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Syntax
Pavel Caha
Oct 7, 2024
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Studying syntax
▶ Syntax cares about structure, not strings
▶ Two consequences:
▶ One string can have multiple meanings (ambiguity)
▶ Different strings can have the same meaning (language variation)
▶ Rules of language obey structural – not linear – arrangement
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Ambiguity: recap
Nodes and hierarchies
Question Formation in English
Verb Second in German
Verb second cares about hierarchy
Conclusions
3 / 42
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
black cab
drivers
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Ambiguity
(1) black cab drivers
a. drivers of black cabs
b. cab drivers who are black
black cab
drivers black
cab drivers
4 / 42
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Ambiguity
(2) hit the dog with a hat
a. the dog has a hat on
b. the hat is used to hit the dog
black cab
drivers black
cab drivers
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(3) hit the dog with a hat
a. the hat is used to hit the dog
b. the dog has a hat on
black
hit
cab
the dog
drivers
with a hat
black
cab drivers
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(4) hit the dog with a hat
a. the hat is used to hit the dog
b. the dog has a hat on
black
hit
cab
the dog
drivers
with a hat
black
hit
cab
the dog
drivers
with a hat
7 / 42
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Ambiguity: recap
Nodes and hierarchies
Question Formation in English
Verb Second in German
Verb second cares about hierarchy
Conclusions
8 / 42
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1 2
3 1
2 3
▶ lines are called edges
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1 2
3 1
2 3
▶ lines are called edges
▶ at the end of each edge, there is a node
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1 2
3 1
2 3
▶ lines are called edges
▶ at the end of each edge, there is a node
▶ 1, 2, 3 are terminal nodes
(TN contains no other node, no edge going down)
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5
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1 2
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2 3
▶ lines are called edges
▶ at the end of each edge, there is a node
▶ 1, 2, 3 are terminal nodes
(TN contains no other node, no edge going down)
▶ 4, 5 are non‐terminal nodes
(NTN contains at least one node, at least one edge going down)
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5
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5
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2 3
▶ There is a hierarchy among nodes, which is independent of
ordering
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5
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1 2
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▶ There is a hierarchy among nodes, which is independent of
ordering
▶ 5 is higher than 4 (dominance)
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5
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3
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2 3
▶ There is a hierarchy among nodes, which is independent of
ordering
▶ 5 is higher than 4 (dominance)
▶ 5 dominates all nodes, also terminals
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5
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1 2
3
5
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2 3
▶ There is a hierarchy among nodes, which is independent of
ordering
▶ 5 is higher than 4 (dominance)
▶ 5 dominates all nodes, also terminals
▶ 4 dominates 1 and 2 in the tree on the left
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5
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▶ in the tree on the left
▶ the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
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5
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▶ in the tree on the left
▶ the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
▶ 2 and 3 are two edges away
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5
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1 2
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▶ in the tree on the left
▶ the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
▶ 2 and 3 are two edges away
▶ 3 is the highest terminal
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5
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1 2
3
5
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2 3
▶ in the tree on the left
▶ the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
▶ 2 and 3 are two edges away
▶ 3 is the highest terminal
▶ in the tree on the right
▶ 1 is the highest terminal
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5
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1 2
3
5
1 4
2 3
▶ in the tree on the left
▶ the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
▶ 2 and 3 are two edges away
▶ 3 is the highest terminal
▶ in the tree on the right
▶ 1 is the highest terminal
(Every node that dominates 1 dominates also other terminals,
but not vice versa)
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5
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1 2
3
5
1 4
2 3
▶ in the tree on the left
▶ the terminal 3 is only one edge removed from 5
▶ 2 and 3 are two edges away
▶ 3 is the highest terminal
▶ in the tree on the right
▶ 1 is the highest terminal
(Every node that dominates 1 dominates also other terminals,
but not vice versa)
(5) Node X c‐commands node Y in a phrase marker iff
a. neither dominates the other, and
b. every (branching) node that dominates X also dominates Y
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My point today
5
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1 2
3
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2 3
▶ Languages care about who the highest node is
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My point today
5
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1 2
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2 3
▶ Languages care about who the highest node is
▶ We can see that from the way rules work
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Ambiguity: recap
Nodes and hierarchies
Question Formation in English
Verb Second in German
Verb second cares about hierarchy
Conclusions
14 / 42
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Question formation (yes/no questions)
(6) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
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Question formation (yes/no questions)
(6) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
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Question formation (yes/no questions)
(6) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
(7) Another example
a. The murderer was arrested last night.
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Question formation (yes/no questions)
(6) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
(7) Another example
a. The murderer was arrested last night.
b. Was the murderer arrested last night?
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Question formation (yes/no questions)
(6) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
(7) Another example
a. The murderer was arrested last night.
b. Was the murderer arrested last night?
(8) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb ...
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Question formation (yes/no questions)
(6) An example
a. The murderer has broken the window.
b. Has the murderer broken the window?
(7) Another example
a. The murderer was arrested last night.
b. Was the murderer arrested last night?
(8) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb ...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb ...
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Question formation in English: how are they derived?
(9) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
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Question formation in English: how are they derived?
(9) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
(10) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
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Question formation in English: how are they derived?
(9) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
(10) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
b. subject Auxiliary subject main verb ....
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Question formation in English: how are they derived?
(9) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
(10) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
b. subject Auxiliary subject main verb ....
(11) a. These new shops definitely are doing well.
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Question formation in English: how are they derived?
(9) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
(10) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
b. subject Auxiliary subject main verb ....
(11) a. These new shops definitely are doing well.
b. Are these new shops definitely doing well?
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Question formation in English: how are they derived?
(9) The pattern
a. Declarative: Subject Auxiliary main verb...
b. Interrogative: Auxiliary Subject main verb...
(10) Two hypotheses:
a. Auxiliary subject Auxiliary main verb ....
b. subject Auxiliary subject main verb ....
(11) a. These new shops definitely are doing well.
b. Are these new shops definitely doing well?
c. *Definitely are these new shops doing well.
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What happens when there are multiple auxiliaries
(12) a. The man who is tall is happy.
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What happens when there are multiple auxiliaries
(12) a. The man who is tall is happy.
b. The man who is tall is happy.
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What happens when there are multiple auxiliaries
(12) a. The man who is tall is happy.
b. The man who is tall is happy.
c. * Is The man who — tall is happy?
17 / 42
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What happens when there are multiple auxiliaries
(12) a. The man who is tall is happy.
b. The man who is tall is happy.
c. * Is The man who — tall is happy?
d. Is The man who is tall — happy?
17 / 42
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What happens when there are multiple auxiliaries
(12) a. The man who is tall is happy.
b. The man who is tall is happy.
c. * Is The man who — tall is happy?
d. Is The man who is tall — happy?
(13) The moving element is closest in terms of structural distance
17 / 42
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What happens when there are multiple auxiliaries
(12) a. The man who is tall is happy.
b. The man who is tall is happy.
c. * Is The man who — tall is happy?
d. Is The man who is tall — happy?
(13) The moving element is closest in terms of structural distance
(14) 5
4
1 2
3
17 / 42
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sentence
subject
the man who is tall
predicate
is happy
18 / 42
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.
sentence
subject
the man who is tall
predicate
copula
is
adjective
happy
19 / 42
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.
sentence
subject
determiner
the
nominal part
man who is tall
predicate
copula
is
adjective
happy
20 / 42
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.
sentence
subject
determiner
the
nominal part
noun
man
relative clause
who is tall
predicate
copula
is
adjective
happy
21 / 42
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.
sentence
subject
determiner
the
nominal part
noun
man
relative clause
subject
who
predicate
is tall
predicate
copula
is
adjective
happy
22 / 42
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.
sentence
subject
determiner
the
nominal part
noun
man
relative clause
subject
who
predicate
copula
is
adjective
tall
predicate
copula
is
adjective
happy
23 / 42
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.
sentence
subject
determiner
the
nominal part
noun
man
relative clause
subject
who
predicate
copula
is
adjective
tall
predicate
copula
is
adjective
happy
24 / 42
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Ambiguity: recap
Nodes and hierarchies
Question Formation in English
Verb Second in German
Verb second cares about hierarchy
Conclusions
25 / 42
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Recall that German has an SOV order in subordinate clauses
(15) SVO vs. SOV
a. (Hans says that) the dog eats the bone
26 / 42
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Recall that German has an SOV order in subordinate clauses
(15) SVO vs. SOV
a. (Hans says that) the dog eats the bone
b. (Hans
Hans
sagt
said
dass)
that
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
frisst.
eats
‘(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone.’
26 / 42
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Recall that German has an SOV order in subordinate clauses
(15) SVO vs. SOV
a. (Hans says that) the dog eats the bone
b. (Hans
Hans
sagt
said
dass)
that
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
frisst.
eats
‘(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone.’
sentence
subject
the dog
event
verb
eats
object
the bone
26 / 42
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Recall that German has an SOV order in subordinate clauses
(15) SVO vs. SOV
a. (Hans says that) the dog eats the bone
b. (Hans
Hans
sagt
said
dass)
that
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
frisst.
eats
‘(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone.’
sentence
subject
the dog
event
verb
eats
object
the bone
sentence
subject
der Hund
the dog
event
object
den Knochen
the bone
verb
frisst
eats
26 / 42
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(16) Hans sagt...
a. ...
...
dass
that
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
frisst.
eats
‘(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone.’
27 / 42
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(16) Hans sagt...
a. ...
...
dass
that
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
frisst.
eats
‘(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone.’
b. Der
the
Hund
dog
frisst
eats
den
the.ACC
Knochen.
bone.ACC
‘The dog eats the bone.’
27 / 42
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(16) Hans sagt...
a. ...
...
dass
that
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
frisst.
eats
‘(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone.’
b. Der
the
Hund
dog
frisst
eats
den
the.ACC
Knochen.
bone.ACC
‘The dog eats the bone.’
sentence
subject
the dog
event
object
the bone
verb
eats
27 / 42
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(16) Hans sagt...
a. ...
...
dass
that
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
frisst.
eats
‘(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone.’
b. Der
the
Hund
dog
frisst
eats
den
the.ACC
Knochen.
bone.ACC
‘The dog eats the bone.’
sentence
subject
the dog
event
object
the bone
verb
eats
sentence
subject
the dog
event
verb
eats
object
the bone
27 / 42
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(16) Hans sagt...
a. ...
...
dass
that
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
frisst.
eats
‘(Hans says) that the dog eats the bone.’
b. Der
the
Hund
dog
frisst
eats
den
the.ACC
Knochen.
bone.ACC
‘The dog eats the bone.’
sentence
subject
the dog
event
object
the bone
verb
eats
sentence
subject
the dog
event
verb
eats
object
the bone
▶ But this can’t be the right analysis.
27 / 42
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Verb second
(17) a. Der
The
Patient
patient
mag
likes
den
the
Doktor.
doctor
28 / 42
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Verb second
(17) a. Der
The
Patient
patient
mag
likes
den
the
Doktor.
doctor
b. ‘Perhaps the patient likes the doctor.’
28 / 42
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Verb second
(17) a. Der
The
Patient
patient
mag
likes
den
the
Doktor.
doctor
b. ‘Perhaps the patient likes the doctor.’
c. Vielleicht
Perhaps
mag
likes
Der
the
Patient
patient
den
the
Doktor.
doctor
28 / 42
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Verb second
(17) a. Der
The
Patient
patient
mag
likes
den
the
Doktor.
doctor
b. ‘Perhaps the patient likes the doctor.’
c. Vielleicht
Perhaps
mag
likes
Der
the
Patient
patient
den
the
Doktor.
doctor
(18) Verb second:
TOPIC verb Subject Object verb ....
28 / 42
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.
Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19) a. Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information)
29 / 42
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Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19) a. Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information)
b. Focus: The answer to that question (new information)
29 / 42
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Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(19) a. Topic: the question under discussion (previously
mentioned information)
b. Focus: The answer to that question (new information)
(20) a. Co
What
napsal
wrote
Shakespeare?
Shakespeare
‘What did Shakespeare write?
b. Shakespeare
Shakespeare
napsal
wrote
HAMLETA.
Hamlet.
(21) a. Kdo
Who
napsal
wrote
Hamleta?
Hamlet
b. Hamleta
hamlet.ACC
napsal
wrote
SHAKESPEARE.
Shakespeare
29 / 42
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Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(22) Neutral word order (everything is new)
a. What’s the news in the world?
b. It is snowing in the Alps.
30 / 42
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Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(22) Neutral word order (everything is new)
a. What’s the news in the world?
b. It is snowing in the Alps.
(23) Contrastive topic
a. Is it snowing in Krkonoše? (introducing topic)
30 / 42
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Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(22) Neutral word order (everything is new)
a. What’s the news in the world?
b. It is snowing in the Alps.
(23) Contrastive topic
a. Is it snowing in Krkonoše? (introducing topic)
b. No, it’s not snowing in Krkonoše.
(Krkonoše is the topic, you can’t stress it)
30 / 42
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.
Discourse linking (topic, focus)
(22) Neutral word order (everything is new)
a. What’s the news in the world?
b. It is snowing in the Alps.
(23) Contrastive topic
a. Is it snowing in Krkonoše? (introducing topic)
b. No, it’s not snowing in Krkonoše.
(Krkonoše is the topic, you can’t stress it)
c. ... but IN THE ALPS, it is snowing.
(Alps = contrastive topic, it has stress, it is first)
30 / 42
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Back to German
(24) The verb second property
a. Es
it
schneit
snows
auf
on
der
the
Alb.
Alb
‘It is snowing in the Swabain Jura.’
31 / 42
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Back to German
(24) The verb second property
a. Es
it
schneit
snows
auf
on
der
the
Alb.
Alb
‘It is snowing in the Swabain Jura.’
b. Auf
on
der
the
Alb
Alb
schneit
snows
es.
it
‘In the Swabian Jura, it is snowing.’
31 / 42
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The verb moves
(25) Verb second:
TOPIC verb Subject Object verb ....
32 / 42
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Supporting evidence
(26) Verb movement leads to verb splitting
a. ...,
...
dass
that
Hans
Hans
das
the.ACC
Kind
child.ACC
ab‐holt.
up‐picks
‘..., that Hans picks up the child.’
33 / 42
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Supporting evidence
(26) Verb movement leads to verb splitting
a. ...,
...
dass
that
Hans
Hans
das
the.ACC
Kind
child.ACC
ab‐holt.
up‐picks
‘..., that Hans picks up the child.’
b. Hans
Hans
holt
picks
das
the.ACC
Kind
child.ACC
ab.
up
‘Hans picks up the child.’
33 / 42
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Supporting evidence
(26) Verb movement leads to verb splitting
a. ...,
...
dass
that
Hans
Hans
das
the.ACC
Kind
child.ACC
ab‐holt.
up‐picks
‘..., that Hans picks up the child.’
b. Hans
Hans
holt
picks
das
the.ACC
Kind
child.ACC
ab.
up
‘Hans picks up the child.’
(27) Verb second:
TOPIC verb Subject Object particle‐verb ....
33 / 42
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.
▶ Second place phenomena will be important (Czech has clitic
second)
(28) a. Petr
Petr
chce
wants
navštívit
to.visit
Karla
Karel
34 / 42
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.
▶ Second place phenomena will be important (Czech has clitic
second)
(28) a. Petr
Petr
chce
wants
navštívit
to.visit
Karla
Karel
b. Petra
Petra
ho
him
nechce
neg.wants
navštívit
to.visit
34 / 42
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.
▶ Second place phenomena will be important (Czech has clitic
second)
(28) a. Petr
Petr
chce
wants
navštívit
to.visit
Karla
Karel
b. Petra
Petra
ho
him
nechce
neg.wants
navštívit
to.visit
(29) a. Všichni
Everyone
budou
will
mít
have
příležitost
the.chance
zeptat
to.ask
se
SE
34 / 42
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.
▶ Second place phenomena will be important (Czech has clitic
second)
(28) a. Petr
Petr
chce
wants
navštívit
to.visit
Karla
Karel
b. Petra
Petra
ho
him
nechce
neg.wants
navštívit
to.visit
(29) a. Všichni
Everyone
budou
will
mít
have
příležitost
the.chance
zeptat
to.ask
se
SE
b. Všichni
Everyone
se
SE
budou
will
mít
have
příležitost
the.chance
zeptat
to.ask
34 / 42
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.
▶ Second place phenomena will be important (Czech has clitic
second)
(28) a. Petr
Petr
chce
wants
navštívit
to.visit
Karla
Karel
b. Petra
Petra
ho
him
nechce
neg.wants
navštívit
to.visit
(29) a. Všichni
Everyone
budou
will
mít
have
příležitost
the.chance
zeptat
to.ask
se
SE
b. Všichni
Everyone
se
SE
budou
will
mít
have
příležitost
the.chance
zeptat
to.ask
34 / 42
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Ambiguity: recap
Nodes and hierarchies
Question Formation in English
Verb Second in German
Verb second cares about hierarchy
Conclusions
35 / 42
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Multiple verbs
(30) a. ... because the dog has eaten the bone
36 / 42
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.
Multiple verbs
(30) a. ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b. ...
...
weil
because
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
gefressen
eaten
hat.
has
‘..., because the dog has eaten the bone.’
36 / 42
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.
Multiple verbs
(30) a. ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b. ...
...
weil
because
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
gefressen
eaten
hat.
has
‘..., because the dog has eaten the bone.’
completed event
AUX
has
event
verb
eaten
object
the bone
36 / 42
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.
Multiple verbs
(30) a. ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b. ...
...
weil
because
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
gefressen
eaten
hat.
has
‘..., because the dog has eaten the bone.’
completed event
AUX
has
event
verb
eaten
object
the bone
completed event
event
object
den Knochen
the bone
verb
gefressen
eaten
AUX
hat
has
36 / 42
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.
Multiple verbs
(31) a. ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b. ...
...
weil
because
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
gefressen
eaten
hat.
has
‘..., because the dog has eaten the bone.’
completed event
AUX
has
event
verb
eaten
object
the bone
completed event
event
object
den Knochen
the bone
verb
gefressen
eaten
AUX
hat
has
37 / 42
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.
.
Multiple verbs
(32) a. ... because the dog has eaten the bone
b. ...
...
weil
because
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
gefressen
eaten
hat.
has
‘..., because the dog has eaten the bone.’
completed event
AUX
has
event
verb
eaten
object
the bone
completed event
event
object
den Knochen
the bone
verb
gefressen
eaten
AUX
hat
has
38 / 42
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.
Multiple verbs
(33) Verb second as move closest (structural version):
TOPIC auxiliary Subject Object main verb auxiliary ....
39 / 42
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.
Multiple verbs
(33) Verb second as move closest (structural version):
TOPIC auxiliary Subject Object main verb auxiliary ....
(34) Verb second as move closest (linear version):
TOPIC main verb Subject Object main verb auxiliary
39 / 42
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.
.
Multiple verbs
(35) a. ...
...
weil
because
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
gefressen
eaten
hat.
has
‘..., because the dog has eaten the bone.’
40 / 42
.
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.
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.
.
Multiple verbs
(35) a. ...
...
weil
because
der
the
Hund
dog
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
gefressen
eaten
hat.
has
‘..., because the dog has eaten the bone.’
b. der
the
Hund
dog
hat
has
den
the.ACC
Knochen
bone.ACC
gefressen.
eaten
‘..., because the dog has eaten the bone.
40 / 42
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.
.
.
Ambiguity: recap
Nodes and hierarchies
Question Formation in English
Verb Second in German
Verb second cares about hierarchy
Conclusions
41 / 42
.
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.
conclusions
▶ Two rules
42 / 42
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.
conclusions
▶ Two rules
▶ Question formation in English
42 / 42
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.
conclusions
▶ Two rules
▶ Question formation in English
▶ Verb second in German
42 / 42
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.
.
conclusions
▶ Two rules
▶ Question formation in English
▶ Verb second in German
▶ The observations
▶ Verb movement in English targets the main‐clause auxiliary
42 / 42
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
conclusions
▶ Two rules
▶ Question formation in English
▶ Verb second in German
▶ The observations
▶ Verb movement in English targets the main‐clause auxiliary
▶ Verb movement in German targets the structurally highest verb
42 / 42
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
conclusions
▶ Two rules
▶ Question formation in English
▶ Verb second in German
▶ The observations
▶ Verb movement in English targets the main‐clause auxiliary
▶ Verb movement in German targets the structurally highest verb
▶ These two rules are dependent on structure, not on linear order
42 / 42