 is to do what is
right
16 / 29
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(25) a. Behave yourself!
b. (You2) behave yourself2
c. The best way to enjoy yourself is to do what is right
d. The best way PRO4 to enjoy yourself4 is to do what is
right
e. Vid-í-m
see-pres-1sg
svou
self’s
sestru.
sister
‘I see my sister.’
16 / 29
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(25) a. Behave yourself!
b. (You2) behave yourself2
c. The best way to enjoy yourself is to do what is right
d. The best way PRO4 to enjoy yourself4 is to do what is
right
e. Vid-í-m
see-pres-1sg
svou
self’s
sestru.
sister
‘I see my sister.’
f. (pro)
1.sg
Vid-í-m
see-pres-1sg
svou
self’s
sestru.
sister
‘I see my sister.’
16 / 29
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.
VP
NP
(I)
VP
V
see
NP
you
17 / 29
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(26) a. John4 tried not to cut himself4 / *him4.
18 / 29
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(26) a. John4 tried not to cut himself4 / *him4.
b. John4 persuaded Mary5 not to cut *himself4 / him4.
18 / 29
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(26) a. John4 tried not to cut himself4 / *him4.
b. John4 persuaded Mary5 not to cut *himself4 / him4.
c. John4 tried [ PRO4 not to cut himself4 / *him4 ].
18 / 29
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(26) a. John4 tried not to cut himself4 / *him4.
b. John4 persuaded Mary5 not to cut *himself4 / him4.
c. John4 tried [ PRO4 not to cut himself4 / *him4 ].
d. John4 persuaded Mary5 [ PRO5 not to cut *himself4 /
him4 ].
18 / 29
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Missing subjects
Interac ons of binding and movement
19 / 29
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Raising
(27) a. It seems [ that John works hard ]
b. John seems to work hard.
20 / 29
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.
‘logical’ structure
TP
NP
It
TP
T
PRES
VP
V
seems
CP
C
that
TP
NP
John
TP
T
PRES
VP
V
works
Adv
hard
21 / 29
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Raising structure
TP
?? TP
T
PRES
VP
V
seems
TP
NP
John
TP
T
to
VP
V
work
Adv
hard
22 / 29
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Raising structure
TP
NP
John
TP
T
PRES
VP
V
seems
TP
NP
John
TP
T
to
VP
V
work
Adv
hard
23 / 29
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to himself
(28) a. *It seems to himself [ that John works hard ]
b. John seems to himself to work hard.
24 / 29
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‘logical structure’
TP
NP
It
TP
T
PRES
VP
V
seems
PP
to himself
CP
C
that
TP
NP
John
TP
T
PRES
VP
V
works
Adv
hard
25 / 29
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‘raising structure’
TP
NP
John
TP
T
PRES
VP
V
seems
PP
to himself
TP
NP
John
TP
T
to
VP
V
work
Adv
hard
26 / 29
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.
Czech
(29) a. Připadalo
It.seemed
mi,
to-me
že
that
Honza
Honza
je
is
unavený
red
27 / 29
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.
Czech
(29) a. Připadalo
It.seemed
mi,
to-me
že
that
Honza
Honza
je
is
unavený
red
b. Honza
Honza
mi
to.me
připadal
seemed
Honza unavený
red
27 / 29
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.
Czech
(29) a. Připadalo
It.seemed
mi,
to-me
že
that
Honza
Honza
je
is
unavený
red
b. Honza
Honza
mi
to.me
připadal
seemed
Honza unavený
red
c. *Připadalo
It.seemed
si,
to.himself
že
that
Honza
Honza
je
is
unavený
red
27 / 29
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.
.
Czech
(29) a. Připadalo
It.seemed
mi,
to-me
že
that
Honza
Honza
je
is
unavený
red
b. Honza
Honza
mi
to.me
připadal
seemed
Honza unavený
red
c. *Připadalo
It.seemed
si,
to.himself
že
that
Honza
Honza
je
is
unavený
red
d. Honza
Honza
si
to.himself
připadal
seemed
Honza unavený
red
27 / 29
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(30) a. *It seems to himself [ that John works hard ]
28 / 29
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(30) a. *It seems to himself [ that John works hard ]
b. *It seems to himself that Mary loves John
28 / 29
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(30) a. *It seems to himself [ that John works hard ]
b. *It seems to himself that Mary loves John
c. John seems to himself John to work hard.
28 / 29
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(30) a. *It seems to himself [ that John works hard ]
b. *It seems to himself that Mary loves John
c. John seems to himself John to work hard.
d. *Who does it seem to himself that Mary loves who
28 / 29
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References
29 / 29