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Syntax
Pavel Caha
Syntax
Oct 14, 2024
1 / 37
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Sentence structure
The predicate
Conclusions
2 / 37
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Intuition
(1) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
3 / 37
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Intuition
(1) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(2) Parts of the sentence
3 / 37
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Intuition
(1) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(2) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
3 / 37
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Intuition
(1) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(2) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
3 / 37
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Intuition
(1) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(2) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
3 / 37
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Intuition
(1) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(2) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
3 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
(3) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
(3) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(4) a. Who will order the drinks before the meal?
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
(3) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(4) a. Who will order the drinks before the meal?
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
(3) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(4) a. Who will order the drinks before the meal?
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
(3) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(4) a. Who will order the drinks before the meal?
b. What will the customer in the corner order?
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
(3) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(4) a. Who will order the drinks before the meal?
b. What will the customer in the corner order?
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
(3) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(4) a. Who will order the drinks before the meal?
b. What will the customer in the corner order?
4 / 37
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Q‐Pronoun replacement/short replies
▶ Constituents can be replaced by a wh‐pronoun (who, what,
when, how, which, ...)
▶ Constituents can be given as a response to a question
(3) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(4) a. Who will order the drinks before the meal?
b. What will the customer in the corner order?
c. When will the customer in the corner order the drinks?
4 / 37
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Summarising the result
sentence
subject
the customer in the corner
?predicate?
will order
object
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
5 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
(8) But are you sure he will be thirsty already then?
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
(8) But are you sure he will be thirsty already then?
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
(8) But are you sure he will be thirsty already then?
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
(8) But are you sure he will be thirsty already then?
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
(8) But are you sure he will be thirsty already then?
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality))
(7) He will pay for them later.
(8) But are you sure he will be thirsty already then?
6 / 37
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Pronouns in subsequent discourse
(5) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(6) Parts of the sentence
a. subject (agent)
b. object (patient)
c. adverbial (time)
d. predicate (event(uality)) ???
(7) He will pay for them later.
(8) But are you sure he will be thirsty already then?
6 / 37
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▶ Constituents can ‘move around’ in the sentence
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▶ Constituents can ‘move around’ in the sentence
(9) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
7 / 37
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▶ Constituents can ‘move around’ in the sentence
(9) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(10) a. The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before
the meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
7 / 37
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▶ Constituents can ‘move around’ in the sentence
(9) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(10) a. The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before
the meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
7 / 37
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▶ Constituents can ‘move around’ in the sentence
(9) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(10) a. The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before
the meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
7 / 37
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▶ Constituents can ‘move around’ in the sentence
(9) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(10) a. The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before
the meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
b. Before the meal, the customer in the corner will order
the drinks.
7 / 37
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▶ Constituents can ‘move around’ in the sentence
(9) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(10) a. The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before
the meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
b. Before the meal, the customer in the corner will order
the drinks.
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▶ Constituents can ‘move around’ in the sentence
(9) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(10) a. The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before
the meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
b. Before the meal, the customer in the corner will order
the drinks.
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Coordination
▶ Constituents can be joined by and (a co‐ordinating conjunction)
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Coordination
▶ Constituents can be joined by and (a co‐ordinating conjunction)
(11) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
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Coordination
▶ Constituents can be joined by and (a co‐ordinating conjunction)
(11) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(12) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
8 / 37
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Coordination
▶ Constituents can be joined by and (a co‐ordinating conjunction)
(11) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(12) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
b. The customer in the corner will order the desert before
the meal.
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Coordination
▶ Constituents can be joined by and (a co‐ordinating conjunction)
(11) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(12) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
b. The customer in the corner will order the desert before
the meal.
c. The customer in the corner will order the drinks and the
desert before the meal.
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Coordination
▶ Constituents can be joined by and (a co‐ordinating conjunction)
(11) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(12) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
b. The customer in the corner will order the desert before
the meal.
c. The customer in the corner will order the drinks and the
desert before the meal.
8 / 37
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▶ Under special conditions, constituents can be left out (elided)
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▶ Under special conditions, constituents can be left out (elided)
(13) a. I bought two apples, and he bought three.
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▶ Under special conditions, constituents can be left out (elided)
(13) a. I bought two apples, and he bought three.
b. I bought two apples, and he bought three apples.
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(14) Constituents can be
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
10 / 37
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
10 / 37
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
10 / 37
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
▶ These tests can only show that something is a constituent.
10 / 37
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
▶ These tests can only show that something is a constituent.
▶ They cannot be used to show that something is not a constituent
10 / 37
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
▶ These tests can only show that something is a constituent.
▶ They cannot be used to show that something is not a constituent
▶ One way implication: if a string has the property X, then it is a
constituent
10 / 37
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(14) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
▶ These tests can only show that something is a constituent.
▶ They cannot be used to show that something is not a constituent
▶ One way implication: if a string has the property X, then it is a
constituent
▶ If a string does not have this property, we know nothing
10 / 37
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Sentence structure
The predicate
Conclusions
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▶ So far, there is no rule that targets the predicate will order
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▶ So far, there is no rule that targets the predicate will order
▶ Is the predicate a constituent?
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▶ So far, there is no rule that targets the predicate will order
▶ Is the predicate a constituent?
▶ Well, no...
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Pronoun replacement
(15) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
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Pronoun replacement
(15) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(16) He will pay for them later.
13 / 37
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Pronoun replacement
(15) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(16) He will pay for them later.
13 / 37
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Pronoun replacement
(15) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(16) He will pay for them later.
(17) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so before the meal he will first need
a wine list.
13 / 37
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Pronoun replacement
(15) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(16) He will pay for them later.
(17) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so before the meal he will first need
a wine list.
13 / 37
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Pronoun replacement
(15) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(16) He will pay for them later.
(17) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so before the meal he will first need
a wine list.
(18) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so he needs a wine list now.
13 / 37
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Pronoun replacement
(15) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal.
(16) He will pay for them later.
(17) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so before the meal he will first need
a wine list.
(18) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so he needs a wine list now.
13 / 37
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sentence
subject
the customer in the corner
?predicate?
will order
object
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
14 / 37
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sentence
subject
the customer in the corner
?predicate?
will order
object
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
15 / 37
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event
event
hit thing
the dog
adverbial
with a hat
16 / 37
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event
event
hit thing
the dog
adverbial
with a hat
event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
16 / 37
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event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
17 / 37
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event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
anchored event
will event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
17 / 37
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(19) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so before the meal he will first need
a wine list.
18 / 37
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(19) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so before the meal he will first need
a wine list.
anchored event
will event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
18 / 37
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(20) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so he needs a wine list now.
19 / 37
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(20) The customer in the corner will order the drinks before the
meal but in order to do so he needs a wine list now.
anchored event
will event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
19 / 37
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anchored event
subject
the customer in the corner
will event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
20 / 37
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sentence
subject
the customer in the corner
anchored event
will event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
21 / 37
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(21) The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before the
meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
22 / 37
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(21) The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before the
meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
(22) Order their drinks, they will before the meal.
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(21) The drinks, the customer in the corner will order before the
meal (but the dessert, they will order later).
(22) Order their drinks, they will before the meal.
sentence
subject
they
?predicate?
will order
object
their drinks
adverbial
before the meal
22 / 37
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(23) Order their drinks before the meal, they will.
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(23) Order their drinks before the meal, they will.
sentence
subject
the customer in the corner
?predicate?
will order
object
their drinks
adverbial
before the meal
23 / 37
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(24) Order their drinks, they will before the meal.
24 / 37
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(24) Order their drinks, they will before the meal.
anchored event
will event
event
order thing
their drinks
adverbial
before the meal
24 / 37
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(25) Order their drinks before the meal, they will.
25 / 37
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(25) Order their drinks before the meal, they will.
anchored event
will event
event
order thing
their drinks
adverbial
before the meal
25 / 37
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ellipsis
(26) A: The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
(27) B: Actually, I wouldn’t be so sure that he will —.
26 / 37
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ellipsis
(26) A: The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
(27) B: Actually, I wouldn’t be so sure that he will —.
sentence
subject
the customer in the corner
?predicate?
will order
object
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
26 / 37
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(28) A: The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal.
(29) B: Actually, I wouldn’t be so sure that he will —.
anchored event
will event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
27 / 37
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Coordination
(30) The customer in the corner will order the dessert and the
drinks before the meal.
28 / 37
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Coordination
(30) The customer in the corner will order the dessert and the
drinks before the meal.
(31) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
28 / 37
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Coordination
(30) The customer in the corner will order the dessert and the
drinks before the meal.
(31) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
b. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
28 / 37
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Coordination
(30) The customer in the corner will order the dessert and the
drinks before the meal.
(31) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
b. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
c. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
28 / 37
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Coordination
(30) The customer in the corner will order the dessert and the
drinks before the meal.
(31) a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
b. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
c. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal and accompany his guests into the dining
room.
d. The customer in the corner will [ order the drinks
before the meal ] and accompany his guests into the
dining room.
28 / 37
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Coordination
(32) a. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
29 / 37
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Coordination
(32) a. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
b. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
29 / 37
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Coordination
(32) a. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
b. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
c. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
29 / 37
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Coordination
(32) a. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
b. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
c. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
d. The customer will order the drinks before the meal and
is waiting for the wine list.
29 / 37
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(33) The customer will order the drinks before the meal and is
waiting for the wine list.
30 / 37
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(33) The customer will order the drinks before the meal and is
waiting for the wine list.
sentence
subject
the customer in the corner
anchored event
will event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
30 / 37
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(34) The customer will order the drinks before the meal and is
waiting for the wine list.
31 / 37
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(34) The customer will order the drinks before the meal and is
waiting for the wine list.
anchored event
subject
the customer in the corner
will event
event
order thing
the drinks
adverbial
before the meal
31 / 37
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Sentence structure
The predicate
Conclusions
32 / 37
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Constituency diagnostics
(35) Constituents can be
33 / 37
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Constituency diagnostics
(35) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
33 / 37
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Constituency diagnostics
(35) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
33 / 37
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Constituency diagnostics
(35) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
33 / 37
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Constituency diagnostics
(35) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
33 / 37
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Constituency diagnostics
(35) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
33 / 37
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Constituency diagnostics
(35) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
33 / 37
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Sentence structure
(36)
sentence
subject
The customer in the corner
anchored event
will modified event
plain event
order object
the drinks
adverbial
before the dinner
34 / 37
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Binary branching (hypothesis)
(37) All branching in natural language is binary.
35 / 37
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Handle with care
(38) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
36 / 37
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Handle with care
(38) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(39) I bought milk.
36 / 37
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Handle with care
(38) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(39) I bought milk.
a. What did you buy?
36 / 37
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Handle with care
(38) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(39) I bought milk.
a. What did you buy?
b. Milk
36 / 37
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Handle with care
(38) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(39) I bought milk.
a. What did you buy?
b. Milk
c. Milk I bought
36 / 37
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Handle with care
(38) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(39) I bought milk.
a. What did you buy?
b. Milk
c. Milk I bought
d. Milk I bought
36 / 37
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Handle with care
(40) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
37 / 37
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Handle with care
(40) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(41) a. I saw that movie. (demonstrative detrminer)
37 / 37
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Handle with care
(40) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(41) a. I saw that movie. (demonstrative detrminer)
b. I saw that. (demonstrative pronoun)
37 / 37
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Handle with care
(40) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(41) a. I saw that movie. (demonstrative detrminer)
b. I saw that. (demonstrative pronoun)
c. I saw that movie. (noun ellipsis)
37 / 37
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Handle with care
(40) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(41) a. I saw that movie. (demonstrative detrminer)
b. I saw that. (demonstrative pronoun)
c. I saw that movie. (noun ellipsis)
(42) Spanish
a. Juan
Juan
está
is
leyendo
reading
la
the
revista.
magazine
(definite detrminer)
37 / 37
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Handle with care
(40) Constituents can be
a. replaced by a pronoun
b. moved around
c. provided as an answer to a question
d. co‐ordinated
e. elided
(41) a. I saw that movie. (demonstrative detrminer)
b. I saw that. (demonstrative pronoun)
c. I saw that movie. (noun ellipsis)
(42) Spanish
a. Juan
Juan
está
is
leyendo
reading
la
the
revista.
magazine
(definite detrminer)
b. Juan
Juan
la
it
está
is
leyendo.
reading
(pronoun)
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References
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