Adobe Systems 1 Focus Groups CMAa11 Qualitative Research Adobe Systems 2 What are we going to talk about today? ̶The origin of focus groups ̶The principle and purpose of focus groups as a research method ̶How to conduct focus groups ̶Focus group guide ̶Focus group moderation ̶The role of the assistant ̶ ̶ ̶ Adobe Systems 3 What do you know or how do you imagine a focus group? Question for the beginning ̶ Adobe Systems 4 Adobe Systems 5 Sociology (40s-50s) What is the origin of focus groups? Something extra: ̶Robert K. Merton (1910 – 2003) and Paul Lazarsfeld ̶WWII: research on the effects of US war mobilization propaganda (to increase willingness to mobilize and fight, to make fighting meaningful) ̶The Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University ̶Original research: confrontation with the material and dichotomous indication of emotions ("like" "dislike" button) -> analytical speculation about the reasons ̶Introduction of the focused interviews method Discussion of the reasons for positive and negative emotions Form: more of an individual or a serial interview Goal: confirm or modify experimental hypotheses ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶Interpretation of the meaning of US propaganda materials: https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/powers-of-persuasion Adobe Systems 6 Marketing (50s-80s) Further developments Some findings: ̶Ernest Dichter (1907 – 1991) ̶American Freudian psychologist and analyst, Austrian immigrant ̶reactions to the inadequacy of consumer surveys and sales metrics ̶Marketing: a tool for externally creating needs so that they are experienced as internal ̶Commodity fetishism and consumer hedonism as instruments of defence of society against totalitarianism (fascism and communism). ̶New concept of FG (application of therapeutic procedures and techniques): room with one-way mirror gather the target group reveal desires and predispositions build a brand identity (and create a need and sense of empowerment) ̶Compton Agency (soap sales): bathing is also a symbolic and mental cleansing, it is not the instrumental reason for use that is important, but the meaning in life -> "Start again with ...„ ̶Chrysler Corporation (Plymouth sales): advertise in women's magazines + keep low-selling types of goods ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶Reason for the use and success of the lighter: symbolic reasons (need to control the fire) ̶ ̶Cake ready mix: necessary to add something yourself ̶ ̶Mattel (Barbie): a doll is not just for play, it is also about aspirational identification ̶ Adobe Systems 7 Medical/nursing studies (80s) Further developments ̶FGs are beginning to return to academia, now without the emphasis on hypothesis testing ̶ ̶Topics related to sexuality and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) at the beginning ̶efforts to understand the spread (risk factors and populations) ̶disease progression and impact ̶stigma mechanisms ̶ ̶Later and now: ̶interest in experiencing all kinds of diseases and disabilities ̶setting and availability of therapeutic procedures and services ̶public image of diseases and attitudes towards health -> planning of health campaigns and their effectiveness Adobe Systems 8 Other areas Further developments ̶Political Science/Politics: ̶Reagan administration - attitudes toward the US-USSR relationship ̶Labour Party: attitudes of the British towards tuition fees ̶ ̶Applied areas: ̶Urban planning ̶Evaluation of services and policies (government, commercial and non-government institutions) ̶Management (organisational culture, process setting) professional/expert groups (identification of systemic barriers in medicine, law, education, etc.) ̶ Adobe Systems 9 The nature of FG as a research technique ̶Takes advantage of the group's presence… ̶ ̶...discussing views, opinions and attitudes, values and meaning… ̶ ̶...towards a certain phenomenon/event - they concentrate on its meaning, which is the common focus of interest. Adobe Systems 10 What is the principle of their operation? ̶The main advantage and principle of the technique is the effect of social moderation = mutual influence of actors based on interaction, through which it also manifests itself. ̶It always exists, but in individual interviews it is only indirect and difficult to detect. ̶People make sense of the world not in a vacuum but in interaction (Weber, Schütz, Goffman, Garfinkel). Adobe Systems 11 What is the principle of their operation? ̶Georg Simmell (1858-1918) ̶society can only be studied through social interactions ̶study of forms of social interaction social interaction can also take place at the dyadic level, but it will always lead to consensus or polarization ̶but only the triad brings real social cooperation (cliques, relations of dominance and subordination, collective identity and consciousness can emerge) Adobe Systems 12 What is the principle of their operation? ̶More actors -> more interactions and iterations: ̶a wider variety of views and opinions ̶saves time and resources reduces the risk of forgetting Fern (1982): 1 FG can generate up to 70% of the data as a series of interviews. Adobe Systems 13 FG output? Adobe Systems 14 FG output? Adobe Systems 15 How to do focus groups? Adobe Systems 16 What is it and what is it good for? Focus group guide ̶A pre-prepared list of topics and questions that the moderator uses to guide the group discussion ̶ ̶Function: ̶Defines the researched field/topic Identifies the main areas of interest in this field/topic ̶Helps maintain encounter structure (introduction, core, conclusion) and expectations ̶Some (very experienced) researchers don't use it at all. ̶ Adobe Systems 17 ̶Hourglass: ̶It follows the logic of the discussion ̶Avoids unwanted skipping and repetitiveness ̶Builds rapport (relationship of trust, reciprocity and commitment) ̶Enhances logic ̶Reduces fatigue ̶Also used in other data collection methods (interviews, questionnaire) ̶Introduction/Greetings ̶Opening questions Introductory questions (warm-up) Key topics (core) ̶Final questions Free addition, debreefing, feedback Focus group guide The Structure Adobe Systems 18 Introduction/Welcome Focus group guide structure ̶Goal: ̶To put the participants in a situation ̶Address initial needs (where am I, how will it work, should I be afraid?) ̶Form: ̶Text x bullets ̶Relaxed friendly expression ̶Varying degrees of formality (beware of being too formal) ̶Content: ̶Welcome and "props": greetings, explicitly name the meeting (without a detailed description yet), thanks for attending, introduction of the researcher (who I am, for whom I work, possibly experience with research), introduction of the note-taker (+brief description of his/her role) ̶Treatment of initial needs: more detailed description of the nature of the meeting (topic in multiple sentences), topic segments of debate, length of meeting, sponsor/funding/independence, format = debate = importance of everyone's voice, collect a range of attitudes and perspectives, respond to each other ̶Rules and ethics, "calming down": define the rules (politeness, respect, conflict yes, but politely, agreement and disagreement ok, not jumping into each other's mouths, confidentiality), explain the logic of data collection and the need to record, explain what will happen with the recording and the data, what the output will look like, ask for 'enthusiastic' consent, strong emphasis on anonymity and confidentiality and link to need for openness, no right or wrong answers, not testing, option not to answer (off-record), 'feel at home' (refreshments) ̶Formalities: info consent ( if not signed in advance), socdem questionnaire (if not provided in advance or collected at the end), name cards (nicknames), silence phones ̶Pre-start questions Adobe Systems 19 Introduction/Welcome Example (text) Focus group guide structure Introduction of the moderator/note-taker Adobe Systems 20 Opening Questions Focus group guide structure ̶Beginning of the discussion ̶Often one question: ̶Inclusive: so that everyone can/should respond very short and simple ̶reduces fear of difficulty breaking the silence (important for further speaking) has no informative value ̶does not encourage debate (just a "round") ̶Usually: ̶introduction + something about yourself (what you saw last time on a streaming platform, studio type/discipline, how you are, what the road was like) beware of possible pitfalls (breaking anonymity, polarization/conflict) Adobe Systems 21 Opening Questions Focus group guide structure ̶The question can be replaced by a simple activity with an assignment (next class) ̶ ̶Limits: ̶starting activity does not lead to "talking" (this occurs only at the first "real question„) ̶may take time Adobe Systems 22 Opening Questions Focus group guide structure Adobe Systems 23 Introductory questions (warm-up) Focus group guide structure ̶Typically a series of questions and probes: ̶approx. 3 to 5 questions connection to the topic ("warm" the debate) ̶but the generality and lower difficulty ̶approx. for 15 minutes (initial "operating temperature" time) Alternative: introducing the definition of the main topic (based on "public knowledge„): "We hear about... What do you think of this term?" "We often see ... what for you ... means?" "... When and where do you encounter this term?" ̶ ̶ Adobe Systems 24 Introductory questions (warm-up) Focus group guide structure ̶ ̶ Adobe Systems 25 Key topics (core) Focus group guide structure ̶The most important part of the discussion Half to two-thirds of the time ̶A series of questions with a direct link to research objectives Mono/multi-thematic (as needed) ̶Location: approx. third to half of the quide (optimum "operating temperature") carefully prepared probes (it is necessary to "touch" the phenomenon in detail) ̶Highly detailed analysis ̶ Adobe Systems 26 Key topics (core) Focus group guide structure Adobe Systems 27 Closing questions Focus group guide structure ̶ ̶ ̶A series of more general, easier questions/tasks: ̶They indicate the last part of the discussion They relax participants and help to concentrate "before the finish" ̶Allow summarization (for both sides) Don't rush ̶Possibilities: ̶ranking: topics, arguments, meanings according to some logic (e.g., importance, frequency, positivity,...) summary: the moderator summarizes the key findings in a few theses/points and let them be briefly "validated" or expanded ̶role play: participants play the role of advisor/director/leader/politician/expert/celebrity and formulate a message of "what should be done"/"what they themselves would do" Adobe Systems 28 Closing questions Focus group guide structure ̶ ̶ Adobe Systems 29 Free addition, debreefing, feedback Focus group guide structure ̶ ̶ ̶Filling in "blind spots" ̶the equivalent of "diagnosis with your hand on the doorknob" in medicine ̶indication of omission of significant aspects or possibilities of changing the way of questioning (e.g. we did not beat sensitivity) do not underestimate time ̶Invitation to reflect on progress and impressions, control of harm ̶Opportunity to further (re-)explain the purpose and process ̶Thank you, farewell, invitation to take refreshments away Adobe Systems 30 Free addition, debreefing, feedback Focus group guide structure ̶ ̶ Adobe Systems 31 Probes Focus group guide structure ̶ ̶ ̶Complementary questions ̶Maintain the moderator's focus (memory tool) ̶When it's not enough, they point to new perspectives ̶They are generated from available knowledge and research invention There's no need to overload the debate: ̶usually the main questions and questions provoking a range of answers ̶Optional (but recommended) Not an exhaustive "list of possibilities" Adobe Systems 32 Moderator Key roles in FG Notetaker/Assistant ̶Ensures the progress ̶Welcome phase ̶Instruction ̶Formalities Focus the discussion ̶Closing, farewell ̶Maintains integrity ̶Rapport ̶Controls the dynamics Atmosphere Tempers too assertive Encourages the silent ̶Separate data source, rescue in case of recording impossibility or failure ̶Ensures notetaking ̶Topics of discussion Parts of important speeches ̶Turns and changes in discussion Mutual reactions ̶Nonverbal communication Body, face, nodding... Intensity of dis/agreement ̶Disruptive factors ̶Notation without interpretation Ensures recording ̶Ensures the device and its functionality Turns recording on and off ̶Helps with activities (distributes papers, materials, if not done by a moderator) Sitting aside Adobe Systems 33 Moderation ̶Uses group dynamics but does not lead the group (it is not a questionnaire) ̶Keeps within the bounds of topic and functional atmosphere But not every deviation is a problem (it's a matter of degree) Conflict is not in principle a bad thing. ̶Ideal: only mild asking about reason and meaning and indicating transitions between parts, participants interact fluently on their own and lead to explanations ̶Moderation changes during FG: Initially more active, then more passive. ̶Active moderation ̶More directive Constant comparison of what has been said, how, why and how it relates to research goals Relation of the "now" situation to the whole of the investigation ̶Based on the targeted directing of the discussion ̶Passive moderation ̶"Invisibility" of the moderator Concentration within the situation "now" Listening quietly, appreciating and maintaining debate ̶ New James Bond Pinball Machines Adobe Systems 34 Silent participant Group dynamics Dominant participant ̶Barriers to expressing oneself ̶Expression rare, silent Risk of oversights ̶Risk of "fading out" (the longer the silence, the longer the silence) ̶Techniques: ̶Eye contact: direct, slightly longer, not too long The appeal: firstly, in general terms, "so we have several views here, do the others have the same, or do you differ in something?"; ̶ moderately directed "we have several views here, if anyone would like to add theirs ones, we appreciate everyone's views..."; ̶ Highly addressed "Peter/Martina, how about you, I'd be very happy if you share your view too, if you don't mind..." ̶Encouragement can bring relief to the participant, as well as more stress ̶More silent participants/ic may indicate a problem in recruitment or topic (or just a taboo that needs to be better grasped) ̶Without scruples, trying to dominate, to be first, to have the strongest voice ̶Expressing everything, a lot and as loudly as possible, possible aggression ̶Risk of collapse of the collective narrative and negative social moderation (silencing, reluctance to express oneself) ̶The need to respect but at the same time moderate ̶Techniques: Eye contact: at the end of the speech, the moderator moves on to the other participants and stays with them, lowering his/her eyes to the remarks Body: turned to the side, head towards others Verbal: Slight "Thank you for your insight, what do others think?"; Middle: "Thank you, I see you have much to say about XY and I would be happy if you would continue to participate, however it would be very nice if we could give space to others.„ Expressive: " Mary/Peter, can we please agree that you will think more about others and give them space as well?„ Good to combine with repeating the rules of group debate, and agreeing to them at the beginning. In the last instance, interrupting and asking for a moment between the four eyes on the side: clarifying the rules and offering or asking to leave Maintain professional performance ̶More dominant participants/ic may indicate polarity in the topic. Calm the argument by emphasizing the rules and possibly using or diverting to another topic. Based on the mix of participant characteristics and the moderation style Adobe Systems 35 "Wandering" participant Group dynamics ̶Trying to be a good participant, communicatively solved nervousness, talkativeness ̶A long, off-topic statements with no clear direction or conclusion ̶Risk of loss of collective narrative (fatigue) and noise (uncertainty of the direction and content of the discussion) ̶Techniques (according to the type of " wandering"): Long/repetitive speeches Eye contact: at the end of the talk, the moderator moves on to the next participants and stays with them, lowering his/her eyes to the notes Body: rotated sideways, forehead to others Verbal: Slight "Thank you for your insight, what do others think?"; Middle: "That was very detailed. Thank you, I can see that you have a lot to say about XY and I would be happy for you to continue to be involved, however it would be very nice if we tried to give space to others." Expressive: " Mary/Peter, thank you for your detailed insight. Can we agree on more space for the others?" Interrupting, jumping in to talk, thanking and politely reiterating the need to give space to others. Confused speeches To try to summarize one main thesis for others, to have it validated by "Thanks, I understand that correctly, right...?" Alternatively, to avoid a new iteration, "Thanks, Peter/Mary thinks that..., so what about the others? Maintain a professional approach Adobe Systems 36 Group dynamics Sensitivity, taboo, group silence ̶Sticking to one point of view ̶Suspiciously intense and fast consensus ̶According to some, a natural part of social dynamics; according to others, necessary to address: ̶Use a lighter version of some activation: often pre-write/mark/grade for yourself and then read ̶One question asked several times differently ̶Sensitivity/taboo ̶Depersonalization techniques "Hypothetical" situations (personal) "What if" (general) "Have you ever met?" ̶Personal disclamer It has to be engaging enough, but not too discrediting ̶Group silence ̶Activation Reformulation of the question Reduction of abstractness Example ̶ ̶ "Group thinking"