05  Relative clauses
Introduction
^eadthe adapted extract from a textbook on organization types and look at the relative clauses (1-4). Then answer the questions (a-c).
The first organization lv/hich we will consider has a strong leader and a spider web structure: power and influence radiate out from the centre, so what matters is staying close to the hub, 'where decisions are taken, and staying close to the individual 3wAo matters most. Growing beyond a certain size is problematic: the leader *who created a success, possibly from nothing, is typically reluctant to let go. (Adapted from Understanding Organisations by Charles B. Handy)
a How is relative clause 1 different from relative clause 2?
b Which relative pronouns (in bold) could be replaced by the word that? Would it make any difference to the meaning or style?
c Which relative pronoun could be removed from the text altogether? Would it make any difference to the meaning or style?
Suggested answers: see page 194
Relative clauses allow you to include additional information within a sentence in a clear and economical way. They are normally divided into two types: defining relative clauses, where the information 'defines' a noun, and is therefore essential to the meaning; and non-defining relative clauses, where the information may be useful, but the sentence would still be meaningful without it.
• The National Carbon Company was the first manufacturer which recognized the potential of the dry cell battery, (denning)
• Claude Monet, who spent much of his childhood in Le Havre, was a founder of French impressionist painting. (non-defining)
The relative pronouns who and whom (for people), and which (for things) can represent the subject or the object of a defining clause.
• Yves Saint Laurent has been described as the designer who changed the world of women's fashion. (=He (subject) changed the world...)
' The methods which we use to learn languages vary from country to country. (= We use them (object) to...)
This unit begins by focusing on the two types of relative clause, then looks at the different relative pronouns you can use, and finishes by describing how participles work in relative clauses.
Unit contents
1 Defining relative clauses page 047
2 Non-defining relative clauses page 047
3 W/iom and whose page 048
4 In which, from which, to whom, etc. page 049
5 Where, when, why, and what in relative clauses page 050
6 Participles in relative clauses page 051
For other units that deal with the adding of information, see unit 3 Noun phrases, unit 7 Connectors, and unit 18 Using defining language.
fWl Defining relative clauses S.i study
The relative pronouns which and who can be replaced with that in defining relative clauses, and can be left out altogether when they relate to the object of the sentence.
• The first car which I bought was a Honda. = The first car that I bought was a Honda. = The first car I bought was a Honda.
However, in academic English, who is rarely changed to that when it relates to the subject.
• Yves Saint Laurent has been described as the designer who (not that) changed the world of women's fashion.
Who and which tend to be left out altogether only when they are followed by a pronoun.
• The scientists who/that the Americans hired were originally from Germany.
• The methods we use to learn languages vary from country to country.
(Tip Remember not to repeat the object in a defining relative clause.
• We're going to finish the presentation with the slide (that) I showed you ft at the beginning.
5.1 test yourself
Rewrite the sentences to include a defining relative clause, using the information in brackets.
1 Some doubts were raised about the quality of the questionnaire. (The group used it in the research.)
2 The shoe company was based in Dundee. (It made the largest profits.)
3 The folding bicycle is selling very well. (They designed it at their workshop in York.)
4 Hewitt questioned the experience of the software engineers. (Wentworth pic recruited them.)
5 The director later wrote a memoir. (He pioneered the tracking shot.)
6 The region is crossed by two main roads. (They require substantial repairs.)
ÉU Non-defining relative clauses
5.2 study
Non-defining clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
• The stethoscope, which René Laennec invented in 1816, is used for listening to the body's internal sounds.
The relative pronouns who or which can refer to the object of the clause as above, or the subject.
• Frank Lloyd Wright, who designed the Guggenheim Museum in New York, was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as 'the greatest American architect of all time'.
In non-denning relative clauses who and which cannot be left out or changed to that.
íťíp It may help to think of the commas in non-defining relative clauses as 'protecting' the relative pronouns from being changed to that or being left out.
Non-defining relative clauses do not always have to come in the middle of the sentence; they can come at the end, too.
• A great deal has been written about the naturalist Joy Adamson, who famously raised a Hon cub herself.
A relative clause beginning with which at the end of a sentence can be useful in referring to a whole idea, rather than a specific noun.
• In his speeches Martin Luther King often referred to the hope of building a new America, which inspired many of the audience to take up active politics for the first time, {which = King's reference to the hope of building a new America)
5.2 test yourseif
Rewrite the sentences to include a non-defining \ relative clause, using the information in brackets.
1 In a case of gross misconduct an employer may fire an employee immediately. (This includes theft.)
2 Bill Grayson handed his small pharmaceutical business to his daughter. (She transformed it into a multinational corporation.)
3 Turkey has land borders with eight countries.
;     (This has frequently led to a kind of diplomatic balancing act.)
4 Vegetable oils have seen recent volatility in their spot price. (They are traded as commodities.)
5 Barbara Hepworth created Single Form for the United Nations building in New York. (Critics regarded her as a key Modernist sculptor.)
Q0 Whom and whose 5.3 study
1 Whom is the object form of who. Because it sounds rather formal, it tends to be replaced in defining clauses by that, or to be left out completely
(see section 5.1).
• The teachers (whom/that) we interviewed all spoke welt of the new staff development scheme.
In non-defining clauses, you can use who rather than whom to refer to the object, except in very formal styles.
• The CEO, who we met at lunch, was optimistic about the company's long-term prospects.
You must use whom, however, after prepositions.
• Radovan Karadzic stated at his tribunal hearings that Madeleine Albright was the diplomat with whom he had held secret talks.
2 Whose + noun in defining and non-defining clauses indicates possession both by people and things (such as companies, government agencies, committees, etc. and books, plays, films, etc.).
• A relative whose blood type is compatible may be able to donate a kidney if they wish to.
• Buyers International i$ one of the companies whose opposition to the deal is well known.
An alternative to whose, when writing about things (not people), is the preposition of + which.
• Alice Miller wrote an important book on the psychology of childhood, whose title/the title of which, The Drama of Being a Child, indicates the strength of her views on our early years.
• An international conference on intellectual copyright, the details of which have not yet been announced, is likely to be held later this year.
5.3 test yourself
Complete each sentence with one or two words. If no words are necessary, write -.
1 New employees should have a mentoT from _they can obtain advice.
2 Coca-Cola is an example of a company
_brand has undeniably passed
the worldwide recognition test.
3 All of the scientists_she met
expressed their doubts over the viability of cold fusion as an energy source.
4 The government has proposed an amendment
to the legislation, the aim_is to
restrict the number of local radio stations that can be owned by one person.
5 Sharon Olwyn,_the Prime
Minister promoted to the Cabinet, resigned in protest over the issue in 2005.
6 All the staff on patrol at the reserve are in radio
contact with the head keeper_
they make hourly reports.
OCl In which,from which, to whom, etc.
5.4 study
In spoken English, relative clauses may end with a preposition.
• 4^ And here is a photo of the project team and the local villagers who we worked with.
In academic writing such prepositions are normally placed before the relative pronoun.
• Langham (2009) argues that Alan Turing is the mathematician to whom computer science owes the greatest debt.
• HM Prison Maze is the prison from which thirty-eight prisoners escaped on 25 September 1983.
• Simon Bolivar, in whose honour statues have been erected in many of the towns and cities of Venezuela, played a significant role in the Latin American struggle for independence.
Notice how a determiner such as many, each, some, neither, etc. or a number, percentage, etc. can be placed before of + relative pronoun.
• There are hundreds of small businesses in the area, many of which are interdependent.
• The company has a staff of 1,200, 60% of whom work on a part-time basis.
Two prepositional phrases that you will find useful are the way in which and the extent to which.
• Most observers agree that the way in which Nelson Mandela handled his former political enemies after he took up the presidency of South Africa was exemplary. (This avoids two t/iat-clauses:... agree that the way that Nelson Mandela ...)
• No one con be sure of the extent to which the search for water in parts of Africa will become the key source of conflict over the next fifty years.
Two other useful expressions are or which point and in which case.
• A fight may break out amongst the players, at which point the referee is entitled to bring the game to a close.
(This avoids writing ... the players, and at this point, the referee... or... the players, and if this happens, the referee...)
• There is a risk that water levels in the reservoir may fall again, in which case the local authorities will have to consider a system of rationing.
5.4 test yourself
A Complete each sentence with one of the phrases in the box. Two phrases are not needed.
ii from whom   with whom   three of which H in which   to which   at which !! neither of which   from whose
1 Several charities have criticized Westminster
Council for the way_it has
cut funding to the shelter for homeless people in Charing Cross.
2 If these types of fault occur in a bridge, there
are two options for repair,_._
is cheap.
3 The rebel leaders_the
negotiations were conducted seemed unwilling to make any concessions.
4 A break-even analysis determines_
_point sales cover the production costs.
5 John Loudon McAdam was a Scottish engineer
--name the road-surfacing
material tarmac (ortarmacadam) is derived.
6 The hospital then carried out a routine check of
the emergency generators,_
were found to be defective.
B Use a preposition + relative pronoun (e.g. with whom) to join the two pieces of information below into one sentence.
1 a jury may have to listen to several expert witnesses/some of them may seem to contradict each other
2 the oil leak may destroy the local fish stocks/the coastal villages depend on them
3 the newspaper chain was inherited by Forster's daughter/one of her first actions was to sell two of the titles
4 several of the paintings were owned by Massine/Picasso collaborated with him in a number of projects
5 the Pianura Padana is the plain in northern Italy/the river Po flows through it to the Adriatic sea
6 the fear is that thousands of local people will begin to move out of the area/in this case refugee camps will need to be established
ÉH3 Where, when, why, and what in relative clauses
5.5 study
It may sometimes be more economical to use where, when, or why instead of a preposition + which.
1 Where is common in academic English and often follows the words place (or region, country, etc.), area, situation, point, and case.
' Assisted suicide is an area of medical care in which many doctors disagree.
= Assisted suicide is an area of medical care where many doctors disagree.
• A situation may occur where the police need to 'kettle' or contain a group of demonstrators.
• Negotiations often reach a point where one side feels it has conceded too much ground.
• India is a continent where we are likely to see substantial economic growth over the next fifteen years.
(tip In relative clauses with situation, pointer case + where, where is sometimes replaced by when (without a change in meaning).
• Zoologists have described cases (where) when a shark will attack a vulnerable member of its own species.
2 When is used with dates, and with words such as time, day, year, occasion, moment, and period.
• In 2004, when the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake occurred, few expected it to trigger a tsunami of such overwhelming power.
• The recession began at a time when many British businesses were hoping for a period of extended growth.
• On the day when the agreement was signed, many people felt that the country would enter into a new period of long-term stability.
3 Why is used with the word reason, sometimes in the phrase there is no reason why.
• What are the major reasons why we are losing so much biodiversity?
• There is no reason why green technology cannot be competitive.
4 The thing(s) which/that... can be replaced with what.
• Most of the delegates seemed to disagree with what the minister said. (= the things that the minister said)
• What we expect from a good business leader is a sense of long-term vision for the company.
5.5 test yourself
A Replace the underlined phrases with where, when, why, or what.
1 Some start-up businesses seem set on entering areas in which there is already a great deal of competition.
2 There are several reasons for which Jaguar Land Rover may close its factory at Castle Bromwich.
3 Mergers are situations in which staff naturally feel that their jobs may be at risk.
4 Deciding the things that should be included in a questionnaire is sometimes a difficult task.
5 Staff cuts at the charity became necessary after a period in which corporate and individual donations both fell.
6 There are several cities in which exhibitions of surrealist art have been particularly successful.
7 The English Civil War can be said to have started on 22 August 1642, the day on which Charles I raised his standard at Nottingham.
8 The thing that the marchers were hoping for was a swing in public opinion against the government's proposals.
B Complete the sentences with where, when, why or what.
1 March is the month_moles begin
to appear above ground, having spent much of
the winter lining their tunnels with fallen leaves. ,
2 Grier (2008) suggests that in the early 1990s, the company car phenomenon was the reason
_prices in the UK car business
stayed consistently higher than those in the rest of Europe.
3 Tonga is the only island nation in the region
_formal colonization has never
taken place. ■
4 Experts noticed that the video footage had been
edited at precisely the point_
government tanks arrived at the demonstration.
:  5 Patients who do not respond to hypnotherapy may fear being unable to cope with
_will emerge during a session
under hypnosis.
6 In the sentencing of rioters, most judges
felt that there was no reason_ i
maximum penalties should not be applied.
7 Ronald Reagan's election to the White House
occurred at a moment_the
credibility of the American presidency was at a particularly low point, according to Shah (2010).
8 The aim of the conference was to consider
_makes one local community work
better than its neighbour.
fflD Participles in relative clauses
5.6 study
In defining relative clauses, you may be able to improve your sentences in terms of economy and flow by using a past participle or a present participle foTm of the verb instead of a relative pronoun + verb. This structure is called a 'participle clause' or a 'reduced relative clause'.
These past participles are commonly used in participle clauses: based, caused, concerned, given, involved, made, obtained, produced, required, taken, and used.
• The team studied the results (which were) produced by the survey for some weeks before publishing their conclusions.
* According to the police, all the people (who were) involved in the incident were interviewed at the time.
• Statements (which are) taken from witnesses many weeks after the event are likely to be unreliable.
• It is reasonable to question the accuracy of information (which is) obtained through torture.
These present participles are commonly used in participle clauses: arising, concerning, consisting, containing, involving, relating, requiring, resulting, and using.
• The newspaper argued that it was publishing a story concerning the public interest. (= which concerned the public interest)
• All the data relating to individuals is destroyed after the results of the survey are established. (= which relates to individuals...)
• A search involving more than a thousand police officers was unable to find the missing girl.
(= A search which involved...)
Note that present participles can't be used if the relative pronoun represents the object.
• The methods using which we use to learn languages vary from country to country.
frip Reduced relative clauses are also used with adjectives such as available, necessary, possible, responsible, and suitable: The official who was responsible for leaking the document later resigned.
5.B test yourself
Complete each sentence with the present or past participle of one of the verbs in the box.
I! consist   arise   use   base   cause give
1 A key issue_from the report is the
extent to which politicians put undue pressure on civil servants.
2 The speech on race_by Barack
Obama in Philadelphia is considered to be one of his best.
3 Peterson describes some of the innovative
techniques_by Monet to capture
light in his paintings,
4 In his article, Ichikawa discusses five recent films_on computer games.
5 Paradoxes was an art installation_
of eight individual paintings and sculptures.
6 Coughs_by viral infections usually
disappear within a few days.