ELSEVIER CrossMark ARTICLE INFO Article history: Received 15 July 2013 Received in revised form 16 October 2013 Accepted 19 October 2013 Available online 28 October 2013 © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Floodplain sediments are suitable archives of palaeoenvironmental changes (Macklin et al., 2006; Starkel et al., 2006; Hoffmann et al., 2008; Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010; Erkens et al., 2011). These sediments can be used to study the effects of climate fluctuations and human activities on the morpho-sedimentary and palaeohydrological evolution of rivers (Coulthard and Macklin, 2001; Kalis et al., 2003; Macaire et al., 2006). In the European mountainous and sub-mountainous fluvial archives, evidence of climatically induced palaeoenvironmental changes is well demonstrated, especially for the Last Glacial/Holocene transition (Starkel et al., 2007; Erkens et al., 2011; Turner et al., 2013) and for the Late Holocene neoglaciation (Herget, 2000; Huhmann et al., 2004; Morin et al., 2011). In addition, extensive human-induced overbank sedimentation of silty deposits and of hydro-sedimentary disturbances during the last millennium (Kalicki, 2000; Kukulak, 2003; Hoffmann et al., 2009; Gebica et al., 2013) with rapid acceleration in the 19th and 20th centuries (Owens et al., 1999; Grygar et al., 2011) has been demonstrated. In the European context, detailed regional studies of the Holocene evolution of floodplain palaeoenvironments through dating of peat bogs, abandoned channels infill and overbank deposits has been conducted, especially in Spain (Benito et al., 2003), Great Britain (Macklin and Lewin, 1993, 2003), Germany (Hoffmann et al., 2008) and Poland (Starkel et al., 2006). In the Carpathians and their foreland, several studies in the catchments of mountainous and sub-mountainous rivers have been performed in Eastern Carpathian rivers such as the Moldova (Chiriloaei et al., 2012) and Dniester (Huhmann and Bruckner, 2002; Huhmann et al., 2004; Gebica et al., 2013), and in the Western Carpathians, especially in the San (Kukulak, 2003), Vistula (Kalicki et al., 1996; Kalicki, 2000) and Wistoka (Starkel, 1995). As for the Carpathian foreland in the Czech Republic, detailed studies were performed in the lower part of the Morava river floodplain using geochro-nological and geochemical methods (Kadlec et al., 2009; Grygar et al., 2010; Babek et al., 2011). Unlike the Western European regions that were significantly affected by humans before -5000 cal. BP (Younger Subboreal) (Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010), the Outer Western Carpathians (OWC) remained in semi-natural conditions with negligible human impact up to the 12th century, when the colonisation of the mountain piedmont took place (Opravil, 1974). Vast portions of the mountainous part of the region were nearly intact even up to the end of 16th century 441 when extensive deforestation interrelated with grazing activity (the so-called Wallachian colonisation) occurred (Kalicki, 2000; Gebica et al., 2013). Thus, floodplains in the western part of the Carpathians and their immediate foreland were one of the last European regions affected by humans. Using information from various types of fluvial archives, this paper explains how climate deterioration after the Holocene climatic optimum, and how historical human colonisation of the nearly natural mountainous environment affected the geomorphic processes within the floodplain situated in the OWC foreland (Bečva River, Czech Republic). The primary aims of our study are (i) to reveal the characteristic forms and sediments of a fluvial palaeonvironment of the Bečva River, (ii) to reconstruct the Late Holocene floodplain evolution by deciphering major river pattern changes together with aggradation and incision periods, and (iii) to analyse the impact of climate and land-use changes on the evolution of the floodplain. To understand the complexity of the spatio-temporal evolution of floodplains, a multidisciplinary approach is necessary (Morin et al., 2011; Turner et al., 2013). Therefore, geomorphological, geophysical, sedimentological and chronological analyses are used to form a complete explorative framework. 2. Regional settings The Bečva River (catchment area = 1626 km2) is a sub-mountainous river, the largest left tributary of the Morava River (26700 km2) in the eastern part of the Czech Republic (Fig. 1). The river originates in the OWC at an elevation approximately 950 m a.s.l. The bedrock of the catchment is composed of the flysch formed of Cretaceous and Paleogene calcareous claystone and sandstone with isolated limestone outcrops (Menčík, 1983). This material is highly susceptible to denudation with minimum mean mechanical denudation rates varying between 2.5 and 13.4 mm ky_1 (Danišík et al., 2008; Baron et al., 2010; Pánek et al., 2010). The region bears a high number of landslides and other slope deformations (Záruba, 1922; Krejčí et al., 2002; Šmolková, 2011; Pánek et al., 2013a). Thus, the bedrock in the upper part of the catchment is considerably covered by Pleistocene/Holocene colluvial and landslide accumulations as well as alluvial fan deposits (Menčík, 1983). The mean longitudinal gradient of the river varies between 17.6%o in the upper course and 2.13%o in the studied reach. The mean annual discharge of the Bečva River in the Teplice nad Bečvou region is approximately 15.3 m3 s_1 (Q, = 1-year flood discharge = 219 m3 s~\ (ho = 799 m3 s_1). The hydrological regime of the river is controlled by melting snow and spring/summer rainfall. The present climate in the region is temperate with continental features, and the average annual rainfall and temperature in the Valašské Meziříčí region is 800 mm and 7.9 °C, respectively (Tolasz, 2007). The study area (ca. 30 km2) is situated in the middle reach of the Bečva River, in the foreland of the mountainous part of OWC at an elevation between 280 and 255 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1). It is formed by a wide (up to 3 km) floodplain fringed by Mid-Late Pleistocene river terraces (Macoun et al., 1965). The northern part of the valley was partly affected by Pleistocene continental glaciation during its maximum advance in the Saalian 1 (Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004). Contrary to the catchment part above the study area where the valleys are deeply incised and vast forests predominate, the valley in the studied section is wider, and crop farming, scattered forests and urbanised areas dominate. The first mention of settlement of the nearby valleys is only from the early 12th century, and colonisation of the mountainous part of the catchment took place in the 16th-17th centuries (Kalicki, 2000; Štika, 2007; Gebica et al., 2013). 3. Materials and methods To perform detailed geomorphic mapping of the area, we conducted GPS-based geomorphic mapping with the aim of defining the extent of the active floodplain and terraces and the location of abandoned channels, in addition to selecting transects for drilling and exposures for further detailed analyses. Sequences of historical maps (in 1834,1850, and 1877) and aerial photos (in 1955 and 2011) were analysed for reconstruction of floodplain changes since the beginning of the 19th century. The scale of the maps varies from 1:2880 (cadastre map in 1834) to Fig. 1. Map of studied floodplain with marked discussed sites and location of studied floodplain within Europe (lower right — grey rectangles mark discussed European regions) and within Carpathians (upper right — points mark discussed Carpathian catchments). A — Austria; CZ — Czech Republic; HU — Hungary; PL — Poland; RO — Romania; SK — Slovakia; UA — Ukraine. 442 1:25,000 (3rd Austrian Military Survey in 1877). Land-use changes in the river catchment between the beginning of the 19th century and modern times were studied by comparing files for 77 partial cadastre areas from the years 1845, 1948, 1990 and 2000. Sedimentary facies and floodplain thickness were observed directly from 41 shallow core drillings (maximum depth 3.5 m) retrieved with a percussion sampler (Eijkelkamp®) along four transects and in two abandoned meanders. As additional information, records concerning 91 cores (max. depth 16 m) irregularly distributed over the valley provided by the Czech Geological Survey were also used. The elevation of each drilling location was measured using a total station with an accuracy of 0.5 cm. One natural (site H) and one artificial (site S) outcrop were studied in the river bank and gravel pit, respectively. The reconstruction of the floodplain architecture between cores and/ or exposures was performed using the near-surface geophysical method (Milsom, 2005). We applied an Automatic Resistivity System ARES (GF Instruments®) to gather 25 electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) profiles with a total length of approximately 3 km. Considering the contrasting conductivity of the floodplain sediments with different porosity and grain size characteristics, the ERT method is reliable for determining their extent (Gourry et al., 2003; Froese et al., 2005). Three electrode arrays (Dipole-Dipole, Wenner-Schlumberger and Wenner Alpha) with 1 m electrode spacing and a ca. 12 m depth of investigation were used (Loke, 2012). A single 150 m long shallow seismic refraction (SSR) profile was performed using the Seistronix RAS-24® system with basic survey geometry determined by the use of 11 geophones with 3 m spacing and seven seismic impact sources in the each of five geophone spreads. In addition, two perpendicular ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles using a MALÁ Ramac X3M system with 100, 250 and 500 MHz shielded antennas and a total length of -400 m were used to verify the ERT results. Twenty-four organic samples (seeds, leafs, wood and charcoals) were submitted for 14C AMS (accelerator mass spectrometry) dating at the Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia (USA). The 14C absolute ages were calibrated with OxCal v4.0.5 (Ramsey, 2007) using the calibration curve lntCAL09 (Reimer et al., 2009). The cal. ages are reported with the extremes of 1&p) ■ silt (4 - Stp) I I sand(-1 -4cp) I I gravel («-1ip) Fig. 5. Facies distribution and composition in reference cores. The grain size distribution is expressed as a percentage of the analysed fraction. Xl — low field mass specific magnetic susceptibility at low frequency (xlCT8 m3 kg-1); OM — organic matter content; D50 — median grain diameter; Cs — 137Csmass activity; Zn and Pb — concentration of Zinc and Lead in clay fraction, respectively. 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V o o o cq 2 cq cq cq ^ Si o ^3 ft 33 vC. vC; Sí B^ 6 ■ o ^3 o. 2 O O O n3 O Sj O O. ft t! o ft o h D co o — i-I ■s-s S Is a i- o ft O ca D cd cd cd cd cd cd cd ní nJ cd cd cd ní nJ nj nJ -q-q-q-q-q-q-q g-q_q g-q_q g g-q^ oj-q^q ^ UUUUUUUHUUHUHUUHHUUonUUon OOOO Sco T-cn co o o T- m lo Ol ji tN . . ...... . — rf. rf. rf. : K 3 3 3 3 upper floodplain level, sandy siřt facies form a homogenous blanket of overbank deposits up to 200 cm thick. In the lower floodplain level, this layer is discontinuous with a thickness from 20 cm on the convex floodplain segments and up to 120 cm in concave segments. The organic-matter poor sandy silt facies are present as 10 to 60 cm thick layers in the infill of the narrow palaeochannels on the lower floodplain level. These facies are interbedded with thin intercalations of finer sediments. In the organic-matter poor sandy silt and sandy silt facies the clay fractions are insignificant, and the sand and silt fractions largely prevail, with the latter forming more than 45% of the total bulk rate. In these layers, a large number of small charcoal fragments (less than 5 mm in diameter) are embedded. At the top of sediment pile, these layers correspond to the present soil. The sandy silt facies can be classified according to Miall (2006) as facies Fl and interpreted as element FF (floodplain fines). The organic-matter poor sandy silt facies can be interpreted as element CH(FF) — abandoned channel. Facies mainly composed of silt fractions form layers up to 60 cm thick with sharp bounding surfaces and can be found solely on the lower floodplain where it constitutes the major part of the infill of palaeochannels. The silt fractions form more than 60% of the total bulk ratio of these facies. These deposits largely differ in their organic matter content. Organic-matter rich silt contains more than 20%, organic-matter poorsilt contains 10-20% and silt contains less than 10%, respectively. In oxic conditions, the prevailing colour of this facies is beige-ochre. In anoxic conditions, the colour becomes bluish-grey. These sediments are plastic when hydrated but become very rigid and brittle when desiccated. The organic matter is usually dispersed in the bulk, but it can also consist of plant fibres, leaves and grass debris, which are often arranged in distinct horizontal layers. According to Miall (2006), these facies can be classified as Fm (mud, silt) and can be interpreted as element CH(FF). 4.4. Dating and geochemical composition of floodplain sequences Twenty-four AMS radiocarbon dates from palaeochannels, overbank deposits and underlying floodplain filling complement the sedimentological interpretations and help to establish a chronology of floodplain evolution and predominating fluvial processes. The dating results, expressed in cal. years BP related to the particular Ho-locene chronozones (according to Mangerud et al., 1974), are shown in Table 1. In a ca. 150 m long bank of the gravel pit (site S) on the upper floodplain level, three trunks (Quercus robur) and one charcoal fragment embedded in the underlying fluvial gravels were dated to the episodes 5470-5319 and 4284-3915 cal. BP. A charcoal fragment found in the same facies on the upper floodplain level in site H was dated to 5260-4873 cal. BP. In site H, a deep and narrow channel, whose finer infill was dated to 3336-3084 cal. BP is preserved. The overbank deposits overlying these gravels were dated in sites S and H to 3446-3361 and 2706-2364 cal. BP, respectively. The distinctive sandy gravel accumulation in site S was dated to 1694-1551 cal. BP. Three juxtaposed palaeochannels incised into gravels were also found at this location. The charcoal and small trunk embedded in the base of first palaeochannel were dated to 1339-1180 cal. BP. The upper part of the second palaeochannel infill was dated to 1257-1074 cal. BP. Therefore, the aggradation of gravels that took place from a period before 5319 cal. BP was interrupted between 3446 and 2364 cal. BP by episodes of overbank sedimentation. The recurrence of gravel aggradation marks the following episode from 1694 to 1074 cal. BP. In the lower floodplain level, charcoal fragments in overbank deposits and infill of one oxbow and two straight deep channels were dated. The base and upper parts of the oxbow infill (site R) were dated to 725-545 and 666-560 cal. BP, respectively. The base of the channel infill in site P was dated to 455-299 cal. BP. Overbank deposits in the lower floodplain level (site H) were dated to the two phases: 495-318 cal. BP and 304-+ 5 cal. BP. In site S on upper floodplain level, overbank deposits were 446 dated to 259-30 cal. BP. The bottom and middle part of the ephemeral stream channel infill (site 1<) was in its axis dated to modern times (162.68 ± 0.41 pMC and 132.52 ± 0.35 pMC, respectively). A layer with increased 137Cs mass activity is present in the outcrop HO (site H) in the uppermost 90 cm of the overbank deposits. Two prominent peaks were identified at a depth of 70-75 and 17.5-25 cm. The value from the deeper peak reaches mass activity of 30.1 Bq kg~\ and the second peak value reaches 27.3 Bq kg~1. The deeper peak is positioned in the bottom of the coarser silty sand intercalation and correlates with the peak in heavy metal concentrations. The upper peak correlates with decreasing low field mass specific magnetic susceptibility at low frequency (xu) and decreasing concentrations of heavy metals. The presence of a surface layer with increased values of /is was proven in all reference cores. This layer is 10-100 cm thick, and X\s reaches its maxima (20-40 x 10~8 m3 kg-1 on the upper floodplain level, 20 x 10~8 m3 kg-1 in the lower floodplain level overbank deposits and 60 x 10~8 m3 kg-1 in palaeochannel infill) at a depth of 10- 30 cm. Overall, the Xlf value depends on grain size distribution and decreases with the depth. The heavy metal content (Pb and Zn) was studied in a natural outcrop at site H (Fig. 5). The lowest concentrations of heavy metals were recorded in the sand intercalation in the lower part of overbank deposits (depth 132-138 cm), and the highest concentrations were measured in the upper part of overbank deposits due to the sorption of heavy metal elements on clay particles, which form more than 10% of the total bulk ratio of this 20-cm thick layer. In particular, Zn reveals a noticeable depth maximum at 16-20 cm. The heavy metal distribution is thus largely dependent on the grain size distribution and the age of sediments. The best positive correlation can be found between the distribution of zinc, lead and Xlf- 5. Discussion 5.1. Main phases and forcing factors of Late Holocene floodplain evolution Late Holocene floodplain evolution is rarely continuous at the millennial scale (Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010). The morpho-sedimentary dynamics and the sediment budget in catchments depend on many parameters, including the sediment yield in the catchment, the degree of slope-floodplain connection and the fluvial dynamics (Hoffmann etal., 2009; Morin et al., 2011). These parameters had a profound effect on the formation of accumulation and incision phases and varied in space and time. According to the distribution of the lithological facies and dating, six phases of fluvial dynamics were identified. These phases are numbered 1 to 6 from the oldest to the most recent and correspond either to an accumulation phase (marked with suffix A) or to an incision phase (marked with suffix 1). The accumulation units are composed of one or several of the nine defined lithological facies. The remnants of Pleistocene terrace fringes the studied floodplain 11- 12 m above the present channel (Tyracek, 1963; Macoun et al., 1965). The lack of dated sediments from the first half of the Holocene suggests that some major incision episode took place, most likely in the early Atlantic. This type of massive incision indicates efficient soil protection by dense vegetation and high water discharge (Morin et al., 2011), which is consistent with the reconstructed vegetation of temperate deciduous forests that covered the Atlantic central European lowlands (Opravil, 1974; Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010). The oldest accumulation, phase 1A (Fig. 6), is marked by deposition of up to a 7 m thick sedimentary unit formed by sandy gravel facies with the presence of sparse tree trunks and charcoal fragments. The charcoal fragment and trunk embedded in the uppermost layer of this sedimentary unit in site S postdate the accumulation phase to 4149-3985 and 4087-3915 cal. BP, respectively. The trunks embedded in the lower parts of this sedimentary unit were dated to 5470-5319 and 4284-4091 cal. BP. The charcoal fragment found in this sedimentary unit in site H was dated to 5260-4873 cal. BP and supports these results. These deposits were marked as gravel bars and/or longitudinal bedforms and point to a braided fluvial system (Reineck and Singh, 1980; Miall, 2006). Analogical sediments were described from the lower parts of the Bečva and Morava River catchments (Havlíček, 2008; Vít et al., 2009). The climate deterioration that took place after the Holocene climatic Optimum (Wanner et al., 2008; Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010) (Fig. 6) caused increased erosion and accelerated slope deformation to take place (Pánek et al., 2013b) in the upper parts of the catchment. Although many settlements were described in the Morava gate (Šebela et al., 2007), almost no Eneolithic artefacts have been found in the studied area, indicating very limited human impact on the environment (Schenk, 2004). The sparse charcoal fragments may originate from the slash-and-burn agriculture technique (Rodenburg et al., 2003). The 1 -2 m thick extensive blanket consisting of sandy silt facies was preserved on the upper floodplain level and marks phase 2A (Fig. 6). The onset and termination of this phase was dated to 3446-3361 and 2706-2364 cal. BP, respectively. The occurrence of the narrow, deep channel with infill bottom dated to this period (3336-3084 cal. BP) suggests an anastomosed channel pattern and overbank sedimentation as a prevailing process (Brierley and Fryirs, 2005). The earlier onset of overbank sedimentation in the lower parts of the Morava River catchment (4244-3914 cal. BP) (Vít et al., 2009) is most likely a result of intensified deforestation and crop farming in that area (Podhorský et al., 1993). The population density in the Bečva River catchment is considered to be even lower than in the preceding Eneolithic phase (Opravil, 1974; Čižmářová, 2004). During the phase 31A (Fig. 6), the -2 m thick sandy gravel sedimentary unit was formed and multiple shallow and wide abandoned active channels were infilled with silty sand. Due to the partial absence of unit 2A, this phase was erosional in the early stages. The sedimentary units of this phase are preserved in a -100 m wide discontinuous strip forming the inner fringe of the upper floodplain level (sites S and H). The trunks embedded at the depth of200 cm in the gravel bar postdate the onset of this phase to 1694-1551 cal. BP; three channel infill samples were dated to 1339-1074 cal. BP. These sedimentary units point to the recurrence of a braided river pattern and gravel aggradation in the middle Subatlantic (Roman Times, Dark Ages and Early Middle Ages) and a later decrease in the discharge and/or sediment yield of the sub-catchments (Brierley and Fryirs, 2005). Colder and more humid climate caused the decrease of the tree line in the OWC (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, 1980), and many older landslides in the studied catchment were reactivated during this phase (Pánek et al., 2013b). Literally no archaeological artefacts from this period were found in the studied catchment (Šebela et al., 2007), contrary to the other European regions that have been largely affected by crop farming and human-induced deforestation (Dotterweich, 2008). The considerable incision that formed a rudimentary planar surface of the lower floodplain level occurred in phase 41 (Fig. 6). Several infilled palaeomeanders with developed point bars (e.g. site R) are located in the outer fringe of the lower floodplain level, whereas they are laterally cut into the upper floodplain level, indicating that the prevailing process was lateral erosion (sensu Gordon et al., 2004). The base of its infill (725-545 cal. BP) postdates this major incision phase that created the new valley channel zone. Kadlec et al. (2009) described a similar period of lateral erosion caused by increased fluvial activity during the 10th century in the lower part of the Morava River catchment. Human settlements in the studied area formed only a few enclaves in the vast forests (Opravil, 1974). The extensive 20 to 180 cm thick sandy silt sedimentary unit marks phase 5A (Fig. 6). An abandoned meander in site R was infilled between 725-545 cal. BP and 666-560 cal. BP. The base of the straight deep and narrow channel infill at site P was dated to 455-299 cal. BP. Overbank deposits in sites H, K, S are dated from 495 to + 5 cal. BP. Infill from 447 Early I Middle I Late Imsiictonl i = Tino I Roman lOarkl Early I High iLatel Modern Bronze Ages |"a"sian] La lene | t|me5 |Aqe| Middle Ages | times 19 20 Late Atlantic! 21 Eneolithic Subboreal Subatlantic Fig. 6. Synthesis of past climate, land-use intensity and hydrological events from Late Atlantic to present day. 1) 6180 record from stalagmites AH-1 (solid line) and B7-7 (dashed line) (Sauerland, Germany) from Niggemann etal. (2003). 2) Swiss glacier length variations from Glaser et al. (2005). 3) Dashed line: mean intensity of land use (fields, grassland and forests) in central Europe (Dotterweich, 2008), and estimated intensity of land use in studied catchment (solid line, own studies). 4) Phases with increased lake-levels in central Europe from Magny (2004). 5) Phases of lake-level changes in Jura and Swiss Alps from Magny (1993). 6) Precipitation trends in central Europe from Jäger (2002). 7), 8), and 10) Probability difference curve (PDC) of radiocarbon dates associated with major flooding episodes in Spain (7), Great Britain (8) and Poland (10) from Macklin etal. (2006). 9) Simplified cumulative probability function (CPF) of floodplain radiocarbon ages in Germany from Hoffmann et al. (2008). 11) Normalised probability density curve of the Czech and Polish landslide events (Alexandrowicz, 1993; Margielewsld, 1997,1998, 2001,2003,2006; Alexandrowicz and Alexandrowicz, 1999; Margielewsld and Kovalyukh, 2003; Hradecky et al., 2004, 2007; Baron, 2007; Smolkovä etal., 2008; Margielewsld et al, 2010,2011). 12) Periods with increased fluvial activity in the Upper Dniester River from Gebica etal. (2013). 13) Periods with increased fluvial activity and prevailing river pattern in the River Moldova (Romania) from Chiriloaei et al. (2012). 14) Periods with increased fluvial activity and prevailing deposition type in the lower part of Morava River catchment from Kadlec et al. (2009). 15) Major events in land-use intensity (VC — Colonisation of Becva River valley, WC — Wallachian colonisation of Carpathian ridges). 16) Major climatic anomalies (DACP - Dark Ages Cold Period, MWP - Mediaeval Warm Period, LIA - Little Ice Age). 17) Timeline in cal. BP (before 1950). 18) Radiocarbon dated samples (cal. BP ± la) (this study). 19) Prehistorical and historical periods in Eastern Moravia (Podborsky etal, 1993). 20) Climatic Holocene phases from Mangerud etal. (1974); darkgrey rectangles indicate the accumulation phases, and the light grey rectangles indicate the incision phases. 21) Phases of fluvial dynamics in the Becva River (this study). an ephemeral stream channel in site 1< is dated to modern times. These results indicate an equilibrium state without significant erosion or accumulation and a relatively stable anastomosed river pattern (sensu Nanson and Croke, 1992) from 725-545 to 455-299 cal. BP (Late Middle Ages). The abrupt onset of overbank sedimentation before 495-318 cal. BP terminated this equilibrium. Noticeable wide and shallow linear depressions on the erosional surface of sedimentary unit 1A indicate the presence of the laterally unstable wide belt of wandering channels in this phase. This narrowing belt is depicted on historical maps from the 19th century. The equilibrium state can be interpreted as a result of higher discharge (Gregory, 1987) and increased soil erosion that balanced the precedent incision phase. The higher discharge is most likely associated with ongoing climate deterioration (Bell and Walker, 2005; Dotterweich, 2008; Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010), and the soil erosion is associated with the early phase of catchment colonisation. The colonisation connected with crop farming and deforestation of the river valley started in 12th century (the first settlements are mentioned not earlier than 1174 AD — Milotice nad Bečvou). The abrupt onset of overbank sedimentation (before 495-318 cal. BP) and the transition from an anastomosed to a wandering river channel correlates with the Wallachian colonisation, which gradually reached the mountains in the studied catchment from the 15th to 17th centuries (Štika, 2007). The charcoal burning and sheep grazing on the mountain ridges caused increased erosion of higher sediment yields from the slopes (Kukulak, 2000, 2003). These washed-out fine-grained sediments were initially deposited in the form of overbank sediments (Brierley and Fryirs, 2005). The abundant charcoal fragments originated in the extensive charcoal production in the area (Kukulak, 2000), and sparse sand intercalations can be interpreted as deposits of crevasse splays (Miall, 2006; Kadlec et al., 2009; Grygar et al., 2010). The gradual increase in heavy metal concentrations and %Lf in the uppermost 120 cm of overbank deposits (HO) can be attributed to the increased industrial pollution of the 20th century (Grygar et al., 2011). Charcoal embedded at a depth of 112 cm and dated to 257-30 cal. BP support these 448 results. The 90 cm thick layer with increased Cs mass activity is most likely the result of nuclear testing since 1950s AD (Kadlec et al., 2009). Two prominent peaks were identified at a depth of 70-75 and 17.5-25 cm. The deeper peak is positioned in the bottom of a coarser silty sand intercalation and can be assigned to a maximum in nuclear weapon testing in the years 1963 and 1964 (Nehyba et al., 2011; Sedláček et al., 2013). The position of the deeper peak approximately coincides with the peak in heavy metal concentrations and can be interpreted as a deposit of major floods that washed a higher amount of pollutants from the catchment in 1966 and 1970 AD (Brázdil et al., 2005). In addition, the release of heavy metals into the environment was very intense in the 1960s and 1970s due to higher industrial production in the former Czechoslovakia (Novák et al., 2003; Sedláček et al., 2013). The upper peak correlates with decreasing x\s and concentrations of heavy metals and was interpreted as atmospheric fallout deposits from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident in 1986 AD (Wildi et al., 2004; Babek et al., 2011; Nehyba et al., 2011; Sedláček et al., 2013). The maximal values were not so high (cf. Babek et al., 2008) in the outcrop HO because the distribution of 137Cs in Moravia was not uniform. The minor above-mentioned decrease in the concentration of heavy metals in the uppermost 20-cm thick layer is most likely a result of use of unleaded fuel and termination (after year 2000) of some industrial plants in the last 25 years. Similar results were described in other studies from south Moravia (Babek et al., 2008; Kadlec et al., 2009). To summarise, the land-use changes after -800 cal. BP induced major change in the morpho-sedimentary dynamics of the studied catchment and, for the first time, superseded climatic forcing factors. The recent phase 61 (Fig. 6) is characterised by transition from wandering to a single vertically incised channel. This change is most likely the result of intensive reforestation (Fig. 7) and the anthropogenic modification of river geometry in the 20th century (Hrádek, 2005). Due to vertical incision, the lower floodplain level is flooded now only during major flooding episodes (discharge > Q2o). However, parts of the upper floodplain level were flooded during the catastrophic flood in 1997 AD (>Qioo) (Brázdil et al., 2005). 52. Specifics of Late Holocene evolution of rivers in Czech part ofOWC The Bečva River catchment exhibits similar evolutionary phases to many European catchments up to the -800 cal. BP (Mediaeval Warm Period) (Kalicki, 2000; Macklin et al., 2006; Starkel et al., 2006; Hoffmann et al., 2008; Kalicki et al., 2008; Chiriloaei et al., 2012; Gebica et al., 2013). In the Late Atlantic, a widespread episode of cooler and wetter climate (Magny et al., 2006) affected Central Europe, and the episodes of increased precipitation lasted to the Middle Subboreal (Jäger, 2002). A major Late Subboreal flooding phase described in Spain, Great Britain and Poland corresponds with the North Atlantic ice rafting debris record (Macklin et al., 2006), thus indicating major climatic fluctuation in the Euro-Atlantic sector. The overbank sediments deposited in the Subboreal in Polish (Kalicki, 2000) and German (Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010) catchments indicate the increased soil erosion caused by the increased precipitation (Jäger, 2002). The increased lake levels in Central Europe (Magny, 2004) and in the Jura and Swiss Alps (Magny, 1993) prove this wetter episode. Flooding episodes at-2000-1650 cal. BP (during Roman Period) are ascribed to deforestation and crop farming (Klimek, 2002; Zygmunt, 2004; Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010), but after -1650 cal. BP (during the following settlement regression and forest restoration in Dark Ages Cold Period) to an increase in precipitation (Dotterweich, 2008). During this phase, the Swiss glaciers were advancing (Glaser et al., 2005). The colder climate (Dotterweich, 2008) and increased precipitation (Jäger, 2002) led to increased lake levels (Magny, 2004). Contrary to the increasing population of other European regions (Huhmann et al., 2004; Dotterweich, 449 2008; Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010) with intensified land-use during the Roman Period (Klimek, 2002; Erkens et al., 2011), the studied catchment was generally uninhabited and vastly forested (Opravil, 1974; Podhorský et al., 1993; Šebela et al., 2007). This evolution of the two contrasting environments suggests a major climatic impact (Huhmann et al., 2004) and only minor human-induced amplification of climate deterioration from -1600 to 1200 cal. BP (Dark Ages Cold Period) in Central Europe. From 1000 to 700 cal. BP the Bečva River laterally eroded its older deposits. This phase took place during the Mediaeval Warm Period (Macklin et al., 2006) with gradual change towards more oceanic features and higher temperature (Lamb, 1995; Dotterweich, 2008). During this period, the major part of the European catchments were affected by important aggradation phases (Kalicki, 2000; Macklin et al., 2006; Kalicki et al., 2008; Chiriloaei et al., 2012; Gebica et al., 2013). In contrast to other European catchments that were largely affected by intensive crop farming during this phase (Dotterweich, 2008), the studied catchment was at the very onset of its colonisation (Štika, 2007). Therefore, in the major part of Europe, human-induced aggradation prevailed over climatically induced incision in the lower parts of the catchments, whereas the evolution of the Bečva River floodplain was still controlled by natural-forcing factors. The OWC were affected by mountainous, so called "Wallachian" colonisation after the 15th century (Kukulak, 2000,2003; Štika, 2007). This immense anthropogenic impact on the natural environment led to massive overbank deposition (Kalicki, 2000; Huhmann et al., 2004; Chiriloaei et al., 2012; Gebica et al., 2013) and suppressed the effect of decreased temperature, cooler and wetter winters and increased the storminess of the Little Ice Age (Bell and Walker, 2005; Dotterweich, 2008; Notebaert and Verstraeten, 2010). The overbank deposition in the lower parts of Morava River floodplain started as early as in the 11th century (Kadlec et al., 2009) and is ascribed to anthropogenic forest clearings in those parts of the Morava River catchment. Kadlec et al. (2009) related the coarsening of deposits after 1550 AD to higher discharges, which are attributed to the Little Ice Age. Grygar et al. (2011) described two changes in Morava River channel structure in the 13th and at the end of 16th centuries: changes that these authors suggested were related to the climatic extremes rather than to intensified land-use in the catchments of tributaries. These interpretations contrast with the forcing factors of the evolutionary phases of the Bečva River, which is one of the largest tributaries of the Morava River. The recent vertical cutting is a result of reforestation and massive anthropogenic influence on the active channel (Hrádek, 2005). The anthropogenic intervention consists of the channel straightening, major reinforcement of the banks, building of the dams in the upper parts of the sub-catchments and building of the weirs along the river course. A similar vertical incision dated to the last century has been described from a Carpathian sub-mountainous region where the reforestation on the abandoned pastures occurred (Huhmann et al., 2004; Chiriloaei et al., 2012).This evolutionary phase also is in direct contrast to increases in the sedimentation rate during the last 50 years in the Morava River floodplain described as being a response to intensive agriculture by Kadlec et al. (2009). 6. Conclusions The Late Holocene evolution of the studied floodplain is generally characterised by gradual aggradation with a short incision phase during the 10th century. The late colonisation of the upper part of the Bečva River catchment preserved this part of the OWC in semi-natural conditions up to the - 800 cal. BP. This unique lack of human-induced changes led to the natural evolution of the floodplain with climate fluctuations serving as the only forcing factor. 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