A B S T R A C TA R T I C L E I N F O
Article history:
Accepted 5 June 2007
Available online 25 March 2008
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
There is a wide range of deﬁnitions for the term neotectonic (see e. g.
Vita-Finzi, 1986; Becker, 1993; Zuchiewicz, 1995). The majority of
authors deﬁne neotectonics as crustal movements starting after the
youngest orogenic phase or related to the youngest stress ﬁeld occurring
in the late Neogene and Quaternary. Opinions on the onset of the
neotectonic period in central Europe, particularly in the Bohemian
Massif, underwent an evolution, which closely followed the gathering of
more data. Kopecký (1972) considered neotectonics in the Bohemian
Massif to begin in the Oligocene, because neotectonic movements have
formed the main features of present-day relief. Dyjor (1983) put the
onset of neotectonics within the Sudetic region, in the NE part of the
Bohemian Massif, as late Paleogene, later to Neogene (Dyjor, 1993).
⁎ Corresponding author.
According to Becker (1993), characteristic changes in the tectonic
evolution of central and northern Europe occurred for the last time in
the early late Miocene, therefore the onset of neotectonic activity should
be associated with this period, approximately 10 Ma BP. Zuchiewicz
(1995) suggested that the neotectonic stage should be conﬁned solely to
the Pliocene and Quaternary. In this paper, however, we deal mainly
with younger tectonic movements occurring during the Quaternary.
As the Bohemian Massif is a part of the Epihercynian platform (preAlpinian),
for decades it was considered rather stable during the
Quaternary (see e.g. references in Kopecký, 1972). However, morphotectonic
research carried out in Czech and Polish parts of the Bohemian
Massif during the last two decades has revealed areas of at least
Middle-Pleistocene tectonic activity (e.g. Kalvoda and Stemberk,1993;
Vilímek and Stemberk 1994; Vilímek, 1995; Krzyszkowski and Pijet,
1993; Krzyszkowski et al., 1995, 2000; Badura et al., 2003). Moreover,
in addition to seismic activity, results gained from geophysical and
geodetic surveys (precise levelling), monitoring of micro-displacements
directly on fault planes, and GPS measurements have revealed
recent tectonic activity in the Bohemian Massif, although of low
intensity compared to areas of active mountain building (Cacoń and
Dyjor, 1995; Kalvoda, 1995; Košťák, 1998, 2000; Schenk et al., 2003;
Kontny, 2004; Cacoń et al., 2005).
The aim of this paper is to assess how active tectonics in the northeastern
spur of the Bohemian Massif is expressed in the development
of the drainage network. The area belongs to the Fore–Sudetic block
separated from the Sudeten Mountains by one of the most clearly
marked tectonic zones in Central Europe; the 300 km long, NW–SE
striking Sudetic Marginal Fault (SMF). The SMF underwent various
types of movements during its evolution (Oberc and Dyjor, 1969;
Skácel 1989; Mastalerz and Wojewoda, 1993; Krzyszkowski et al.,
1995; Badura et al., 2003, 2004). Apart from the prominent mountainfront
fault scarp of the Sudeten Mountains, the trace of the SMF and
other parallel faults within the zone is marked by mineral springs and
Neogene to Quaternary volcanic rocks (Buday et al., 1995; Badura and
Przybylski, 2000a; Birkenmajer et al., 2002; Badura et al., 2005 and
references therein). Moreover, historical seismicity has been documented
within this region along the trend of the SMF and connecting
splays (Kárník et al., 1958; Pagaczewski, 1972; Guterch and Lewandowska-Marciniak,
2002).
Because drainage patterns may contain useful information about
the past and present tectonic regime (see e.g. Seeber and Gornitz,
1983; Audemard, 1999; Burbank and Anderson, 2001; Keller and
Pinter, 2002), the drainage basin of the study area was analysed to
assess its neotectonic development. In addition, a comparison of the
fracture system and the arrangement of landforms, which can have a
causal relationships (cf. e.g. Ericson et al., 2005), was performed.
Monitoring of micro-displacements directly on fault planes was
carried out in order to assess present-day movements. Subsequently,
Fig. 1. Topography and morphology of the area under study. SMF — Sudetic Marginal Fault, VF — Vidnava Fault.
69
the present-day trend of movements obtained by the monitoring was
compared with the general neotectonic evolution of the study area.
2. Morphological and geological settings
The studied area (100 km2
) is located in the north of the Czech
Republic and includes the north-eastern part of the Rychlebské Mts,
called the Sokolský Ridge, and the adjacent part of the Žulovská Hilly
Land (Fig. 1).
The wedge-shaped Sokolský Ridge (highest peak: Studniční Mt.
992 m a. s. l.) is a horst-like structure descendingstepwise tothe NE along
the parallel NW–SE striking faults, similarly to the entire Rychlebské Mts
(Ivan, 1997). The marked marginal slopes of the Sokolský Ridge are
probably bound by faults along which the entire structure was elevated
above its surroundings by over 600 m. The highest part involves round
isolated hills separated by wide ﬂat valley heads.
The adjacent part of the Žulovská Hilly Land is a slightly lowered
basal surface of weathering of the pre-Neogene planation surface
(etchplain). The basal surface contains numerous inselbergs and also
several remnants of kaolin-rich saprolites (Demek, 1976; Ivan, 1983;
Demek, 1995). Additionally, this undulated basal surface was
reworked by a Pleistocene continental ice-sheet, which reached the
area probably in the latest Elsterian 2 (400–460 ka). (Žáček et al.,
2004). In the north, towards the lower-situated Vidnavská Lowland,
the Žulovská Hilly Land is delimited by fault scarps, which are 30 to
40 m high. The Vidnavská Lowland is a part of the Paczków Graben,
one of the Fore–Sudetic Neogene grabens, ﬁlled with Miocene
deposits up to 680 m thick (see e.g. Frejková, 1968; Ondra, 1968;
Cwojdziński and Jodłowski, 1978; Badura et al., 2004 and references
therein).
The study area comprises the Variscan Žulová granite pluton,
which is the apical part of a vast granitic body marked by an extended
gravity low (Cháb and Žáček, 1994), and its Devonian metamorphic
cover including a belt of predominantly gneisses, amphibolites,
quartzites, and marble. The entire studied part of the Žulovská Hilly
Land and the north-western marginal slope of the Sokolský Ridge is
composed of granitoids of the Žulová pluton, whereas the eastern part
of the Sokolský Ridge is built up of the metamorphic cover (Fig. 2).
Neogene sediments linking to relative subsidence of the Fore–Sudetic
block occur in the adjacent part of the Vidnavská Lowland and are
more than 270 m thick there (Gabriel et al., 1982). They cover a
kaolinised (to a depth of 50 m) granitic basement (Ondra, 1968;
Kościówko, 1982), which was dislocated and placed to different
altitudinal levels. Quaternary sediments occur mostly only in the
Žulovská Hilly Land. They include glacigenic, alluvial, ﬂuvial and
colluvial deposits (Žáček et al., 2004; Pecina et al., in press).
3. Methods
3.1. Analysis of drainage network
A systematic geomorphological analysis of the drainage network
was carried out by means of ﬁeld mapping and survey of anomalous
features of individual valleys. These are particularly related to
anomalies in their longitudinal proﬁles and cross-sections (knickpoints,
changes in intensity of rejuvenated/modern erosion).
Fig. 2. Geological sketch of the studied area. SMF — Sudetic Marginal Fault, VF — Vidnava Fault, RTF — Ramzová Thrust Fault separating Lugicum and Silesicum, VR — Vidnavka River,
VB — Vápenský Brook, ČB — Červený Brook, MB — Mariánský Brook, KB — Kopřivový Brook, UV — Uhlířské Valley Brook (compiled with the basic geological map by the Czech
Geological Survey, 1998).
70
Longitudinal proﬁles were constructed basing on 1: 10 000
topographic maps, with a contour interval of 2 or 5 m. Cross-sections
of the valleys were also based on 1:10 000 topographic maps.
However, where the incision is young, results of a laser rangeﬁnder,
which was used directly in the ﬁeld, were applied. Valley segments of
recent incision or erosion were mapped in the ﬁeld, and headcuts
were positioned by the GPS.
The stream length-gradient index SL (Hack, 1973) was calculated
for successive 100-m-long segments along the stream using the
formula: SL=(ΔH/ΔL)L, where ΔH/ΔL is the gradient of the studied
segment, and L denotes the total upstream length. The sensitivity of
the SL index to changes in the channel slope makes it possible to
evaluate the relationships among tectonic activity, rock resistance and
topography (Keller and Pinter, 2002). Moreover, SL indices were
compared with stream gradients (m/km) computed for 100-m-long
segments.
A geomorphological sketch of selected ﬂuvial features, such as
segments of enhanced erosion, ﬂuvial terraces and alluvial fans, was
created. Besides 1:10 000 and 1:25 000 topographic maps, the digital
elevation model (DEM) based on these maps, and aerial photographs
was also used during geomorphological mapping and analysis.
3.2. Analysis of morpholineaments and fractures
Morpholineaments are represented by linear elements of the relief,
such as the foot or trace of rectilinear slopes or landforms related to
the drainage network (thalwegs, etc.). They can be associated with
tectonic dislocations or geological (lithostratigraphic) boundaries (see
Ostaﬁczuk, 1981; Badura et al., 2003). In this study, they were
identiﬁed based on 1: 10 000 and 1: 25 000 topographic maps, DEM,
our own geomorphological and geological maps, and were processed
within the GIS. The method of condensed contour lines were also used
(cf. Ostaﬁczuk, 1975; Badura and Przybylski, 1999). Additionally,
thematic maps displaying water springs and waterlogged areas were
used as their linear arrangement frequently corresponds with
morpholineaments. During the analysis, the length of morpholineaments
was considered with respect for their trends. Only signiﬁcant
morpholineaments, longer than 500 m, were taken into account.
Furthermore, the orientation of morpholineaments was compared
to that of fault and joint systems in order to assess their possible causal
relationships, such as the inﬂuence of the structure on the drainage
pattern or the impact of neotectonics on landforms. A fault system
analysis was performed on the basis of geological, geophysical, and
geomorphological maps, and on measurements in quarries (no fresh
fault planes are exposed in the area). Joint strikes were measured both
in quarries and natural rock-outcrops. As the quarries are widespread
all over the area, we considered these measurements to be representative
of the fracture pattern of the area and took the frequency of the
orientations into account.
3.3. Methodology of fault displacement monitoring
Displacements occurring on faults are monitored using a TM71
deformeter, which is usually installed directly across a ﬁssure or a fault
plane. Suitable sites for monitoring are selected within important fault
zones displaying recentor active tectonics. TheTM71 device is based on a
mechanical optical principle (Moiré technique) and hasbeen successfully
used in several regions with different levels of tectonic activity (for
details see Košťák, 1991; Dobrev and Košťák, 2000; Stemberk et al.,
2003). The movements are recorded three-dimensionally. Horizontal
displacements perpendicular to the ﬁssure are recorded along the x axis,
lateral displacements along the y axis, and the z axis reﬂects vertical
displacements. The rotations along the planes xy and xz, which may not
be displayed in charts of individual displacements, are also recorded.
Under conditions of minimum interference by exogenous processes, the
gauge is capable of demonstrating relative spatial movements between
two adjacent crack faces as small as 0.01 mm/year and relative angular
deviations of up to 0.00032 rad. All the obtained data were corrected for
the inﬂuence of temperature.
In the studied area, four TM71 deformeters were installed in two
fault-controlled karstic cave systems (in 2001 and 2002), since there is
no suitable clear fault scarp on the surface (Stemberk and Štěpančíková,
2003). The cave Na Pomezí is situated directly in the zone of the SMFand
generally follows the NW–SE direction (Fig.1). For that reason, this cave
was selected within the framework of EU COST Action 625 “3-D
monitoring of active tectonic structures” as an appropriate site to
monitor the SMF fault displacements. Since there is no suitable ﬁssure in
the SMF direction, two ﬁssures oblique to this direction were straddled
by the TM71 devices. This oblique system of ﬁssures (NNW–SSE/WSW–
ENE) also deﬁnes most of the cave corridor directions. The second cave,
Na Špičáku, is situated a few kilometres north of the SMF on the foot of
the fault scarp, which is presumably controlled by a NE–SW trending
fault (Fig.1). The cave also follows ﬁssures of this direction in addition to
the NW–SE trend (see later Section 4.3). Two ﬁssures striking NW–SE
and E–W were straddled by the TM71 devices here.
All the monitored sites in the studied area are situated deep
enough to eliminate the inﬂuence of superﬁcial slope processes as
well as seasonal climatic variations. Micro-displacements obtained
from the monitored caves were recorded regularly once or twice a
month. Final values of micro-displacements along each axis were
obtained as the sum of individual movements of the same orientation
(Košťák, 1993).
4. Results
4.1. Characteristics of streams and drainage basin
The study area drains to the north-east into the Nysa Kłodzka River.
The drainage network analysed in detail comprises the main stream —
the Vidnavka River (of fourth stream order) — and its right-side
catchment area, which includes streams of ﬁrst to third order. All
these streams originate in the Sokolský Ridge and then ﬂow through
the Žulovská Hilly Land to the Vidnavská Lowland, thus through the
same geomorphological units. Based on this fact, it can be assumed
that their evolution was similar, unlike in the case of the left-side
catchment area of the Vidnavka River, where the streams running
from the Rychlebské Mts cross their prominent marginal fault scarp
controlled by the SMF.
The drainage network is predominantly of a dendritic pattern, in
particular in the mountain area it follows the prevailing slope. In the
lower part of the study area, in the Žulovská Hilly Land, a rectangular
drainage pattern occurs, commonly reﬂecting the joint and fault
systems as discussed later in this paper.
Apart from the very upper parts of several valleys crossing the belt
of metamorphic rocks, the stream network ﬂows through the
granitoids of the Žulová granite pluton. This uniform lithology
simpliﬁes recognition of tectonic inﬂuences on longitudinal stream
proﬁles. Furthermore, according to Burbank and Anderson (2001),
such anomalies in river proﬁles not correlated to lithologic contrasts
may be interpreted as reﬂecting ongoing tectonism. However, all
potential factors that could inﬂuence river channel morphologies
should be taken into account.
4.1.1. Longitudinal proﬁles, stream length-gradient index and headward
erosion
Longitudinal proﬁles, stream gradients and stream length-gradient
indices (SL) were constructed for the most important streams within the
study area in order to assess the inﬂuence of tectonic movements on the
evolution of the drainage basins. Since these streams are of different
orders, the anomalies of both the stream gradients and SL indices rather
than their real values were taken into account. Moreover, the extent of
the newest erosional phase was investigated in the ﬁeld.
71
Fig. 3. SL indices and stream gradient distributions of the Vápenský (VB), Kopřivový (KB), Uhlířské Valley (UV) and Křemenáč Brook (K) channel beds. Five-term simple moving
average curves represents a mean trend at a length of 500 m.
Fig. 4. SL indices and gradients distribution of the Vidnavka River, Černý (Mariánský Brook=upper reach) and Červený Brook channel beds. Lithology: (1) — metamorphic rocks
(gneisses, marbles, phyllites, amphibolites), (2) — granitoids, (3) — segment of stream ﬂowing along the lithological boundary; (4) — stream follows a morpholineament/fault,
(6) — river crosses a morpholineament/fault, (7) — beginning of the deepened valley, (5) — river ﬂows into the planation surface (etchplain).
72
All streams within the Sokolský Ridge have non-rejuvenated wide
valley heads with much lower SL indices than in lower situated
segments (Figs. 3, 4; Černý, Červený and Kopřivový Brooks). Downstream,
in the middle reaches, where the Sokolský Ridge is rather
steep, the streams have almost undeveloped valleys lacking apparent
drainage divides between them. They also manifest themselves
through the linear shape of their longitudinal proﬁles with rather
higher gradients with the SL indices of 240–320 m/km and SL 260–
620, respectively. It suggests that these segments and the slopes are
young. Approaching the foothills, the valleys deepen and widen in
response to headward erosion dissecting the margins of the Sokolský
Ridge from its foot.
The Uhlířské Valley, Křemenáč Brook, and partially the Vidnavka
River, differ from the above-mentioned valley types. They created deep
valleys directly below their wide valley heads, which is reﬂected also by
more concave longitudinal proﬁles, and lower SL indices and gradients
(Figs. 3, 4). These three streams follow marked faults, which probably
inﬂuenced their more advanced morphological development.
Along the SW foot of the Sokolský Ridge, which is controlled by the
SMF, the Vidnavka River ﬂows through various metamorphic rocks,
which is reﬂected by changes in both the gradients and SL indices.
However, these changes are not so signiﬁcant when compared to
those on the subsequent stretch of the river and its tributaries situated
exclusively within the Žulová granite pluton (Fig. 4).
Within the transition area towards the Žulovská Hilly Land in the
NW, as well as in the hilly land itself, the longitudinal proﬁles of the
streams analysed are far from being smooth. They most frequently
reﬂect tectonic and structural controls, which are probably emphasised
owing to the already stripped etchsurfaces and to the advance of
headward erosion (Fig. 4). Several knickpoints within the step-like
arranged foothills correspond with the bases of these steps or the foot
of the marginal slope of the Sokolský Ridge. The foothill steps are
reﬂected also by higher SL indices. The knickpoints have retreated due
to headward erosion by 40 m to 70 m. The closer the knickpoints are to
the marginal slope of the ridge, the lower the value of the retreat.
Different values of knickpoint retreat may suggest different levels of
Fig. 5. Geomorphological sketch of valley types and alluvial fan/ﬂuvial terrace levels. Glacials: Saalian 1 (240–280 ka), Saalian 2 (130–180 ka), Weichselian (10–80 ka). Valley types —
see for explanation Section 4.1.2; headward erosion — the farthest reach of the youngest erosional phase; arrows — alluvial fans or fan-shaped ﬂuvial terraces; VR — Vidnavka River,
VB — Vápenský Brook, MB — Mariánský Brook, ČB — Červený Brook, KB — Kopřivový Brook, UV — Uhlířské Valley.
73
fault activity bordering these steps. In addition, the increased SL
indices and stream-gradients of the analysed streams coincide
frequently with rectilinear and/or narrow valley segments, which
also follow or cross morpholineaments or even mapped faults. These
facts may suggest a tectonic control of these morpholineaments,
although the inferred faults have not been recognised so far.
Moreover, an analysis of headward erosion showed that the
streams displaying the longest and highest reach of the youngest
erosional phase are all in the SW part of Sokolský Ridge. This sector
involves the most prominent and highest marginal fault scarp, which
is controlled by the SMF (Fig. 5). The occurrence of the most intensive
erosion in this part may correspond with the supposed differential
uplift of the ridge, which is also highest exactly in this SW part. On the
marginal slope facing the Žulovská Hilly Land, modern headward
erosion has advanced to a similar extent as that in the SW marginal
slope in the case of two streams, the Mariánský and Kopřivový Brooks.
Their courses are both controlled by faults and also display distinct
anomalies in SL indices and gradients, which may suggest their recent
activity (see Figs. 2–4).
4.1.2. Cross-sections
Anomalies in longitudinal proﬁles frequently correspond with
changes in the cross-section morphology of the valleys. In the study
area, several types of valley have been distinguished based on their
cross-sections. These individual types reﬂect different erosional
phases and intensity of erosion, frequently controlled by tectonic
activity as well as structural and lithological factors.
The valley types showing enhanced erosion were identiﬁed based
on their cross-sections and are as follows (Fig. 6): 1) a deep valley with
a rather wide valley ﬂoor, 2) a deep narrow valley, 3) a valley with a
remnant of an older valley ﬂoor cut by younger erosion, 4) a valley
with enhanced recent erosion.
Type 1 (Fig. 6) is characterised by a deep incision of up to 50 m (the
Vidnavka River, the Černý Brook) and is typical for the fringe of the
Žulovská Hilly Land. It contains long valley segments with a wellmarked
upper-valley edge. The main control on valley development
was played by headward erosion from the Vidnavská Lowland and
dissecting older Quaternary deposits or the planation surface.
Additionally, this type occurs in the transition area towards the
Sokolský Ridge. The valleys here are usually rectilinear since most of
them probably follow fractures and ﬂow around more or less isolated
granite inselbergs. The segments of type 1 generally have graded
longitudinal proﬁles with some small local knickpoints.
Type 2 represents a deep valley with a narrow or missing
ﬂoodplain, resulting from recent incision, deepening the valley
(Fig. 6). These stretches of valley in the study area are strictly limited
to rectilinear segments, which probably follow fault and/or fracture
systems.
Type 3 (Fig. 6) comprises valleys with an older, wider valley ﬂoor
situated only a few metres (2–7 m) above the present-day valley
bottom, which implies a renewed incision. They occur almost
exclusively in the mountainous sector of the study area, the Sokolský
Ridge. As shown in Fig. 5, Type 3 is conﬁned to deep and developed
valleys occurring within the Sokolský Ridge, which are clearly
controlled by marked fault lines. In addition, such valley segments
begin approximately at the foot of the Sokolský Ridge; therefore, they
correspond with the base of an uplifted area (e.g. the Vidnavka River,
the Vápenský Brook, etc.; see Fig. 5). The position of the segments of
Type 3 may suggest a causal relationship with the uplift, as will be
discussed later.
Type 4 (Fig. 6) involves stretches of enhanced recent erosion,
including up to 8 m modern incision of the streams. These segments
are limited to the very beginning at the foot of the Sokolský Ridge,
which follows the trace of the marginal faults, and/or they follow
transverse faults (Fig. 5). These spatial relationships suggest recent
uplifting in the Sokolský Ridge and some degree of activity on the
transverse faults crossing the ridge.
4.1.3. Depositional features
Three levels of Middle to Late Pleistocene ﬂuvial terraces
(predominantly sandy gravel deposits) were identiﬁed in the study
area (Fig. 5). Within the valley cross-sections, the oldest, upper terrace
has lower relative heights above the channels than the adjacent
youngest glaciation till occurring in the study area, which has an
Elsterian 2 age (OIS 12/400–460 ka). It implies that the terraces
postdate the till and would belong to the Saalian 1 (OIS 8/240–280 ka),
Saalian 2 (OIS 6/130–180 ka) and Weichselian (OIS 4-2/10–80 ka)
(Žáček et al., 2004). The upper level 1 is located 35–40 m above the
valley bottom of the Červený Brook with a thickness of up to 2 m and
20 m above the Černý Brook. The different relative heights above the
brooks are caused by differences in headward erosion. This ﬁrst level
can be correlated with the Upper Terrace of the main river, the Nysa
Kłodzka River, into which the Vidnavka River ﬂows (Przybylski,1998a;
Badura and Przybylski, 2000b). The second level (correlated with the
Middle Terrace) occurs only locally 13 to 22 m above the present
stream channels and displays a thickness of less than 2 m. The surface
of the only occurrence of the third level, correlated with the upper
Lower Terrace of the Nysa Kłodzka River (cf. Przybylski, 1998a), is
situated in the Vidnavská Lowland, 4–8 m above the river channel. It is
fan-shaped and made of 5–7 m thick materials.
In addition, three generations of alluvial fans have been described
in this region (Pecina et al., in press). These three fan generations
correspond with the aforementioned ﬂuvial terraces. The oldest
alluvial fan overlie glacioﬂuvial deposits resting on the till of Elsterian
2 so that it was classiﬁed as of the Saalian 1 age (OIS 8/240–280 ka).
This alluvial fan can be found along the Vidnavka River continuously at
a distance of 5 km, around 38–48 m above the valley bottom (Fig. 5).
As already mentioned, the ﬂuvial terraces and alluvial fans, based
on their character and morphostratigraphic position (35–48 m, 13–
22 m, and 4–8 m above the present river channel), probably
correspond with the Upper, Middle and Lower Terraces of the Nysa
Kłodzka River, (20–30 m,10–17 m, 2–5 m, respectively), into which the
Vidnavka River ﬂows (cf. Przybylski 1998a,b; Badura and Przybylski,
2000b). Yet the heights of two upper levels above the Vidnavka River
are larger than heights of corresponding levels above the Nysa
Kłodzka River. This fact would imply a convergence of the terrace
levels of the Vidnavka River downstream (Fig. 7). In the conﬂuence
area, the Vidnavka River incises into the Upper and Middle Terraces of
the Nysa Kłodzka River, which lie on Miocene sediments, to depths of
15 m and 10 m, respectively. In contrast, in the area of the Žulovská
Hilly Land situated upstream, incision of the same age marked by
ﬂuvial terraces reaches 35–48 m and 20 m, respectively. This
convergence of the terrace levels downstream suggests a relative
uplift of the Žulovská Hilly Land.Fig. 6. Valley types based on their cross-sections. See for explanation Section 4.1.2.
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4.2. Morpholineaments and fractures
4.2.1. Morpholineaments
The morpholineaments in the study area are expressed in the
landscape mainlyasthefoot zones of rectilinear slopes, and aslandforms
related to the drainage network (thalwegs, etc.). Most morpholineaments
are related to fault and/or joint patterns in the area, although not
all of the faults are geologically proven.
Morpholineaments in the study area follow two prominent, more
or less orthogonal directions: NE–SW (30–50°) and NW–SE (130–
150°; Fig. 8). The NE–SW orientation is displayed in the relief more
conspicuously. Some segments of the Vidnavka River, and the
Skorošický, Černý, and Červený Brooks are examples of this orientation.
The foot of the SE marginal fault scarp of the Sokolský Ridge is
another distinct morpholineament of this orientation (Fig. 1).
Although the morpholineaments of the NE–SW orientation are
shorter in length, they are more frequent. In contrast, the morpholineaments
of the Sudetic direction (NW–SE) are not so frequent, but
are expressed in the relief over longer distances. The longest
morpholineaments within the analysed area that maintain a constant
direction reach approximately 6 km. The SW marginal fault scarp of
the Sokolský Ridge, as well as the entire NE border of the Rychlebské
Mts, follows the SMF and is a typical example of the Sudetic
morpholineament trend. Moreover, these two main directions control
perpendicular corridors of karst dissolution occurring in the study
area.
4.2.2. Joint and faults orientations
The data on fracture systems were collected using several kinds of
maps and ﬁeld measurements (see Section 3.2). The joint and fault
strikes were measured in quarries and natural outcrops of various
Palaeozoic crystalline rocks, mostly granitoids (Štěpančíková, 2005).
As shown in Fig. 8, rose diagrams constructed for joints and faults also
display two dominant directions: NE–SW and NW–SE. However, the
Sudetic NW–SE direction, the youngest trend in the Bohemian Massif,
prevails. It is necessary to highlight that these joint and fault systems
differ in their directions by around 20°. The typical strikes for the joint
system are 10–30° and 110–130°, whereas those of the fault system are
Fig. 7. Longitudinal proﬁles with ﬂuvial levels of the Vidnavka River, the Černý and Červený brooks and the Nysa Kłodzka River at the conﬂuence area. Terraces/alluvial fans: 1 — Saalian
1 (240–280 ka), 2 — Saalian 2 (130–180 ka), 3 — Weichselian (10–80 ka).
Fig. 8. Rose diagrams of joint (1002 readings) and fault (120 readings) system strikes compared to the morpholineament orientations (total length approximately 223 km).
75
30–50° and 130–150°. Thus, there is a strong correlation in
morpholineament and fault trends because the main morpholineament
trends are also 30–50° and 130–150° (Fig. 8). It suggests strongly
that the morpholineaments in the study area are more controlled by
younger secondary faults than the primary joint system (Fig. 8).
4.3. Analysis of the data obtained by 3-D monitoring of micro-
displacements
Both monitored sites in the Na Pomezí Cave and the Na Špičáku Cave
consist of tectonically controlled dissolution corridors. The Na Pomezí
Cave is located on the left bank of the Vidnavka River, directly in the zone
of the SMF, 5 km NW of the town of Jeseník (Fig. 9). Two TM71
deformeters were installed across the NNW–SSE and WSW–ENE
striking ﬁssures, located about 30 m and 40 m below the surface,
respectively. The ﬁssures display crushed rocks, which suggests recent
movement along them (Fig.10). The Na Špičáku Cave is situated 7 km NE
of the town of Jeseník, at the foot of the eastern marginal slope of the
Sokolský Ridge, which follows an inferred NE–SW fault. The E–W and
NW–SE striking ﬁssures were monitored with two TM71 deformeters
about 20 m and 40 m below the surface, respectively (Fig. 9).
4.3.1. The Na Pomezí 1 site (P1: NNW–SSE ﬁssure — 350°/90°)
The cumulative values of micro-displacements along each
axis recorded since 2001 are as follows: x: +0.02 mm (average
displacement rate+0.005 mm/year), y: −0.125 mm (average displacement
rate−0.03 mm/year), z: +0.1 mm (average displacement
rate+0.025 mm/year) (Fig. 11). The registered displacements have a
right-lateral component (along the y axis) with the vertical component
(the z axis) due to the uplift of the eastern side of the monitored ﬁssure.
The displacements registered along the x axis thus represent horizontal
compression across the monitored ﬁssure. As a result, the obtained
data reﬂect an oblique (transverse) uplift of the eastern side relative to
the western side. The right-lateral component may be due to the
Sokolský Ridge being thrust over the southern block of the Rychlebské
Mts due to north-eastwards compression (Fig. 9).
4.3.2. The Na Pomezí 2 site (P2: WSW–ENE ﬁssure — 260°/76°N)
The cumulative values of micro-displacements along each
axis that have been recorded since 2001 are: x: +0.04 mm (average
Fig. 9. Sketch of the monitored caves with locations of the TM71 deformeters, the sense of recorded displacements, and the inferred compression orientations.
Fig. 10. The TM71 deformeter installed across the monitored ﬁssure in the cave Na
Pomezí (site P1).
76
displacement rate+0.01 mm/year), y: +0.2 mm (average displacement
rate+0.05 mm/year), z: −1.34 mm (average displacement rate
−0.33 mm/year) (Fig. 11). The recorded displacements show mostly
left-lateral components (along the y axis), and vertical components
(the z axis) which are about seven times greater than the horizontal
component. Oblique vertical displacements are produced by the
uplift of the northern side of the ﬁssure as a result of the southern
block being pushed under the northern block. The displacements
registered along the x axis represent a slight compression across the
monitored ﬁssure.
Generally, the results from both sites at Na Pomezí are interpreted
as showing the displacements resulting from approximately SSW–
NNE to SW–NE-oriented compression associated with thrusting of the
northern sector (Sokolský Ridge) over the southern one (Rychlebské
Mts) (Fig. 9).
4.3.3. The Na Špičáku 1 site (Š1: E–W ﬁssure — 90°/82°S)
The cumulative values of micro-displacements along each axis
which have been recorded since 2002 are: x: −0.02 mm (average
displacement rate−0.007 mm/year), y: −0.015 mm (average displacement
rate−0.005 mm/year), z: +0.03 mm (average displacement
rate+0.01 mm/year) (Fig. 11). The registered displacements
have a right-lateral component (along the y axis), and the vertical
component (the z axis), which is about two times greater than the
horizontal component. Vertical displacements are produced by a
relative uplift of the southern side of the ﬁssure. The displacements
registered along the x axis represent extension across the ﬁssure.
4.3.4. The Na Špičáku 2 site (Š2: NW–SE ﬁssure — 124°/80°SW)
The cumulative values of micro-displacements along each axis
which have been recorded since 2002 are: x: 0.0 mm, y: +0.04 mm
(average displacement rate+0.013 mm/year), z: +0.05 mm (average
displacement rate+0.017 mm/year) (Fig. 11). The registered displacements
have a left-lateral component (along the y axis), with the
vertical component (the z axis) of about the same value as the
horizontal component. Vertical displacements result from the uplift of
the southern side of the ﬁssure.
In summary, the observed displacements in the Na Špičáku Cave
show NNW–SSE to N–S-oriented compression resulting in thrusting of
southern blocks over northern blocks (Fig. 9).
5. Discussion
The neotectonic origin of the prominent fault scarp, controlled by the
Sudetic Marginal Fault, which forms the border between the Sudeten
Mountains and the Sudetic Foreland, has been broadly discussed and
documented by several authors (e.g. Oberc and Dyjor, 1969; Ivan, 1997;
Badura et al., 2003 and references therein). The Sokolský Ridge is the SE
sector of the Rychlebské Mts which belong to the Sudeten Mts. Yet the
ridge itself is situated beyond the SMF on the hanging wall so it tends to
be regarded as a part of the Fore–Sudetic block. The main features of the
Sokolský Ridge, as well as the entire Sudeten Mts, are supposed to have
formed since the Neogene (e.g. Ivan,1997; Badura et al., 2003). However,
neither the Sokolský Ridge nor the adjacent Žulovská Hilly Land have
been hitherto studied in detail from a neotectonic point of view.
Anders (1939) mentioned the step-like character of the relief of the
study area, where the steps from SE to NW are as follows: the Sokolský
Ridge, the Žulovská Hilly Land and the Vidnavská Lowland. He
discussed the presumable fault origin of the marginal slope of the
Sokolský Ridge, by which the latter was uplifted by over 600 m
towards the Žulovská Hilly Land. Anders (1939) excluded any ﬂexure,
since the given zone is composed of massive granitoids. However, he
concluded that owing to uniform bedrock, the presumable fault, in
particular its trace, would be very difﬁcult to prove geologically.
5.1. Drainage analysis
The hypothesis of uplift of the study area is supported by the
presented geomorphological data based on a detailed analysis of the
drainage network, particularly the nature of individual stream valleys
and their cross-sections, incision, anomalies in longitudinal proﬁles,
SL indices, and in stream gradients.
The stream stretches displaying signiﬁcant incision or rejuvenated
erosion start to develop from the base of the marginal slope of the
Fig.11. Displacements registered: x, y - horizontal movements; z - vertical movements; a) in the Na Pomezí Cave, site Na Pomezí 1, b) in the Na Pomezí Cave, site Na Pomezí 2, c) in the
Na Špičáku cave, site Na Špičáku 1, d) in the Na Špičáku cave, site Na Špičáku 2.
77
Sokolský Ridge, controlled in the SW by the SMF. Similarly, they start
to develop at the base of obvious morphological steps in the adjacent
part of the Žulovská Hilly Land or along its northern fringe. Moreover,
the longitudinal proﬁles, SL indices, and stream gradients reﬂect these
prominent valley segments by distinctive knickpoints. Several of these
knickpoints display a linear arrangement corresponding with the
lower edge of the Sokolský Ridge, as well as with the bases of the
above-mentioned morphological steps within the Žulovská Hilly Land,
even if some of the knickpoints have already slightly retreated. All
these valley characteristics could be regarded as a response to the
uplift of the Sokolský Ridge and of the stepped terrain of the foothills
belonging to the Žulovská Hilly Land. Furthermore, in several places,
the stretches of those streams which display rejuvenated erosion and
enhanced incision as well as the highest and longest reach of
headward erosion coincide with transverse faults. This correlation
may suggest a reactivation of these transverse faults.
The fact that the entire Sokolský Ridge as a horst-like structure is
descending stepwise to the NE (from the altitude of approximately
1000 m to 400 m a.s.l.; Fig. 1) implies that the ridge was subjected to
differential uplift, with the highest rate in its S–SW sector. This uplift
very likely developed during the main period of its formation in the
Neogene, analogous to the adjacent mountain ranges (e.g. Ivan, 1997).
The asymmetric drainage network of the Vidnavka River seems to be a
result of this tilting. The general trend of streams within the Sudeten
Mts to ﬂow north- or north-eastwards (already in the Neogene),
inferred from sedimentary evidence in the Sudetic Foreland, is also
displayed in the Rychlebské Mts. However, this north-eastwards
tendency in the studied right-side catchment of the Vidnavka River
was disturbed in response to the uplift of the Sokolský Ridge. As a
result, a new stream network originated, draining the ridge. The
hypothesis of a younger age for this drainage is supported by modern
morphological analysis of most streams within the ridge (see
Section 4.1.1) — they lack developed valleys, have unclear divides, and
their longitudinal proﬁles are rectilinear. Moreover, these relatively
young valleys are in sharp contrast to wide, shallow valley heads,
surrounding the inselberg-like summits of the ridge; landforms
probably inherited from the Neogene. In addition, the interpretation
of differential uplift is supported by stream features on the highest
and steepest marginal slope of the Sokolský Ridge situated in the SW.
There, the stretches of rejuvenated and enhanced modern stream
erosion, beginning on the SMF trace (in case of the Vidnavka River
even following the SMF), extend the longest distance and greatest
elevational difference. Therefore, it is most likely that the greatest
magnitude of uplift occurred exactly in this SW part of the ridge. In
addition, the intensity of modern erosion generally diminishes from
SW to NE through the entire Sokolský Ridge.
Concerning the drainage basins of the Žulovská Hilly Land, in
places where the main trunks of the Černý and Červený Brooks ﬂow
through the slightly undulated etchsurface, they display only slightly
developed, wide shallow valleys reﬂected by their smooth longitudinal
proﬁles and very low stream gradients (3–14 m/km). Nonetheless,
headward erosion propagating from the northern edge of the
hilly land due to relative subsidence of the Vidnavská Lowland has
already dissected the etchsurface as well as the Middle to Lower
Pleistocene deposits within the marginal part of the Žulovská Hilly
Land. It has resulted in the creation of the deep and rather narrow
valleys of the Vidnavka River, and Černý and Červený brooks (Fig. 1).
As already described in Section 4.1.3, the Quaternary development of
these three main streams in the study area can be inferred from ﬂuvial
levels. Fluvial terraces in central Europe are considered to result from
the combination of climatic changes and tectonic movements (e.g.
Starkel, 2003, Tyráček et al., 2004). Since the relative elevation of
alluvial fans and terraces in the study area attain much higher values
when compared to the terraces of the same age on the contiguous
main river Nysa Kłodzka (the difference being up to 20 m at level 1, at
least 8 m at level 2, and up to 2–3 m at level 3), a tectonic control can
be considered. It implies a relative uplift of the Žulovská Hilly Land,
probably along the approximately W–E striking presumable Vidnava
(Vidnava–Głucholazy?) fault (schematically delineated by Dyjor,1993;
Ivan, 1997; Badura and Przybylski, 2000a). This fault is supposed to
deﬁne the prominent northern edge of the Žulovská Hilly Land by a 30
to 40 m high fault scarp (Ondra 1968; Ivan 1983, 1997). Moreover, the
lowest Pleistocene terrace of the Vidnavka River level 3 (Weichselian —
OIS 4-2/10–80 ka), situated in the Vidnavská Lowland, is rather thick
(7 m) compared to terraces of the same age within valleys of
equivalently small streams in the Bohemian Massif (up to 2 m). In
addition, the modern channel of the Černý Brook is situated below the
level of the Vidnavka River channel at the length of 10 km upstream
from its mouth (see Fig. 7). Because the Černý Brook is a tributary of the
Vidnavka River with a conﬂuence at the boundary of the Žulovská Hilly
Land and Vidnavská Lowland, the lower position of its channel may
also support the hypothesis of subsidence of the Vidnavská Lowland,
and may be a result of minor tilting of the Vidnavská Lowland to the NE,
probably also along the presumable Vidnava fault, combined with
differential movements within the Žulovská Hilly Land.
However, the valley of the main Nysa Kłodzka River does not
display any evidence for signiﬁcant subsidence which would be
connected with the supposed subsidence of the adjacent Vidnavská
Lowland or which would be the cause of headward erosion penetrating
into the Žulovská Hilly Land (Przybylski 1998a,in press). Therefore,
tectonic movements affecting the Žulovská Hilly Land and the adjacent
part of the Vidnavská Lowland probably result from a combination
of uplift of the hilly land and subsidence of the lowland. Nevertheless,
the Žulovská Hilly Land appears to be an “interpositioned block”
(Ivan, 1983), because besides the subsidence of the adjacent
Vidnavská Lowland there is also the uplift of the adjacent Sokolský
Ridge, in the SE.
5.2. 3-D monitoring
Furthermore, the geomorphological data, resulting from the detailed
analysis of the drainage network are consistent with those obtained by
3-D monitoring of micro-displacements carried out on tectonic
structures in two karst caves by means of the TM71 deformeters.
Analysis of the value and orientation of the recorded displacements
on both devices in the Na Pomezí Cave suggests a tectonic
origin, controlled by present-day SSW–NNE to SW–NE compressive
stress ﬁeld (Fig. 9) (Stemberk and Štěpančíková, 2005). The curves of
the observed micro-displacements comprise individual sudden
aseismic impulses (Fig. 11). This type of displacement is well-known
from studies of rock behaviour under pressure (see e.g. Erismann and
Abele, 2001). The observed displacements suggest thrusting of the
Sokolský Ridge, situated north of the SMF, over the Rychlebské Mts,
the southern sector of the SMF zone. As a result, the highest uplift of
the Sokolský Ridge is close to the SMF. It should be emphasized that
these movements are relative. Therefore, general uplift of the
Rychlebské Mts also south of the SMF is not excluded as it was
documented farther to the NW for the entire Sudeten Mts (e.g. Dyjor,
1993, 1995; Badura et al., 2003, 2004). Within the analysed portion of
the SMF, the vertical movements prevail but the inferred stress
implies also minor dextral movements along the SMF. Due to the
variable orientation of the entire SMF (WNW–ESE to NNW–SSE)
relative to the inferred maximum stress direction, the sense of lateral
movement may vary depending on the orientation of the individual
segments. This fact could probably explain the different movements
within the SMF zone (Badura and Przybylski, 2000a).
The inferred stress in the studied portion of the SMF is consistent
with the results of borehole breakout analysis performed within
adjacent areas (present-day maximum horizontal stress within Fore–
Sudetic Monocline SSW–NNE; see Jarosiński, 2005, 2006) as well as
with the GPS measurements (maximum compression within Sudeten
and Fore–Sudetic Block SW–NE; Kontny, 2003, 2004). This north-
78
eastward-directed stress generally corresponds with that of the Alpine
foreland (e.g. Reinecker et al., 2005). Rather different directions of
present-day compression (NW–SE), based on the results of focal
mechanisms computed for seismic events, was concluded by some
authors (Havíř, 2004; Špaček et al., 2006) within the Sudeten Mts
farther to the SE (Jeseníky region). The Jeseníky region is, however,
situated in a different geological unit and lies closer to the Outer
Western Carpathians, where a similar stress ﬁeld (NW–SE maximum
horizontal stress) is interpreted based on borehole breakouts (Peška,
1992; Jarosiński, 2005).
A different type of displacement was observed in the second cave,
Na Špičáku. Here, the trend of displacements is more or less linear. The
observed displacements also result from the approximately NNW–SSE
to N–S-oriented compression. It leads to a thrusting of the southern
blocks over the northern block. Despite the compression-induced
thrusting, we observed relaxation (extension). This relaxation can
probably be ascribed to the high morphological position of the site Na
Špičáku, since the locality represents an isolated block situated around
100 m above the valley bottom.
6. Conclusions
This study examines drainage basins in an area showing differential
neotectonic uplift. The streams within the zone of the Sokolský Ridge,
show rejuvenated erosion and/or enhanced modern incision (also
reﬂected by increased SL indices) starting at its foot as a plausible result
of the uplift of the ridge. The general topography of the ridge is
characterised by a stepwise inclination to the NE as a result of
differential uplift. As the intensity of rejuvenated modern incision is
highest in the most uplifted part of the Sokolský Ridge and diminishes
north-eastwards in correspondence with decreasing topography, a
continuation of the differential uplift may be suggested. The hypothesis
of this uplift is also supported by the data obtained by 3-D
monitoring of tectonic displacements using a TM71 deformeters,
installed in two karst caves. The recorded micro-displacements have
an aseismic character with a rate in the range of hundredths to tenths
of a millimetre per year. Moreover, it can be concluded that at all
observed sites, the vertical component of displacement prevails over
the horizontal one. It implies oblique thrusting (dextral transpression
in the studied portion of the SMF) due to north–north-eastwardoriented
compression, which results in thrusting of the Sokolský Ridge
over the southern sectorof the Rychlebské Mts probablyalong the SMF,
steeply dipping to the NE.
Furthermore, the neotectonic development of the studied drainage
basin within the adjacent Žulovská Hilly Land can be reconstructed
based on the distribution of Quaternary sediments. Three levels of
ﬂuvial terraces/alluvial fans of the Middle to Late Pleistocene age are
distinguished. As their relative elevation above the stream channels
have higher values when compared to the terraces of the same age
along the main Nysa Kłodzka River, a tectonically induced downcutting
is inferred. These height differences suggest the greatest
relative uplift of the Žulovská Hilly Land postdating the Saalian 1
(Drenthe/240–280 ka) and diminishing towards the Late Pleistocene.
This is in accordance with the results of neotectonic research carried
out in the Polish part of the Sudetic region (see references in
Zuchiewicz, 1995; Przybylski, 1998a). The last ice-sheet (Elsterian 2/
400–460 ka) covered the Žulovská Hilly Land only by its distal part, so
the role of isostatic rebound in the above discussed uplift postdating
the retreat of ice-sheet in the area remains disputable, particularly
when taking into consideration the uplift of the adjacent nonglaciated
Sokolský Ridge.
In addition, comparison of the morpholineaments with fracture
patterns shows that many of lineaments are fault-controlled. They
include, for example, the bases of fault scarps or long rectilinear
courses of valleys, which are locally narrowed and may display
anomalies in their longitudinal proﬁles and SL indices. Therefore, it is
likely that some faults have recently inﬂuenced the development of
the study area, because they are still pronounced in the relief, and
expressed as morpholineaments.
Thus, detailed ﬁeld investigations of stream valley characteristics
(cross-sections, intensity of erosion), alluvial features, longitudinal
proﬁles and SL-index values, and in particular, examination of their
spatial relationships appears to be a useful method in neotectonic
investigation of areas of low-rate tectonic uplift. Moreover, instrumental
monitoring of faults, capable of recording micro-displacements,
may reveal the rates and kinematics of ongoing tectonism.
Acknowledgements
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