The Life of the Buddha: An Interpretation
Author(s): Nagao Gadjin and Mark L. Blum
Source: The Eastern Buddhist , Autumn 1987, NEW SERIES, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Autumn
1987), pp. 1-31
Published by: Eastern Buddhist Society
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44361788
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The Life of the Buddha
An Interpretation
Nagao Gadjin
ŚAkyamuni Buddha, the founder of one of the t
religions, has from the beginning been the dominant fi
tion which he inspired. His life is widely known an
studied in Asian lands. Indeed it is fascinating to co
sort of life a remarkable man like Śakyamuni lived. F
the Buddha's life has been described most elegantly i
with a variety of instructive episodes. Though witho
conflict, it was nonetheless extremely severe and r
from the life of the ordinary man. The biographies
interesting not only because they illustrate those un
make Buddhism what it is, but because they also co
doctrinal ideas which reached full development onl
tions.
If we compare the biographies of Buddha and Chr
there are differences on a number of points. To m
three, Christ was born the son of a carpenter and die
mere thirty-three years of age. His period of preac
one year, certainly no more than three years. In the ca
he was born into the highest possible social class: as
of a royal family. Furthermore, he lived a long life
ended on a note of peace and fulfillment. Śakya
preaching was forty-five years, and many kings of
earnest believers in him and his teachings. Thus the
* This is a translation of the second chapter of the author's
("The Sources of Buddhism," Osaka, 1984). The original work is
of a series of public lectures which were intended for a lay aud
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NAGAO
dha is surrounded by none of the tragedy of political op
marks the capital punishment of Christ. The differences
lives of these two men seem to me to parallel the diffe
characters of the two religions they founded.
Biographies of Śakyamuni, Sage of the Śakyas. There a
of works on the life of Śakyamuni in Japanese and West
by modern scholars, but when I speak of the "biographie
dha" my main source is the collection of Buddhist scrip
subject that have come down to us from the past. These
biographies available to us today were, in fact, compiled
years after the death of Śakyamuni. The literary attitu
that time was not like it is today when biographies are writt
ately; it appears that two thousand and some hundred y
the direct disciples of the Buddha himself did not write b
their teacher. A great many of the accomplishments an
Śakyamuni's life, however, were transmitted to each succe
tion; teachings and monastic rules elicited from them wer
and these in turn were passed on in the form of Sutra or
and it is within this material that we find fragmentary evid
events of the Buddha's life. Many centuries later, a who
literature centered on the life of the Buddha developed t
on this same source material. I am referring to such work
ch'u hsien-tsai yin-kuo ching (ÜSSÍSSS, T. 189) and t
hsing-chi ching T. 190), which take the sutra form; the
Vinaya texts which, in explaining each precept, provide us with events
and episodes from the Buddha's life; the Introduction to the Pali
Jataka which is itself a biography of the Buddha; Asvaghosa's Buddhacarita,
a poem of epic length, and other writings.
At the time this literature emerged, the deification of the Buddha was
in full swing; thus, these texts give lavish praise to the Buddha and are
replete with miraculous scenes related in the most beautiful of language.
Although these accounts offer a glimpse of the basic structure of
the Buddha's life, there has also been inserted a great deal of material
that cannot be considered historical fact. Scholars struggle to separate
fact from fiction in these texts, but this is an extremely difficult task. If
we remember, however, that this biographical literature reflects the
view of the Buddha held by the Buddhists of the period in which it was
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
composed, the literature itself becomes just as intere
historical facts (which can never be fully known) abo
Buddha. I feel we should also view this as an opportu
the character of Buddhist thought during this early p
within it the beginnings of doctrines that came to fr
later. Therefore, the biography of the Buddha which
here will focus on the prevalent views of the Buddha
the time of the creation of these biographies, rathe
historical facts of the Buddha's life.
Śakyamuni Buddha was born the son of the leader of a clan who
lived at the southern foot of the Himalaya mountains. He married and
had one child. He left his household (probably at about 29 years of
age) in search of religious truth and, at about the age of 35, found
enlightenment and became the Buddha. He travelled long and far,
preaching throughout the Gangetic plain, gaining many disciples and
believers along the way. Sometime during the 5th century B.C. (or the
4th century B.C.) he died at the age of 80 and entered Nirvana. Everything
I have mentioned thus far is regarded by scholars to be historical,
but there are a number of specific issues, such as the dates of his birth
and death that remain problematic.
The age in which the Buddha lived was one in which religion and
philosophy were remarkably advanced. In the Upanishadic literature
produced during the two or three preceding centuries, many original
thinkers had developed fresh thoughts. Economically, India had
entered a period of great transition, with coin currency having been put
into use. Politically, the center of Indian civilization had shifted from
northwest India to the Ganges River valley where a variety of
autocratic states had come into existence. Two of these states held enormous
power: Kosala, situated in the northwest quadrant of the
Gangetic plain, and its rival Magadha, situated downstream to the
southeast. Both maintained powerful armies and hoped to annex the
weaker states in the region. The capital of Kosala, called Srāvastī, and
that of Magadha, known as Rājagrha, were about 450 kilometers apart
as the crow flies, but about 600 to 700 kilometers apart in actual travelling
distance. It was said to take 60 days on foot from one capital to the
other, which works out to approximately 10 kilometers per day. The
lengthy time needed for this journey is explained by the difficulties
travellers must have faced in fording the many rivers, large and small,
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NAGAO
that cross the Gangetic plain. The major rivers among th
Ganges and Yamuna flowing from west to east and the G
ing from north to south, all of which carry water from the
All three of these have formidable currents with considerable waves
and of course there were no bridges across them at that time. The actual
preaching of Śakyamuni was done during continuous travel within
the area of these two countries.
The name Śakyamuni, "sage of the Śakyas," is derived from the
name of the ethnic group known as the Śakya into which he was born.
This clan lived in the Tarai region on the southern slopes of the
Himalayas in what is now Nepal, their small kingdom being located
somewhat northeast of the city of Šrāvastl. It is not known what type
of people these Śakyas were, except that they were one of a number of
different ethnic groups that had coexisted in India since ancient times.
Today it is common practice to categorize the many tribes of the subcontinent
into Aryan and Dravidian peoples. The Dravidians were the
original inhabitants of India and are said to have been dark in color
with flat noses and thick lips. The term Aryan refers to the conquering
tribes that invaded India from the northwest much later and are regarded
as racially identical to the Caucasians found from Iran west to
Europe. But the internal divisions within these groups were quite complex,
and it has been inferred from the remains of the Indus Valley
Civilization that there had always been a mingling of the different
ethnic groups in India. Indeed, it appears there was a mixing of
Mediterranean (from the west), Australoid (from the south) and even
Mongoloid (from the north) peoples. This seems to have been especially
true in northwest India.
We really do not know where to place this Sãkya clan among all the
different ethnic strains. Some scholars guess they were of Mongol
stock. In the literature they are called the descendants of Iksvāku, that
is, descendants of the sun. This is probably best interpreted as an assertion
that the Sãkya were of Aryan stock; but it was common at this
time for ruling families to trace their genealogies back to the legendary
king Iksvāku, a son of Manu. Toward the end of Šākyamuni's life the
Sãkya people were overrun and annihilated by armies from the
neighboring state of Kosala. After this event, the name Śakya disappears
from history. Adding this final fact to the puzzle, we are unfor-
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
tunately left with inconclusive evidence of just who
were.
We do know that the Śakyas did not occupy a large area
that they were subordinate to Kosala. It is thought t
themselves with some kind of republican form of govern
their capital at Kapilavastu. Śakyamuni's father, named Ś
was head of the ruling oligarchy in this government and is
as the king. Odana means cooked rice, thus Śuddh
translated into Chinese as "pure rice." It is said he had thr
brothers whose names were "white rice" (Śuklodana), "a m
rice" (Droņodana) and "sweet rice" (Amrtodana). Because
contains the word for rice we infer that the Tarai region
fertile place for rice growing.
Suddhodana's queen, Maya, came from the neighbori
Koliya. She often is referred to as Mahämäyä, the prefix " ma
ing "great." The term goddess or " devi " frequently is als
her name, resulting in the form, Mâyâdevî. The word ma
usually translated as 'fantasy' or 'illusion' in Chinese. In B
is said the impermanence of the world is such that everything
ed to us only in a temporary form, for there is no real s
anything. This notion is likened to maya. Much later in Ind
maya became a philosophical principle used to express t
power of God. The name Maya also has been used since an
as the names of a variety of female deities, so it is indeed app
a woman's name.
From the union of these two was born a child they called Siddhār
tha. Siddhārtha means "to have one's wish come true" or "to realize
one's goal." It seems this was not an uncommon name at the time,
prompting some to speculate on the motivation behind its choice. It
might refer to his "excellent qualities" or to the fact that he is "already
accomplished in virtue" (i.e., the virtues befitting a Buddha); or it
might simply refer to "the wish coming true" of his parents to produce
the male child they had been longing for.
In addition to his given name Siddārtha, there is his family name of
Gotama or Gautama, literally, "superior cow." In India where cows
are so highly regarded, the name "Gautama" should be taken as a
direct expression of the family's high social status. Gotama or
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NAG AO
Gautama appears as a surname of many people in Indian his
cluding a number of ancient sages. Thus Sakyamuni's pro
was Gautama Siddhārtha. As it turns out, however, the foll
Buddhism rarely used his personal name, preferring to call h
dha", meaning "the enlightened one." Throughout the literat
is a standard list of ten different epithets for the Buddha that i
in addition to those just mentioned, the titles Tathāgata and
("well gone"). In sutras, Śakyamuni frequently refers to him
"the Tathāgata" instead of using a personal pronoun. This te
compasses manifold meanings but is usually translated into
simply as "thus come" or "thus gone." Generally, it is under
signify "coming into this world from true thusness," but it is p
acceptable to further interpret this as either coming or going "i
of thusness"; to wit, to live in accordance with Truth.
In the early period of Buddhism the name Buddha or Tathā
synonymous with Śakyamuni, as there were no other Bu
Tathāgatas. It was considered impossible for there to be anyo
than Śakyamuni who could have experienced the highest and m
plete enlightenment and thus become a Buddha while still in
form. The disciples of Buddha, no matter how far they prog
their ascetic practices, were aiming for the highest goal known t
the stage of the Arhat. It was unthinkable that they coul
equals of their teacher Śakyamuni.
With the onset of Mahayana Buddhism, however, the mea
the word Buddha expanded considerably, no longer being res
the historical Buddha. There were now numerous Buddhas wh
peared in the past and were scheduled to appear in the
Moreover, no longer restricted to this world, there were said
numerable Buddhas in Buddha worlds throughout the unive
became an accepted truth, and it is out of this ideological fra
that the so-called seven Buddhas of the past and Maitreya B
the distant future emerged. The land of the Tathāgata Akso
far off to the east and that of Amitābha Buddha ten trillion lan
to the West. Vairocana Buddha and the Great Sun Tathāgata
(Mahāvairocana) were established as "Buddhifications" of principles
of the universe. Yet another example would be Bhaisajyaguru (Medical
Teacher) Tathāgata, the Buddha who saves sentient beings from illness.
Thus the Mahayana is infused with a plurality of Buddhas and to
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
distinguish the historical Buddha, he is often referred to a
Buddha.
The suffix "muni" originally meant one who kept silent and by extension
came to designate an ascetic, wise man, or sage. Thus Śakyamuni
means "a wise man descended from the Śakya clan." Another common
epithet of the Buddha is "Bhagavat," meaning "blissful one" or
"holy man worthy of respect." This was translated many ways into
Chinese, most frequently as shih tsun ttt^- meaning "the Worldhonored
One."
Establishing the dates of his life presents a real problem. In India
country without a strong sense of history, there are many people
events whose precise times are unclear; often all we can pinpoint is
century. There are tens of different explanations about the dates of th
Buddha's life. Roughly dividing them in half, one camp concludes
lived approximately 560-480 B.C. and the other pegs his life from 4
380 B.C. - both agreeing his lifespan measured 80 years. The fact th
these two academic conclusions differ by as much as 100 years is not
all unusual in studies of Indian history. I will make no attempt here
resolve this problem as it has no real bearing on the issues I am raising,
but it is important to keep in mind, when reading modern works
Buddhism, that both opinions are currently held, the earlier date
generally appearing more often.
In conjunction with the uncertainty surrounding Sakyamuni's dat
it is also worth mentioning that there have been scholars who eve
denied his historical existence. More than a hundred years ago, an e
nent scholar of Sanskrit biographies of the Buddha, E. Senart, concl
ed that these biographies represented merely another example of t
sun myth which occurs frequently throughout the world, interject
doubt about the Buddha's historicity. He was immediately opposed
many scholars. Moreover, there is now archaeological evidenc
Sakyamuni's personal relics and remains of his clan have been fou
so that today we can safely say there are no scholars who deny th
such a man lived.
Within the Buddhist tradition statements vary as to whether he left
his family for the religious life at age 29 or 19 and whether he was
enlightened at age 35 or 30. Also, many of the miraculous tales in the
biographies cannot be taken as historical realities but, as I stated
above, they created an indelible impression of the Buddha in the minds
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NAGAO
of the later adherents of Buddhism. As legends, what do t
the Buddha have to say to us?
Birth and Younger Days as a Prince. The birth of Śaky
scribed as being accompanied by a host of miracles. L
becomes pregnant by dreaming of a white elephant desc
heaven and entering her womb. The palace is overcome w
her way home to have the birth, Maya stops to rest in a p
bini, and it is in this so-called "Lumbini-grove" that Ś
born. As Maya reaches out to grasp an Aśoka flower, Śak
born from her right side.
We are able to pinpoint the location of Lumbini from
erected there by King Aśoka (mid-third century B.C.) that was
discovered at the end of the last century. In 1958 I travelled from this
Lumbini to where there are remains of what is presumed to be
Kapilavastu, a journey of about 19 miles. There were only extremely
poor roads that traversed the fields, and the jeep shook like a boat coursing
through stormy seas. The two and a half hour trip would have
been far easier, it seemed, had we gone by elephant back.
In the story of the Buddha's birth, we should note that the pose of a
woman stretching her right arm up to grasp a flower is a traditional
way of representing a beautiful woman in Indian art. It is often seen in
depictions of goddesses in folk religion. The followers of Buddhism, in
applying this convention to the mother of the Buddha, show him being
born from her right side.
As soon as he is born, gods descend from the heavens to receive the
newborn baby, while two elephants stand on either side of him, one
pouring warm and the other cold water on the infant to bathe him.
This is called abhisekha (anointing, sprinkling) as it is similar to the
purification ritual performed in India when a king is crowned. This is
not the only miracle, for soon after his birth, the child takes seven steps
in each of the four directions, then utters the famous proclamation, "I
am alone the one to be venerated in heaven and earth." In other words,
among those dwelling in the heavens and on the earth, that is, among
all living beings, there is no more reverent being than him. As he says
this the infant stands pointing up to the sky with his right hand and
down to the earth with his left; this form is called the "newborn Buddha"
and is commonly depicted in Japanese art.
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
Miraculous events such as being born from his m
and initially being bathed by gods apparently were
Buddhists at the time these biographies were compiled
there was no other way to express their profound a
As they felt it was itself a miracle that one such as Śak
destined for Buddhahood, was born in this defiled wor
ing, they introduced these miracles into his biog
newborn infant could make the proclamation, "I am
be venerated in heaven and earth," can be thought o
we come to the age of Mahayana Buddhism, Śakyam
seen as someone who became a Buddha when he wa
ing his lifetime on earth, but as one who has been a
limitless past. In Mahayana thought he merely tak
demonstrate the experience of enlightenment to t
words, the "subject" or "person" who realized th
called "original enlightenment," has been born onc
form as Śakyamuni. Thus, this scene conceptuali
birth in this way anticipates Mahayana thought. T
am alone the one to be venerated in heaven and eart
rogant, though in fact it is not, for it expresses the at
Buddhists regarding Śakyamuni as the ultimate obje
after attaining enlightenment, the Buddha meets a
while on the road to Benares and in a similar vein t
become enlightened alone, without a teacher."
reflected in the original birth scene just described, wh
ment is a foregone conclusion.
After Lumbini, the newborn child is brought hom
Kapilavastu. In the sky a wisp of purple cloud appe
omen. Asita, a hermit living in the mountains, see
guessing that something wonderful has happened, d
tain to learn that a prince has been born. Straight a
palace and taking the new prince in his arms gives
look. Suddenly the hermit breaks out in tears.
dhodana, scolds him, saying, "Why do you cry on
day?" Asita answers, "The prince has been born wi
auspicious marks."
Asita also was a fortune-teller who read physical c
he recognized these marks as the thirty-two distinctiv
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NAGAO
be visible on a Buddha's body. On top of his head was
the usņīsa, the hair on his head grew in tight curls twistin
( pradaksiņāvarta-kesa ), between his eyebrows was a c
hair called the ūrņā, between his fingers was a mem
(jālāvanaddha), and so on. One can see in Buddhist sculp
to represent as many of these thirty-two laksaņas as po
tion there are another eighty markings on a Buddha tha
more subtle. These thirty-two major and eighty minor
found on a Cakravartin, a holy king who "turns the w
and is capable of subduing the entire world.
The hermit Asita then explained his reaction, "Because
endowed with the thirty-two marks, if he is kept at ho
bably become a Cakravartin; if he renounces the househ
become a Buddha without fail. Whether he becomes a Buddha or a
Cakravartin, the appearance of such a person in the world is an extremely
rare event. I have already reached old age and it will be impossible
for me to live long enough to see this. That is why I am crying."
Stories such as this clearly reveal the way of thinking of the Buddhists
at this time. The authors of these biographies established a
dichotomy between king and Buddha. They wanted to give the impression
that the world of a Buddha's enlightenment is even more noble
than that of a secular king of absolute authority who has conquered
the world. Rather than abandoning these accounts of miracles and prognostications
because they lack historical credibility, here is an example
of how they afford us a glimpse into the emotions and affirmations of
Buddhists living in India just before and after the time of Christ.
Various other stories accompany the youth of Śakyamuni. In one,
just after birth, the infant is carried to the shrine of the local deity for
his first pilgrimage, but when they arrive the deity is the one who
descends his dais to pay obeisance to Śakyamuni. Many such stories
have provided source material for the Buddhist art of later generations.
As a child Śakyamuni was notably gifted and it is stressed that he was
extremely capable in letters and the martial arts. In his special education
as prince, he probably studied both the Vedas and Upanishads,
and we assume he became well versed in both. In the martial arts as
well, whether it be archery, wrestling or whatever he attempted, he is
said to have been second to none. But he is sometimes depicted as decidedly
frail, not at all of robust stature, and one wonders how much in-
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
terest he actually had in the martial arts. He seems f
fallen into pensive moods; all the biographies depict s
in thought on the meaning of life.
That Śakyamuni had a tendency to become pensive
but anxiety for his father, the king. This was, of cou
to the ascetic Asita's prediction that if the young m
home he would become a great monarch, but that if
life behind he would become a Buddha. If the princ
groomed to rule the Śakya nation, renounced the wor
an ascetic, the king would be left stranded. Hence h
various steps taken to eliminate anything in the prin
that might bring on gloomy thoughts, hoping that by d
prevent the young man from reflecting on the impe
world. The king gathered a host of beautiful women
prince, and the Buddha himself tells of the palaces
each of the three seasons. India does not really have
summer, a rainy season and winter, and three palaces w
vide the most comfortable environment for each season. With the
special consideration given him, Śakyamuni undoubtedly spent h
youth in sensual extravagance. To a degree this may have been th
usual thing for an aristocrat, but it is interesting that the Buddha
himself mentions in the sutras that in his early years he lived a life
luxury.
He also married, although the age at which he did so differs from
biography to biography. Generally, it is assumed to have taken place at
about the age of 20. His wife was the beautiful and talented
Yaśodhara, and a son was born to them, Rāhula. Rāhula means
"obstacle", and the name is said to have come from Śakyamuni's
response upon hearing the announcement of his son's birth, to which
he murmured, "Ah, another obstacle." This is understood as indicating
that he considered affection toward children to be an obstacle
to his desire to renounce the world and cultivate the religious path. Taking
into account a number of elements relevant to Sakyamuni's home
life, it seems that the birth of Rāhula occurred quite some time after
the couple's marriage. As his consort, in addition to Yaśodhara, other
names, including that of Gopī, are mentioned. Gopï may be the name
of another wife, or it may merely be another name for Yaśodhara.
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NAGAO
Seeking Amusement Outside the Four Gates. Before S
renunciation of his home, one important event stan
biographies: the story of "seeking amusement outside t
This refers to departing from the four gates of the city
in search of amusement. Scholars today are generally
location of the ancient Kapilavastu. More than 20 ye
there to inspect the site. In scale it was a small city, about
meters by one kilometer. There are the remains of a mo
imagine the location of each of the city's gates outside
prince sought diversion.
One day as the prince was leaving the east gate he m
walking along the side of the road. Shocked at this first si
said to his groom, Chandaka, "What kind of person is
is bent, his face full of wrinkles, his head pure white - wh
ly walk! Who is that ugly person?" Chandaka answered
elderly person." When Śakyamuni inquired, "What k
ends up looking like that?" Chandaka explained, "Every
like that. You may be young now, but you will certainly
one day." Hearing this, Śakyamuni became pensive and
turned around and returned home.
On another day, they encountered a sick man when leaving the
southern gate. Seeing someone suffering the enfeeblement of illness for
the first time, he again asked, "What kind of person is that?" Chandaka
answered, "That is a sick person. You are young and healthy
now, but no doubt at some point you will become sick." Once again on
the occasion of leaving the western gate, they came across a funeral.
Seeing the deceased in a coffin surrounded by a group of people crying
in loud voices and heading for the edge of a field, Śakyamuni asked,
"What was that?" Chandaka responded, "Someone has died there.
You, too, will definitely die someday."
It seems incredible that Śakyamuni would know nothing of old age,
illness, or death before learning of them from his charioteer. Probably
these stories are given in this form to show the gradual deepening of
Śakyamuni's introspection on the human realities of aging, illness, and
especially, death. Actually the king, because of his fears, had planned
to lock the prince in a tower of the palace with women to serve him, but
gave in to his son's desire to leave the city, thinking it might dissipate
his melancholy. At the same time, the king gave strict orders that all
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
visually unappealing sights be removed from the ro
prince would not feel even the slightest bit of uncer
world. The fact that the old and the infirm did appear b
in spite of these precautions was because the gods in
jured them up. The retainers were scolded for what
the gods made the scene of the funeral visible only to t
planations given by the groom on the reality of agi
death also were made at the instigation of the gods as ev
red from telling him about these things.
The fourth time, as he was leaving the north gate seek
he encountered a sramaņa: a seeker of truth who, having
behind, has entered the forest and pursues his religious
cant. The name sramaņa is often mentioned toget
brahman (or brahmano) in Sanskrit (usually brahmi
highest class in the Indian social system. This indicat
regarded as being almost the equals of brahman
respected. The sramaņa the Buddha met had once aga
up by the gods for his sake. The sramaņa's gait revea
serenity and calm and his face reflected a mind free
bled by deep introspection. Śakyamuni was deeply m
saw. As usual, he asked his groom Chandaka who
this time he went on to question the man himself. From
Śakyamuni grew more and more certain that this
himself must follow. On the day of meeting the śraman
know of such a lofty way of life, he experienced true h
secret joy inside of him had finally emerged.
Apart from this story of "seeking amusement o
gates," various other events have been transmitted a
life prior to his renunciation of it, all of which relate a
leading to his resolution to leave home and become
also tell us about the objects of his concern which are
the central concerns of Buddhism - those aspects of
can avoid: aging, illness, and death. Or, one might sa
life itself.
Renunciation of the World. Śakyamuni eventually le
behind. In traditional India, a scheme was established
dividual's lifetime was divided into four stages ( ās'rama
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NAGAO
stage, reserved for one's later years, the individual was
family and become a homeless wanderer in search of trut
this reflects an ideal rather than any dominant social reality
renunciation was familiar to Indians in general. Śakyamun
tional because he was so thorough in the actual cutting of his
family, throne and nation. Thereafter he truly led the life o
wanderer, sleeping under trees with only a rock for a pillow
ing himself only by receiving alms from others. The word b
is often applied to Buddhist monastics ( bhiksuņī for wom
implied someone who had absolutely no place to live and
earning money; one who survived by meals begged from
other words, a beggar. Later, the concept of renouncing one's
household referred to leaving home to enter a monastery where one
lived and practiced religious discipline. But in this early period, bhiksu
were truly homeless. For Śakyamuni, who had previously led such an
extraordinarily luxurious life, it must have been a drastic change.
Finally Śakyamuni decided to leave his family and become a seeker,
but on the night he was about to slip away from the palace, he felt the
urge to embrace his only child, Rāhula. However, seeing his wife
Yasodharã sleeping next to the child and fearing he might arouse her,
he abandoned the idea and decided to leave immediately, being careful
not to make a sound. King Śuddhodana, in great fear that his son Siddhārtha
might abandon his family and home for the holy life, had surrounded
the palace with sentries to prevent his leaving. Knowing this,
Śakyamuni had his trusted servant Chandaka ready a superb white
horse named Kaņthaka upon whom he planned to make his escape.
Here the biographies tell us that because the sounds of Kaņthaka's
hooves might awaken the sentries, four devas descended from the sky,
each catching one of the horse's hooves before they hit the ground so
that not a sound would be heard as they jumped over the city wall. The
scene is frequently depicted in Indian sculpture. In the recently constructed
Golden Hall of Shitennõji in Osaka, there is also a mural painting
by Nakamura Gakuryõ which shows Śakyamuni riding Kaņthaka
with Chandaka running alongside, and if one looks carefully there are
faintly drawn white hands under the horse's hooves, the hands of the
gods.
Having left the city, Śakyamuni removed his jewelry, crown and expensive
garments, cut his hair, and gave all of this to Chandaka who
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
was then sent back to Kapilavastu. Sãkyamuni, his ren
complete, began his solitary journey. Knowing he wou
pursued, he first crossed the Lohini River and then wa
eventually arriving in the kingdom of Magadha. Rājagr
was a center of learning at the time and many great teach
During this first leg of his travels, one wonders just h
traversed the distance from Kapilavastu to Rājagrha
years ago I tried to follow the same path, hoping to tra
travelled. But at present we lack detailed information
he took. On his trek, for instance, he inevitably encoun
mous Ganges and Gaņdakī rivers, but we know nothin
and how he crossed them. When I crossed the Ganges
large 600 ton steamer-ferry it still took about an h
shallows and sandbanks, it was a very oblique crossing
long drift downstream. The Gaņdakī is not as wide, but
river with rough waves. Sãkyamuni had to face these
order to reach Magadha.
On arriving, he sought out two teachers: Ārāda Kālām
Rāmaputra, who were masters of meditation. But it was
before Sãkyamuni achieved the same stages of meditati
his teachers had attained. Recognizing this and unders
unusually gifted Sãkyamuni was, Ārāda Kālāma sugges
team up to train a large number of pupils. But Sãkyam
the stage of attainment he had reached was not true enligh
declined. Udraka Rāmaputra taught him how to achiev
meditative states, which Sãkyamuni easily mastered. T
taught by these two teachers were extremely soph
Sãkyamuni was still not satisfied. Like Kālāma, Rāmapu
to keep Sãkyamuni with him, but Sãkyamuni refused
both, deciding next to join a group of ascetics.
Ascetic Practices. Ascetics enjoyed tremendous respe
this time as asceticism was generally considered the ess
for obtaining liberation. There was a so-called "asce
Magadha where such people gathered, and it was here S
to test the waters. By "asceticism" I refer to the belie
enlightenment can be gained through enduring physica
flicted intentionally on the individual by himself. Toda
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NAG AO
known outside of India. In India, its history is extremely old, pr
the time of Śakyamuni. There are many forms of yoga; one f
the training of the body, another is concerned with contro
mind through meditation. Asceticism is one form of yoga,
one causes extreme pain to the body.
Śakyamuni pursued asceticism for the next six years. Ther
many different kinds of asceticism practiced at the time and Śak
probably tried most of them in accordance with the beliefs of h
He, himself, relates that he went through ascetic practices w
so painful that no one else could stand them. The gradual red
food was one type of ascetic practice. The intake of beans or r
be reduced to a single bean or grain daily. Or a small amount
would be taken but the interval between each meal increased to once
every few days and. finally to once every few weeks. This is equivalent
to fasting for long periods of time. Because the sutras often record that
those around him felt, "Gotama has died," we know he was risking his
life during his ascetic discipline.
Another practice we are told of was to close the nose and mouth and
stop breathing. Although death is the end result of not breathing, it
was said that by closing the nose and mouth one breathes through all
the pores in one's skin, making the entire body into a feverish mass.
There is a famous statue in the Lahore Museum in Pakistan showing
Śakyamuni in the throes of his ascetic practice. A superb sculpture in
the Gandharan style, it depicts an emaciated Śakyamuni with sunken
eyes and protruding ribs yet locked in an attitude of dauntless resolu-
tion.
Ascetics still can be seen in India sitting for hours in the scorching
heat of the sun, keeping the head pointed down for an entire day, lying
on a bed of nails, and in other painful poses. Such severe ascetic practices
stem from the belief that the spirit will become free and exalted
if it can be separated from the corporeal body, which is to be accomplished
by putting the body through tortuous experiences. Today it
is exceedingly difficult to imagine such an elevation of the spirit. In our
daily lives, far from becoming free and exalted, we are nearly driven
out of our minds even by such a relatively simple pain as a toothache;
how much more torturous must it be to lie naked on a bed of upturned
nails sharp enough to draw blood.
Living at a time when it was believed that asceticism was the key to
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
liberation, it was natural that Śakyamuni should al
although he was probably unusual in that he threw
the point of risking his life. Ultimately, however, he r
of asceticism and decided to abandon it. This was s
those around him and since ascetics were so respecte
contempt. But Śakyamuni sincerely sought the way
ment so, facing the truth about asceticism, he bold
He next walked to the banks of the Nairanjanā River near the
"ascetics' forest" and bathed himself in it. Indians routinely bathe in a
pond or river several times a day and there is religious significance in
this. In contrast, there is one traditional practice whereby ascetics
cover their bodies in dirt with the intent of never washing it off. Thus
Sakyamuni's bath symbolizes his repudiation of the creed of
asceticism. After finishing his bath and climbing the bank of the river,
Śakyamuni received a meal of rice gruel cooked in milk from a village
girl named Sujātā and ate. Actually Sujātā had been making daily offerings
to a large old tree nearby in hopes of realizing a wish and she was
elated to find an emaciated ascetic sitting at the base of this same tree
for she took him to be the spirit of the tree. She then rushed home and
carefully prepared rice gruel for him as an offering. Rice gruel is extremely
nutritious and having eaten it, Śakyamuni felt physically and
mentally restored.
Confrontation with Māra and Accomplishment of the Path. On the
west bank of the Nairanjanā River there was a huge expansive tree, a
variety of fig called pipalla or asvattha in Sanskrit. Later it became
known by the name "Bodhi-tree" or the tree of enlightenment, for it
was under this tree that Śakyamuni became totally enlightened.
Because Śakyamuni established himself as the "Buddha" under this
tree and because it was located about 6 miles south of the town of
Gaya, the site was given the name Buddha-Gayä (present Bodhgay
Before this event one version of the biography tells of him climbing
mountain on the east bank of the Nairanjanā River known as the
"Mountain Prior to Enlightenment" ( Prāg-bodhi ). Also on the east
bank of the river a village named Sujātā-kutī can be found today and
this name suggests the site from where Sujātā came to offer the milk
gruel to Śakyamuni. Ultimately Śakyamuni crossed over to the west
bank and spreading some cut grass under the Bodhi-tree, sat down to
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NAGAO
meditate. As he sat down he made a firm resolution, "Thi
not rise from this seat until I have experienced enlighten
ly, on the eighth day of the twelfth month (according
sources translated into Chinese), late at night as the planet
in the sky, he reached "the highest enlightenment." How
he was about to experience this enlightenment, he was bes
hosts of Māra. Through battling with and conquering M
able to reach enlightenment, and thus these two are oft
together in Chinese Buddhism in the phrase, "Conquerin
complishing the Path."
The Sanskrit word māra is transliterated in Chinese as mo-lo ÜB
which is usually abbreviated to mo. This character mo did not exist in
ancient times and is thought to have been created specifically for the
use of this transliteration, combining (sound element mo) with Ä
(ghost). "Māra," signifying destruction or killing, essentially means
death. There are several well-known frescos depicting the forces of
Māra in Buddhist caves in Central Asia; the images are indeed frightening.
If Sãkyamuni were to complete his enlightenment and the true
teaching thereby made available to the world, the influence of Māra
would be that much lessened, so Māra appears with his army before
Sãkyamuni in an attempt to obstruct his liberation. In these frescos, we
see the ugly, mean-faced warriors of Māra facing Sãkyamuni with
swords, spears, and other weapons ready to attack.
Descriptions of Māra' s army differ among the various biographies of
the Buddha, but all of them are quite detailed. There is a real assortment
of the hideous and grotesque: some of the soldiers have only one
eye, some only half a face, others three heads; some have dangling
tongues with split ends so long that they touch the ground. Some have
heads that are merely skulls, heads attached to their stomachs, or heads
of a wild boar or dragon; some have two legs but many bodies or one
body but many heads. Wielding every conceivable weapon they surround
the seated Buddha challenging his resolve not to move. They
jump this way and that, flames rising from their bodies, some even
floating in the air as they threaten the Buddha. There are warriors
holding what seems to be a flame-throwing device and there are snakes
spitting out poisonous venom. Despite all this intimidation,
Sãkyamuni sits unmoved. Māra attempts to crush his determination by
cajoling Sãkyamuni with sweet words. Māra whispers in his ear, "If
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
you would only leave this place and return hom
become a great emperor and conqueror of the wor
Māra next sends his three daughters to entice him
daughters use every bit of coquetry available to the
alabaster-like skin, luring him with song and danc
and soft words of flattery. They parade in front of hi
lifted, saying things like, "I would love to serve a g
But, needless to say, Śakyamuni will not be moved
One interesting aspect of this story is that when M
arrows into their bows, the arrows suddenly catch
spears that have already been launched stop in midair, a swordwielding
hand becomes inflexible, the rain of fireworks falling on
Śakyamuni become red lotus flowers. In the last line describing the flirtations
of the three girls, it is recorded that they all suddenly become
old women. All these miracles are said to be the result of Sakyamuni's
virtue, and the gods help create them in praise of him. What a beautiful
and moving spectacle, to see weapons turn into flower petals. If only
we in the modern world with our vastly more powerful weapons could
achieve such a wonderful transformation.
In the midst of this battle there is a direct conversation between
Śakyamuni and Māra. Māra attempts to weaken Śakyamuni's self-con
fidence through a host of linguistic tools - cajoling, reasoning, etc.
Śakyamuni reminds Māra that his resolve is of the highest order, tha
he will not waver, and that he will surely reach enlightenment. As h
calls on the gods to attest to this, the ground opens and from it emerges
an earth goddess holding forth a vase filled with lotus flowers, the earth
shaking in all six directions. Māra is thoroughly defeated. The depi
tion of this scene in Buddhist art shows Śakyamuni in his bhūm
sparša-mudrā, that is, sitting in a full lotus posture with his right hand
extended over his right knee and pointing down, indicating the mo
ment when he sought verification from the earth goddess.
In this dramatic episode, "Conquering Māra and Accomplishing th
Path," Śakyamuni's enlightenment is attained: the exorcism of Mār
itself should be seen as the completion of the Path. Here Māra is
understood to represent the kleśas, or mental afflictions, that form the
basis of suffering. In other words, the battle with Māra is none other
than the struggle within oneself. The departure of Māra means the
kleśas are now absent. The three main kleśas are greed, anger and
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NAGAO
stupidity and must all be eliminated. Although the remo
kleśas clearly represents an enlightenment, this in itself i
If there is no sparkle of penetrating lucidity, the light of w
is no true enlightenment. If it were only a matter of ove
kleśas, then, as in the example of the kleśa of sexual des
gradually weakens with age, all would eventually be enlig
in fact, the quiet contentment of old age normally brings wi
nishing clarity of one's intellectual powers. In Mahayana
the elimination of kleśas is important, but greater weight
the attainment of the highest, so-called "Buddha" wisdom
question becomes: when Säkyamuni was sitting in quiet c
tion under the Bodhi-tree after Māra retreated, what kin
did he gain?
Biographies of the Buddha at this point record that all the actions of
his previous lives became crystal clear to him, he was able to know the
spiritual condition of all sentient beings through his "divine eye," and
above all, he perceived the twelve-fold chain of causation known as
pratTtya-samutpãda, or dependent co-origination. This formula of
dependent co-origination is somewhat complicated, but for our purposes
here let us just say it is an elucidation of the human condition of
confusion. The concept of dependent co-origination is unique to Buddhism.
More than merely a central principle of Buddhist doctrine, it is
its fundamental philosophical standpoint.
Reluctance to Engage in Preaching. The completion of the path, the
enlightenment of the Buddha, occurred at about the age of 35. If his
renunciation of the world is placed at the age of 29, then his religious
practice spanned six years. There then followed 45 years of sermons
propagating the Dharma until his "entering into Nirvana" at the age
of 80. But Säkyamuni did not immediately start to disseminate the
message of his realization. The literature relates an episode prior to his
decision to expound the Dharma in which he hesitates or even rejects
the notion of preaching altogether. This point, common to all the
biographies of the Buddha, is a matter of utmost significance.
After reaching enlightenment, Śakyamuni, now a Buddha, remained
where he was for some time (usually said to be either five or seven
weeks). He reflected upon the process that led up to his spiritual
breakthrough and allowed himself time to fully savour the bliss of the
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
Dharma he had realized. At one time, he was transf
the Bodhi-tree with renewed thoughts of gratitude for
protected him from the heat and cold. Another tim
week-long storm, it is told that he was protected by M
serpents ( naga ), who enveloped the body of the m
with his hood. During this period, Säkyamuni also g
matter of whom he should speak to about this Dhar
this unsurpassed truth resplendent with joy. At the
curred to him that it would be futile to speak abou
"At the end of all this effort and hardship, I have
grasp the highest truth. But I have given up the idea o
other people. Suffering from lust and hatred, the wor
find it difficult to understand this teaching. For it is
much that goes against the common views of the wo
found and extremely fine points which are not easily u
ing with sensual passion and veiled in the darkn
ignorance, people would never be able to comprehe
With these thoughts in mind, Säkyamuni abandon
pounding the Dharma. At the very least, the peopl
biographies felt that Säkyamuni at one point had i
idea of preaching the Dharma altogether. Upon lea
made this decision, the god Brahma was shocked an
his heaven with great haste and said:
"In spite of all the trouble you have been through to
ment and become the highest Buddha, to enter Nir
plaining to others what you have realized would
them. I beseech you, please expound the Dharma. F
Magadha there are all sorts of defiled, improper ide
of man. The heterodox paths of the six teachers are
must preach the correct, pure teaching to count
should certainly be people who can understand you
In this way, Brahma requested the preaching of
was referred to as "the supplication of Brahma." H
pound the Dharma was repeated three times and eac
voiced his refusal. Finally, from a sense of comp
world he agreed to comply with Brahma's wish and
ma. That is, with his Buddha-eyes he observed the c
mired in suffering and realized that although there
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NAG AO
who were foolish or steeped in defilement and evil, there wer
some who were wise, defiled by few stains and striving for good
were, he saw, like lotus flowers blooming in a pond; some lotu
main submerged in the water, some have reached the surface
water, and others stand out high above the water with beautiful
flowers. When he expounded the Dharma, he was confident that its
message would be understood and accepted by the intelligent ones.
Having made this observance, Buddha proclaimed his decision to
preach with a verse as follows:
O Brahma! The door to the ambrosia has now been opened.
Anyone with ears should come listen with the purest faith.
The word ambrosia, amrta in Sanskrit, means undying, immortal, eternal.
This is how the Buddha's preaching finally began.
Propagating the Dharma. The Buddha, in beginning his career of
preaching, considered to whom the first sermon should be directed.
Remembering how sharp his teachers Ārāda Kālāma and Udraka
Rāmaputra were, he thought it would be appropriate to explain the
Dharma to them first. But he learned by his supernatural vision that
both had recently died, one a week earlier and the other just the
previous day. Then he decided he should speak to the five bhiksus. Six
years earlier these five mendicants had been asked to accompany
Śakyamuni by his father the king, who was worried about his son's
safety. They later became the Buddha's fellow practitioners while he
was performing austerities in the ascetics' forest. But when Śakyamuni
abandoned his asceticism, they thought he had degraded himself, and
left him to continue practicing on their own. Eventually they took up
residence in an area called the Deer Park ( mrgadāva ), so named on account
of the many deer living in its vicinity; it has been identified as the
present Sārnāth, an area located in a northern suburb of Vārāņasī
(Benares). In order to preach to these bhiksus, Śakyamuni walked
alone to the Deer Park. From Bodhgayã, where he became enlightened,
the journey to the Deer Park probably took more than ten days.
Regarding Śakyamuni as no longer a proper mendicant, the five
bhiksus had decided among themselves not to greet him or make any
salutation if they ever saw him again. But when they looked upon him
now as he approached them, they were so moved by his dignity that
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
they rushed to greet him and brought water to
Śakyamuni declared he had reached enlightenment a
dha; he then began his first sermon. This is known as
of the wheel of the Dharma." This metaphor of the
political, referring to the ideal of a world-conquer
sends his war chariots out, thus "turning their whe
world. In the same way, the Buddha as the teacher of a
the "wheel" of the Dharma, setting in motion the g
pounding the Truth. The contents of this first sermon
small text entitled Sutra of the Turning of the Whe
clude explanations of key concepts such as the Middle Path, the
Eightfold Path, and the Four Noble Truths.
Being wise, capable men, these five mendicants immediately attained
the high spiritual state known as Arhat upon hearing this first
preaching. Including Śakyamuni himself, that meant there were now
six Arhats in the world. Within a few days this number swelled to 61
people because there was an instantaneous response to the Buddha
among the young men of Vārāņasī, many of whom renounced the
world and also attained the enlightenment of an Arhat. At this point,
Śakyamuni dispersed the group and sent them off, not in pairs but as individuals,
to spread the teaching to everyone. Then the master returned
alone to Magadha.
While the biographies of the Buddha are quite detailed concerning
Śakyamuni's path to enlightenment and initial turning of the wheel of
teaching, they only give a general outline about what happened afterward.
Aside from the significant event of his Nirvana, it seems it was
felt that whatever needed to be said about Śakyamuni's life ended with
his turning the wheel of the Dharma. Nevertheless, we are aware of a
variety of events that occurred during the course of his 45 years of
preaching from their appearance throughout the canon. I have selected
merely one or two incidents from among them to present here.
The Buddha, the World-honored One, now headed alone toward
Magadha. On the way, a number of people were brought directly into
the religious movement which we may now call "Buddhism." One important
event occurred on the banks of the Nairafijanā River in which
he had previously bathed, when the Buddha met and converted three
brothers named Kaśyapa, each of whom, a fire-worshipper, had been
leading their own religious group. This resulted in the members of each
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NAGAO
The Buddha returning home following his enlightenment, being greeted by
his son Rāhula. The Buddha is represented by his footprints and throne.
Amarāvatī, 3rd century. Indian Museum, New Delhi.
of these groups, numbering 500, 300 and 200 persons
also joining the burgeoning Buddhist movement. The
had already reached old age at this point and was appa
revered in the country of Magadha. Nevertheless, the
and their collection of a thousand disciples all became Buddhist
bhiksus.
Accompanied by his thousand disciples, the Buddha then continued
on to Rājagrha, the capital of Magadha. There he met the king, Bimbisāra,
whom Sãkyamuni had actually met once before immediately
following his renunciation of the world. When the king heard the Buddha
had come to a forest outside the city, he took his ministers and
went out to visit this holy man which, in turn, resulted in the king's
own conversion. On this occasion, the king donated a bamboo forest
retreat to the Buddha and his group. The word "retreat" ( vihāra ) later
came to mean temple or monastery, but at this time it merely referred
to a physical space as there was no reason to have any buildings as such
for the monks. As stated above, a bhiksu had no home; he wandered
from village to village. However, during the three to four months of
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
the rainy season, these mendicants were forced to re
because insects and small animals were most active at this time and in
walking through puddles and streams it would be impossible not to
tread on and thereby kill them. Another reason for this cessation of activity
during the rainy season is simply that roads became impassable
due to flooding. In any case, travelling at this time was prohibited and
each bhiksu would build himself some sort of temporary shelter from
the rain. For this reason a fixed piece of land was essential, and it was
for this purpose that the bamboo grove was contributed by the king.
With fixed residences during the summer rainy season, this period developed
into a study session for the monks. One after another, such places
of retreat multiplied and spread as the religion grew.
Perhaps the most famous among the Buddhist retreats was Jetavana.
Donated by a wealthy merchant named Sudati a, it was located in a
suburb of ŠrāvastI, the capital of Kosala. Sudatta took pleasure in giving
presents to people, especially in providing meals for those with
nowhere to turn, and thus he received the nickname, "provider to the
solitary" (Anātha-piņdada). He bought a garden owned by prince Jeta
by paying the amount of gold coins it would take to cover the entire
park and then donated the park to the Buddha.
During his stay in Magadha, the Buddha acquired two followers,
Maudgalyãyana and Šāriputra, who later became among his greatest
disciples. Being close friends, they had agreed to remain together in
their studies with whatever good teacher they might find. There were
250 other disciples of their common teacher at the time they met the
Buddha and the entire group decided to follow them in entering the
sangha. When the sutras give the figure of 1250 disciples of the Buddha,
they are referring to this group of 250 plus the 1000 people
brought in by the three Kaśyapa brothers.
It is thought that it was also at this time that Mahakaśyapa, a native
of Magadha, became a disciple. To distinguish him from the Kaśyapa
brothers, the prefix "mahā" is added to his name. He too seems to
have been well into his years at this time. Somewhat advanced in years
and very strict in his deportment, he was a man of true virtue whom the
Buddha trusted highly. After the Buddha's death it was Mahakaśyapa
who brought the bhiksus together and led the job of editing the canon.
It is not known exactly when the Buddha returned to his home of
Kapilavastu first after his enlightenment. The biographies give it
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NAG AO
variously as two, six, or twelve years later. Upon learning of
attainment, the king frequently sent messengers imploring
return to Kapilavastu. But it seems the Buddha did not attach mu
portance to going home. When he finally did return, he was gree
the Śakya people en masse and he even delivered a sermo
father. During this visit he convinced both his only son, Rā
his younger brother, Nanda, who was about to get married, to
order. The circumstances under which the latter made this decision are
the theme of an epic poem by Ašvaghosa entitled "Saundara-nanda."
The scene of Rāhula meeting the World-honored One is beautifully
depicted in a medallion of Amarāvatī sculpture where Rāhula is shown
at about ten years old. Considering this and other relevant facts, it
seems most probable that the Buddha's initial return home took place
between two and six years following his enlightenment.
The Buddha's Death - Nirvana. The biographies become relatively
detailed again concerning the final journey of the Buddha prior to his
passing away. The Buddha was now 80 years old. Leaving Rājagrha,
he retraced his steps on the road he first took upon leaving his family
and headed northwest. Near the end of his trek, a newly converted disciple,
the blacksmith Cunda, invited the Buddha and his accompanying
disciples to a meal. Among the foods there was some pork (or
mushrooms) which caused the Buddha terrible stomach pains, but he
continued his journey nevertheless.
The personal attendant of the Buddha was called Ananda. A cousin
of the Buddha thirty years his junior, Ananda was continually at the
Buddha's side during the final 25 years of his life. Aside from his role
of caring for the master, Ānanda is also well known as "the one who
heard the most," for standing next to the Buddha he heard all the sermons
expounded to a wide variety of audiences. He was with the Buddha
during this final journey to Kuśinagara as well.
On the road again the day after the meal given by Cunda, the Buddha
suffered from severe pain, and probably, diarrhea. Finally, he told
Ananda that he was tired and wanted to rest. Ananda spread out a robe
for him on the side of the road and there he lied down. How could one
not be moved by this scene of the Buddha, having reached the advanced
age of 80 and enfeebled by illness, the master of thousands of
disciples, lied down on the road-side instead of seeking a place of
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
recuperation under the roof of a disciple or believer
strict the Buddha's attitude was in adhering to the
homeless life he had chosen.
Feeling thirsty, he asked Ānanda to fetch him some water. There was
a river nearby but only a few minutes earlier a caravan of horses and oxen
had walked across it and now its waters were muddy. Ānanda
replied that the water was dirty, and suggested they walk to the next
stream. But the Buddha ordered him three more times to bring water
from the river and when Ānanda finally approached it, he found the
water had suddenly become completely clear. This is explained as
another of the miracles performed by the Buddha's supernatural
powers.
The Buddha then pressed on with his journey and straining his infirm
body, finally reached the village of Kuśinagara. There, between a
pair of Sāla trees, he told Ānanda to set up a bed for him. When the
bed was ready, the Buddha lied down on his right side, his feet one
atop the other, his head pointing north and his face looking west. In
this so-called "Nirvana pose" the Buddha died. Sāla trees grow
straight and tall, and produce a hard wood used for timber. When the
texts say the bed was erected between "a pair of śala trees," we do not
know if this refers to only two trees on either side of the Buddha, or, as
the Chinese translations of this passage have it, a pair of sāla trees surrounding
the recumbent Śakyamuni in each of the four directions, thus
totalling eight. The paintings of the Nirvana scene in Japan all depict
the latter configuration, as well as a host of gods, disciples and animals
in lamentation over the Buddha's death.
While the Buddha is lying sick a religious seeker visited, seeking to
hear the teachings: he became the last direct disciple of the Buddha. At
that time the Buddha asked the assembled disciples two and three times
if they had any final questions. Confronted with their silence, he said,
"Ask me not as your teacher, but as if you are asking a friend." But no
one dared open his mouth. Then he added, "All things eventually
perish. Do not become negligent but maintain your diligence in pursuing
the Path." These were his last words. Then he repeated a series of
meditative trances and finally died while in samadhi.
Ānanda and the others prepared the body for cremation. It appears
that cremation at that time was reserved only for heads of state. They
lit the coffin, but it would not burn. The eldest disciple, Mahakaśyapa,
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Stele depicting ( from top) Nirvāna, Preaching, Enlightenment, and Birth.
Sārnāth, late 5th century. Sārnāth Archeologica I Museum.
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
happened to be spreading the Dharma far away to the
hearing by chance of the critical nature of the master'
other disciples rushed to see him but despite their grea
rived seven days after he had passed away. They revere
bulated the coffin and bowed in obeisance, and thus with t
of their final parting now completed, the fire began to
After an earth or water burial there is nothing to be dis
but in cremation the bone-remains ( śarira ) and ashes are
ple of Kuśinagara wanted to take the Buddha's remain
them in their village. But all over India people who ha
teachings cried out for the remains to be divided up among the
followers. Kings of eight different states throughout the land came
together, each claiming their right to the Buddha's remains. Their
discussion became so heated it nearly led to war. A wise man named
Droņa interceded in the controversy, resulting in the remains ultimately
being divided into eight portions. The eight kings took their
allotments home and each built a stupa to house them. Someone took
possession of the urn they had been kept in, another gathered up the
ashes from the pyre, and stupas were built over these as well. Thus
there were a total of ten stupas erected across India.
A stupa is essentially a grave mound built of either earth or stone
serving as a shrine to the memory of the Buddha. These first ones all
contained his actual funerary remains. As architectural structures they
originated with Buddhism, and came to be symbols of the religion in
general. During the hundreds and thousands of years that followed
these first stupas, innumerable others were erected throughout the Buddhist
world regardless of whether they actually contained any relics or
not. The Chinese transliteration for stupa was ts'u-t'o-p'a
which became abbreviated first to t'o-p'a and then again to t'o which is
the Chinese character for pagoda. Pagodas, first constructed in this
mound shape, became taller and tiered as time passed. The three- or
five-storied pagodas we see today, however, still preserve the original
mound shape within its structure in the element called fu-po Mì£
located on the roof under the nine-ringed finial.
A Peaceful and Lofty Life. Above I have summarized the essential
elements in the biography of Śakyamuni Buddha. Within the tradition,
there is a list of 12 or 14 events which were considered an appropriate
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NAGAO
summary of his lifetime. In Chinese Buddhism, normall
given, known as "the eight aspects through which the p
complished." Different texts give different enumerations
the first event is the so-called descent from heaven. Before his birth in
this world, the Buddha resided in the Tusita heaven; when the time
came for his rebirth on earth he considered in what country and in
what ethnic group he should be born, ultimately deciding on India and
the Śakya clan. At that point he descended from the Tusita heaven in
the form of a white elephant. The second event is his conception. Lady
Maya had a dream in which she saw a white elephant enter her right
side and she thereupon woke up pregnant. The next six events are given
the following names: 3) birth, 4) leaving home and fleeing the city, 5)
subjugation of Māra, 6) completion of the path, 7) the first turning of
the wheel of the Dharma, and 8) entering Nirvana.
In Indian sculpture, there have been a number of findings of single
stones into which eight scenes from the Buddha's life have been carved.
These stones were probably utilized as aids in teaching the life of the
Buddha. The group of episodes depicted differs somewhat from those
described above, but the third, sixth, seventh, and eighth events always
appear. They are: the birth which occurred at Lumbini (presently
located just inside the Nepalese border at what is now called Lummindei),
the enlightenment at Buddhagayã (now called Bodhgayâ), the
first sermon at Mrgadāva (corresponding to the present Sārnāth), and
his entering into Nirvana at Kuśinagara (present day Kasia). The
geographical locations where these four events took place became holy
sites to which Buddhists were expected to make pilgrimages. Accordingly,
stupas, temples, and other memorials have been erected at these
four sites and have become the objects of the pilgrimage. Even today,
many such groups of pilgrims arrive from such countries as Sri Lanka,
Burma and Thailand. At the same time, mementos, such as clay
medallions, have always been made by the local populace for the
pilgrims, an industry which no doubt contributed to the development
of Buddhist art.
The life of Säkyamuni was certainly not without turmoil. During his
youth, he willingly undertook life-threatening austerities. In his later
years, his cousin Devadatta, while renouncing the world to become his
disciple, actually plotted to murder Säkyamuni and take control of the
Buddhist order. Furthermore, there was the tragic incident in which
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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA: AN INTERPRETATION
the newly crowned king of Kosala, Vidūdabha, feeling
being humiliated by the Śakya clan, sent his troops into Sã
where they massacred the entire population. Despite all this,
Sãkyamuni lived a peaceful and lofty life of 80 years. This is in marked
contrast to the life of Jesus Christ who barely lived beyond the age of
thirty before falling victim to political oppression, resulting in the
ultimate punishment of crucifixion. Though born into a royal family,
Sãkyamuni always stood outside the pale of politics; yet he was
respected by many kings, several of whom could be considered Buddhists.
The life of Mohammed also contrasts sharply with that of the
Buddha. Wielding political power alongside his religious authority,
Mohammed struggled to establish a nation. During his later years
Mohammed led huge armies into battle, fighting day and night. He married
eleven times, taking his last wife at the age of 62, one year before
his death.
It is worth considering how the life of the founder of a religion influences
the subsequent nature of the faith. One characteristic of Buddhist
history is the near total lack of religious strife fought under the
banner of religious truth. No wars have been fought with other
religions. It would be a mistake to assume this fact is unrelated to the
peaceful nature of Sâkyamuni's character as reflected in his way of life.
The various stories and ideological attitudes that appear in the
biographies of the Buddha are thought to have exerted considerable influence
on later Buddhist doctrine and philosophy in a number of
ways. I will deal with this subject in the next talk.
Translated by Mark L. Blum
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