Black Ships? Locating Netflix in Taiwan and Japan
Yu-Kei Tse
JCMS: Journal of Cinema and Media Studies, Volume 59, Number 3, Spring
2020, pp. 143-148 (Article)
Published by University of Texas Press
DOI:
For additional information about this article
[ Access provided at 2 May 2020 13:57 GMT from University of Canberra ]
https://doi.org/10.1353/cj.2020.0036
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/754026
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JCMS 59 | No. 3 | Spring 2020
remains a strong, if altered, relationship between television and national identity.”15
Studying streaming television in a transnational context requires contending with this
changing relationship to national identity as well as the differential development of
digital media across the world. The transnational articulations of streaming television
provide an opportunity to rethink how infrastructures, texts, and stratified audiences
intermingle at multiple scales.	 ✽
15	 Anna Cristina Pertierra and Graeme Turner, Locating Television: Zones of Consumption (New York: Routledge,
2013), 53.
Black Ships? Locating Netflix in
Taiwan and Japan
by Yu-Kei Tse
T
his article compares the discourses around Netflix’s expansion in
two East Asian markets, Japan and Taiwan. Specifically, it looks
at how the term “black ship” (kurofune in Japanese)—a historical
reference to the Perry expedition to Japan in the 1850s—is frequently
used as rhetoric by both Japanese and Taiwanese media critics
to discuss Netflix’s possible impact on their respective domestic markets.
It explains how and why, although media critics in both Japan
and Taiwan used a common rubric (i.e., black ship) to discuss the introduction
of Netflix, the ways Netflix is situated in each country are
substantially different.
	 As a video-streaming platform operating simultaneously in more
than 190 countries, Netflix persistently proclaims itself as a service
capable of deterritorializing our television experience by offering
content that comes from around the world to audiences across the
globe.1
The future of online television, in Netflix’s vision, seems to
be both borderless and postnational. In practice, however, Netflix
continues to abide by national and regional regulations, as other
transnational television systems do. Its role as a business and a cultural
form varies significantly across the globe. Such variations, nevertheless,
1	 CES, “Reed Hastings, Netflix Keynote 2016,” YouTube video, 42:39, January 6, 2016,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5R3E6jsICA.
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144
are often overlooked in journalistic and scholarly discussions of Netflix. This tendency
limits scholars’ account of Netflix and the ecology of internet-distributed television
in diverse global contexts. It is imperative to examine Netflix’s specific cultural role
comparatively across different national contexts, in the understanding that Netflix,
similar to television, is a set of cultural practices, technologies, and markets that “can
only be studied as located.”2
By contextualizing the black-ship discourses in Japan and
Taiwan, this article not only accounts for the introduction of Netflix in these two East
Asian markets but also shows the importance of a comparative approach for studying
internet-distributed television in increasingly transnational contexts.
	Originally, kurofune referred to US Navy Commodore Matthew Perry’s gunboat
diplomacy and military expedition, which forced Japan to open its borders to foreign
trade in the 1850s, after two centuries of isolation. In contemporary Japanese contexts,
the term is often used by the public to describe the launch of a Western (usually
American) product, service, or enterprise, as well as its impact on the domestic market.
Depending on the intentions of the people employing the term, kurofune may imply a
wary or defensive tone of uncertainty about the unpredictable impact, or it may be
used in a descriptive sense.
	 To examine the kurofune discourses around Netflix, it is important to consider how
the arrival of transnational satellite broadcasting was understood in Japan during the
1990s. Transnational satellite broadcasting was one of the first media phenomena
analogized as kurofune by Japanese media. According to Koichi Iwabuchi, the kurofune
discourse on Japanese media suggests that, with the rise of transnational satellite
broadcasting, the Japanese industry “can no longer enjoy a self-contained domestic
market, but rather is now under threat of being forced to open its doors to the world.”3
However, different from the Perry Expedition, in which the foreign forces had profound
influence on Japanese society, Iwabuchi points out that in practice, the presence of
foreign television in Japan did not seem to pose a real threat to the domestic market,
as audiences strongly preferred domestic content. By comparison, he argues that in
Japan in the 1990s, there were doubts over the ability of the famously inward-looking
Japanese producers to create content that would be appealing to international markets,
where they faced considerable competition. For Iwabuchi, concerning the impact of
transnational broadcasting on the domestic industry, “what is at stake this time is less a
foreign invasion of Japan than a Japanese advance into global media markets.”4
	 How, then, can we understand the resurgence of kurofune discourses when Netflix
Japan launched in September 2015, the company’s first venture into East Asia? While
Japanese media critics tended to employ kurofune to describe, quite defensively, the
arrival of transnational satellite television as a threat to the domestic industry in the
1990s, they have tended to use the term in a looser and more ambiguous manner when
it is applied to Netflix. Such usage can be roughly classified into three types of rhetoric.
2	 Anna Cristina Pertierra and Graeme Turner, Locating Television: Zones of Consumption (New York: Routledge,
2013), 5.
3	 Koichi Iwabuchi, Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism (Durham, NC: Duke
University Press, 2002), 4.
4	 Iwabuchi, 4.
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	 First, some public discourses have regarded Netflix not as a kurofune conquering the
local industry but as a force that brings positive changes, such as enhancing the quality
of domestic content with stronger global appeal and providing new opportunities
for collaboration between a range of local businesses. Such rhetoric was deployed at
Netflix’s press conference on the launch of its Japanese service. The Japanese comedian
Ryota Yamasato, one of the hosts of Terrace House (2015–present), a reality television
series coproduced by Netflix and Fuji TV under the Netflix Original label, worked
as the master of ceremonies for the conference. He excitedly and jokingly analogized
Netflix as a kurofune and its arrival as the dawn of a new and upgraded entertainment
era to the world.5
(In the context of his speech, the “world” refers mainly to Japan.)	
	 This celebratory rhetoric, however, is not the only understanding of Netflix’s
kurofune status, which brings us to the second use of kurofune, in which the term is still
used by Japanese media with a slightly wary tone to consider how Netflix may threaten
the current practices of the local media industry. Japanese markets had already been
packed with numerous local digital media services, including telecom providers and
consumer electronic companies, before Netflix Japan launched. These local players
were well established nationally, if not internationally, but Japanese audiences had
not widely adopted the internet-based subscription video-on-demand model before
Netflix’s arrival. As a result, rather than considering the local enterprises and industry
as weak players in danger, the media discourses tended to focus instead on how
Japanese services and enterprises (sometimes dubbed as “giants”) could fight against
the kurofune of Netflix in the war of internet-distributed television.6
	 Speaking after Yamasato at the press conference, Netflix’s CEO Reed Hastings
first emphasized how Netflix has built strong content partnerships with companies
all over the world, including local Japanese producers “believing in Netflix” and “the
possibility of creating global franchises for new content.”7
He then argued jestingly
that his company, therefore, was not “what critics say (a Black Ship)” but instead “the
Orange Ship of great hope”—a reference to the platform’s original series Orange Is the
New Black (2013–2019). The way in which Hastings claimed that Netflix was not a black
ship seemed to indicate his intention to distance his company from the complexity
and negativity surrounding kurofune as a metaphor in Japan. Hastings’s rhetoric, in
fact, is not fundamentally different from Yamasato’s kurofune analogy in the sense that
both emphasized Netflix’s potential to bring positive changes from which the local
industry would benefit. However, Hastings’s statement still prompted Yamasato, who
must also have known the negative implications concerning kurofune, to “apologize”
playfully to Hastings for calling his company kurofune. The dialogues between Hastings
and Yamasato demonstrate how the general public would interpret the rhetoric of
Netflix as a kurofune, contradictorily, as both a foreign threat and “hope” for the local
Japanese industry.
5	 “Netflix Suddenly Launched Its Service in Japan—‘A Historical Moment,’ Nankyan’s Yamasato Excited,” Livedoor
News, September 1, 2015, https://news.livedoor.com/article/detail/10539800/.
6	 Munechika Nishida, The Age of Netflix: Distribution and Smart Phone Are Changing Television (Tokyo: Kodansha,
2015).
7	 MAiDiGiTV, “Netflix CEO ‘We Are Not a Black Ship but the Orange Ship with Great Hope,’ Netflix Japan Launch
Event 2,” YouTube video, 5:39, September 1, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAvsh-sdw9g.
JCMS 59 | No. 3 | Spring 2020
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	 Third, the Japanese media also frequently use kurofune as a term to underline Netflix
as the leading, US-based player in the global streaming industry, without carrying a
clear positive or negative attitude. In such cases, the platform’s impact on the Japanese
industry is often considered as not particularly profound. As in the 1990s, the Japanese
media market in the 2010s remains a prosperous market where domestic content
is favored over foreign content. In practice, upon its launch, Netflix had in stock a
significantly higher percentage of local content for its Japanese audiences than it did in
many other markets, with some Netflix Originals being coproduced with local partners
like Fuji TV.8
However, most media critics in Japan still considered the quantity of local
content insufficient to appeal to Japanese audiences. They often regarded Netflix’s
high quality and large quantity of Western content as a selling point, but not a threat
to audiences’ preference for domestic content. In such contexts, the kurofune reference
emphasizes how, despite being a US giant, Netflix has failed to expand its market or
challenge the persistently inward-looking and well-established Japanese industry as
much as it has in other parts of the world.9
	 Although this essay categorizes three types of kurofune discourses around Netflix,
it is worth noting that, in many cases, the various, sometimes contradictory implications
of kurofune may coexist in a single news article, indicating that the term
is often used ambiguously and that Netflix’s impact on Japan is understood in a
multivalent manner. While kurofune is less likely to be used as a metaphor in the discourses
around Netflix now than when the platform was first introduced to Japan,
the kurofune discourses represents the way Netflix was imagined in its initial years of
operation in Japan.
	 By contrast, in Taiwan, “black ship,” or hei-chuan in Mandarin Chinese, is mainly
used under two circumstances: when reporting on the Japanese discourse of kurofune
(usually accompanied by a brief introduction to the Perry expedition), or alternatively,
when referring to the arrival in Taiwan of well-established Western products,
services, or enterprises.10
In both circumstances, hei-chuan might carry a slightly wary
tone, or it might also be descriptive. When it came to Netflix, the media followed
closely the platform’s expansion to Japan in September 2015. Some journalists discussed
how and why Japanese media dubbed Netflix’s possible impact as a kurofune.
After Netflix Taiwan launched in January 2016, the Taiwanese media understandably
turned the focus from the platform’s Japanese expansion to its implications for
the domestic media landscape. This changed hei-chuan from a reference exclusive
to Netflix Japan to a phrase that described the challenges the Taiwanese television
industry was facing. Some reporters characterized Netflix Taiwan’s premier as “the
arrival of hei-chuan” without referring to Netflix Japan or the Perry expedition. Some
also debated whether Netflix would make audiences lose their interest in cable and
network TV, and thereby contribute to the decline in TV ratings. Not all reporters
8	 Ramon Lobato, Netflix Nations: The Geography of Digital Distribution (New York: New York University Press,
2019), 127.
9	 Kyoko Shimizu, “3 Years after Its Arrival . . . the Market Barriers Faced by the ‘Kurofune of Video Services,’
Netflix,” Biz Spa!, August 14, 2018, https://bizspa.jp/post-52342/.
10	 The Chinese characters of hei-chuan (黑船) are very similar to kurofune (黒船) in Japanese Kanji.
JCMS 59 | No. 3 | Spring 2020
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described Netflix as hei-chuan, but they used terms such as “giant” or “king” (e.g.,
“the streaming giant” or “the king of global streaming”) to emphasize how Netflix as
a foreign player might bring unpredictable impacts on the local industry—rhetoric
that closely resembles hei-chuan.
	 When Netflix Taiwan launched, the ecology of internet-distributed television on
the island was marked by a significant lack of established legal services—a substantial
difference from the industrial conditions in Japan. Most broadcast networks and cable
television providers in Taiwan did not have online TV portals; even when they did,
the portals were often underdeveloped, with little content and a poor user interface.
Local over-the-top (OTT) and video-on-demand (VOD) services were hard to find.
While transactional video-on-demand (TVOD) services such as iTunes existed, they
were not popular. The ecology largely consisted of illegal streaming apps and websites
and the unlicensed sharing of content on YouTube and similar sites. Moreover, the
general public has long criticized the local television industry for the low quality of
self-produced content and endless reruns of outdated programs. It was not until after
Netflix’s arrival as a hei-chuan that additional local and foreign streaming platforms
emerged as legal businesses, a transition often noted by commentators as “the
beginning of a new era—the era of OTT.”11
	 In this regard, Netflix’s niche in Taiwan’s internet-distributed television market
is determined by not only its Western, English-language-focused content but also its
status as a legal, well-established internet-distributed television model in the formal
media economy. In the media discourse, while some journalists considered Netflix
as a possible threat to local businesses (in terms of the quality of content and the
infrastructure of distribution), it is more common to find critics holding a positive
view on Netflix’s arrival. The critics with the latter perspective considered that the
US platform had helped launch a new age of television, one in which Taiwanese
audiences have more choices of legal online platforms and high-quality content.
Meanwhile, Netflix remains the only platform available in Taiwan that does not
feature local and East Asian content, which in general enjoys wider popularity than
American and Western content. This condition has been commonly cited by major
local competitors as the reason Netflix, despite being the pioneer that led Taiwan to
the dawn of formal internet-distributed television, does not threaten their businesses
as latecomers.12
	 For this reason and others, in the Taiwanese media discourse, Netflix has not
been considered a hei-chuan threatening the local market but celebrated as the best
vehicle through which Taiwanese content could be circulated across the world, which
was rarely possible before Netflix emerged. It is worth pointing out that the small
amount of local content Netflix has coproduced with Taiwanese production teams
so far—such as A Taiwanese Tale of Two Cities (2018–2019)—was licensed exclusively
abroad. However, in Taiwan, such coproduction is exempted from license exclusivity
on Netflix—it is available on Netflix as well as on other platforms and local television
11	 Jing-lin Hung, “The Age of OTT Has Arrived: Lots of Content at the Touch of a Button,” Business Today, June 10,
2016, http://www.businesstoday.com.tw/article-content-80394-155596-OTT.
12	 “LiTV Not Frightened by Netflix’s Arrival,” Storm Media, January 12, 2016, https://www.storm.mg/article/78182.
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channels. The local media industry usually regards such content as more valuable for
making Taiwanese productions seen overseas than for attracting local audiences.13
	 This essayhaslocatedandcomparedthe“blackship” discoursessurroundingNetflix
in the geo-linguistic, cultural contexts of both Japan and Taiwan. As a case study, the
article has also demonstrated the importance of a comparative approach for studying
internet-distributed television in increasingly transnational contexts. It is through a
comparative approach that it can explain how Netflix has functioned differently as
a foreign, niche service in the two markets—even if Japanese and Taiwanese media
critics both dubbed Netflix as a black ship in regard to their respective domestic
markets. Netflix has only been operating in Taiwan and Japan for around five years,
which is rather short compared to its history in North America, Latin America, and
Western Europe. It remains too early to predict the long-term effects of Netflix in
Japan, Taiwan, or other markets Netflix entered following its global switch-on. To
account for Netflix’s long-term effects in the future, the primary task for media studies
scholars will be to document its prompt development and some seemingly short-term
effects across different markets through cross-cultural and transnational collaboration.
	 With the growth of internet-distributed television and the emergence of Netflix
in particular, streaming television seems to be increasingly understood or expected
to be territorially free. However, the way Netflix has operated and functioned across
the world is by no means deterritorialized or postnational, despite its being the most
globalized internet television network. Netflix, as Ramon Lobato rightly argues, should
be better conceptualized as “a collection of national media services tied together in
one platform rather than as a uniform global service.”14
The more Netflix endeavors
to emphasize its potential to be a universal service worldwide, the more important it is
for media studies scholars to investigate carefully the cultural and industrial structures
of each location. It is only through collaboration and dialogue with researchers across
countries and cultural contexts that we can understand what Netflix has to tell us
about the ongoing reconfiguration of global television. 	 ✽
13	 Yi-qing Liu, “Taiwanese Dramas on the Global Stage! A Taiwanese Tale of Two Cities released in 30 Languages,”
TVBS News, January 7, 2018, https://news.tvbs.com.tw/entertainment/848523.
14	Lobato, Netflix Nations, 184.