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Syntax
Pavel Caha
4 Nov 2024
1 / 73
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Recap
Noun phrase
Does the mirror principle describe differences among lan‐
guages?
Head movement
Chosing between head‐movement and affix hopping
Back to Czech
2 / 73
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Constituency tests
(1) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
3 / 73
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Constituency tests
(1) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(2) The head
a. determines the type of meaning
b. determines the distribution of the whole
c. determines the form of the sister node
3 / 73
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TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
4 / 73
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TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
(3) a. VP → describe an event
b. TP → anchor it in time with respect to the speech time
4 / 73
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TP
NP
the customer in the corner
TP
T
will
AspP
Asp
be
VP
VP
V
ordering
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
(4) a. VP → describe an event
b. AspP → perspective: event seen from inside/outside
c. TP → anchor it in time with respect to the speech time
5 / 73
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CP
C
that
TP
NP
the customer in the corner
TP
T
will
AspP
Asp
be
VP
VP
V
ordering
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
(5) a. VP → describe an event
b. AspP → perspective: event as a whole/part of the event
c. TP → anchor it in time with respect to the speech time
d. CP → the anchored event is a fact/wish/query/condition 6 / 73
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Czech
(6) a. objedn
order
‐at
‐INF
‘to order’
7 / 73
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Czech
(6) a. objedn
order
‐at
‐INF
‘to order’
b. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐at
‐INF
‘to be ordering’
7 / 73
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Czech
(6) a. objedn
order
‐at
‐INF
‘to order’
b. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐at
‐INF
‘to be ordering’
c. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐š
‐2.SG
‘you are ordering’
7 / 73
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Czech
(6) a. objedn
order
‐at
‐INF
‘to order’
b. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐at
‐INF
‘to be ordering’
c. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐š
‐2.SG
‘you are ordering’
d. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐m
‐1.SG
‘I am ordering’
7 / 73
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Czech
(6) a. objedn
order
‐at
‐INF
‘to order’
b. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐at
‐INF
‘to be ordering’
c. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐š
‐2.SG
‘you are ordering’
d. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐m
‐1.SG
‘I am ordering’
e. objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐š
‐2.SG
‐li
‐COND
‘if you are ordering’
7 / 73
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Czech
(7) objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐š
‐2.SG
‐li
‐COND
‘if you are ordering’
(8) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
8 / 73
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.
Czech
(7) objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐š
‐2.SG
‐li
‐COND
‘if you are ordering’
(8) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
(9) English order:
that you will be ordering the drinks
mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
8 / 73
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Czech
(7) objedn
order
‐áv
‐PROG
‐á
‐PRES
‐š
‐2.SG
‐li
‐COND
‘if you are ordering’
(8) Czech order
event > asp > tense > subject > mood
(9) English order:
that you will be ordering the drinks
mood > subject > tense > aspect > event
▶ The English order is the mirror image of the Czech one
8 / 73
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C
T
T
Asp
V
objedn
Asp
‐áv
T
‐á
subj
‐š
C
‐li
C
C
that
T
subj
you
T
T
will
Asp
Asp
be
V
ordering
9 / 73
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.
(10) The Mirror Principle
a. The order of morphemes inside words is the mirror
image of the order of words in syntax
10 / 73
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.
(10) The Mirror Principle
a. The order of morphemes inside words is the mirror
image of the order of words in syntax
b. The order of morphemes mirrors the syntactic
derivation
10 / 73
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Recap
Noun phrase
Does the mirror principle describe differences among lan‐
guages?
Head movement
Chosing between head‐movement and affix hopping
Back to Czech
11 / 73
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.
Czech
(11) a. nosorožec
rhino
12 / 73
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Czech
(11) a. nosorožec
rhino
b. nosorožc
rhino
‐e
GEN
‘of (the) rhino’
12 / 73
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Czech
(11) a. nosorožec
rhino
b. nosorožc
rhino
‐e
GEN
‘of (the) rhino’
c. nosorožc
rhino
‐i
DAT
‘to (the) rhino’
12 / 73
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Czech
(11) a. nosorožec
rhino
b. nosorožc
rhino
‐e
GEN
‘of (the) rhino’
c. nosorožc
rhino
‐i
DAT
‘to (the) rhino’
K
K
of/to
N
rhino
K
N
nosorožc
K
‐e/‐i
12 / 73
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.
(12) youngsters
a. nosorožc
rhino
‐e
‐GEN
13 / 73
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(12) youngsters
a. nosorožc
rhino
‐e
‐GEN
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐e
‐INS
‘of (the) baby rhino’
13 / 73
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.
(12) youngsters
a. nosorožc
rhino
‐e
‐GEN
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐e
‐INS
‘of (the) baby rhino’
c. nosorožc
rhino
‐i
‐DAT
13 / 73
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.
(12) youngsters
a. nosorožc
rhino
‐e
‐GEN
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐e
‐INS
‘of (the) baby rhino’
c. nosorožc
rhino
‐i
‐DAT
d. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐i
‐DAT
‘to (the) baby rhino’
13 / 73
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(12) youngsters
a. nosorožc
rhino
‐e
‐GEN
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐e
‐INS
‘of (the) baby rhino’
c. nosorožc
rhino
‐i
‐DAT
d. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐i
‐DAT
‘to (the) baby rhino’
K
K
of/to
Age
Young
baby
N
rhino
K
Age
N
nosorožč
Young
‐et
K
‐i/‐e
13 / 73
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.
(13) youngsters
a. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐em
‐INS
‘with (the) baby rhino’
14 / 73
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(13) youngsters
a. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐em
‐INS
‘with (the) baby rhino’
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐át
‐BABY
‐k
‐SMALL
‐em
‐INS
‘with (the) small baby rhino’
14 / 73
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(13) youngsters
a. nosorožč
rhino
‐et
‐BABY
‐em
‐INS
‘with (the) baby rhino’
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐át
‐BABY
‐k
‐SMALL
‐em
‐INS
‘with (the) small baby rhino’
K
K
with
Size
size
small
Age
Young
baby
N
rhino
K
Size
Age
N
nosorožč
baby
‐át
Size
‐k
K
‐em
14 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(14) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
15 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(14) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
▶ describe the thing by listing its properties (old keys)
15 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(14) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
▶ describe the thing by listing its properties (old keys)
▶ say how many they are (two)
15 / 73
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.
The construction of the noun phrase
(14) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
▶ describe the thing by listing its properties (old keys)
▶ say how many they are (two)
▶ ‘anchor’ the object in space (these/those)
15 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(14) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
▶ describe the thing by listing its properties (old keys)
▶ say how many they are (two)
▶ ‘anchor’ the object in space (these/those)
▶ say what role this object has in the event (with = instrument)
15 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(15) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
16 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(15) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
NP
A
old
N
keys
16 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(16) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
?P
Num
two
NP
A
old
N
keys
17 / 73
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(17) He wants to sell (one thousand) apples
18 / 73
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(17) He wants to sell (one thousand) apples
(18) a. Chce
he.wants
prodat
to.sell
(*tisíc)
one.thousand
jabka
apples
18 / 73
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(17) He wants to sell (one thousand) apples
(18) a. Chce
he.wants
prodat
to.sell
(*tisíc)
one.thousand
jabka
apples
b. Chce
he.wants
prodat
to.sell
tisíc
one.thousand
jablek
apples
18 / 73
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(17) He wants to sell (one thousand) apples
(18) a. Chce
he.wants
prodat
to.sell
(*tisíc)
one.thousand
jabka
apples
b. Chce
he.wants
prodat
to.sell
tisíc
one.thousand
jablek
apples
c. ??Chce
he.wants
prodat
to.sell
jablek
apples
18 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(19) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
NumP
Num
two
NP
A
old
N
keys
19 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(20) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
DemP
Dem
these
NumP
Num
two
NP
A
old
N
keys
20 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(20) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
DemP
Dem
these
NumP
Num
two
NP
A
old
N
keys
(21) a. *He found key
20 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(20) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
DemP
Dem
these
NumP
Num
two
NP
A
old
N
keys
(21) a. *He found key
b. He found { the / this } key
20 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(22) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
KP
K
with
DemP
Dem
these
NumP
Num
two
NP
A
old
N
keys
21 / 73
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The construction of the noun phrase
(22) (you can open the lock) with these two old keys
KP
K
with
DemP
Dem
these
NumP
Num
two
NP
A
old
N
keys
21 / 73
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Dime (Omotic)
22 / 73
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Dime (Omotic)
23 / 73
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Dime (Omotic)
24 / 73
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Dime (Omotic)
25 / 73
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KP
DetP
NumP
NP
N
woman
A
black
Num
pl
Det
def
K
dat
26 / 73
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.
KP
DetP
NumP
NP
N
woman
A
black
Num
pl
Det
def
K
dat
KP
K
with
DetP
Det
the
NumP
Num
two
NP
A
old
N
keys
27 / 73
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Recap
Noun phrase
Does the mirror principle describe differences among lan‐
guages?
Head movement
Chosing between head‐movement and affix hopping
Back to Czech
28 / 73
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.
(23) a. dva
two
velké
big
staré
old
stoly
tables
‘number > size > age > thing’
29 / 73
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.
(23) a. dva
two
velké
big
staré
old
stoly
tables
‘number > size > age > thing’
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐át
‐BABY
‐k
‐SMALL
‐a
‐PL
‘number < size < age < thing’
29 / 73
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.
(23) a. dva
two
velké
big
staré
old
stoly
tables
‘number > size > age > thing’
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐át
‐BABY
‐k
‐SMALL
‐a
‐PL
‘number < size < age < thing’
c. nosorožč
rhino
‐át
‐BABY
‐k
‐SMALL
‐o
‐SG
‘number < size < age < thing’
29 / 73
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.
(23) a. dva
two
velké
big
staré
old
stoly
tables
‘number > size > age > thing’
b. nosorožč
rhino
‐át
‐BABY
‐k
‐SMALL
‐a
‐PL
‘number < size < age < thing’
c. nosorožč
rhino
‐át
‐BABY
‐k
‐SMALL
‐o
‐SG
‘number < size < age < thing’
▶ It is not only something that differentiates languages
▶ It is also about word/affix difference within a single language
29 / 73
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.
▶ It is not a difference between languages
▶ It is about word/affix difference
(24) a. jestli
if
Petr
Petr
bude
will
běhat,
run
...
‘mood > subject > tense > event’
30 / 73
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.
▶ It is not a difference between languages
▶ It is about word/affix difference
(24) a. jestli
if
Petr
Petr
bude
will
běhat,
run
...
‘mood > subject > tense > event’
b. běh
run
‐á
‐PRES
‐te
‐YOU.PL
‐li,
‐IF
...
‘mood < subject < tense < event’
30 / 73
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.
Recap
Noun phrase
Does the mirror principle describe differences among lan‐
guages?
Head movement
Chosing between head‐movement and affix hopping
Back to Czech
31 / 73
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(25) The customer in the corner is ordering the drinks.
32 / 73
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(25) The customer in the corner is ordering the drinks.
TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
32 / 73
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(25) The customer in the corner is ordering the drinks.
TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
is
VP
VP
V
ordering
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
32 / 73
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(26) The customer in the corner ordered the drinks.
33 / 73
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.
(26) The customer in the corner ordered the drinks.
TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
33 / 73
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.
(26) The customer in the corner ordered the drinks.
TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
?
VP
VP
V
ordered
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
33 / 73
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.
Past Tense Slavic
slovene Czech Russian
AUX participle AUX participle Aux participle
1.sg sem jedla
2.sg si jedla
3.sg je jedla
34 / 73
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.
Past Tense Slavic
slovene Czech Russian
AUX participle AUX participle Aux participle
1.sg sem jedla jsem jedla
2.sg si jedla jsi jedla
3.sg je jedla Ø jedla
34 / 73
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Past Tense Slavic
slovene Czech Russian
AUX participle AUX participle Aux participle
1.sg sem jedla jsem jedla Ø jela
2.sg si jedla jsi jedla Ø jela
3.sg je jedla Ø jedla Ø jela
34 / 73
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.
Past Tense Slavic
slovene Czech Russian
AUX participle AUX participle Aux participle
1.sg sem jedla jsem jedla Ø jela
2.sg si jedla jsi jedla Ø jela
3.sg je jedla Ø jedla Ø jela
English
AUX participle AUX participle
1.sg Ø slept have slept
2.sg Ø slept have slept
3.sg Ø slept has slept
34 / 73
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(27) The customer in the corner ordered the drinks.
35 / 73
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.
(27) The customer in the corner ordered the drinks.
TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
35 / 73
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.
(27) The customer in the corner ordered the drinks.
TP
NP
The customer in the corner
TP
T
Ø
VP
VP
V
ordered
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
35 / 73
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.
ellipsis
(28) A: The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
(29) B: Actually, I wouldn’t be so sure that he will —.
36 / 73
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.
.
ellipsis
(28) A: The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
(29) B: Actually, I wouldn’t be so sure that he will —.
TP
NP
He
TP
T
will
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
36 / 73
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.
TP
NP
He
TP
T
Ø
VP
VP
V
ordered
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
37 / 73
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.
.
TP
NP
He
TP
T
Ø
VP
VP
V
ordered
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
(30) A: The customer in the corner Ø order‐ed the drinks.
(31) B: *Actually, I wouldn’t be so sure that he Ø —.
37 / 73
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.
.
.
.
.
TP
NP
He
TP
T
Ø
VP
VP
V
ordered
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
(30) A: The customer in the corner Ø order‐ed the drinks.
(31) B: Actually, I wouldn’t be so sure that he did —.
37 / 73
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.
Structure 1
TP
NP
He
TP
T
did
VP
VP
V
order‐Ø
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
38 / 73
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Structure 2
TP
NP
He
TP
T
Ø
VP
VP
V
order‐ed
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
39 / 73
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.
Both structures are the realization of an ‘underlying’
structure
TP
NP
He
TP
T
‐ed
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
40 / 73
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Rescue 1: Expletive insertion
TP
NP
He
TP
T
d‐ed
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
41 / 73
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Do‐support
TP
NP
He
TP
T
‐ed
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
42 / 73
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Do‐support
TP
NP
He
TP
T
T
‐ed
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
43 / 73
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Do‐support
TP
NP
He
TP
T
V T
‐ed
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
44 / 73
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.
Do‐support
TP
NP
He
TP
T
V
d
T
‐ed
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
45 / 73
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.
Do‐support
TP
NP
He
TP
T
V
d
T
‐ed
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
46 / 73
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.
Rescue 2a: Affix Hopping
TP
NP
He
TP
T
‐ed
VP
VP
V
order‐‐ed
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
47 / 73
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Rescue 2b: Head movement
TP
NP
He
TP
T
order‐ED
VP
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
PP
before the dinner
48 / 73
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.
Recap
Noun phrase
Does the mirror principle describe differences among lan‐
guages?
Head movement
Chosing between head‐movement and affix hopping
Back to Czech
49 / 73
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Introducing an adverb
TP
NP
He
TP
T
will
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
50 / 73
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.
Adverb and lowering
TP
NP
He
TP
T
‐ED
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
51 / 73
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.
TP
NP
He
TP
T
ED
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
order‐ed
NP
the drinks
52 / 73
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.
TP
NP
*He
TP
T
ORDER‐ED
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
53 / 73
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.
Introducing an adverb
TP
NP
He
TP
T
will
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
54 / 73
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.
Adverb and lowering
TP
NP
He
TP
T
‐ed
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
55 / 73
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.
Adverb and lowering
TP
NP
He
TP
T
‐ed
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
order
NP
the drinks
56 / 73
.
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.
.
Adverb and affix hopping
TP
NP
He
TP
T
‐ed
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
V
order
T
NP
the drinks
57 / 73
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.
.
.
Adverb and affix hopping
TP
NP
He
TP
T
ed
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
V
order
T
‐ed
NP
the drinks
58 / 73
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.
.
Adverb and affix hopping
TP
NP
He
TP
T
ED
VP
AdvP
later
VP
V
V
order
T
‐ed
NP
the drinks
59 / 73
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.
French
TP
NP
Elle (She)
TP
T
‐AIT (ED)
VP
AdvP
toujours (always)
VP
V
achete (buy)
NP
le journal (the paper)
60 / 73
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.
TP
NP
*Elle
TP
T
‐AIT (ED)
VP
AdvP
toujours
VP
V
achet‐ait
NP
le journal
61 / 73
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.
TP
NP
Elle (She)
TP
T
achet‐ait
VP
AdvP
toujours
VP
V
achet
NP
le journal
62 / 73
.
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.
.
Sub‐strategy II: Head movement
TP
NP
Elle
She
TP
T
‐ait
ed
VP
AdvP
toujours
always
VP
V
achete
buy
NP
le journal
the paper
63 / 73
.
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.
.
Sub‐strategy II: Head movement
TP
NP
Elle
She
TP
T
T
‐ait
ed
VP
AdvP
toujours
always
VP
V
achete
buy
NP
le journal
the paper
64 / 73
.
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.
.
Sub‐strategy II: Head movement
TP
NP
Elle
She
TP
T
T
‐ait
ed
VP
AdvP
toujours
always
VP
V
achete
buy
NP
le journal
the paper
65 / 73
.
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.
.
Sub‐strategy II: Head movement
TP
NP
Elle
She
TP
T
V T
‐ait
ed
VP
AdvP
toujours
always
VP
V
achete
buy
NP
le journal
the paper
66 / 73
.
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.
.
.
.
.
Sub‐strategy II: Head movement
TP
NP
Elle
She
TP
T
V
achet
buy
T
‐ait
ed
VP
AdvP
toujours
always
VP
V
achete
buy
NP
le journal
the paper
67 / 73
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Sub‐strategy II: Head movement
TP
NP
Elle
She
TP
T
V
achet
buy
T
‐ait
ed
VP
AdvP
toujours
always
VP
V
achete
buy
NP
le journal
the paper
68 / 73
.
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.
.
Summary
(32) When a head is an affix...
69 / 73
.
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.
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.
.
Summary
(32) When a head is an affix...
a. Rescue 1: insert an expletive
69 / 73
.
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.
.
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.
.
.
Summary
(32) When a head is an affix...
a. Rescue 1: insert an expletive
b. Rescue 2: move something
69 / 73
.
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.
.
.
.
.
Summary
(32) When a head is an affix...
a. Rescue 1: insert an expletive
b. Rescue 2: move something
(i) move the affix = affix hopping
69 / 73
.
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.
.
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.
.
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.
.
Summary
(32) When a head is an affix...
a. Rescue 1: insert an expletive
b. Rescue 2: move something
(i) move the affix = affix hopping
(ii) move the host = head movement
69 / 73
.
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.
.
.
Recap
Noun phrase
Does the mirror principle describe differences among lan‐
guages?
Head movement
Chosing between head‐movement and affix hopping
Back to Czech
70 / 73
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
Future tense
(33) Petr
Petr
bude
will
číst
read
knihy.
books
TP
NP
Petr
TP
T
bude
VP
V
číst
NP
knihy
71 / 73
.
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.
.
Present tense
(34) a. Petr
Petr
bude
will
číst
read
knihy.
books
72 / 73
.
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.
.
.
Present tense
(34) a. Petr
Petr
bude
will
číst
read
knihy.
books
b. Petr
Petr
čt‐e
read
knihy
‐PRES books
72 / 73
.
.
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.
.
.
.
Present tense
(34) a. Petr
Petr
bude
will
číst
read
knihy.
books
b. Petr
Petr
čt‐e
read
knihy
‐PRES books
TP
NP
Petr
TP
T
‐e
VP
V
čt
NP
knihy
72 / 73
.
.
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.
.
.
Present tense
(35) a. Petr
Petr
bude
will
číst
read
knihy.
books
b. Petr
Petr
čt‐e
read‐PRES
knihy
books
TP
NP
Petr
TP
T
V
čt
T
‐e
VP
V
čt
NP
knihy
73 / 73
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(36) Conditional
a. Čt‐e
reads‐PRES
‐li
‐IF
Petr
Petr
knihy,
books
...
‘if Petr reads books, ...’
74 / 73
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(36) Conditional
a. Čt‐e
reads‐PRES
‐li
‐IF
Petr
Petr
knihy,
books
...
‘if Petr reads books, ...’
b. Jest
be
‐li
‐textscif
Petr
Petr
čt‐e
read‐PRES
knih‐y
books
74 / 73
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(36) Conditional
a. Čt‐e
reads‐PRES
‐li
‐IF
Petr
Petr
knihy,
books
...
‘if Petr reads books, ...’
b. Jest
be
‐li
‐textscif
Petr
Petr
čt‐e
read‐PRES
knih‐y
books
74 / 73
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Semantic/underlying structure
CP
C
‐li
TP
NP
Petr
TP
T
V
čt
T
‐e
VP
V
čt
NP
knihy
75 / 73
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.
Expletive insertion
CP
C
jest‐li
TP
NP
Petr
TP
T
V
čt
T
‐e
VP
V
čt
NP
knihy
76 / 73
.
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.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Semantic/underlying structure
CP
C
‐li
TP
NP
Petr
TP
T
V
čt
T
‐e
VP
V
čt
NP
knihy
77 / 73
.
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.
.
CP
C
T
V
čt
T
‐e
C
‐li
TP
NP
Petr
TP
T
V
čt
T
‐e
VP
V
čt
NP
knihy
Ø
78 / 73