Syntax
Pavel Caha 27 Sept 2021
Studying syntax
► Syntax cares about structure, not strings
► Two consequences:
► One string can have multiple meanings (ambiguity)
► Different strings can have the same meaning (language variation)
► Rules of language obey structural - not linear - arrangement
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Ambiguity
(1)     black cab drivers
Ambiguity
(1)     black cab drivers
a.    drivers of black cabs
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Ambiguity
(1)     black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
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Ambiguity
(1)     black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
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Ambiguity
(1)     black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
Ambiguity
(2)     hit the dog with a hat
a. the dog has a hat on
b. the hat is used to hit the dog
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(3)     hit the dog with a hat
a. the hat is used to hit the dog
b. the dog has a hat on
drivers with a hat
black
black hit
cab the dog
drivers
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(4)     hit the dog with a hat
a. the dog has a hat on
b. the hat is used to hit the dog
drivers with a hat
black hit
cab the dog
drivers with a hat
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Nodes and hierarchies
V \— I  WJ JUL'
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► lines are called edges
9/43
lines are called edges
at the end of each edge, there is a node
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1 2
2 3
► lines are called edges
► at the end of each edge, there is a node
► 1, 2, 3 are terminal nodes
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5 5
12 2 3
► lines are called edges
► at the end of each edge, there is a node
► 1, 2, 3 are terminal nodes
► 4, 5 are non-terminal nodes
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5
(4)^3 1 2
2 3
There is a hierarchy among nodes
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There is a hierarchy among nodes 5 is higher than 4 (dominance)
=
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A
in the tree on the left ► the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
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5 5
► in the tree on the left
► the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
► 2 and 3 are two edges away
□ s
5 5
► in the tree on the left
► the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
► 2 and 3 are two edges away
► 3 is the highest terminal
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in the tree on the left
► the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
► 2 and 3 are two edges away
► 3 is the highest terminal
in the tree on the right
► 1 is the highest terminal (Every node that dominates 1 dominates also other terminals, but not vice versa)
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My point today
5 5
► Languages care about who the highest node is
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My point today
5 5
► Languages care about who the highest node is
► We can see that from the way rules work
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Question Formation in English
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Question formation
(5)     An example
a.    The murderer has broken the window.
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Question formation
(5)     An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
Question formation
(5) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
(6) Another example
a.    The murderer was arrested last night.
Question formation
(5) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
(6) Another example
a. The murderer was arrested last night.
b. Was the murderer arrested last night?
Question formation
(5) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
(6) Another example
a. The murderer was arrested last night.
b. Was the murderer arrested last night?
(7) The pattern
a.    Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb ...
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Question formation
(5) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
(6) Another example
a. The murderer was arrested last night.
b. Was the murderer arrested last night?
(7) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb ...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb .
□ S
Question formation in English
(8)     The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
□ e
Question formation in English
(8)
The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb.
(9)     Two hypotheses:
a.    Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
Question formation in English
(8) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
(9) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
b. subject Auxiliary subject main verb ....
□ r5>
Question formation in English
(8) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb..
(9) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxilmry^si^ main verb ....
b. subject Auxiliary subject main verb ....
(10)     a.    These new shops definitely are doing well
Question formation in English
(8) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
(9) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
b. subject Auxiliary subject main verb ....
(10)     a.    These new shops definitely are doing well.
b.   Are these new shops definitely — doing we
Question formation in English
(8) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
(9) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
b. subject Auxiliary subject main verb ....
(10)     a.    These new shops definitely are doing well.
b. Are these new shops definitely — doing we
c. ^Definitely are these new shops doing well.
(11)     a.    The man who is tall is happy.
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The man who is tall is happy. The man who is tall is happy.
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(11)
a.	The man who			is	tall	is	happy.	
b.	The man who			is	tall	is	happy.	
c.	*	Is	The man who		-tall		is	happy?
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The man who is tall is happy.
happy.
The man who
is
tall
is
Is
Is
The man who — tall
is
happy?
The man who
is
tall — happy?
a.    The man who is tall is happy.
happy.
b.   The man who
is
tall
is
c.
d.
Is
Is
The man who — tall
is
happy?
The man who
is
tall — happy?
The moving element is closest in terms of structural distance
a.    The man who is tall is happy.
happy.
b.   The man who
is
tall
is
c.
d.
Is
Is
The man who — tall
is
happy?
The man who
is
tall — happy?
The moving element is closest in terms of structural distance
3
sentence
subject predicate
the man who is tall    is happy
sentence
subject
predicate
the mo n who is toll    copula adjective
is
hoppy
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sentence
subject
predicate
determiner     nominal part     copula adjective
the
man who is toll is
hoppy
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sentence
subject
predicate
determiner     nominal part
copula adjective
the      noun     relative clause is
happy
man       who is tall
□ S1
sentence
subject
predicate
determiner     nominal part
copula adjective
the noun
relative clause is
happy
man    subject predicate
who
is toll
□ s
sentence
subject
predicate
determiner     nominal part
copula adjective
the noun
relative clause is
happy
man subject
predicate
who    copula adjective
is
tall
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sentence
subject
predicate
determiner     nominal part
copula adjective
the noun
relative clause    (7s) happy
man subject
predicate
who    copula adjective
tall
is
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Multiple strings: one meaning
Verb Second in German
v v» i kj <jv» VrfV-/1 i      v^u i v» +j u kj\-/ w u 111 v» i u i V/i i y
□       rS1       ~       =       1 ^0Q,O
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(14)     a.    (3 + 2) + 5 = 10
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(14)     a.    (3 + 2) + 5 = 10 b.    ( 2 + 3 ) + 5 = 10
<□► < [S1 ► < -E *■ < -š ►      š Q, O
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(14)     a.    (3 + 2) + 5 = 10
b. ( 2 + 3 ) + 5 = 10
c. 5 + ( 3 + 2 ) = 10
<□► < [S1 ► < -E *■ < -š ►      š Q, O
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(14)
a. (3 + 2) + 5 = 10
b. ( 2 + 3 ) + 5 = 10
c. 5 + ( 3 + 2 ) = 10
d. 5 + ( 2 + 3 ) = 10
□ S
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(14)
a. ( 3 + 2 ) + 5 = 10
b. ( 2 + 3 ) + 5 = 10
c. 5 + ( 3 + 2 ) = 10
d. 5 + ( 2 + 3 ) = 10
+10
+5 +5
+3 +2
n flp
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(14)
a. ( 3 + 2 ) + 5 = 10
b. ( 2 + 3 ) + 5 = 10
c. 5 + ( 3 + 2 ) = 10
d. 5 + ( 2 + 3 ) = 10
+10
+5 +5
+3 +2
+10
+5 +5
+2 +3
n flp
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(14)
a. ( 3 + 2 ) + 5 = 10
b. ( 2 + 3 ) + 5 = 10
c. 5 + ( 3 + 2 ) = 10
d. 5 + ( 2 + 3 ) = 10
+10
+5 +5
+3 +2
+10
+5 +5
+2 +3
+10
+5 +5
+3 +2
a g
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(14)
a. ( 3 + 2 ) + 5 = 10
b. ( 2 + 3 ) + 5 = 10
c. 5 + ( 3 + 2 ) = 10
d. 5 + ( 2 + 3 ) = 10
+10
+5 +5
+3 +2
+10
+5 +5
+2 +3
+10
+10
+5 +5
+5 +5
+3 +2
+2 +3
a g
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(15)      SVOvs. SOV
a.    (Hans says that) the dog eats the bone
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SVO vs. SOV
a. (Hans says that) the dog eats the bone
b. (Hans sagt dass) der Hund den      Knochen frisst. Hans said that the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eats '(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone/
(15)     SVOvs. SOV
a. (Hans says that) the dog eats the bone
b. (Hans sagt dass) der Hund den      Knochen frisst. Hans said that the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eats '(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone/
sentence
subject
event
the dog verb
object
eats
the bone
(15)      SVOvs. SOV
a. (Hans says that) the dog eats the bone
b. (Hans sagt dass) der Hund den      Knochen frisst. Hans said that the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eats '(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone/
sentence sentence
subject
event
subject
event
the dog verb
object
der Hund the dog
object
verb
eats
the bone
den Knochen the bone
frisst
eats
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Verb Second in German
v LI U JtWI IU I L J UUUUL  MILI a
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(16)     Hans sagt...
a.    ... dass der Hund den      Knochen frisst. ... that the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eats '(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone/
□ a?
Hans sagt...
a. ... dass der Hund den      Knochen frisst. ... that the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eats '(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone/
b. Der Hund frisst den Knochen, the dog eats the.ACC bone.ACC 'The dog eats the bone/
(16)     Hans sagt...
a. ... dass der Hund den      Knochen frisst. ... that the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eats '(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone/
b. Der Hund frisst den Knochen, the dog eats the.ACC bone.ACC 'The dog eats the bone/
sentence
subject
event
the dog object
verb
the bone
eats
□ s
(16)     Hans sagt...
a. ... dass der Hund den      Knochen frisst. ... that the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eats '(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone/
b. Der Hund frisst den Knochen, the dog eats the.ACC bone.ACC 'The dog eats the bone/
sentence sentence
subject
event
subject
event
the dog object
verb
the dog verb
object
the bone
eats
eats
the bone
(16)     Hans sagt...
a. ... dass der Hund den      Knochen frisst. ... that the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eats '(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone/
b. Der Hund frisst den Knochen, the dog eats the.ACC bone.ACC 'The dog eats the bone/
sentence sentence
subject
event
subject
event
the dog object
verb
the dog verb
object
the bone
eats
eats
the bone
► But this can't be the right analysis.
Verb second
(17)     a.    Der Patient mag den Doktor.
The patient likes the doctor
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Verb second
(17)     a.    Der Patient mag den Doktor.
The patient likes the doctor b.    'Perhaps      the patient likes the doctor/
Verb second
(17)     a.    Der Patient mag den Doktor.
The patient likes the doctor
b. 'Perhaps      the patient likes the doctor/
c. Vielleicht mag Der Patient       den Doktor. Perhaps likes the patient      the doctor
Verb second
(17) a.    Der Patient mag den Doktor.
The patient likes the doctor
b. 'Perhaps      the patient likes the doctor/
c. Vielleicht mag Der Patient       den Doktor. Perhaps likes the patient      the doctor
(18) Verb second:
TOPIC verb Subject Object vefb....
Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19)     a.    Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information)
Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19)     a.    Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information) b.    Focus: The answer to that question (new information)
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Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19) a.    Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information) b.    Focus: The answer to that question (new information)
(20) Neutral word order (everything is new)
a. What's the news in the world?
b. It is snowing in the Alps.
□ S
Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19) a.    Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information) b.    Focus: The answer to that question (new information)
(20) Neutral word order (everything is new)
a. What's the news in the world?
b. It is snowing in the Alps.
(21) Contrastive topic
a.    Is there snow in Krkonose? (introducing topic)
Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19) a.    Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information) b.    Focus: The answer to that question (new information)
(20) Neutral word order (everything is new)
a. What's the news in the world?
b. It is snowing in the Alps.
(21) Contrastive topic
a. Is there snow in Krkonoše? (introducing topic)
b. No, there is NO snow in Krkonoše. (Krkonoše is the topic, you can't stress it)
< □      rS ► < l ► 4 =       l    ^0 0,0
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Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19) a.    Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information) b.    Focus: The answer to that question (new information)
(20) Neutral word order (everything is new)
a. What's the news in the world?
b. It is snowing in the Alps.
(21) Contrastive topic
a. Is there snow in Krkonoše? (introducing topic)
b. No, there is NO snow in Krkonoše. (Krkonoše is the topic, you can't stress it)
c. ... but IN THE ALPS, there is some.
(Alps = contrastive topic, it has stress, it is first)
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(22)     The verb second property
a. Es schneit auf der Alb. it snows on the Alb 'It is snowing on the Alb/
St«!»«!»    1 ^O^O
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(22)     The verb second property
a. Es schneit auf der Alb. it snows on the Alb
'It is snowing on the Alb/
b. Auf der Alb schneit es. on the Alb snows it 'On the Alb, it is snowing/
<□► < [fp1 ► <      *■ < -E ►      -E Q, O
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(22)     The verb second property
a. Es schneit auf der Alb. it snows on the Alb
'It is snowing on the Alb/
b. Auf der Alb schneit es.
on the Alb snows it 'On the Alb, it is snowing/
c. In the Alps, it is snowing.
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The verb second property
a. Es schneit auf der Alb. it snows on the Alb
'It is snowing on the Alb/
b. Auf der Alb schneit es.
on the Alb snows it 'On the Alb, it is snowing/
c. In the Alps, it is snowing.
Second place phenomena will be important (Czech has clitic second)
□ a
"he verb moves
(23)     Verb second:
TOPIC verb Subject Object vefb....
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An argument
(24)     a.    Er sagte, dass er morgen komme.
he said   that he tomorrow comes
'He said that he was going to come the day after/
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Er sagte, dass er morgen komme.
he said   that he tomorrow comes
'He said that he was going to come the day afte
Er sagte, er komme morgen.
He said   he comes tomorrow
'He said that he was going to come the day afte
Er sagte, dass er morgen komme, he said   that he tomorrow comes 'He said that he was going to come the day afte Er sagte, er komme morgen. He said   he comes tomorrow 'He said that he was going to come the day afte *Er sagte, dass er komme morgen. He said   that he comes tomorrow
An argument
(24) a.    Er sagte, dass er morgen komme.
he said   that he tomorrow comes
'He said that he was going to come the day after/
b. Er sagte, er komme morgen. He said   he comes tomorrow
'He said that he was going to come the day after/
c. *Er sagte, dass er komme morgen.
He said   that he comes tomorrow
(25) Verb second:
TOPIC !{complementizer!! Subject Object verb ....
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Supporting evidence
(26)     Verb movement leads to verb splitting
a.       dass Hans das      Kind ab-holt. ... that Hans the.ACC child.ACC up-picks that Hans picks up the child/
□ iS1
Supporting evidence
(26)     Verb movement leads to verb splitting
a. dass Hans das Kind ab-holt. ... that Hans the.ACC child.ACC up-picks '..., that Hans picks up the child/
b. Hans holt das Kind ab. Hans picks the.ACC child.ACC up 'Hans picks up the child/
□ iS1
Supporting evidence
(26) Verb movement leads to verb splitting
a. dass Hans das Kind ab-holt. ... that Hans the.ACC child.ACC up-picks '..., that Hans picks up the child/
b. Hans holt das Kind ab. Hans picks the.ACC child.ACC up 'Hans picks up the child/
(27) Verb second:
TOPIC verb Subject Object particle-vefb..
□ o
Mb* b
Verb second cares about hierarchy
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Multiple verbs
(28)     a.    ... because the dog has eaten the bone
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Multiple verbs
(28)     a.    ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b.    ...weil      der Hund den      Knochen gefressen hat. ... because the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eaten has because the dog has eaten the bone/
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Multiple verbs
(28)     a.    ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b.    ...weil      der Hund den      Knochen gefressen hat. ... because the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eaten has because the dog has eaten the bone/
completed event
AUX
event
has
verb
object
eaten
the bone
□ s
37/43
Multiple verbs
(28)     a.    ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b.    ... weil      derHundden      Knochen gefressen hat. ... because the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eaten has because the dog has eaten the bone/
completed event completed event
AUX
event
event
AUX
has
verb
object
object
verb
hat
has
eaten
the bone
den Knochen the bone
gefressen eaten
□ s
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Multiple verbs
(29)     a.    ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b.    ... weil      derHundden      Knochen gefressen hat. ... because the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eaten has because the dog has eaten the bone/
completed event completed event
object
event
verb
AUX
hat
has
has
verb
object
den Knochen the bone
gefressen eaten
eaten
the bone
□ s
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Multiple verbs
(30)     a.    ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b.    ... weil      derHundden      Knochen gefressen hat. ... because the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eaten has because the dog has eaten the bone/
completed event completed event
verb
object
object
verb
has
hat
has
eaten
the bone
den Knochen the bone
gefressen eaten
□ s
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Multiple verbs
(31)     Verb second as move closest (structural version):
TOPIC auxiliary Subject Object main verb auxiliary ....
Multiple verbs
(31)     Verb second as move closest (structural version):
TOPIC auxiliary Subject Object main verb auxiliary
(32)     Verb second as move closest (linear version):
TOPIC main verb Subject Object main verb auxiliary
□ a?
Multiple verbs
(33)     a.    ...weil      der Hund den      Knochen gefressen hat.
... because the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eaten has because the dog has eaten the bone/
Multiple verbs
(33)     a.    ...weil      der Hund den      Knochen gefressen hat.
... because the dog  the.ACC bone.ACC eaten has because the dog has eaten the bone/ b.    der Hund hat den      Knochen gefressen.
the dog   has the.ACC bone.ACC eaten because the dog has eaten the bone.
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V \— I WJ JUL'
Conclusions
=       1       Q, O
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conclusions
► Two rules
conclusions
► Two rules
► Question formation in English
43/43
conclusions
► Two rules
► Question formation in English
► Verb second in German
conclusions
Two rules
► Question formation in English
► Verb second in German
The observations
► Verb movement in English targets the main-clause auxiliary
43/43
conclusions
► Two rules
► Question formation in English
► Verb second in German
► The observations
► Verb movement in English targets the main-clause auxiliary
► Verb movement in German targets the structurally highest verb
□ r5>
conclusions
► Two rules
► Question formation in English
► Verb second in German
► The observations
► Verb movement in English targets the main-clause auxiliary
► Verb movement in German targets the structurally highest verb
► These two rules are dependent on structure, not on linear order