Nord. J. Bot. - Section of phycology
The distribution and variation of Synura species (Chrysophyceae)
in Connecticut, USA
Peter A. Siver
Siver, P. A. 1987. The distribution and variation of Synura species (Chrysophyceae)
in Connecticut, USA. - Nord. J. Bot. 7: 107-116. Copenhagen. ISSN 0107-055X.
The genus Synura was found to be an important member of the phytoplankton communities
in many Connecticut lakes, present in more than fifty percent of the 113collections
made during 1984. Thirteen taxa, including a new forma, Synura petersenii f.
truttae, were recorded for the first time in Connecticut waters using SEM. S. petersenii
was the most important species, present in forty-one percent of the samples.
Evidence for denoting S. petersenii var. glabra as a form, instead of a variety, is presented.
Ecological preferences for some species are discussed.
P. A. Siver, Dept of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Western Connecticut State
Univ., Danbury, Connecticut 06810, USA.
Introduction
Although the genus Synura was first described by Ehrenberg
in 1833 (published in 1835), it was not until
1878 that Stein presented the first useful description of
the type species, Synura uvella. Korshikov (1929) was
the first scientist to use scale morphology to differentiate
between Synura species and since then it has been
considered necessary for accurate species descriptions
(Huber-Pestalozzi 1941; Petersen & Hansen 1956; Fott
& Ludvik 1957; Bourrelly 1957; Kristiansen 1975; and
Takahashi 1978).
Since the mid-1950's electron microscopy has become
essential for the proper identification of scaled chrysophytes
(Wee 1981) and 24 Synura taxa have been described
with EM to date (Nicholls & Gerrath, in press).
Even though Kristiansen (1971) and Cronberg (1972)
introduced SEM as a tool to identify scaled chrysophytes
most studies have utilized TEM only. In this
study 12 Synura taxa, including a new form, are described
from Connecticut lakes by means of SEM.
These represent the first records of Synura species identified
with EM in Connecticut and New England waters.
Taxonomical and ecological issues are discussed.
© NORDIC JOURNAL OF BOTANY
NORD. J. BOT. 7: 107-116, PHYCOL 065
NORD. J. BOT. 7 (1) 1987
Materials and methods
A total of 113 samples were collected from 33 water bodies
during 1984 (Tab. 1). Plankton net samples (10 and
63 !-tmmesh) and water samples were collected from
either 1 m at the center of the lake (or pond) or from
0.5 m along shore. Two hundred ml from each water
sample were concentrated with centrifugation for 8 minutes
at 2000 rpm on the day of collection. Half of each
net and centrifuged sample were preserved with Lugol's
solution and the remainder refrigerated.
The live refrigerated samples were observed with the
light microscope within 48 hours (and in most cases
within 24 hours) from collection. For collections not observed
within 24 hours, the preserved samples were also
analyzed. One ml portions of each concentrated sample
were dried onto glass cover slips and a piece of aluminum
foil and gently rinsed with distilled water 2 to 4
times to remove excess salt. This method insured in
most cases that whole tests or groups of scales would be
found. It was found that no scale types were lost with
this gentle rinsing technique.
Burnt mounts (Wee 1983), observed at 1000x with
phase and Hoffman optics, were used to substantiate
107
Tab. 1. The distribution of Synura taxa in Connecticut lakes. Figures indicate the number of times each taxon was found in the
Connecticut Chrysophyte Survey during 1984. Synura abbreviations: peter = petersenii; echin. = echinulata; spin. = spinosa;
sphag. = spagnicola; lapp. = lapponica. Letters denote the various forms: P=f. petersenii; G=f. glabra; Pr=f. praefracta; K=f.
kufferathii; B=f. bjoerkii; T=f. truttae; L=f. longispina; Le=f. leptorrhabda; S=f. spinosa; E=f. echinulata.
Synura
Lake, Town, no. of Samples peter. echin. spin. uvella sphag. lapp.
Bigelow Pond, Union - 11............ 9P IG IE 5S lL 3 3 2
Break Neck Pond, Union - 7 ......... 5P 18 2E 3S 1
Chamberlain Lake, Woodstock - 7 .... 2P IPr 3E 1
Black Lake, Woodstock - 7 ........... 4P lK
Forest Lake, New Fairfield - 10 ....... 2P 2Pr 4E IS 1 1
Kenosia, Danbury - 8 ................ 2P 1
Crystal Lake, Ellington - 5 ........... IP IE IS
State Line Pond, Stafford - 1 ......... IP IE
West Lake, Danbury - 2 ............. IP 1
Dog Pond, Goshen - 4 ............... IP IE IS
Westside Pond, Goshen - 4 ........... IP lK 3E
Tyler Lake, Goshen - 4 .............. 3P 1
Indian Pond, Sharon - 1. ............. IP
Morse Meadow Pond, Union - 1 ...... IS
Fullers Pond, Kent - 2 ............... 1
Waubeeka, Danbury - 14............. 2P 1
Break Neck Pond Swamp, Union - 2 .. IE
Trout Pond, Grandby - 2 ............. 2T
Spring Pond, Grandby - 1 ............ IP
Emmons Pond, Hartland - 1.......... IG lLe 1
Total no. occurrences ................ 46 18 13 10 5 3
Total no. lakes ...................... 17 10 6 8 3 2
% of samples taxon found in ......... 41 15 12 9 4 3
Lakes lacking Synura populations (Lake, Town, no. sampling trips): East Twin, Salisbury - 3; Wonoscopomuc, Salisbury - 3; Shinipset,
Ellington, Tolland, Vernon - 2; Waramaug, Warren, Kent, Washington - 2; Candlewood, Danbury, New Fairfield, Sherman,
New Milford, Brookfield - 1; Taunton, Newtown - I; Mount Tom, Litchfield, Washington - 1; Bantom, Litchfield, Morris - 1;
Majorie Resevoir, Danbury, New Fairfield -1; Riga, Salisbury - 1; Canoebrook, Trumbull- 1; Bog Meadow, Sharon -1; Ford, Salisbury
- 1.
the presence of Synura taxa and for attempting to identify
each to the species level. For SEM, the aluminum
foil sample was trimmed, mounted onto an aluminum
stub with apiezon wax, coated with gold for 4.5 minutes
using a Polaron sputter and observed with a Coates and
Welter scanning electron microscope at 15 to 20 kv.
In over 95% of the samples where Synura taxa were
observed with light microscopy identifications were
made with SEM. Only observations where whole tests,
groups of scales or scattered scales were found were
used in determining percent occurrence. Single isolated
scales found with SEM were noted but not used in percent
occurrence calculations. Even though the plankton
nets were thoroughly rinsed between collections it is
possible that these isolated scales were the result of contamination.
However, in most instances single scales
were believed to be remnants of past populations.
Results
Synura petersenii Korshikov
Cells were arranged in spherically shaped colonies,
oblanceolate to pyriform in shape with rounded anterior
portions and an extended stalked posterior (Fig. 1).
Scales consisted of a centrally raised hollow spine positioned
on a perforated basal plate, struts that ran perpendicular
from the spine to the scale border, an upturned
rim on the posterior half of the cell and a large
pore in the base plate beneath the distal portion of the
Fig. 1. Synura petersenii f. praefracta. Whole cell morphology showing scale arrangement and distribution (bar = 5 ~m). - Figs
2-5. Synura petersenii f. petersenii. - Fig. 2. Close up of posterior portion of a cell showing elongated scales with blunt spines (bar
x 2 ~m). - Fig. 3. Elongated posterior scales (bar = 2 ~m). - Fig. 4. Body Scales. Note the large well defined spines (bar =
2 ~m). - Fig. 5. Body scales. Note the pore in the base plate (bar = 2 ~m). - Figs 6-7. Synura petersenii f. kufferathii. - Fig. 6.
Note well developed spine and the ribs running perpendicular to and connecting adjacent struts (bar = 1 ~m). - Fig. 7. Body
scales with ribs connecting adjacent struts and bumps on the raised hollow central area (bar = 2 ~m). - Fig. 8. Synura petersenii f.
praefracta. Body scales with blunt spines possessing teeth. Upside down scale is of Mallomonas multiunca (bar = 1 ~m).
108 NORD. J. BOT. 7 (1) 1987
NORD. J. BOT. 7 (I) 1987 109
Fig. 9. Synura petersenii f. praefracta. Close up of spine tip showing the teeth (bar = 0.5 I-lm).- Fig. 10. Synura petersenii f. glabra.
Body scale with struts not radiating to the perimeter (bar = 1 I-lm).- Fig. 11. Synura petersenii f. bjoerkii. Short oblong body scale
with stout spine. Note that several struts have furcated (bar = 2 I-lm).- Figs 12-14. Synura petersenii f. trullae. - Fig. 12. Note rows
of pores formed by the fusion of thick struts to equally thickened perpendicular ribs, and the bumps scattered on the raised hollow
central area. Scales in the upper left are from the posterior region of the cell while those in the lower right are anterior scales with
toothed spines (bar = 1 I-lm).- Fig. 13. Close up of body scales showing the series of pores, bumps on the raised central area and
toothed spines (arrow) (bar = 1 I-lm).- Fig. 14. Posterior scales lacking well defined spines (bar = 1 I-lm).- Figs 15-16. Synura
uvella. - Fig. 15. Anterior body scale with stout, conical, toothed spine and heavy rim (bar = 1 I-lm).- Fig. 16. Spined (top) and
spineless (bottom) scales. Note the lack of a secondary cover on the anterior portion of the spineless scale (bar = 1 I-lm).
110 NORD. J. BOT. 7 (I) 1987
spine (Figs 1 to 6) (Petersen & Hansen 1956; Asmund
1968; Takahashi 1978 and Wee 1982). The spine projected
forward and upward and extended up to or
slightly past the front of the scale. Scale shape varied
depending on the position on the cell (Fig. 1). In general,
scales became more slender and elongated towards
the posterior (caudal) portion of the cell (Figs 2 and 3).
Synura petersenii was by far the most common Synura
taxon, being found in 17lakes and 41% of the collections
(Tab. 1). It was present in all lakes sampled on 4 or more
occasions. Although populations were found during each
month of the year they were more common and concentrated
(formed a greater percentage of the phytoplankton
population) from November through March.
Half of the S. petersenii populations had scale ornamentation
characteristic of the forma petersenii (Figs 2-
5). Posterior scales usually had spines which were not as
raised as on anterior scales and were either pointed or
blunt in nature (Figs 2 and 3). In some populations
bumps were randomly scattered on the raised hollow
area (Fig. 7). Spine size (height above the base plate)
was greatest on scales from a population present in Black
Lake from July, 1984 through November, 1984 (Figs 4
and 6). In July, a few scales on each cell had short ribs
that ran parallel to the spine axis and connected adjacent
struts (Fig. 4), a feature characteristic of the forma kufferathii
Petersen & Hansen (1958). By November the
majority of the cells had scales with connecting ribs and
the population was designated as Synura petersenii f.
kufferathii (Fig. 6). The increased percentage of ribbing
was gradual over time and the distinction between f. petersenii
and f. kufferathii was difficult to make. In other
collections where the majority of scales had ribs running
perpendicular to and connecting the struts the cells were
determined as S. petersenii f. kufferathii (Fig. 7).
Three populations of Synura petersenii f. praefracta
Asmund characterized by scales with cylindrical, blunt,
and toothed spines, were found during the study (Figs 1,
8 and 9; Tab. 1). According to Asmund's (1968) original
description spines on anterior scales strongly overlapped
the rim of the base plate while those on posterior scales
were more like f. petersenii, lacking the small teeth and
ending with an acute tip. In the populations found during
this study spines projected past the distal portion of the
scale only slightly and only on the anterior part of the cell
(Fig. 1). On most scales spines were pronounced and
protruded upward but not past the rim. Spines on posterior
scales also had toothed tips and projected almost
perpendicular from the base plate (Fig. 1). Many spines
had 12 to 14 teeth (Fig. 9).
Synura petersenii f. glabra (Korsh.) Huber-PestaIpzzi,
distinguished from f. petersenii by having scales
lacking struts or with ones that do not reach the scale perimeter,
was found once during the study (Fig. 10 and
Tab. 1). There were two instances when isolated scales
on a given cell of f. petersenii resembled those of f. glabra.
One population of S. petersenii f. bjoerkii Cronberg
& Kristiansen, characterized by short oblong scales with
NORD. 1. BOT. 7 (1) 1987
stout and acute spines, was found (Fig. 11 and Tab. 1).
Most of the scales from the f. bjoerkii population had a
few struts that furcated (Fig. 11).
Two populations were found with a unique combination
of scale features and are proposed as a new forma:
Synura petersenii Korshikov f. truttae Siver nov. f.
A f. petersenii differt squamis parvis oblongisque
(2.2-3.5 !-tmx 1.5-2.0 !-tmmagnis); spiculis brevibus,
dentibus hebetibus terminatis; fulcris spissis crassis inter
se costis spissis junctis, una reticulum formantibus foraminibus
rotundatis. Pars centralis squamae elevata tuberibus
dispersis ornata. PIerae que squamarum medianarum
posteriorumque partem centralem rotundam
praebentes, spinis veris destitutae.
Speciminis locus est Trout Lake, in MacLean Wildlife
Preserve, Granby, CT, in Provinciis Foederatis Americae
Septentrionalis, m. Nov., a. 1985. Iconotypus figurae
12.
S. petersenii f. truttae differs from f. petersenii in having
small oblong body scales (2.25-3.5 !-tmx 1.5-2.0 !-tm)
similar in outline to S. f. bjoerkii; anterior scales with
cylindrical, blunt spines terminating in several teeth as
in f. praefracta (Figs 12-13); posterior scales with
rounded central keels and lacking spines, a characteristic
common to S. petersenii f. bonaerensis Vigna (Fig.
14); and heavily silicified struts connected to one another
by one and often two parallel ribs as in f. kufferathii
(Figs 12-14). The network of struts and ribs
formed series of large pores, a feature also present in f.
bonaerensis. In addition, scales had bumps randomly
scattered on the centrally raised area.
S. petersenii f. truttae, a dominant member of the
phytoplankton community in Trout Lake during November,
1984 was found with other members of the
Chrysophyceae (Mallomonas caudata, Mallomonas tonsurata,
Mallomonas crassisquama, Dinobryon bavaricum
and Chrysosphaerella longispina), Bacillariophyceae
(Melosira ambigua, Tabellaria fenestrata, Rhizosolenia
sp. and Synedra sp.), and Cryptophyceae
(Cryptomonas sp.).
Synura uvella Stein em. Korshikov
Cells of this species have spined anterior scales and nonspined
posterior scales (Figs 15-16). Anterior spined
scales are almost circular in outline except for a straight
distal portion. A heavy rim encircles all but the distal
portion of the scale and is supported by a series of struts
attached to the base plate (Petersen & Hansen 1956,
Wee 1982). The outline of struts under the rim, easily
seen with TEM, were revealed with SEM on several
scales in each population or observed directly on damaged
scales. The spine, attached on the anterior portion
of the scale, is short, stout, conical in shape and ends
with teeth. Wee (1982) stated that the reticulated ante-
111
rior portion of the scale sometimes may be partly or totally
obscured by a secondary cover. In all populations
encountered during this study such a secondary layer
was present on spined scales, lacking on spineless scales
(Fig. 16).
S. uvella was found in 9% of the samples and in 8
lakes (Tab. 1) but was a common member of the phytoplankton
community in only 3% of the samples (unpubl.
data).
Synura lapponica Skuja
Scales consisted of an oval perforated base plate completely
surrounded by an upturned rim and with a central
papilla (Figs 17-18). The papillae were columnar
with a slightly expanded base (Fig. 17) or spherical (Fig.
18). Smaller posterior scales often lacked papillae
(Fig. 17).
S. lapponiea was rare, only found in two lakes during
the study (Tab. 1). Although isolated scales have previously
been recorded from North America (Whitford &
Schumacher 1969; Munch 1980) this represents the first
time live S. lapponiea colonies have been found.
Synura echinulata Korshikov
Anterior scales have a raised thickening on the distal
end beneath which lie a series of vermiform ribs (Figs
19-21) (Wee 1982). A set of straight, short ribs lies in
front of the thickening and runs perpendicular to the
scale perimeter (Fig. 19). A single pore may be found
between each pair of ribs. On anterior scales spines are
rather long, (in this study up to 2.5 !-lm),slightly curved
and tapered to an acute point. The rim generally encircles
one-half to two-thirds of the scale (Fig. 19). The
area of the shield posterior to the anterior thickening
and interior to the rim is furnished with holes that penetrate
the base plate (Figs 19 and 22). Posterior scales
are elongated with an extended vermiform rib portion
and a small spike-like spine (Fig. 21). Extreme caudal
scales may lack spines (Fig. 21).
S. eehinulata was the second most important species
being present in ten of the study lakes and 15% of the
samples (Tab. 1). Variation in scale design was minimal
and all but one population were of the f. eehinulata
type. In one collection from Emmons Pond, the most
acidic lake in the survey (pH = 4.8), a few scales belonging
to S. eehinulata f. leptorrhabda Asmund were
found (Fig. 22).
Synura spinosa Korshikov
Scales have a perforated base plate, a rim around the
proximal two-thirds portion of the scale, a rather long,
blunt spine ending in several teeth and a series of ribs
forming a honeycomb reticulation on the distal onethird
posterior of the base plate (Figs 23-24). Posterior
scales are more pointed, smaller in size and possess
112
shorter spines. Extreme posterior scales are lanceolateslipper
shaped, lack both spines and rib reticulation and
have a completely encircling rim (Fig. 24). Elongated
tubular apical scales, often reported for S. spinosa (Takahashi
1978) were found only in populations from Bigelow
Lake.
Both S. spinosa Korshikov f. spinosa (Fig. 23) and S.
spinosa f. longispina Petersen & Hansen (Fig. 24), distinguished
on the basis of the size of the spine, were
found in this study. S. spinosa f. longispina has only
been recorded from North America once (Nicholls &
Gerrath, in press). S. spinosa populations were found in
6 lakes and 12% of the collections (Tab. 1).
Synura sphagnicola (Korsh.) Korshikov
Scales are oval in shape, have evenly spaced perforations
on the base plate and possess a long slightly tapered,
blunt spine (Petersen & Hansen 1958) (Fig. 25).
The rim on each scale encircled at least four-fifths of the
perimeter, however, on some scales it completely encircled
the perimeter.
S. sphagnieola was rare in Connecticut waters, being
found in only 3 lakes and 4% of the collections (Tab. 1).
Discussion
The genus Synura was an important constituent of
phytoplankton communities in many Connecticut lakes,
being found in 55% of the samples and in 21 of the 34
water bodies surveyed. Because Synura species were
found in all lakes sampled more than 4 times, it is believed
that with further investigation the distribution
will be found to span a larger percentage of the water
bodies. All descriptions were new records for Connecti-
cut.
Synura petersenii (including all forms) was the most
common species in Connecticut lakes and was often
found to be one of the dominant phytoplankton members.
In most studies from the United States, including
reports from Iowa (Wee et al. 1976, Wee 1981), Minnesota
(Wujek et al. 1981) and Kansas (Wujek & Weiss
1984), S. petersenii was also found to be the most common
species. Although these reports represent areas
from the Midwestern part of the United States, the
present study is the first detailed survey of Synura from
the northeast. It should be noted that in a study from
the southeastern part of the United States (Arkansas),
Andersen and Meyer (1977) found S. eurtispina (Petersen
& Hansen) Asmund f. eurtispina Asmund to be
the most common Synura taxon.
Although Takahashi (1967) and Kristiansen (1975)
found Synura to prefer cooler temperatures, both reported
that populations could be found throughout the year.
This finding was supported in the present study where
Synura taxa were found during each month of the year,
however, in a much larger percentage of the samples
from cooler months. In addition, colony concentrations
NORD. J. BOT. 7 (1) 1987
Figs 17-18. Synura lapponica. - Fig. 17. Scales with centrally positioned papilla. Note that several small scales lack the papilla (bar
= 3 flm). - Fig. 18. Close up of scale with papilla and perforated base plate (bar = 1 flm). - Figs 19-21. Synura echinulata f. echinulata.
- Fig. 19. Anterior scales with long pointed spines and elongated posterior scales with short spines (arrow) (bar = 2 flm).Fig.
20. Anterior and posterior (upper right) scales. Note covered vermiform ribbing (bar = 2 flm). - Fig. 21. Elongated posterior
scales with short spines. Note that extreme caudal scales lack spines (bar = 5 flm). - Fig. 22. Synura echinulata f. leptorrhabda.
Note the small size and reduced thickened area on the distal part of the cell (bar = 1 flm). - Fig. 23. Synura spinosa f. spinosa. Body
scales with toothed spines (bar = 2 flm). - Fig. 24. Synura spinosa f. longispina. Anterior scales with long spines and spineless posterior
scales with encircling rims (bar = 2 flm). - Fig. 25. Synura sphagnicola. Scales with evenly spaced pores and rim (bar =
2 flm).
NORD. J. BOT. 7 (\) \987 113
were often greater in populations found between November
and April when temperatures were below 12°C (unpubl.
data). This distributional pattern, a wide temperature
tolerance but preference for cold water, was found
previously by Kristiansen (1975) and in the present study
for S. petersenii. In addition, S. petersenii has been observed
at 0° to lOoC(Asmund 1968), 7° to lOoC(Gretz et
al. 1983), 00 to 12°C (Siver & Chock 1986) further substantiating
its preference for cold water.
Synura echinulata and S. spinosa were both found
more often during the spring and fall months while S.
sphagnicola was most common during the summer and
early fall. Also, in previous studies, S. sphagnicola has
been reported to prefer warmer temperatures (Asmund
1968; Kristiansen 1975; Takahashi 1978). S. uvella did
not exhibit a temperature preference whereas S. lapponica
here appeared to be a cold water species since it was
found only between 1 and 4°C.
Both Synura echinulata and S. sphagnicola had a distinct
preference for humic and acidic waters, occurring at
pH values usually between 5.5 and 6.5 and as low as 4.8.
S. echinulata (Takahashi 1967, Wee 1981, and Smor et al.
1984) and S. sphagnicola (Takashashi 1967, Green 1979,
Wujek & Hamilton 1972, Kristiansen 1975, Wujek et al.
1981,Wujek& Weis 1984) have previously been reported
to prefer acidic waters. In addition, both taxa have been
found in humic waters (Asmund 1968, Green 1979, Wujek
& Weis 1984). Such acidibiontic species, which may
represent the only persistent micro algal fossils in acidic
lakes, are being used in acidification studies (Smol et al.
1984).
Populations of Synura echinulata, S. uvella, S. lapponica
and S. sphagnicola all exhibited fairly uniform
scale structure. However, a large degree of morphological
variability was found among S. petersenii and S.
spinosa populations. Several forms and species and a variety
have been separated from both type species, S. petersenii
and S. spinosa (see Tab. 3 in Nicholls & Gerrath,
in press, for a summary). The criteria used to distinguish
between the ranks of species, variety and formae in Synura
have been discussed and questioned by Kristiansen
(1979). For example, should S. petersenii cells possessing
scales with struts not radiating all the way to the perimeter
be considered a separate species (S. glabra Korshikov), a
variety (S. petersenii var. glabra) or as a form (S. petersenii
f. glabra). Organisms with such a scale structure
have recently been reported as S. glabra (Petersen &
Hansen 1958, Kristiansen 1980). However, most researchers
have reported this taxon as S. petersenii var.
glabra (e.g. Balonov 1976, Takahashi 1978, Wee 1982
and Nicholls & Gerrath, in press).
Kristiansen (1979) stated that both S. petersenii and S.
glabra had a similar ecology, were often found in the
same localities and that there was a continuous transition
between the two extreme scale types. He further questioned
how a variety, the rank given to this taxon by most
workers, was defined. In an in depth study Takahashi
(1967) also found a continuous transition between S. pe-
114
tersenii f. petersenii and var. glabra scale types in the
same pond and suggested that the change represented cy-
clomorphosis.
It is my opinion that the distinctions between the type,
S. petersenii f. petersen ii, and f. kufferathii, f. praefracta,
f. asmundiae, f. bjoerkii and f. truttae are of equal or
greater magnitude to those between the type and var. glabra.
Some of the characters used to separate the forms
from the type were more stable than those used to distinguish
var. glabra. For example, in this study all S. petersenii
f. praefracta cells had scales with toothed spines
and were never found associated with the typical spined
scale type. On the other hand var. glabra type scales were
commonly found on S. petersenii f. petersenii cells. The
association of var. glabra like scales among f. petersenii
scales has been reported in previous studies (Andersen &
Meyer 1977, Kristiansen 1979, Nicholls & Gerrath, in
press). It is thus suggested that spines with teeth is a more
stable characteristic than whether the struts reach the
scaleperimeter.
Denoting var. glabra as a variety or as a separate species
(S. glabra) implies a genetic difference and suggests
that organisms forming f. petersenii like scales could not
produce var. glabra like scales. If progeny were able to
form either scale type, depending on environmental or
physiological conditions, the two types should be considered
at the forma level. Nicholls and Gerrath (in
press) found coexisting populations of f. petersenii and
var. glabra where scale types were not integrated and
suggested that the taxa were valid entities and should be
separated at the variety level. They further pointed out
that although var. glabra like scales have been found on
f. petersenii cells, f. petersenii like scales have not been
reported on whole cells of var. glabra. In the present
study a population of S. petersenii was observed in
Chamberlain Lake over a four month period. During
the first two months all colonies had cells with f. petersenii
type scales. However, during the third and
fourth months cells had both f. petersenii and var. glabra
type scales. Colonies isolated during the first month were
found to produce cells with S. petersenii f. petersenii type
scales when initially transferred into DYIII medium
(Lehman 1976). However, older cultures had cells with
var. glabra type scales (unpubl. data). It could be argued
that the observations made from the field populations in
Chamberlain Lake were actually of two separate organisms.
However, based on the initial culture work, some
S. petersenii f. petersenii organisms are capable of forming
glabra like scales.
If a S. petersenii f. petersenii population were stimulated
to switch to forming var. glabra type scales the following
situations could occur:
1. If the switch (i.e. the ability to form var. glabra like
scales) occurred at the same time that new colony formation
ceased, the population would remain all S. petersenii
f. petersenii type colonies.
2. If the switch occurred towards the latter part of the
populations growth but prior to the end of new colony
NORD. J. BOT. 7 (1) 1987
formation, then colonies with some or all var. glabra like
scales would be expected. If the switch was triggered
quickly it could explain the coexistence of both S. petersenii
f. petersenii and S. petersenii var. glabra colonies
as reported by Nicholls and Gerrath (in press).
3. If the switch occurred early in the growth of the
population but long before termination of new colony
formation only var. glabra like colonies may be found.
In summary, because the characteristics used to separate
the forms are of equal or greater magnitude to those
used to differentiate var. glabra and that some S. petersenii
f. petersenii cells can produce progeny capable of
forming var. glabra like scales I feel that var. glabra
should be recognized at the forma level. This option has
been followed in this paper.
In this survey, the distinction between f. petersenii and
f. kufferathii was also sometimes difficult to make (e.g.
in Black Lake) and many f. petersenii cells had scales
with a few ribs connecting adjacent struts. Based on these
observations I feel f. kufferathii is also a true form. On
the other hand, f. praefracta populations were always stable
and always found only with its typical spine indicating
that it may be based on a genetic difference. If so,
this taxon' should be raised to variety or species rank.
Only three populations of f. praefracta were found, none
of which persisted for extended time periods. Thus, I do
not feel I have enough data to make such a change, however,
I suggest that when f. praefracta populations are
found they be closely examined so that this problem can
be solved. Similarly, with further observation the remaining
forms, including f. truttae, may be found to be conservative
and stable suggesting that they too be raised to
variety (or species) level.
If a newly described organism appears to have stable
features that are distinct from the type species, but, has
not been found enough to show the effect of the environment
on its morphology, a dilemma exists as to whether
the taxon be treated as a form or variety. In the past such
Synura taxa have usually been described as forms (although
many are now recognized at the species rank).
Scales from S. petersenii f. truttae possessed a unique
combination of features and based on the present taxonomy
of the genus has been given status as a new forma.
Forma truttae is similar to bjoerkii in shape, praefracta in
spine detail and kufferathii in having ribs running perpendicular
to and connecting adjacent struts. Forma truttae
appears to be closest in morphology to f. bonaerensis
because of the series of pores formed by the heavy silicified
strut-rib network and the lack of spines on posterior
scales. However, because of the presence of blunt spines
with teeth and the bumps on the raised hollow area, characteristics
not distinguishable in the original photos or
mentioned by Vigna (1979) in the original description,
the two are considered different at the form level.
Including S. petersenii f. truttae 25 taxa are now
known from electron microscopy. Only 2 of the 25 taxa,
S. petersenii f. bonaerensis and S. punctulosa Balonov,
NORD. J BOT. 7 (1) 1987
have not been reported from North America (see Nicholls
& Gerrath, in press, Tab. 3 for a review).
In the present work little difficulty was encountered in
identifying Synura taxa with SEM and not with TEM.
There are, however, several species where caution must
be exercised. Some isolated scales of S. uvella could be
confused with those of S. spinosa if the struts under the
upturned rim could not be seen. The vermiform ribs on
apical scales of S. echinulata are only barely visible with
SEM and the extent of the honeycomb reticulation on the
shields of some scales (e.g. S. spinosa) may be difficult to
determine. In such cases other features such as scale
shape, thickness and detail of the spines and the structure
of the spineless scales, can also be used to substantiate the
identifications. Since SEM offers a better view of scale
surface detail, whole cell morphology, and scale orientation
and attachment than TEM, it should be further utilized
in scaled chrysophyte studies.
During this investigation four Synura populations with
elongated ellipsoidal shaped colonies were observed. In
each case they were identified with SEM as S. spinosa.
Bradley (1966) and Takahashi (1967, 1978) found similar
shaped colonies which were also verified as S. spinosa
with EM. Other Synura species have been illustrated as
being able to form rectangular shaped colonies (HuberPestalozzi
1941), however, because they were not confirmed
with EM the validity remains questionable (Wee
1981).
Acknowledgements - I would like to extend special thanks to
Jim Romano and Alan Wachtell at the University of Connecticut
for use of and assistance with SEM facilities; Regina Jones,
George Benson and Tim Simpkins for help with the field work;
Bill Quinnell who helped in producing the prints and Irene
Duffy who assisted in the preparation of the manuscript. I
would also like to thank Jorgen Kristiansen at the University of
Copenhagen for helpful suggestions.
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