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Syntax
Pavel Caha
16 Nov 2020
1 / 24
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Recap
The complemen zer
Aspect
The structure of words
2 / 24
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
3 / 24
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
3 / 24
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
3 / 24
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
black cab
drivers
3 / 24
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
black cab
drivers black
cab drivers
3 / 24
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
black cab
drivers black
cab drivers
▶ The discovery of structure
3 / 24
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
black cab
drivers black
cab drivers
▶ The discovery of structure
▶ How can we nd out more about it?
3 / 24
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Cons tuency tests
(2) Cons tuents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a ques on
d. co-ordinated
e. elided
4 / 24
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(3) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
5 / 24
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(3) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
b. I wouldn’t be so sure that he will —
5 / 24
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(3) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
b. I wouldn’t be so sure that he will —
The customer in the corner
will
order
the drinks before the dinner
(4) Binary composi on hypothesis
All syntac c structure is (at most) binary.
5 / 24
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(5) [V order] + [N milk]
6 / 24
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(5) [V order] + [N milk]
a. order milk
6 / 24
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(5) [V order] + [N milk]
a. order milk
b. will + [order milk]
6 / 24
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(5) [V order] + [N milk]
a. order milk
b. will + [order milk]
c. will + [VP order milk ]
6 / 24
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(5) [V order] + [N milk]
a. order milk
b. will + [order milk]
c. will + [VP order milk ]
(6) The head
a. determines the type of meaning that the mother node
has
6 / 24
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(5) [V order] + [N milk]
a. order milk
b. will + [order milk]
c. will + [VP order milk ]
(6) The head
a. determines the type of meaning that the mother node
has
b. determines the distribu on of the whole
6 / 24
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(5) [V order] + [N milk]
a. order milk
b. will + [order milk]
c. will + [VP order milk ]
(6) The head
a. determines the type of meaning that the mother node
has
b. determines the distribu on of the whole
c. determines the form of the sister node
6 / 24
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(5) [V order] + [N milk]
a. order milk
b. will + [order milk]
c. will + [VP order milk ]
(6) The head
a. determines the type of meaning that the mother node
has
b. determines the distribu on of the whole
c. determines the form of the sister node
VP
V
order
N
milk
6 / 24
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TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
7 / 24
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TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
(7) a. VP → describe an event
b. TP → anchor it in me with respect to the speech me
7 / 24
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... mother
daughter 1
... ...
daughter 2
... ...
8 / 24
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... mother
daughter 1
... ...
daughter 2
... ...
8 / 24
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TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
(8) no ons
a. complement = the sister of the head
b. adjunct = op onal modi er
c. speci er = obligatory modi er
9 / 24
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(9) a. before the meal
10 / 24
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(9) a. before the meal
b. before that
10 / 24
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(9) a. before the meal
b. before that
c. PP
P
before
NP
the meal
10 / 24
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Recap
The complemen zer
Aspect
The structure of words
11 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
c. If he smokes, ...
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
c. If he smokes, ...
▶ that = declara ve
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
c. If he smokes, ...
▶ that = declara ve
▶ whether = interroga ve
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
c. If he smokes, ...
▶ that = declara ve
▶ whether = interroga ve
▶ if = condi onal
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
c. If he smokes, ...
▶ that = declara ve
▶ whether = interroga ve
▶ if = condi onal
(11) a. describe an event
b. anchor it in me
c. say whether the anchored event is ...
(i) a fact (declara ve)
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
c. If he smokes, ...
▶ that = declara ve
▶ whether = interroga ve
▶ if = condi onal
(11) a. describe an event
b. anchor it in me
c. say whether the anchored event is ...
(i) a fact (declara ve)
(ii) a condi on for something else (condi onal)
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
c. If he smokes, ...
▶ that = declara ve
▶ whether = interroga ve
▶ if = condi onal
(11) a. describe an event
b. anchor it in me
c. say whether the anchored event is ...
(i) a fact (declara ve)
(ii) a condi on for something else (condi onal)
(iii) something you wonder about the truth of
(interroga ve)
12 / 24
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Complemen zer
(10) a. I think that he smokes.
b. I wonder whether he smokes.
c. If he smokes, ...
▶ that = declara ve
▶ whether = interroga ve
▶ if = condi onal
(11) a. describe an event
b. anchor it in me
c. say whether the anchored event is ...
(i) a fact (declara ve)
(ii) a condi on for something else (condi onal)
(iii) something you wonder about the truth of
(interroga ve)
(iv) something you want to see done (desidera ve, ...)
12 / 24
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▶ Complemen zer (C) = subordina ng conjunc on that codes
‘mood’
13 / 24
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▶ Complemen zer (C) = subordina ng conjunc on that codes
‘mood’
▶ It is the head of the embedded clause, because it ...
13 / 24
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▶ Complemen zer (C) = subordina ng conjunc on that codes
‘mood’
▶ It is the head of the embedded clause, because it ...
▶ determines the type of meaning (announcement, ques on, wish,
condi on, ...)
13 / 24
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▶ Complemen zer (C) = subordina ng conjunc on that codes
‘mood’
▶ It is the head of the embedded clause, because it ...
▶ determines the type of meaning (announcement, ques on, wish,
condi on, ...)
▶ determines the distribu on: I wonder whether/*that he smokes
13 / 24
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▶ Complemen zer (C) = subordina ng conjunc on that codes
‘mood’
▶ It is the head of the embedded clause, because it ...
▶ determines the type of meaning (announcement, ques on, wish,
condi on, ...)
▶ determines the distribu on: I wonder whether/*that he smokes
CP
C
that
TP
NP
the customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
13 / 24
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Recap
The complemen zer
Aspect
The structure of words
14 / 24
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(12) Simple vs. progressive
a. He will read the book.
15 / 24
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(12) Simple vs. progressive
a. He will read the book.
b. He will be reading the book.
15 / 24
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(12) Simple vs. progressive
a. He will read the book.
b. He will be reading the book.
(13) a. the whole event will take place in the future (přečte)
15 / 24
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(12) Simple vs. progressive
a. He will read the book.
b. He will be reading the book.
(13) a. the whole event will take place in the future (přečte)
b. at least a part of the event will take place in the future
(bude číst)
15 / 24
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(12) Simple vs. progressive
a. He will read the book.
b. He will be reading the book.
(13) a. the whole event will take place in the future (přečte)
b. at least a part of the event will take place in the future
(bude číst)
15 / 24
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▶ Aspect for verbs is similar to count vs. mass for nouns
(cumula vity)
16 / 24
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▶ Aspect for verbs is similar to count vs. mass for nouns
(cumula vity)
▶ Both boil down to the no on of boundedness
(14) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought rice.
16 / 24
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▶ Aspect for verbs is similar to count vs. mass for nouns
(cumula vity)
▶ Both boil down to the no on of boundedness
(14) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought rice.
b. On Tuesday, he bought rice.
16 / 24
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▶ Aspect for verbs is similar to count vs. mass for nouns
(cumula vity)
▶ Both boil down to the no on of boundedness
(14) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought rice.
b. On Tuesday, he bought rice.
c. So now, he has rice.
16 / 24
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▶ Aspect for verbs is similar to count vs. mass for nouns
(cumula vity)
▶ Both boil down to the no on of boundedness
(14) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought rice.
b. On Tuesday, he bought rice.
c. So now, he has rice.
(15) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought a chair.
16 / 24
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▶ Aspect for verbs is similar to count vs. mass for nouns
(cumula vity)
▶ Both boil down to the no on of boundedness
(14) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought rice.
b. On Tuesday, he bought rice.
c. So now, he has rice.
(15) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought a chair.
b. On Tuesday, he bought a chair.
16 / 24
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▶ Aspect for verbs is similar to count vs. mass for nouns
(cumula vity)
▶ Both boil down to the no on of boundedness
(14) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought rice.
b. On Tuesday, he bought rice.
c. So now, he has rice.
(15) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought a chair.
b. On Tuesday, he bought a chair.
c. ̸= So now, he has a chair.
16 / 24
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▶ Aspect for verbs is similar to count vs. mass for nouns
(cumula vity)
▶ Both boil down to the no on of boundedness
(14) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought rice.
b. On Tuesday, he bought rice.
c. So now, he has rice.
(15) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he bought a chair.
b. On Tuesday, he bought a chair.
c. ̸= So now, he has a chair.
d. He has two chairs
16 / 24
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(16) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he was reading a book.
17 / 24
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(16) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he was reading a book.
b. On Tuesday, he was reading a book.
17 / 24
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(16) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he was reading a book.
b. On Tuesday, he was reading a book.
c. ...
d. So the whole week, he was reading this book.
17 / 24
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(16) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he was reading a book.
b. On Tuesday, he was reading a book.
c. ...
d. So the whole week, he was reading this book.
(17) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he read a book.
17 / 24
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(16) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he was reading a book.
b. On Tuesday, he was reading a book.
c. ...
d. So the whole week, he was reading this book.
(17) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he read a book.
b. On Tuesday, he read a book.
17 / 24
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(16) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he was reading a book.
b. On Tuesday, he was reading a book.
c. ...
d. So the whole week, he was reading this book.
(17) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he read a book.
b. On Tuesday, he read a book.
c. ...
d. ̸= So in the course of the week, he read this book.
17 / 24
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(16) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he was reading a book.
b. On Tuesday, he was reading a book.
c. ...
d. So the whole week, he was reading this book.
(17) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he read a book.
b. On Tuesday, he read a book.
c. ...
d. ̸= So in the course of the week, he read this book.
e. He read seven books
17 / 24
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(16) Cumula vity
a. On Monday, he was reading a book.
b. On Tuesday, he was reading a book.
c. ...
d. So the whole week, he was reading this book.
(17) non-cumula vity
a. On Monday, he read a book.
b. On Tuesday, he read a book.
c. ...
d. ̸= So in the course of the week, he read this book.
e. He read seven books
▶ the progressive lacks a boundary where one event stops and
another one begins (just like mass nouns)
17 / 24
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.
TP
NP
the customer in the corner
TP
T
will
AspP
Asp
be
VP
VP
V
ordering
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
18 / 24
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Recap
The complemen zer
Aspect
The structure of words
19 / 24
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Czech
(18) a. objedn
order
-at
‘to
order’
20 / 24
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Czech
(18) a. objedn
order
-at
‘to
order’
b. objedn
order
-áv
-
-at
‘to
be ordering’
20 / 24
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Czech
(18) a. objedn
order
-at
‘to
order’
b. objedn
order
-áv
-
-at
‘to
be ordering’
c. objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-š
-2.
‘you are ordering’
20 / 24
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Czech
(18) a. objedn
order
-at
‘to
order’
b. objedn
order
-áv
-
-at
‘to
be ordering’
c. objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-š
-2.
‘you are ordering’
d. objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-m
-1.
‘I am ordering’
20 / 24
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Czech
(18) a. objedn
order
-at
‘to
order’
b. objedn
order
-áv
-
-at
‘to
be ordering’
c. objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-š
-2.
‘you are ordering’
d. objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-m
-1.
‘I am ordering’
e. objedn
order
-
-
-á
-
-m
-1.
‘I will order’
20 / 24
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Czech
(18) a. objedn
order
-at
‘to
order’
b. objedn
order
-áv
-
-at
‘to
be ordering’
c. objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-š
-2.
‘you are ordering’
d. objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-m
-1.
‘I am ordering’
e. objedn
order
-
-
-á
-
-m
-1.
‘I will order’
f. objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-š
-2.
-li
‘if
you are ordering’ 20 / 24
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Czech
(19) objedn
order
-áv
-
-á
-
-š
-2.
-li
‘if
you are ordering’
(20) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
21 / 24
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Czech vs. English
(21) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
22 / 24
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Czech vs. English
(21) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
(22) English order:
that you will be ordering the drinks
mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
22 / 24
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.
Czech vs. English
(21) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
(22) English order:
that you will be ordering the drinks
mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
▶ The English order is the mirror image of the Czech one
22 / 24
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.
Czech vs. English
(21) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
(22) English order:
that you will be ordering the drinks
mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
▶ The English order is the mirror image of the Czech one
▶ we can see that if we switch the ”precede” sign > by a ”follow”
sign < in one of the languages.
22 / 24
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.
Czech vs. English
(21) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
(22) English order:
that you will be ordering the drinks
mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
▶ The English order is the mirror image of the Czech one
▶ we can see that if we switch the ”precede” sign > by a ”follow”
sign < in one of the languages.
(23) a. English: mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
b. Czech: mood < subject < tense < aspect < event
22 / 24
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.
Czech vs. English
(21) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
(22) English order:
that you will be ordering the drinks
mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
▶ The English order is the mirror image of the Czech one
▶ we can see that if we switch the ”precede” sign > by a ”follow”
sign < in one of the languages.
(23) a. English: mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
b. Czech: mood < subject < tense < aspect < event
▶ The order in (23a) reads ‘mood precedes the subject’ while the
order (23b) reads ‘mood follows the subject.’
22 / 24
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.
Czech vs. English
(21) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
(22) English order:
that you will be ordering the drinks
mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
▶ The English order is the mirror image of the Czech one
▶ we can see that if we switch the ”precede” sign > by a ”follow”
sign < in one of the languages.
(23) a. English: mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
b. Czech: mood < subject < tense < aspect < event
▶ The order in (23a) reads ‘mood precedes the subject’ while the
order (23b) reads ‘mood follows the subject.’
▶ They are ‘the same’ order, but they go in di erent direc ons
22 / 24
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▶ An important generaliza on about languages is (24). (It has
excep ons.)
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▶ An important generaliza on about languages is (24). (It has
excep ons.)
(24) The Mirror Principle
The order of morphemes inside words is the mirror image of
the order of words in syntax
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▶ The following two trees bring out the ‘mirror image’ nature of
the two systems. If we draw a ver cal line in between the two
trees, the line will serve as a symmetry axis.
C
T
T
Asp
V
objedn
Asp
-áv
T
-á
subj
-š
C
-li
C
C
that
T
subj
you
T
T
will
Asp
Asp
be
V
ordering
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