WHAT ARE
FUTURE CITIES?
ORIGINS,
MEANINGS
AND USES
Compiled by The Business of Cities for the Foresight
Future of Cities Project and the Future Cities Catapult
Written by: Emily Moir, Tim Moonen, Greg Clark
June 2014
FOREWORD
By 2030, the UN estimates, 70% of people will be in our global
cities, the hubs of innovation and economy that today provide
about 80% of global GDP (World Bank). How these cities look,
around the world, will impact our environment, and will
crucial that we proactively understand what we want and need
for our future cities, and put in place systems now that support
those future needs in a sustainable and integrated way.
‘Future cities’ have been talked about for hundreds of years, as
urban areas around the world have been imagined, planned,
built, adapted and analysed. Some future city visions have
and city-makers, we have partnered with the Government
recognise the importance of analysis into how ‘future cities’
have been considered through time, and how they are currently
interpreted. This directly impacts how they are being designed
and built, and understanding that helps us recognise how cities
can best respond to the needs of their citizens and countries.
resources towards developing cities that individuals most want
to live, work and travel in.
The UK Government’s Technology Strategy Board has
recognized the skills and expertise of UK innovators,
businesses, cities and universities in developing future city
solutions. In 2013 it set up the Future Cities Catapult, one of
a network of elite technology and innovation centres across
the UK. Our central London Innovation Centre, data-driven
CitiesLab and multi-disciplinary teams provide cutting-edge
facilities for urban innovation, and we aim to harness UK citymaking
expertise, build it and share these solutions with cities
our website, follow us on twitter, or email Caroline Twigg
ctwigg@futurecities.catapult.org.uk.
Cities are complex systems and centres for innovation and
opportunities and challenges facing UK cities over the next 50
years, such as contributing to economic growth, increased need
aim is to provide central government and local authorities with
an evidence base to support good decisions in the near future
which will lead to positive outcomes for cities in the long-term.
The look, feel and function of our cities in 2065 and beyond will
depend on decisions that policymakers and practitioners make
today and in the near future. Perhaps paradoxically, an integral
component of looking meaningfully at the future of cities is
looking backwards: the cities we have today are the product
of their own history and our everyday lives are still shaped
by decisions that were taken hundreds of years ago. Thus, in
investigating the present state of cities we are also examining
how they have developed over time.
Cities Catapult. It covers new ground in understanding the
multiplicity of ideas that are being explored by the many
While this has a demonstrably long heritage, the science of cities
much support the work of the Future Cities Catapult in bringing
an international dimension to the UK Government’s activities
in this space and playing a prominent role in promoting UK
expertise to a rapidly urbanising world.
https://www.
gov.uk/government/collections/future-of-cities, our blog https://futureofcities.blog.gov.uk/ or get
in touch directly via foresight.futureofcities@bis.gsi.gov.uk
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. How do different communities of interest interpret future cities?
3. Shaping the future city
4. Conclusions
Appendix 1: 150 urban indices and benchmarks
1.1. The future of cities – importance and relevance
1.2. Methodology and approach
1.3. Future cities – challenges and opportunities
1.4. Future cities – conceptions of success
1.5. Future cities – systems of cities and city systems
2.1. Citizens (residents, commuters and visitors)
2.2. Government
2.3. Corporate institutions
2.4. Academic institutions
2.5. Media and commentators
2.6. Think tanks, policy institutes and research institutes
2.7. Supranational and inter-governmental organisations
2.8. International financial institutions
2.9. City networks
2.10. Philanthropic organisations
2.11. City indices and benchmarks: key trends in notions of successful cities / future cities
3.1. Governance
3.2. Finance
3.3. Technology
3.4. Leadership
4.1. The future of cities: an emerging science
4.2. Geographic trends
4.3. Generators, adopters and adapters
4.4. Cycles of future cities thinking
References
4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This paper reviews the origins, definitions, trends and pathways of knowledge about
future cities and the future of cities. In particular, it examines the different terms and
phrases that are used by key stakeholders concerned with the future of cities. Its
findings are based on an extensive English-language source and literature review of
relevant publications, reports, projects and online press. It identifies key developments
in future thinking and practice amongst governments, corporations, institutions and
citizens at the local and global level.
The future of cities discourse is over a century old and has encompassed at least
four  cycles  of  thinking  about  the  nature,  purpose  and  destiny  of  cities.  Today’s  
cycle of future city thinking is distinctive for its global, positive, strategic,
integrated, and evidence-led character.
Future city terminology can convey either environmental, social, economic or
governance aims, or a hybrid of some or all of these elements. Although terms
such  as  ‘garden  city’,  ‘inclusive  city’,  ‘competitive  city’  and  ‘intelligent  city’  tend  
to refer to one specific domain, the more commonly used terms tend to have
broad, hybrid or ambiguous meanings. This especially applies to current
phrases  such  as  ‘smart  cities’,  ‘sustainable  cities’,  ‘future  cities’  and  ‘liveable  
cities’.  The  high  degree  of  conceptual  crossover  and  overlap  means  most  terms  
are highly compatible with each other, but reflect different sources or alliances,
often with a desire to suggest conceptual differentiation despite substantive
overlap.
Sustainability is no longer the main prism through which thinking about the
future  of  cities  takes  place.  The  ‘sustainable  city’  was  the  most  cited  English  
language term in the future cities discourse in the 1990s and early 2000s, as
awareness and consensus of the human impact on the environment grew.
Although the literature on sustainable cities has continued to mount up, its
popularity as a news and search term has declined since 2006.
‘Smart  cities’  has  become  the  most  popular  formulation  for  the  future city, and
is becoming a globally recognised term, replacing or co-existing with terms in
other  languages.  The  ‘smart  city’  has  displaced  the  ‘sustainable  city’  and  ‘digital  
city’  as  the  word  of  choice  to  denote  ICT-led urban innovation, and new modes
of governance and urban citizenship. It is also the only English language term
to have become widely used in continental Europe.
‘Eco  cities’  emerged  as  an  important  term  for  projects  in  Asian  cities  in  the  mid-
2000s, and is still widely used in Asia and the Middle East to describe a model
of low-carbon urbanism for individual districts and sometimes whole cities.
The term has become less common since 2009, and has been linked to a
5
number of unsuccessful or criticised projects in China and UAE. A similar trend
is  observed  with  ‘digital  cities’,  a  term  found  to  be  used  in  most  continents,  but  
whose  appeal  has  been  displaced  by  the  broader  concern  of  ‘smart  cities’.
A small cluster of thought leaders, knowledge centres, inter-governmental
bodies and multi-national technology firms are the vanguard of future city
thinking and practice. Ideas of city systems, systems of cities, integrated,
connected, compact, flexible and resilient cities have all been successfully
packaged  and  promoted  by  these  influential  ‘generators’  whose  cutting  edge  
R&D  shapes  the  framework  and  market  for  government  ‘customers’  and  ‘end-
users’.
National  and   local  governments  adopt   future  city  ideals   and   ‘demonstrator’  
projects as solutions to short-term challenges, to develop international profile
and  to  build  shared  identity  and  purpose.  Other  future  city  ‘adopters’  include  
corporate sponsors of urban dialogue, one stop-shop technology solution
providers, taught academic programmes, philanthropic organisations, media
outlets and city benchmarking studies.
Cities also adopt future city vocabulary in an attempt to become better
equipped to plan and shape their futures, as they acquire and build new
governance systems, finance tools, data streams, and city management
techniques.
Formal and informal citizenship engagement with future cities has become
more inventive and collaborative. Citizens adapt future city language to their
aspirations for quality of life, safety, design, culture and vibrancy, and pursue
them through crowd-funding, crowdsourcing, DIY solutions and political
campaigns, among other means.
The science of cities is still emerging and has not yet generated global language
norms. It is also an inter-disciplinary science, and this makes clarity of concepts
harder to achieve. A more consistent and globally accepted set of principles for
future cities may, paradoxically, take shape over the next decade, but it is likely
that this will happen at the same time as local and corporate propositions and
terminologies continue to multiply.
The discourse of future cities is becoming more multi-disciplinary, more
evidence-led and more conceptually watertight, but descriptions and
imaginations of the future city will always reflect the changing way that cities
are perceived to matter to society, the environment, and the economy, and will
also reflect the competitive dynamics between cities and the firms and
institutions that seek to serve them.
1.
INTRODUCTION
7
1. INTRODUCTION
1. 1 The future of cities – importance and relevance
The world is two-thirds of the way through a century-long cycle of rapid urbanisation,
at the end of which more than 70% of people will live in cities (WHO, 2014). The urban
transformation has become a major contributor to economic, demographic, social and
environmental change (Pickett, 2013). Twentieth century models of urbanisation were
typically applied without full consideration of future outcomes and path dependencies,
as the use of the private motor car and urban sprawl became dominant trends. In the
twenty-first century, global urbanisation must be shaped and managed so that cities
fully achieve their potential to increase prosperity and social cohesion, bring about
improved standards of environmental efficiency, citizen health and well-being, and
strengthen international relations. If it is not managed, and if suitable local financing
and investment tools are not achieved, rapid urbanisation could prove a major threat
to both modern society, and to the world’s  environmental  fabric.
The future form, functionality, appearance and ambience of cities will have a direct
impact  on  most  people’s  lives,  whether  they  live  in  a  city  or  not.  The  future  city  will  not  
only impact on society, but will also influence wider global environments and
economies. In terms of economics, the largest city markets have already grown bigger
than those of many nations. New York has an economy which is approximately the
same  size  as  Australia’s,  and  is  the  12th  largest  in  the  world.  Even  more  modest  cities  
eclipse some national economies – for example Anchorage has a larger economy than
Latvia (Florida, 2014). In the future, cities will cement their roles as key drivers of
national, and sometimes even regional economies.
1. 2 Methodology and approach
This paper reflects on two inter-related  ideas:  the  ‘future  of  cities’  and  ‘future  cities’.  
The authors of this paper consider that:
The future of cities is a means to describe a series of enquiries, reviews and
investigations into the likely requirements of cities in the future, the roles they
will play, the pressures and threats they will address, and the trends that will
help cities adjust and succeed.
Future cities is a term used to imagine what cities themselves will be like, how
they will operate, what systems will orchestrate them and how they will relate
to their stakeholders (citizens, governments, businesses, investors, and others).
8
The paper examines English language interpretations of these ideas and the use of
future city language amongst a wide range of stakeholders and interest groups. It seeks
to identify the main trends in usage and the origins, meanings and applications of
future city terminology. The paper is focused solely on English language usage, but is
not restricted to English-speaking countries – it includes commentary on Japanese,
Indian, Scandinavian and German initiatives, debates and discussions, where these
have  been  published  in  English.  It  is  a  ‘global’  review  in  the  sense  that  it  draws  upon  
material produced by global organisations, global firms, universities and publications,
but the paper has only investigated English language sources available in the public
realm.
This review does not profess to be an academic study and does not seek to provide an
exhaustive glossary of all existing or possible future city interpretations. Rather, it
seeks to identify key trends amongst different communities of interest, and to begin to
shine some light on the drivers and actors shaping discussion and progress in the
future cities sphere. It is important to note that the explanations we provide for key
terms reflect common usage rather than strict definitions. In many academic and
applied fields, future cities terminologies have been used interchangeably, and their
meanings evolve over time as new stakeholders enter the conversation. It should also
be noted that the terms we have searched for and commented upon are those that refer
primarily to the idea of cities becoming more fit for the future. An equally rich study
could explore the extensive terminology of cities as economic units (competitive cities,
world cities, innovative cities), and of cities as hubs for creativity, diversity and
attractiveness (creative cities, cultural cities, etc).
1. 3 Future cities – challenges and opportunities
The challenges cities face are well documented. Future cities will need to adapt to, or
in some cases work to mitigate against:
Climate change
Population growth
Globalisation of economy, demographics, risks and ecologies dependencies
Technological developments
Geo-political changes
Human mobility
Ageing populations
Inequality and social tensions
Insecurity (e.g. energy, food, water)
Changing institutional and governance frameworks
9
Cities in the developing world face the toughest challenges, as they will see the vast
majority of urban growth over the next 30 years (WHO, 2014) and experience the
greatest degree of change, often with the lowest levels of resources and institutional
capabilities. As the forces of globalisation place cities into direct competition with one
another, cities are required to deliver thriving economies, great quality of life, political
stability, business friendliness and a reduced environmental impact in order to be
competitive not only on a regional or national scale, but globally.
The dual trends of urbanisation and globalisation also present opportunities; both for
cities themselves and the wider world, which could then benefit from the advantages
which cities bring. In particular, their critical mass, in terms of population size and
density, means that cities can have truly transformative impacts upon the
environment, and present a major opportunity for countering climate change. As much
as 80% of human generated carbon emissions come from cities and hence can be
addressed in cities (Barber, 2013). Cities harbour the scale for low-emission transport,
effective land-use planning, mass retro-fitting, building efficiency, viable water and
electricity systems, and product recycling (UNEP, 2014). Cities can also access global
markets and resources, and create and sustain international flows of varied goods and
services. The innovations provided by technological developments present possibilities
for markedly improving the quality of life, health and wealth of city residents, provided
the mechanisms for investment and delivery are also in place. The agglomeration of
urban populations will continue to breed conditions for innovation, knowledge
creation and the communication of ideas and solutions.
1. 4 Future cities – conceptions of success
Planners, scholars, authors and architects have been studying, planning, and
speculating about the future of cities since ancient times (Fainstein, 2014). In the past
century,  ever  since  Englishman  Ebenezer  Howard’s  landmark  1898  book Garden Cities
of Tomorrow, urbanism itself, as a distinct term and discourse, has grown out of this
concern for future city development (Howard, 2007; Pike, 2005). The Frenchman
Eugène Hénard was possibly the first to write strategically about future cities in Europe
at his Royal Institute of British Architects address in London in 1910:
“My  purpose  is  to  inquire  into  the  influence  which  the  progress  of  modern  science  and  
industry may exercise upon the planning, and particularly upon the aspect, of the
Cities   of   the   Future…   The   Cities   of   Tomorrow   will   be   more   readily   susceptible   to  
transformation  and  adornment  than  the  Cities  of  Yesterday.”  (Hénard, 1910)
The parameters of what is intended by the use of future cities language have evolved
over time. During the interwar period modernist planners and architects developed
10
influential ideas of highly planned greener cities that would alleviate the mistakes of
industrialisation.   These   included   Le   Corbusier’s   The   City   of   Tomorrow   and   Its  
Planning (1929) and Helsinki-planner  Eliel  Saarinen’s  The  City:  Its  Growth,  Its  Decay,  
Its Future (1943), both of which had a lasting impact on the design of European and
North American cities.
Box 1: The future of cities – what the scholars said
“[W]hat  then  is  to  be  the  future of cities, three hundred years hence, a hundred
years hence, or even thirty years hence? I do not know. But I venture a guess: that
those who are reasonably fortunate in this foresight will make their fortunes,
and that others will be ruined by mistakes  in  calculation”
Alfred North Whitehead, mathematician and philosopher, UK, 1933
“In  the  future  of  cities  – at least for the next half-century or more – the factor most
to be reckoned with is growth, a growth proceeding at such a pace that it forces
decisions   before   the   constituted   authorities   are   ready   to   decide…all   our  
anticipations for cities of the future, then, must confirm to and may also profit by
the  requirements  for  growth”
Richard Meier, architect, USA, 1959
“[I]t  is  useless  to  speculate  about the future of cities until we have reckoned with
the forces of annihilation and extermination that now, almost automatically. and
at an ever-accelerating rate, are working to bring about a more general
breakdown”
Lewis Mumford, urbanist, USA, 1961
“There  is  an  absence  of  an  image  for  our  future  cities…too  many  of  us  are  rooted  
in rural traditions, searching for security and conformity, unwilling to commit
ourselves to the solution of the problems of the city in which we live and even more
unwilling to pay  for  their  solution”
Elizabeth Geen, professor, USA 1966
“The  ability  to  build  better  cities  lies  in  the  technological  base  from  which  we  work.  
When cities are seen as continuous urban systems unrestricted by political or
geographical boundaries, we can create high-technology, systems-oriented
companies  with  the  capability  to  design  and  build  better  cities”
Professor JP Eperhard, Carnegie Mellon University, Pennsylvania, USA 1966
11
“The future of cities is not necessarily as bleak as the common fatalism might
suggest – there  is    a  future  as  well  as  a  past  to  large  cities…the  future  of  cities  
should  be  high  on  the  political  agenda”
Brian Robson, Professor of Geography, University of Manchester, UK 1987
Sources: Whitehead (1933); Meier (1959); Mumford (1961); Geen (1966); Eperhard
(1966); Robson (1987)
Later, in the aftermath of the Second World War, the future cities discourse was geared
towards remedying cities destroyed by aerial bombing (a new phenomenon) and
ground warfare. These cities were often described in biological language, as sick
patients in need of revival. In the United States, a three year study of The Future of
Cities and Urban Development under the direction of influential Professor Coleman
Woodbury,  aimed  to  devise  “policies,  measures,  and  activities  that  would  banish  the  
major forms of   physical   blight   in   cities.”   Shortly   afterwards   in   France,   urbanist  
Raymond   Lopez   published   L’Avenir   des   Villes,   viewing   urbanisation   as   an  
“indispensable   instrument   for   life   and   the   vitality   of   men”,   while   in   Spain   Miguel  
Fisac’s  La  Molecula  Urbana  proposed  a  future  of  ‘convivial  cities’  to  replace  the  existing  
model (Woodbury, 1953; Tbh, 2007; Ragon, 1970).
The  trend  towards  centralised  politics  and  desire  to  ‘balance’  national  economies  in  the  
1970s and 1980s saw a relative dearth of strategic thinking about the future of cities
beyond the need to rehabilitate distressed areas experiencing de-industrialisation. But
the transition towards a new cycle of global trade and liberalisation in the mid-1980s
saw more proactive approaches to future city development begin to appear.
Nevertheless, anticipation of the telecommunications and IT revolutions saw many
analysts  incorrectly  surmise,  as  Sir  Peter  Hall  has  explained,  “  that  cities  have  no  future  
at  all,”  (Hall,  1999)  due  to  the  alleged  ‘death  of  distance’ and lack of need for face-toface
contact. In opposition to this idea, academics and international organisations
were grasping the metropolitan and agglomeration character of urbanisation, as well
as the new challenges of social integration and environmental inter-dependency. In
France,  Francois  Ascher’s  book  Metapolis:  The  Future  of  Cities  was  an  influential  guide  
to the way metropolitanisation - the process of cities merging with surrounding areas
to form larger agglomerations - was changing social and economic relationships.
A   plethora   of   terms   and   ideas   now   make   up   the   ‘future   city’   lexicon.   They   reflect  
different stakeholder and interest group conceptions of the ideal city of the future. The
popularity of individual terms, and indeed the meanings ascribed to them, have waxed
and waned over time amongst academic, business, policy and civic communities.
12
Figure 1.1 illustrates just a few of the terminology and conceptions of success which are
most widely used by those working in specific city-related fields, or concerned with
particular future city outcomes.
Figure 1.1: Future cities – conceptions of success
Environmental Social Economic Governance
Garden cities Participative
cities
Entrepreneurial cities Managed cities
Sustainable cities Walkable cities Competitive cities Intelligent cities
Eco cities Integrated cities Productive cities Productive cities
Green cities Inclusive cities Innovative cities Efficient cities
Compact cities Just cities Business friendly cities Well-run, well-led
cities
Smart cities Open cities Global cities Smart cities
Resilient cities Liveable cities Resilient cities Future cities
Figure 1.2 illustrates that some terms, including Smart, Resilient and Intelligent, have
been espoused in a number of different agenda areas. Sometimes phrases take on both
narrow   and   wide   meanings   when   used   by   different   audiences.   For   example   ‘smart  
cities’,  when  used  in  a  narrow  sense,  refers  to  the  way  Information  and  Communication  
Technologies (ICT) can improve city functionality, proposing that use of the right
hardware, software and technology platforms can solve many or most urban
development challenges. However, a broader conceptualisation of smart cities – more
commonly considered by academic and policy user groups, rather than corporates places
 emphasis  on  good  city  governance,  empowered  city  leaders,  smart  or  ‘intelligent  
citizens’  and  investors  in tandem with the right technology platform. Other words can
take on different meanings when used by different interest groups. Interpretations of
economic resilience, for example, have competitiveness imperatives that are distinct
from, and sometimes in conflict with, environmental or social understandings of
resilience.
13
Figure 1.2 – Future cities – hybrid conceptions of success
Figure  1.3  shows  a  ‘trending’  timeline  of  future  city  terms  based  on  the  number  of  
books, journals and presentations in which they appear. It demonstrates how the
entire future cities discourse has surged in the past two decades, beginning in the early
1990s, and picking up pace since 2007.
Figure 1.3: Trending of future city terminologies in English language academic and policy
discourse over the past three decades
*y-axis figure is based on number of exact phrase hits on Google Scholar in each year. Terms are
aggregates of singular and plural, in all spellings.
Source: Google Scholar
14
The   ‘sustainable   city’   discourse   became   the   most   popular   term   for   thinking   about  
future urban development in the mid-1990s, off the back of the influential 1987 United
Nations  Brundtland  Commission’s  publication  on  sustainable  development.  It  remains  
the most commonly-referred-to term today in English, probably given the increasing
urgency of the environmental challenge in both developing and developed economies.
However, despite recent popularity of the term, it is often unclear exactly what is meant
by it when used in different contexts.
In  the  late  1990s,  up  until  the  global  financial  crisis,  ‘digital  cities’  became  the  second  
most popular term in the discourse, coinciding with the optimistic narratives
surrounding the global technology and dot.com boom. Boosted by the European
Commission programme called European Digital Cities that began in 1996, a number
of books were published that used the digital idea to describe the goal of representing
the complex environments of cities and of building platforms and networks to support
local communities and empower citizens (Aurigi, 2005).
Since 2009, however, the momentum behind digital cities has slowed, much of it
replaced  by  the  rocketing  interest  in  ‘smart  cities’.  The  ‘smart  cities’  expression  has  
taken on some of the digital dimensions of connected systems and flexible computing
infrastructures. It also incorporates elements of sustainability and inclusivity, as well
as responding to the rise of new internet technology interfaces (Deakin, 2012). Some
observers point out that smartness as a term is more politically neutral than
sustainability.  Thus,  iterations  of  the  term  smart  (‘smart  city’,  ‘smart  growth’,  ‘smart  
development’)  are  more  palatable  in  countries  where  a  large  body  of  public  opinion  
associate sustainability and greenness with highly liberal or progressive politics (RPA
World Cities Planning Committee, 2014).
‘Smart   cities’   looks   imminently   set   to   overtake   ‘sustainable   cities’   as   the   most  
commonly used future-oriented term. In addition to its overall rise in use, we have
identified  the  anglicised  term  ‘smart  city’  as  already  in  use  in  a  number  of  international  
contexts. It is used:
in Germany, to describe projects in Berlin and Cologne (Loy, 2014; SmartCity
Cologne, 2014);
in France, as the name for a long-term urban strategy in Lyon, an urban
research programme in Paris, and as part of a government programme to create
‘smart  communities’  (Grand  Lyon,  2014;;  SmartCity,  2014a;;  Cassely,  2014);;
in  Morocco,  interchangeably  with  ‘ville  intelligente’  (Ater,  2014);;
in Switzerland, as a federal energy department project (SmartCity,2014b);
in Spain, as the name of a new urban innovation centre in Zaragoza (Europa
Press, 2014);
15
in Indonesia, as the name of a programme of development in Jakarta and
regional cities, in partnership with the Netherlands (Badan Informas
Geospasial, 2014);
in Colombia, as the title of a virtual education course on city planning for city
leaders at Javeriana University in Bogota (Badan Informas Geospasial, 2014).
Figure   1.3   also   hints   at   the   brief   rise   and   fall   of   ‘eco-cities’   as   a   dominant   way   of  
thinking about the future of cities. Although the term has been popularised since the
mid-1990s, in 2010 and 2011 the term really gained impetus as more places began to
compete on sustainability innovation, not least the high-profile eco-city projects in
China and Abu Dhabi (Joss, 2009). The term remains important, but it has since
dropped  from  its  peak,  whilst  ‘compact  cities’  appears  to  be  a  more  enduring  theme,  
rising  more  steadily  throughout  the  past  decade.  As  ‘digital  cities’  fell  from  common  
parlance,  ‘smart  cities’  rapidly  took  its  place,  encompassing  a  focus  on  technology as
well as citizen and human-centred considerations.
‘Future  cities’  and  ‘future  of  cities’  are  themselves  popular  terms  in  general  academic,  
practitioner and policy use. When combined, they are the third most commonly used
term   after   ‘sustainable   cities’   and   ‘smart   cities’.   It   is   significant   that   ‘future   cities’,  
which tends to have a more limited umbrella focus on technological dimensions, has
overtaken  ‘future  of  cities’  since  2009  (Figure  1.4).  The  rise  in  ‘future  cities’  thinking  is  
linked to the increasing spillover of urban topics into new disciplines – engineering,
construction,  energy,  IT  and  ecology.  By  contrast  the  ‘future  of  cities’  is  more  confined  
to traditional, planning, policy and strategy thinking.
Figure  1.4:  Occurrence  of  ‘future  cities’  and  ‘future  of  cities’  terms  over  the  past  three  decades
Source: Google Scholar
16
A global analysis of Google search trends (rather than literature citations) over the past
decade reveals slightly different results, but a similar overall pattern (Figure 1.5).
‘Future   cities’   has   been   stable,   with   occasional spikes in interest linked to specific
projects   including   the   term   ‘future   cities’   or   ‘future   city’   in   them.   Smart   cities   has  
become more actively searched for over the past 3 years in particular, having yielded
barely any interest prior to 2006. Sustainable cities has declined from its brief position
in 2006 as the most popular search term, and is now less than half as popular as smart
cities. Eco cities and intelligent cities have much lower overall global appeal, but have
been fairly stable since 2010.
Figure 1.5: Google search trends for five of the most common future city search terms
Source: Google Trends
Google Trends also offers an initial insight into the geographic distribution of future
city interest (Figure 1.6). English-speaking regions are inevitably prominent for most
English-language terminologies, but there are significant differences.
17
Figure 1.6. Geographic trends in future city term usage
Trend Regional
popularity
Country
popularity
City popularity
Future cities Stable Global
India, USA,
Canada,
Australia, UK,
Mexico,
Brazil
Minneapolis,
Singapore,
Mumbai, New
Delhi, Phoenix,
London, San
Francisco, Pune
Eco City Stable Asia
Philippines,
Singapore,
Malaysia,
India
Chandigarh,
Tianjin
Smart cities Rising usage
Europe, North
America
Italy, Spain,
Belgium, UK
Barcelona,
Bologna, Turin,
Rome
Intelligent
cities
Stable North America USA, UK London
Sustainable
cities
Declining
usage
Commonwealth
Australia, UK,
Canada, USA,
India
Vancouver,
Singapore,
Washington,
Auckland,
Portland, Dubai,
London, Austin
Compact
cities
Stable Mixed
Australia, UK,
USA
Salt Lake City,
New York City
Liveable
cities
Sporadic
(ranking-
led)
Commonwealth
Australia, UK,
Canada,
Singapore
New York City,
Singapore,
Melbourne,
Pittsburgh,
Vancouver
Digital cities
On the
decline
Mixed
Ireland,
Philippines,
USA, UK
Kansas City,
Oklahoma City,
Dublin,
Minneapolis
Innovative
cities
Stable Mixed
USA, UK,
India
Bangalore
Green cities Stable North America
USA,
Australia,
Canada
New York City
Source: Google Trends
18
‘Future  cities’  has  strong  appeal  throughout  the  world,  and  is  a  common  search  term
in India, Mexico and Brazil as well as in North American and the UK. At the city level,
it  is  notable  that  ‘future  cities’  is  of  interest  in  the  larger  global  cities  in  the  West  and  
the East – including Singapore, Mumbai, London and San Francisco. On this evidence,
no other term has quite the same multi-lateral appeal. Most other terms are popular
in much more localised areas.
Eco  cities’  has  clearly  gained  the  most  ground  in  Asia,  especially  South  and  East  Asia.  
This is primarily due to a series of well-publicised Eco City projects that national
governments have begun in tandem with international architects and technology
specialists. The term has not caught on as much in other English-speaking regions,
where its designation as a project label is less common.  By  contrast  ‘smart  cities’  is  
closely linked to Europe, and has been widely searched for in continental Western
Europe  where  smart  EU  projects  and  smart  city  events  are  very  established.  ‘Smart  
cities’  is  the  only  English  language  term  that  is  most commonly employed in Europe;
most other terms have their centre of gravity in North America or Australia.
Another significant trend is that the future cities discourse has created a lot of interest
in the global cities of London and New York, despite neither being directly associated
with projects bearing these labels. London is the city where searches for the term
‘intelligent  city’  are  most  frequent,  while  New  York  has  visible  interest  in  ‘compact’,  
‘liveable’   and   ‘green’   cities.   This   suggests   not   only that the debate and level of
engagement is advanced in these two cities, but that they have a high degree of
conceptual, political and intellectual influence on how the terms are taken up
elsewhere.
The themes and associations of specific phrases are explored more fully in Section 2 of
this paper, but by way of an introduction:
Smart Cities typically refers to enhanced city systems which use data and
technology to achieve integrated management and inter-operability, but can
also take on wider meanings to reflect social and political forms of smartness.
Sustainability and Sustainable Cities tends to focus on cities designed to
minimise environmental impact, and is often associated with low-carbon
consumption.
Intelligent Cities is   an   idea   sometimes   used   interchangeably   with   ‘smart  
cities’,  although  some  of  its  origin  can  be  traced  to  the  idea  of  ‘virtual  cities’  in  
the  1990s.  Often  ‘intelligent  city’  is  used  to  describe  the  use  of  communication  
infrastructure and digital spaces to strengthen local innovation systems, solve
problems and create more responsive public services (Allwinkle and
Cruickshank 2011).
19
Liveable Cities is a discourse that typically centres on how cities manage
growth effectively, to ensure that commuting, the cost of living and the urban
environment all meet rising citizen expectations.
Resilient Cities is a concept growing in use, and has taken on a dual meaning.
It is used both in reference to a capacity to withstand external environmental
and social  ‘shocks’,  but  also  in  relation  to  an  area’s  economic  adaptability  and  
agility. It has both strong technical and engineering dimensions, but also can
refer to qualities that individuals in a city ought to possess or acquire.
Other concepts currently enjoying popularity have emerged from the new ways of
seeing the city as a series of networks, and a new understanding of city systems (see
section 1.5). For example, urban metabolism is an idea with a long history dating back
to Sir Patrick Geddes in the early 20th century in which energy flows are examined in
order to understand transformation and how cities evolve over time (Huang and Chen,
2005). The concept of the city or urban ecosystem is also related to this idea, but
considers urban areas not as a closed system or network, but one which interacts with
(and must be responsive to) other surrounding environments.
1. 5 Future Cities – systems of cities and city systems
A systems approach to city thinking has a long heritage: fifty years ago, B J L Berry
described  “cities  as  systems  within  systems  of  cities”.  Ever  since,  systems  thinking  in  
relation to cities has posed challenges to urban scholars and planners (Berry, 1964;
Advisory Committee on Technology and Society, 1998). From 2000, ideas about the
nature of cities and their inter- and intra- dependencies have gained traction, and since
the  global  financial  crisis,  the  scale  of  interest  in  ‘city  systems’  and  ‘systems  of  cities’  
has stepped up again (Figure 1.7).
The  World  Bank’s  2009  World  Development  Report  gave  new  traction  to  the idea of
‘systems   of   cities’   (Clark   and   Clark,   2014).   It confirmed that all cities exist in an
interdependent national or continental system, whose size and relationships
determine   each   city’s   functions,   specialisations   and   opportunities   for   manoeuvre.  
Larger cities in a given system often have more diversified and service-oriented
economies. They have more potential to innovate, create new firms, and encourage
mature and lower value-added industries elsewhere, as well as supporting
complementary centres. They can be centrifugal forces. Smaller cities, on the other
hand, are usually more specialised in either industry or services, although they may
well produce or trade in more standardised goods. They may remain competitive by
supporting larger cities, either by hosting relocated sectors, by offering service support
functions, or by developing complementary specialisations.
20
This insight has important implications for the future of cities. It can help individual
cities to select appropriate growth strategies or specialisations, and highlights
complementary tasks for different tiers of leaders: Local government must lead and
govern individual cities, and manage, coordinate, and integrate services,
infrastructures,  and  policies  across  wider  ‘city-regional’  geographies.  National  leaders  
must  manage  and  shape  the  wider  ‘systems  of  cities’  at  a  national  level.  Of  course  some  
tasks will still overlap. For example, both tiers of government are responsible for
forging and growing international connections.
Fig  1.7.  Usage  of  ‘city  systems’  and  ‘systems  of  cities’  terms  in  academic  and  policy  documents  
since 1950
Source: Google Scholar
There has also been new recognition of the integration of systems and inter-operability
of systems within cities and city-regions. As Mike Batty suggests in The New Science
of Cities, cities can be seen as more than just places in space – they are systems of
networks and flows. The interlinkages between the sets of infrastructure, services, and
amenities that make up the operating and management platform of any city or city
region create networks and functional systems. These in turn interact with other
economic and environmental systems. These interlinked networks are often described
in  shorthand  as  ‘city  networks’  or  ‘city  systems’  and  are  becoming  increasingly  popular  
modes of thinking about cities. By strengthening city systems, local leaders can actively
shape and manage cities to achieve positive productivity, liveability, and sustainability
outcomes. As section 2 shows, many different stakeholders and individuals involved in
future cities are seeking to improve and intensify the efficiency and degree of city
system integration.
2.
HOW DO
DIFFERENT
COMMUNITIES
OF INTEREST
INTERPRET
FUTURE CITIES?
22
2. HOW DO DIFFERENT
COMMUNITIES OF INTEREST
INTERPRET FUTURE CITIES?
There has been a huge rise in the range of government and non-government
institutions actively engaged in addressing urban challenges and future development.
This section examines English language interpretations of future cities among the
following groups:
Citizens
Government (national and local)
Corporate institutions
Academic institutions
Media and commentators
Think tanks, policy institutes and research institutes
Supranational and Inter-governmental organisations
International financial institutions
City networks
Philanthropies
City benchmarks and indices
2. 1 Citizens – residents, commuters, visitors
Citizens’  interpretations  of  future  cities,  and  visions  for  the  future  of  their  own  city  can  
be discerned and understood in a number of different ways:
City governments directly consult with their citizens to better understand their
own aspirations for the future of their city. Brisbane, Glasgow, Porto Alegre and
Calgary are just a few examples among numerous cities that have asked their
citizens to share visions of their future city in varied ways.
Empowered by the internet, crowdsourcing is a new means by which interested
parties can collate citizen ideas and interpretations of their future city. On a
typical crowdsourcing website, such as those detailed in Figure 2.1, citizens
submit their ideas for a specific future city. The website may collate the ideas
purely for research or interest, but in some cases city authorities support and
implement the most popular or successful ideas. Alternatively, as outlined in
section 1.6, future city ideas may be crowd-funded, i.e. funded by contributions
23
from the public. In Kansas City for example, the locally owned and operated Bcycle
bike-sharing scheme is now being expanded using crowdfunding (Rogler,
2014).
The growth  of  social  media  has  prompted  the  advent  of  ‘Guerrilla  urbanism’  or  
‘DIY  urbanism’  – in which citizens, organised online, bypass official channels
to bring about a change in their city. The events or projects organised in this
way are typically small scale and/or short term such as pop up markets, ridesharing
or temporary park-making.
Citizen action groups/pressure groups which seek to affect the future of their
cities. Although these groups have been historically more organised and
effective in developed cities, they are growing in visibility in developing cities.
In Mumbai, for example, a number of citizen groups joined together to create
the  People’s  Vision  Document.  This  unsolicited  document  was  presented  to  the  
municipal corporation to influence the  revision  of  the  city’s  development  plan.
24
Figure 2.1: Examples of English language crowd-sourcing of future cities ideas
Crowd
Sourcing
Programme
How it Works Example Ideas
Initiator /
Partners
Nexthamburg
(Hamburg,
Germany)
Citizen-driven future city vision
achieved through long-term online
dialogue and a series of sessions,
venues and workshops for public
collaboration. Nexthamburg
collects and works on citizen
proposals. The collective vision was
published in a book and handed
over to the local authorities.
More than 600 in
all fields of urban
development e.g.
from  ‘free  bike  city’  
to new science
parks.
Group of planners,
journalists and
cultural scientists.
Supported from
2009 to 2011 by
federal govt, now a
not for profit
citizens’  platform.  
Bristol Rising
(Bristol,
Connecticut,
USA)
Citizens are invited to propose and
vote on new uses for a vacant 17acre
former shopping mall site in
Bristol, Connecticut. Ideas with
over 200 votes were taken forward,
assessed for financial feasibility,
and eventually presented by
Renaissance Downtowns (the site
developer) to the appropriate city
agencies.
Leading ideas: a
piazza, performing
arts centre, river
walk, and social
bookstore.
Developer of the
site Renaissance
Downtowns LLC.
My Ideal City
(Bogota,
Colombia)
Bilingual website which asks
residents for input: e.g. raising
questions  from  “how  shall  we  house  
the  city’s  1  million  commuting  
students”  to  “what  is  your  favourite  
graffiti  in  the  city”?    Responses  
become a forum for debate and
solutions.
Micro-housing was
proposed as a
solution to student
housing.
BD Promotores
Colombia – an
international real
estate development
company
(Headquartered in
Spain)
Maker Cities Maker Cities is a multiplayer online
game which empowers people to
imagine the future of their city in
2025. Players submit ideas,
collaborate  to  refine  each  other’s  
ideas, and ultimately develop
simple prototypes to showcase their
idea to the world.
Self-healing sensor
grids, gyms as
human-powered
utility stations,
‘Cloud  School’.    
Research initiative of
The Institute for the
Future (USA)
25
Analysis of the sources above it reveals the following recurrent themes in citizen
interpretations:
Liveable Cities. Citizen suggestions about future city development tend to centre on
liveability and quality of life. In Winnipeg, Canada, city authorities distilled
Winnipeggers’  thoughts  into  one  collective  citizen  vision:    “To  be  a  vibrant  and  healthy  
city  which  places  its  highest  priority  on  quality  of  life  for  all  its  citizens.”  Informal  
citizen groups have also expressed concern for quality of life improvements. One
illustration is the social networking Parking Day phenomenon, in which citizens
around the world turn car parking spaces into public parks on a nominated day each
year. Recurrent ideas  when  vocalised  by  citizens  asked  about  their  ‘ideal’  future  city  
include walkability, cycle-friendliness, better use of waterfronts and open spaces,
safety (particularly in city centres), and health.
Smart Cities. There is evidence of citizen engagement with the concept of
smart/digital cities. This is clear from the Maker Cities website (Figure 2.1) which
includes many citizen suggestions related to technology, networking and integration
of   city   systems.   Example   suggestions   include   ‘Smart   Alarms’   that   use sensors to
understand  citizens’  daily  routines,  installation  of  super-fast broadband and entire city
Wi-Fi areas. There are some indications, however, of a disconnect between smart city
plans drawn up by cities, firms and universities, and the expectations that ordinary
residents have of the role that technology will play in their future cities. One study
suggests that citizens imagine future city innovations as accessories to living, rather
than levers for major behavioural or environmental change (Gary, 2014).
Vibrant Cities. A   corollary   of   liveability,   the   ‘vibrant   city’,   is   a   prevalent   citizen  
theme. Formal consultation procedures typically find that citizens around the world
seek vitality and liveliness in their future city visions. In Brisbane, for example, popular
suggestions at the Ideas Fiesta for the future city included:
A 24 hour city through extended hours for dining, retail, libraries and
entertainment venues, and late night activation of city streets and spaces.
Pop-up events – liberally regulated food carts, music, art, markets, laneway
events, or outdoor cinemas.
Publicly accessible roof tops, converted into gardens or food and drink
destinations.
Similarly, in Glasgow, councillors distilled six key messages from citizen consultations
on   their   aspirations   for   the   city   in   2061.   The   key   messages   referred   to   ‘vibrancy’,  
‘creativity’,  and  a  ‘more  thriving’  city  (Glasgow  City  Council,  2011).
26
Informal citizen action and guerrilla urbanism both embodies, and seeks to create, city
vibrancy.  ‘Restaurant  Day’  is  a  worldwide  food  carnival  in  which  local  people  (generally  
in contravention of city licensing laws) make and sell food in pop-up restaurants. Other
examples  include  ‘Chair  Bombing’,  which  involves  citizens  salvaging  waste  materials  
and using  them  to  create  street  furniture,  and  ‘Guerrilla  gardening’,  in  which  citizens  
brighten abandoned, council owned or even private patches of the urban landscape by
planting flowers, grass or plants. Guerrilla gardening has become an international
phenomenon,   with  ‘gardens’  being   created  in  cities   from  Copenhagen,   where  1000  
people  created  a  “Garden  in  a  Night”  on  a  piece  of  empty  land  in  the  city  centre,  to  New  
York where the first garden started in a city parking lot became so popular that the City
Parks Department has now taken over its maintenance (Stenkjaer, 2010; Street Plans
Collaborative, 2010). Crowdsourcing uncovers a similar yearning for vitality and
vibrancy - citizens   of   Hamburg   envisioned   ‘an   unexpected   cultural   boom’   in   the  
Hamburg of 2020 as part of the NextHamburg project. Their vision painted a portrait
of a culturally enriched city with neighbourhood cinemas, 11 new museums and an
aviation centre, many of which would be funded via crowd-funding.
There are ever-increasing examples of local  authorities  supporting  citizen  ‘vibrancy’  
ideas. Recent initiatives with council backing include: a crowd-funded 90m water slide
installed  in  Park  Street,  Bristol,  UK  (Coldwell,  2014);;  “Play  Streets”  which  are  closed  
for cars to allow children to play safely and have been adopted by 24 local authorities
in the UK (Duffin, 2014); and StreetPianos, which have been installed in 43 cities
worldwide  emblazoned  with  the  instruction,   “Play  Me,   I’m   Yours”.   The  creation  of  
Cultural Teams or departments in many city councils indicates that cities authorities
recognise  their  citizens’  desire  for  vibrancy,  and  are  trying  to  respond.  City  Cultural  
Teams are common in the UK for example, teams or departments exist in London,
Manchester, Wolverhampton, Canterbury, Liverpool, Oxford, and Birmingham
councils. They are also in evidence in many cities internationally, from cultural
metropolises which could already be considered vibrant e.g. New York and
Johannesburg, to smaller and quieter cities such as Newcastle (Australia) and Barrie
(California).
2.2 Government
National Governments
Many (but by no means all) national governments are engaging with future cities as a
positive  phenomenon,  in  recognition  of  cities’  capacities  to  be  economic  powerhouses  
driving national economies. As competition between cities becomes increasingly global
(rather than national or regional) national government plans and support are a
powerful differentiator for future city evolution.
27
National  government  interpretations  of  ‘future  cities’  depend largely on the immediate
challenges faced by their country and urban areas. Their national vision for future
cities tends to cite cities that have overcome the challenges they currently face. For
example, less developed countries, particularly those in Africa and Latin America, refer
to themes of development, housing and financial self-sufficiency in their future city
visions.
Certain national governments are conspicuous by their absence from the future cities
arena. The US federal government in particular has no national policy or initiatives in
respect to future cities. Perhaps more surprisingly, national governments also take a
back seat in the Netherlands and Sweden, where city governments have taken the lead
in future city planning and visioning. There are potentially a number of different
explanations for these differences:
In larger federal countries (such as USA, India, Canada, Australia) there is very
limited tradition of strong spatial policies at the Federal tier and there is limited
national consensus on how sub-national governments (States, Provinces,
Regions) should manage their relationships with cities.
In smaller and mature countries (such as Sweden, Netherlands) where the
major process of urbanisation happened several decades, or even centuries,
ago, there is a perception of a settled pattern of cities, and when this is
combined with a high-level of city self-government, national governments see
city matters as a local agenda.
There are no hard and fast rules about how national governments adopt city related
policies (or whether they do so at all). It is probable that fewer than half the world
nations have a national urban policy and fewer than 25% have a minister with
responsibilities for cities.
There are a number of ways in which national governments engage with future cities,
which reveal their ideals and interpretations. Their means of engaging include:
Formulation of national strategies to direct the future development of all cities
in their country. English language national urban strategies exist in Australia,
Sri Lanka, Ghana, South Africa, Vietnam, Bhutan and Malawi. Other countries,
including many in Africa such as Uganda and Mauritania, have national
strategies under development or consideration.
Funding   for   a   ‘demonstrator’   city   – a city which will pioneer the way to
becoming  a  ‘future  city’,  providing  a  testing  ground  and  model  example  for  
others to follow (see Box 2 for examples).
Investment in future cities as an area of public sector expertise and an essential
sphere  of  knowledge.  The  UK  government’s  investment  in  the  Future  Cities  
28
Catapult provides a good example of this. The Technology Strategy Board (a
UK public body) will invest £50m over five years in the Catapult in order to
help cities become smarter and more forward thinking (UK Government,
2013).
Construction   of   model   cities   from   scratch   which   embody   the   government’s
future city thinking (see Box 2 for examples).
Box 2: Demonstrations of future cities
In  Japan,  the  Future  City  Initiative  forms  part  of  the  Japanese  government’s  “New  
Growth  Strategy”.  Five  major  cities,  as  well  as  six  cities  affected  by  the  2011  tsunami,  
have been selected as future cities. They are expected to lead innovations in
‘technology,  socioeconomic  systems,  services,  business  models  and  city  building’  in  
order to become leaders in environmental sustainability, disaster resilience, and
liveability. The Japanese government supports the selected cities with funding,
deregulation and reforms to legal and tax systems (e.g. with the introduction of a
‘green  city’  tax).  The  initiative  will  be  statutorily  supported  by  the  passing  of  a  new  
law, preliminarily called the Act on Future City Promotion.
Developing   countries   have   embraced   the   trend   of   creating   future   cities   ‘from  
scratch’,  rather  than  through  retrofitting  or  improving  existing  cities.  Masdar City
in Abu Dhabi is one such prominent example. The planned zero-carbon city –
currently scheduled to be completed between 2020 and 2025 - has been
predominantly funded by the government of Abu Dhabi. Similarly, Songdo
International Business District in South Korea formed part of a national policy to
promote low-carbon  growth.  Part  of  the  city’s  funding  originated  from  an  $83.6  
billion national fund earmarked for green investment.
Some future cities schemes do not adhere to compact city models, but instead are a
conduit  for  metropolitan  growth.  In  Kenya,  Konza  Techno  City  (dubbed  the  ‘Silicon  
Savannah’)  is  being  promoted  as  a  mechanism  to  achieve  ICT-driven growth in the
country as well as to de-congest central Nairobi. The new city of 5000 acres, 40
miles east of Nairobi, will function as an outsourcing and science park as well as
upscale recreation zone. The Kenyan government hope to only fund 5% of the total
cost, but were responsible for developing and approving the masterplan. Similarly,
Tatu City is a new decentralised city to the north of Nairobi envisioned by Kenya
Vision 2030 (the national development plan) is intended to be funded by the private
sector. Like Konza, Tatu City is intended as a model which can later be replicated in
Kenya and across sub-Saharan Africa.
29
The future city themes national governments appear most concerned by are:
High Quality of Life. Countries which are well regarded for their high quality of life
appear to appreciate this competitive advantage and continue to work towards future
cities which offer a top class standard of living. The Australian national government,
for example, in its national cities agenda Our Cities Our Future (Figure 2.2) outlines
its  plans  and  aspirations  for  creating  a  ‘productive,  sustainable  and  liveable  future’.  
Similarly, in Norway, Cities of the Future is a collaboration between the Norwegian
Government and the 13 largest cities in Norway to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and make the cities denser and more compact, favouring walking and cycling over car
use (Framtidens Byer, 2011). This policy addresses wider climate change mitigation
challenges,  as  well  as  offering  more  ‘liveable’  cities  and  a  higher  quality  of  life  for  future  
city residents.
Sustainable Cities. Searches of publicly available material suggest that
sustainability is the most widely held central government vision for cities, even though
the term takes on a broad range of meanings. National governments with national
programmes   or   policies   including   a   vision   of   ‘sustainable’   future   cities   include:  
Australia, Japan, Malawi, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and Scotland. The German government,
specifically the Ministry of Education and Research, has funded a research project for
“the   Sustainable   Development   of   Megacities   of   Tomorrow”,   which is focused on
energy- and climate-efficient structures in urban growth centres (Australian
Government, 2011; Government of Japan, 2012; Cities Alliance, 2012; UN-Habitat,
2012; Royal Government of Bhutan, 2008; Scottish Government, 2011; Future
Megacities, 2014).
30
Figure  2.2:  Key  goals  and  objectives  for  Australia’s  urban  future  as  outlined  in  the  Our  Cities  
Our Future strategy
Source: Australian Government (2011)
Integrated Systems. Several national governments refer to integrated systems when
describing the future city. Given their national perspective, their focus is generally on
an integrated system of cities, rather than integrated city systems. The German
National Urban Framework,   for   example,   recognises   that   “true   cooperation   and  
integrated  activity  could  help  secure  a  brighter  future  for  the  country’s  cities”  (Clark,  
2012).  Similarly,  Malawi’s  National  Urban  Framework  describes  the  creation  of  better  
integrated and linked cities as  a  key  aim  (Cities  Alliance,  2012).  Sri  Lanka’s  Urban  
31
Vision  aims  to  develop  a  system  of  ‘competitive,  environmentally  sustainable,  welllinked
 cities  clustered  in  five  metro  regions  and  nine  metro  cities  up  to  2030’  (UNHabitat,2012).
In Vietnam, a 2009 Prime Ministerial Decision outlined the objective
of   “Gradually   developing   Vietnam’s   urban   system   toward   urban   network   model”  
(World Bank, 2012).
Given its city-state   character,   it   is   unsurprising   that   Singapore’s   Smart   Cities  
Programme Office provides one of the few examples of a national interest in integrated
city  systems.  It  “focuses  on  the  development  of  infocomm-based integrated networks,
capabilities and solutions for urban environments with a systems-of-systems approach
that enables Whole-of-Government synergies and integrated insights, which will
contribute to the optimisation of key national resources across interdependent and
inter-related  city  systems”  (IDA,  2014).
Many of the wealthier OECD national governments have begun to focus on smart cities
and technological networking when considering their future cities – the UK being a
prime example.
Other Interpretations. More unusual conceptions of future cities do exist amongst
certain  national  governments.  In  Japan,  the  creation  of  the  ‘human-centred’  city  is  the  
underlying  concept  of  the  Future  City  Initiative.  Health,  aging  and  “vitality”  are  key  
priorities. In South Korea, Songdo IBD – the  nation’s  flagship  sustainable  city  (see  
Box  2)  is  described  as  a  ‘Ubiquitous  City’  or  ‘U-City’.  This  is a built environment where
any citizen can get any services, anywhere, anytime, through ICT devices. For instance,
home banking, telecommuting, teleconferencing, telemedicine and control of urban
infrastructure are constantly available in the U-city (Lee et al, 2008).
Furthermore, not all national governments are tied to or focused on one theme for the
future city - the Japanese government has adopted a particularly wide-ranging
interpretation (Figure 2.3):
“Desirable  future  cities  may  consist  in  (sic)  following elements: human-centred cities
focusing on each individual including women, children and the elderly; green (low
carbon) cities with advanced environmental technologies such as renewable energy,
energy saving technology, eco building, smart cities equipped with smart basic
infrastructure such as smart grids, sound material cycle cities working on
sustainable consumption and production including 3Rs, and resilient cities against
natural  disasters  and  climate  change.”  (Government  of  Japan,  2012)
32
Figure  2.3:    Model  of  conceptual  basis  for  Japan’s  Future  City  Initiative
Source: Government of Japan (2013)
Regional, local and city governments
Regional, metropolitan and city governments tend not to be involved in conceptual or
theoretical discussion about  ‘the  future  city’  in  the  same  way  as  research  institutions,  
think tanks, the media or even to a certain extent corporates. There are some
exceptions – for example, the City of Sheffield, which has collaborated with academia
and the private sector to advance thinking and innovation in urban development via
the Sheffield Urban Think Tank. Generally however, city leaders and their
administrations are concerned with the future of their own city, the ways of optimising
that future in the short to medium term, and the tactical / action-oriented ways to do
that.
As such, the plans and development strategies for individual cities provide the best
insights  into  a  city  government’s  own  interpretation  of  (their)  future  city:  they  set  out  
a vision for what their future city should look like, and how that vision should be
achieved. These city plans can incorporate citizen feedback and the results of public
consultations (see section 2.1). They are often made public, both to ensure
transparency and accountability, and  for  the  purposes  of  building  a  common  ‘vision’  
amongst  the  city’s  various  stakeholders.    Further  insight  into  city  government’s  future  
city priorities can be gleaned from individual initiatives in which local authorities
invest. Common themes which emerge include:
Smart Cities. A number of city administrations are backing programmes which aim
to  make  their  cities  ‘smart’.  Smart  projects  are  particularly  prevalent  in  Europe,  where  
the European Commission has provided significant support (see section 2.7): Figure
2.4 shows examples from around the English speaking world. Under the overall
33
umbrella  of  becoming  a  ‘smart’  city,  there  is  significant  variation  in  the  areas  addressed  
and projects implemented. Some cities, such as Vienna, take a holistic view of the
smart city – implementing initiatives to cover everything from infrastructure, energy,
green spaces and mobility to all aspects of urban life and development. Other cities
focus  on  a  very  specific  element  of  ‘smartness’  but  might  aim  for  full  geographical
coverage in the city – for example, Yokohama in Japan is pioneering a specific project
based on the installation of energy management systems across the city.
Figure 2.4: Smart City projects backed by city governments
Region Project Key Focus Areas
Stakeholders (Lead partner
shown in bold)
Europe
Sense Smart
City
(Skelleftea,
Sweden)
Sensors to measure, monitor
and communicate, and more
efficiently allocate resources
such as electricity, water, traffic
and waste.
Swedish Agency for Economic and
Regional Growth as managing
organisation for EU Structural
Funds; Skellefteå Municipality;
Regional Council of Västerbotten;
Luleå University of
Technology; Skelleftea Kraft
(power company); SQS and Explizit
(Software Specialists).
Smart City
Wien
(Vienna)
Broad ranging project
incorporating education,
buildings, transport, climate,
people and administration.
City of Vienna; Siemens; Austrian
Institute of Technology, Vienna
University of Technology; Wien
Stadtwerke; Wien 3420 (real estate
development); Austrian Research
and Testing Centre; raum &
kommunikation (consultancy);
Chartered Energy Institute.
Smart City
Malaga
Renewable energy; Smart
metering; Smart distribution;
Electric Vehicles
City of Malaga; A consortium of 11
companies spearheaded by
Endesa; 14 research organisations
including universities of Cordoba
and Malaga.
NorthAmerica+
Caribbean
Montego Bay
Smart City
Integrated
Operation
and Control
Centre
Integrated control centre
monitoring / controlling seven
systems linked to transport,
crime prevention and disaster
prevention.
Inter-American Development
Bank’s Emerging and Sustainable
Cities Initiative; South Korean
government. City of Montego Bay;
National Ministry of Local
Government and Community
Development.
Smart City
San Diego
Renewable energy generation;
consumer data to manage
energy use; Smart grids
City of San Diego, San Diego Gas
& Electric, GE, UC San Diego and
CleanTECH San Diego.
Asia
Smart City
Kochi
Provision of state-of-the-art
infrastructure, environment and
support systems to promote the
growth of knowledge-based
companies.
(Regional) government of Kerala;
TECOM Investments (subsidiary
of Dubai Holding);
34
Region Project Key Focus Areas
Stakeholders (Lead partner
shown in bold)
Yokohama
Smart City
Installation and management of
energy management systems
(EMS) in homes, office buildings
and commercial facilities (e.g.
factories). Linkage into a Central
EMS.
City of Yokohama and over 30
other partners, including: Nissan,
Toshiba, Hitachi, Panasonic and
Accenture; Tokyo Institute of
Technology; smaller Japanese cos;
national  government’s  Urban  
Renaissance Agency.
Dubai Smart
City
Transport; Communications;
Infrastructure; Electricity;
Economic services; Urban
planning. Government services.
Dubai Government. High
committee’  of  advisors  includes  
private sector representatives:
TECOM Investments, du and
Etisalat (telecoms companies).
Africa
City of
Tshwane –
Smart City
E-learning, health, public
services and ICT access
City of Tshwane; Tshwane
University of Technology; Huawei
(ICT company); IBM; Cooperation
Framework on Innovation Systems,
(COFISA), partnership between
Finland and South Africa
Smart City
Joburg
A  ‘Smart  and  Caring  City’;;  
broadband; public safety;
Integrated intelligence centre for
public safety; integrated and
smart metering of electricity and
water.
City of Johannesburg; Bwired
(Telecoms company); IBM
Integration of city systems is an important sub-theme of city government-led smart
city visions and plans. The Dubai SmartCity strategic plan is a prime example as it is
based on three central ideas: communication, integration and cooperation. It is the
city  government’s  goal  that  all  city  services  and  facilities  should  be  made  available  on  
smartphones, and that all city databases should be integrated and made publicly
available  via  “My  Window  to  Dubai”  - a live, online, real-time broadcast of the changing
data.
Figure 2.4 also shows that almost all local authorities rely on collaborations with the
private sector to fund smart city projects. Only the wealthiest have (e.g. Dubai, Vienna)
launched their own independent schemes.
Liveable Cities. As section 2.1 showed, liveability is a key concern for many citizens
considering the future city. It is perhaps unsurprising then that political discussion,
particularly  at  a  local  level,  increasingly  centres  around  liveability  to  match  the  voters’  
concerns. Antipodean city governments in particular have a very strong focus on
developing   ‘liveable   cities’,   as   these   are   viewed   as   comparative advantages. The
Auckland   Plan   2040   and   the   Melbourne   Plan   2050   each   detail   their   city   council’s  
strategy  to  become  the  world’s  most  liveable  city.  As  Figure  2.5  shows,  local  concepts  
of liveability relate to safety, economic vitality, attractiveness,   ‘greenness’,   cultural  
diversity, local identity, and connectivity. Within Australia, some local and state
35
government plans are in part shaped by national policy: the national Liveable Cities
Program provides a $20m fund for state, territory and local government projects, and
Canberra’s  city  development  plan  was  part  funded  under  this  programme.
Fig 2.5: Constituent Strands of the Auckland Plan
Source: Auckland Council (2014)
Green Cities. ‘Greenness’   is   no   longer   a   term   at   the   cutting   edge   of   future city
thinking for policy-makers or academics. Nevertheless, many city governments have
embraced  the  concept  of  the  ‘Green  City’  to  fuel  ambition  and  to  build  local  identity  
and  global  profile.  Vancouver  aims  to  become  the  ‘greenest  city  in  the  world by  2020’,  
and  Philadelphia’s  Mayor  has  set  the  city  a  goal  of  becoming  the  greenest  in  America.  
Salt  Lake  City  and  San  Jose  have  both  introduced  ‘Green  City  Visions’.  In  Scandinavia,  
Copenhagen,  Malmo  and  Stockholm  promote  themselves  as  ‘Green  Cities’  or  ‘Green  
Capitals’.   The   latter   have   eco-town projects within their metropolitan areas
(Augustenborg Eco City and Hammarby Sjostad respectively).
In   developed   cities   the   ideas   of   ‘greenness’   rests   on   sustainable   use   of   natural  
resources, combined with green space, urban density, green innovation and high takeup
of low carbon transport options. Liveability is usually just one outcome strand of
this broader commitment. In developing cities, green city projects refer instead to
essential water and sanitation infrastructure to improve efficiency and access. For
example, the Asian Development Bank is granting US$60 million for a Green City
project  in  Burma’s  Mandalay,  which  will  be  maintained  by  the  regional  government  
(Eleven, 2014; Malmo City Council, 2009).
36
2.3 Corporate institutions
Over the last decade, an increasing number of corporates have begun to contribute to
global discourse about the future city. Cisco was one of the first major companies to do
so: in 2005 it dedicated $25 million to researching Smart Cities over a five year period
in the Connected Urban Development programme. Cisco was swiftly joined by other
technology firms, including IBM which set up a Smarter Cities Initiative in 2009, and
Siemens (see Box 3) which created its own Infrastructure and Cities division in 2011.
Today, companies from sectors as different as law (Bird & Bird), consumer goods
(Unilever) and construction (Lafarge) are also thinking about future cities. It seems
fair to assume that both the number of companies engaging with future cities, and the
breadth of sectors represented, will expand further. At present future city engagement
is particularly apparent among mega-corporates (e.g. GE, IBM, Philips, Citibank) and
among firms based in the US, Germany, France, the UK and Japan. Corporates from
the rest of Europe and Asia, and from Africa, are less visibly focused on future cities,
although this situation changes with each passing year.
Box 3: Siemens and the future city
Siemens  is  perhaps  the  best  example  of  a  corporation  which  has  made  the  ‘future  
city’  a  fundamental  part  of  its  business.  
In 2008, Siemens reorganised itself internally around the megatrends of the
decade: changing global demographics, climate change, urbanisation and
globalisation. In 2011, it took this reorganisation one step further by creating a
standalone Infrastructure and Cities (IC) division, with 87,000 employees spread
across  varied  offices  globally.  The  division’s  objective  was  to  exploit  the  $2 trillion
annual market of city infrastructure spending.
In its efforts to do this, Siemens has developed a broad range of initiatives based
around  a  “Sustainable  Cities”  brand.  Perhaps  most  striking  is  its  development  of  
The  ‘Crystal’  in  Royal  Victoria Docks, London: a $46million visitor attraction and
knowledge  centre  which  contains  the  world’s  largest  exhibition  focused  on  urban  
sustainability. The Crystal offers spaces for dialogue and learning around cities, and
has welcomed more than 100,000 visitors to date.
Other initiatives include the development of The Green City Index, a benchmark
produced with the Economist Intelligence Unit which assesses and compares more
than 120 cities worldwide in terms of environmental performance. And through its
37
collaboration with the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Siemens helps cities to
measure, plan, and mitigate their greenhouse gas emissions. The company issues
regular   research   publications,   recent   examples   of   which   include   a   ‘Toolkit   for  
Resilient  Cities’  and  ‘Urban  Planning  for  City  Leaders’,  and  was  a  key  company  in  
the  World  Business  Council  for  Sustainable  Development  (WBCSD)’s  global  Urban  
Infrastructure Initiative.
Powerful  drivers  have  encouraged  the  private  sector’s  engagement  with  future  cities.
Most significantly, understanding future cities allows companies to better understand
and be able to capitalise upon key growing metropolitan markets in urban services,
lifestyle, and asset capitalisation. Cities are the customers of the future. By being
involved in the debate on future cities, companies also hope to help shape the market,
for example, to see policies developed and implemented that match their own
innovation and R&D strategies. More obliquely, the concept of future cities can also
provide companies with an effective marketing device, harnessing its imperatives,
relevance, energy and glamour in particular when in discussions with city authorities
– their customers. Public association with the future city can also promote
collaboration and foster product innovation. Investing in future city research or
thinking can even be a means of fulfilling Corporate Social Responsibility imperatives.
Perhaps  most  usefully,  the  concept  of  the  future  city  can  create  ‘organising  ideas’  for  
other offerings, e.g. in climate change, sustainability, competitiveness, infrastructure,
logistics or place-making: it can help provide new markets for products and services
developed in other areas of the business that only need tweaking to be applied in a city
context, rather than development from scratch.
Companies’  activities  in  relation  to  future  cities  are  focused  in  several  areas  - analysis
of these areas reveals the future city ideas with which corporates are aligning
themselves:
‘Future  city’  branded  services or offerings. Microsoft’s  future  city  brand  
is  “CityNext”.  CityNext  seeks  to  sell  ‘solutions’  (such  as  cloud  computing,  data  
management tools, identity, security and device management) to cities
globally, improving their efficiency, sustainability and cost savings. According
to  Microsoft,  CityNext  “empowers  people—whether governments, citizens, or
businesses—to  transform  their  cities  and  their  future”.  
Provide support and/or financial backing for city-led futurist
initiatives or branding exercises. This usually occurs where there is an
alignment  between  the  city  scheme  and  the  corporate’s  own  interests.  IBM’s  
Smarter City programme is a good example - it provides cities around the world
(16 cities in 2014) with pro bono consultancy advice on tackling a particular
issue nominated by the city.
38
Carry out and sponsor research and dialogue on urban issues.
Deutsche  Bank  sponsors  “Urban  Age”  a  future  of  cities  conference programme
run  by  the  LSE,  while  JP  Morgan  sponsors  the  Brookings  Institution’s  “Global  
Cities  Initiative”.  Some  companies  including  Mercer,  Siemens  and  PwC  have  
developed   their   own   benchmarks   to   measure   aspects   of   city   ‘success’   and  
develop future projections. Others, including Bombardier, Schneider Electric,
and  Cap  Gemini,  run  competitions  inviting  participants  to  ‘imagine’  the  future  
city, or to develop visions for future urban mobility, energy, or technology use.
Architecture firms, including Gensler, Farrells, and Rogers, Stirk, Harbour and
Partners, offer opinions on future city design, whilst consultancies AT Kearney
and  McKinsey  have  published  reports  on  ‘the  City  of  the  Future’.  Phillips  has  
developed the Liveable cities think tank to help make cities more authentic and
inclusive,  while  Audi’s   Urban  Future  Initiative  is  a  forum   for  innovation  in  
urban mobility. Involvement in thought leadership can help corporates to
shape future city discourse towards their own spheres of interest.
Collaborating with city authorities and city leaders to create
innovations in city design. IBM was one of the first movers in city
collaboration, and has been commissioned by Rio de Janeiro to create a citywide
operation centre connecting all the city's 30 agencies, from transport to
the emergency services. Barcelona uses Microsoft Azure (a cloud system) to
host a platform that aggregates city statistics and makes them publically
available. Firms such as Cisco in Songdo or Panasonic in Fujisawa use these
flagship city projects to profile their comprehensive solutions capabilities in a
living  context  (Micheler,  2011).  Other  firms,  partner  with  cities  to  create  ‘living  
labs’  in  which  they  can  innovate  and  carry  out  experiments  in  situ.  Intel  has  
developed   a   ‘living   lab’   in collaboration with London, and Telefonica is a
partner in the EU funded experimental laboratory, Smart Santander.
Corporates can lend influence and financial support for cities bidding to win
such initiatives from the EU or other supra-national organisations.
Collaborate   with   ‘future   oriented’   businesses   to   propose   urban  
solutions and help grow the market for these. One of the broadest
collaborations is the World Business Council for Sustainable Development
(WBCSD). Although not solely focused on cities, the WBCSD has launched an
Urban Infrastructure Initiative (UII), to bring businesses from different sectors
together to create joined up and integrated urban sustainability solutions.
Active member companies include AECOM, Schneider Electric, Siemens, TNT,
Toyota, UPS and United Technologies. Similarly the Smart Cities Council is a
coalition of prominent firms (IBM, GE, EdF, National Grid, Cisco), and smart
city advocates and experts. These coalitions build and amplify the smart city
proposition (DeKeles, 2012).
39
The future city themes to which major corporates are currently aligned are
summarized in Figure 2.6.
Figure  2.6:  Future  City  ‘brands’  of  transnational  corporates
Sustainable
Cities
Global
Cities
Liveability
/ Citizen-
centred
Cities
Smart
Cities
Green/
Eco Cities
Imagined
‘City  of  
the
Future’
Resilient
/ Future
Proofed
Cities
Siemens
GE
Arup
Bouygues
GDF Suez
Veolia
Ericsson
United
Technologies
Acciona
CEMEX
JP Morgan
AECOM
AT
Kearney
Mercer
Monocle
Grosvenor
E&Y
Philips
Cisco
Ericsson
IBM
Cap
Gemini
Bird+Bird
Hitachi
Fujitsu
Panasonic
Bombardier
Schneider
Electric
Siemens
Panasonic
Audi
Deutsche
Bank
Microsoft
Atkins
GDF Suez
CEMEX
Siemens
Arup
Grosvenor
Atkins
Philips
Thematic interpretations of future cities are correlated to company sector. Resilience
and environmental future proofing are, unsurprisingly, themes favoured by
engineering firms. Sustainability is embraced by firms offering services in energy,
water, waste, construction and environmental solutions. Technology and IT firms tend
to  focus  on  the  smart  cities  market.  Liveability  or  ‘citizen’  centred  themes,  as  well  as  
economic growth, market potential and innovation, are mostly the focus of consultancy
firms, as well as Philips, which has a strong background in health and wellbeing. Firms
in the transport sector, such as Bombardier and Audi, are active in the future of urban
mobility. Global architectural practices tend to endorse the compact city and the
flexible city.
Integrated City Systems
Integration and integrated city systems feature within the discourse of technology and
engineering companies. Integrated city products form the fundamental offer to cities,
and the motif of interconnection and holism is very visible, whether in urban security
(IBM), energy (GE) or electricity (GDF Suez), or across sectors (WBCSD) (IBM, 2011).
Holistic urban planning is often also advocated as a precondition for product
effectiveness.
Several companies are developing the thinking around integrated city systems. Arup
has   analysed   15   ‘integrated’   systems   in   Sheffield   including   transport,   waste  
management  and  food  supply  to  assess  the  city’s  resilience  to  climate  change.  GDF  
Suez’s  Urban  Strategy  Council  is  an  internal  think  tank  tasked   with  developing   an  
integrated vision  for  “Cities  of  Tomorrow”.  The  latter’s  inter-disciplinary committee of
40
independent experts shows the seriousness with which urban visions and solutions are
being taken.
Not  all  companies  necessarily  use  the  word  ‘integrated’,  some  prefer  to  refer  to  city  
‘networks’    ‘connections’  or  ‘systems’.  Ericsson,  for  example,  focuses  on  networks  and  
connections in its understandings of the future city. Their future cities brand titled,
‘City   Life’,   explains   that   ‘building   connections   will   be   the   key   to   our   urban   future’  
(Ericsson, 2013). Ericsson has created a Networked Society City Index to measure
progress  towards  this  goal.  The  index  ranks  31  of  the  world’s  largest  cities  according  to  
their ability to transform ICT into social, economic and environmental benefits.
2. 4 Academic institutions
As might be expected, English language academic institutions are at the cutting edge
of research, thinking and discourse on future cities. They are contributing to future city
discourse in a number of ways:
Running taught courses on future city themes. Although cities and city
systems have not yet emerged as widely recognized distinct academic
disciplines, a handful of universities do run Masters courses or offer PhDs
specifically on future city topics. These courses are shown in Figure 2.7, and are
predominantly found in the UK and Western Europe. Many more universities
offer courses or modules on future city themes as part of broader degree
courses.
Research on future city themes. Some universities run specific (usually
inter-disciplinary) future city research programmes. The City Science Initiative
at MIT, for example, researches and aims to develop urban strategies that can
reduce carbon dioxide emissions and traffic congestion, and improve liveability
and creativity. More commonly, however, individual disciplines as diverse as
engineering, humanities, climate science and the creative arts are carrying out
their  own  research  in    areas  which  aren’t  labelled  as  ‘city  solutions’  as  such,  but  
do have the potential for big impacts in cities.
Modelling and visualisation of future cities. Universities are amongst
the  most  advanced  ‘modellers’  of  future  cities.    A  field  leader  is  The  Centre  for  
Advanced Spatial Analysis (CASA) at UCL (London) a specialist department
which uses computer based visualisation for city planning, policy and design.
Other academic institutions engaged in modelling include the Future Cities
Laboratory, which prepares future models of Singapore, and the Why Factory
which forms part of the Department of Urbanism at Delft University of
Technology and focuses on visualising cities of the future from an architectural
or  urban  design  perspective.  The  Why  Factory’s  visualisation  themes  include  
41
Green Dream (sustainable architecture), The Vertical Village (a new model for
development   of   Asian   cities)   and   City   Shock   (which   explores   ten   ‘what   if’  
scenarios).
Tracking City Performance. Some universities engage in monitoring and
benchmarking   cities’   relative   performance,   and   the   specific   variables   which  
they track reveal their future city priorities. The Liveable Cities programme – a
collaborative project between the Universities of Southampton, Lancaster,
Birmingham and UCL – is one example from the UK: it measures how cities
operate and perform in terms of their people, environment and governance,
taking account of wellbeing and resource security.
Engaging students in future cities through challenges or
competitions. It is important to note that it is not only at tertiary level that
educational institutions are engaging with future cities. In the United States, a
major national competition asked teams of middle school children to imagine
the cities of the future. The project was run by DiscoverE, a foundation which
aims to sustain and grow a dynamic engineering profession. As such, the
emphasis of the competition is on use of computer and tabletop modelling of
future cities, and on solving the engineering problems they present.
Direct collaboration with cities, to develop real solutions to urban
challenges and collectively design urban futures. Collaborations in the
UK are taking place between Manchester Metropolitan University and the city,
and  Sheffield  City  Council  and  the  city’s  two  universities  (in  the  form  of  the  
Sheffield Urban Think Tank) (University of Warwick, 2012). Smart Aarhus is
an example of a Danish city-university collaboration
42
Figure 2.7: Future city graduate courses by theme
Course
Theme
UK Europe Rest of World
Sustainable
Cities
Ma Sustainable Cities
London Metropolitan
University
Faculty: Social
Sciences and
Humanities
Ma/Msc Sustainable
Cities
Kings College
London
Faculty: Geography
MRes Urban
Sustainability and
Resilience
UCL
Faculty: Civil,
Environmental and
Geomatic Engineering
MSc Sustainable Cities
Aalborg University,
Copenhagen
(Denmark)
Faculty: Development
and Planning
MSc Sustainable
Urbanism
UCL (UK)
Faculty: Architecture,
Building,
Environmental Design
and Planning
MSc Sustainable Urban
Development
Oxford University (UK)
Faculty: Geography +
Environment
Msc Sustainable Urban
Design
Lund University,
Copenhagen
(Denmark)
Faculty: Architecture
MSc Sustainable
Cities and
Communities
University Sains
Malaysia
Faculty: Humanities
Smart Cities MSc in Smart Cities and
Urban Analytics
UCL
Faculty: Centre for
Advanced Spatial
Analysis
MRes in Smart
Cities
UCL
Faculty: Centre for
Advanced Spatial
Analysis
MSc in Computer
Science with Big Data,
Business Analytics and
Smarter Cities
Dublin City University
(Ireland)
Faculty: Computing
MSc in Smart Cities
University of Girona
(Spain)
Faculty: Informatics
and Applications
MSc Energy for Smart
Cities
KIC InnoEnergy
(International)
Masters School
specialises in energy
and engineering
Post MSc Smart
Energy Buildings and
Cities
Eindhoven University
of Technology
(Netherlands)
Faculty: Engineering
Other 2 x funded PhDs on
Liveable Cities
Lancaster University
Faculty: Arts and Social
Sciences
MSc Eco Cities
Cardiff University
Faculty: Planning
and Geography
MSc in Healthy Cities
Southampton
University
Faculty: Geography
MSc City Planning and
Resilience
University College
Dublin (Ireland)
Faculty: Geography,
Planning and
Environmental Policy
43
The  major  themes  revealed  by  a  review  of  academic  institutions’  various  future  cities  
activities are:
Urban metabolism
Urban metabolism is one of four topics in the 2014 Harvard Graduate School of
Design’s   Dean   Design   Challenge.   Harvard,   MIT,   and   Boston   University   recently  
embarked on a long-term research project funded by the National Science Foundation
to  try  and  track  Boston’s  urban  metabolism  (Harvard  GSD,  2013). The work of the
Future Cities Laboratory in Singapore is also guided by the conceptual framework of
urban metabolism (Figure 2.8) which sees the city as a complex system of flow
management. The FCL tries to encourage a circular use and re-use of resources, and
its research focuses on the consequences of resource allocation, distribution, and
deployment through time.
Figure   2.8:   Graphical   Depiction   of   Future   Cities   Laboratory’s   concept   of   Circular   Urban  
Metabolism
Source: FCL (2014)
Smart cities
Smart cities have emerged in the last few years as a key focus for taught university
courses on future cities, and tend to be linked to engineering or IT faculties. Many of
the specialist qualifications shown in Figure 2.7 are very recently established courses:
the UCL and Dublin City University Smart Cities masters are all being run for the first
time  in  2014,  and  Cardiff’s  Eco-Cities  and  Girona’s  Smart  Cities  courses  both  launched  
in 2013. Smart city courses run in partnership with mega-corporates are also a new
phenomenon, as evidenced by the new Dublin Smart Cities masters, which is
sponsored by IBM (IBM 2013).
44
The  most  common  emphasis  of  ‘future  city’  modules  taught  by  other  disciplines,  from  
geography to engineering to ICT to art and design, also appears to be on smart cities
(for  example  the  Universities  of  Arizona,  Tel  Aviv  and  Ohio  all  run  modules  on  ‘smart’  
or technological futures for cities).
Smart Cities is certainly the most frequent area of collaboration between universities
and city governments. For example, the Open University is leading a project to
transform its home town of Milton Keynes into a smart city. The £16 million MK:Smart
project will draw together the growing amounts of data generated by the city in a
central hub. It will use sources, ranging from satellites to crowdsourcing from social
media and apps, analyse   the   information   to   find   ‘smart   solutions’   for   managing  
resources  and  promoting  business  growth.  Elsewhere,  ‘Smart  London’  is  a  Mayoral  
initiative chaired by Professor David Gann, Head of Innovation and Entrepreneurship
at Imperial College Business School, looking at how London can best use technology
and  data  to  ensure  it  remains  one  of  the  world’s  most  efficient  and  liveable  cities.  In  
Europe, Smart Aarhus is a partnership between the City of Aarhus, the Central
Denmark Region, Aarhus University, the Alexandra Institute, VIA University College,
the Danish Technological Institute, and the company Systematic. It aims to develop
Aarhus into a Scandinavian model for digital urban development.
In terms of research, academic focus on smart cities can be found in a number
universities: The Future Cities Research Centre at Trinity College, Dublin has a
technological   or   ‘smart’   cities   basis   but   fuses   the   hard   and   soft   sciences   to find
workable ways of integrating technologies and data; The SENSEable Cities Lab at MIT
(Boston, USA) investigates and anticipates how digital technologies are changing the
way people live. The Future Cities Project/Porto Living Lab at the University of Porto,
Portugal,   is   an   example   of   a   university   carrying   out   research   ‘on   the   ground’   in  
collaboration with a city, through the creation of a living lab which, aims to turn Porto
into a smart city with embedded ICT, sensors and wireless platforms.
Innovative cities
Several  academic  institutions  have  embraced  the  phraseology  of  the  ‘innovative  city’  in  
their  activities,  but  the  term  ‘innovative’  appears  to  encompass  different  and  numerous  
meanings to an even greater degree than broad terms such  as  ‘sustainable’.  By  way  of  
example,   in   October   2013   Mori   Memorial   Foundation’s   Institute   of   Urban  
Development hosted the Innovative City Forum which explored sub-themes such as
urban infrastructure, quality of life and ambience, creative industries and
technological innovations (Innovative City Forum, 2013). Meanwhile, the Urban and
Regional Innovation Research Unit (URENIO) forms part of the Faculty of
Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Their research focuses on intelligent
cities, and specifically local environments that can support R&D, innovation, human
45
skills and intelligence. In Singapore, the Lee Kuan Yew Centre for Innovative Cities
(which is part of the Singapore University of Technology and Design) takes more of a
‘smart’  cities  approach  - focusing on the integrated use of technology and design to
derive solutions for urban development and management.
Sustainable cities
Urban sustainability is the future city theme which has the longest history in academic
institutions.  Together  with  ‘smart  cities’,  it  is  the  most  prevalent  future  cities  theme  in  
Masters courses, and Sustainable Cities courses tend to be much longer established
than others. Courses on sustainability are largely rooted in geography or planning
departments. There is also a large amount of academic research in the field of
sustainable cities, although, as with other interest groups, the topics and research areas
encompassed within sustainability research can be highly varied. The Royal
Melbourne  Institute  of  Technology’s  Global  Cities Research Institute aims to develop
interpretations and strategies for building sustainable cities. It investigates physical
spatial systems, communications, cultural experience, and the role of technology in
mediating the experience of the urban environment. Meanwhile other institutions
adopt  a  more  ‘environmental’  interpretation  of  Sustainable  Cities:  ‘Eco-Cities’  - the
Bruntwood  Initiative  for  Sustainable  Cities’  is  an  initiative  led  by  the  University  of  
Manchester which looks at how we can adapt our cities to the challenges and
opportunities that a changing climate presents.
Other future city themes
Despite the dominant categorisations shown above, academic institutions do explore
and research an incredible diversity of ideas in relation to the future city, many of
which  resist  categorisation  into  particular  ‘themes’.  Amongst the more niche future
cities ideas explored by academic institutions are: an NYU art course which explores
the design of the future city, and new techniques in green architecture, landscape, art,
and urban planning; and The Oxford University Programme for the Future of Cities
which focuses on the concept of the flexible city as one that responds better to evolving
circumstances and is not limited by path dependency. In 2007 MIT opened a
multimillion dollar research institute in Singapore to develop innovative solution to
challenges of future urban mobility. Delft, Harvard and Newcastle Universities are
amongst  a  growing  group  of  institutions  which  offer  ‘resilience’  modules  amongst their
engineering and urban planning courses.
2. 5 Media and commentators
A review of the US and UK media, both mainstream (e.g. BBC News, Wall St Journal,
Economist) and city-focused (e.g. UBM Futures, Atlantic Cities, Cities Today), reveals
that   ’future   cities’   has   limited   media   coverage,   and   there   is   little   coherence   or  
46
consistency in the conversation at present. The discourse is not focused and still very
eclectic.
Despite the sprawling nature of the media dialogue on future cities, five major themes
can be identified:
Smart cities: technology and innovation
Integrated cities: greater collaboration
Infrastructure
Environment and sustainability
Liveability
Of these, smart cities, infrastructure, and environment and sustainability are the most
well developed themes, whilst liveability and integration are emerging trends. It seems
that   ‘smart   cities’   in   particular   has   the   potential   to   evolve   towards   a   more  
comprehensive framework.
In the UK media, the Guardian has emerged as the most dedicated media commentator
on future cities. In January 2014 it launched a Cities microsite which functions as an
all-purpose forum for debate and ideas about the future of cities (Guardian, 2014). The
site is supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, and contains sub-themes  of  ‘Smart  
Cities’  and  ‘Resilient  Cities’,  the  latter  promoted  by  Rockefeller. The site encompasses
all five of the themes outlined above, and also covers angles on city experience, art,
architecture and inclusion, focusing fairly evenly on the good and the bad. The site is a
unique showcase for a global media outlet, and despite its eclectic coverage has the
potential to drive a more focused media conversation.
Outside of the US and UK, some additional observations can be made on the
international  (English  language)  media’s   approach   – which broadly focuses on the
same major thematic areas:
Technology and Innovation
In Dubai and the wider UAE, the media focuses overwhelmingly upon smart cities.
This is largely a reflection of the initiatives underway in Dubai itself to become a
leading  ‘smart  sustainable  city’  in  time  for  the  2020  Expo.  The  press  report  on  the  
latest smart cities to be approved or opened (Emirates 24/7, 2014), and on the launch
of new government plans, for public transport Wi-Fi, electric vehicle charging, and the
recent  ‘Towards  2021’  Initiative  (see  section  2.2) (Jacob, Allan and Shabandri, 2014).
In October 2013, a future cities conference focusing on energy security, PPPs and water
distribution at the Dubai World Trade Centre, run alongside the Cityscape Global
exhibition, received widespread regional press coverage, (Emirates 24/7, 2013).
47
Infrastructure
The future city focus of the Indian press is oriented towards land use planning and
infrastructure. Slum dwellings, urban sprawl and congestion are major issues in Indian
cities,  and  the  media’s  conversation  centres  on  how  these  problems  should  be  solved  
in the future city. Commentators in the major English newspapers (notably the
Hindustan Times and Times of India) call for proactive governance and an end to
corruption to optimise planning decisions and outcomes in the future. The future city
debate  has  grown  more  urgent  in  light  of  India’s  rapid  pace  of  urbanisation.  The  Times  
of India has recently co-chaired workshops with EMBARQ India to explore sustainable
transport options for the city of Gurgaon (a satellite city of Delhi), and regularly covers
Chennai’s   participatory   model   of   urban   management.   The   ‘smart   city’   is   a   less  
prevalent theme, but does still form part of the media discourse, not least because of
the label of smart attached to township projects in Kochi, Navi Mumbai and now
Bangalore (Times of India, 2014a, 2014b; Correa, 2013). The increasing visibility of
urban issues in Indian politics and the media appears to be partly attributable to the
large urban youth population (more than half of Indians are under the age of 25) who
are increasingly vocal, connected (online), and ready for and demanding change
(Straits Times, 2014; Mustafi, 2012).
Multiple themes
In Japan, the Japan Times and Asahi Shimbun frequently run stories on a spectrum of
future cities topics. The role of technology and innovation in the future city appears to
be the most frequently recurring theme, particularly in relation to transport (for
example, electric cars, smartphone apps which improve public transport experiences
etc.). The Japanese media are also concerned with liveability and its link with health there
is a strong focus on ageing, and how future cities should be designed to cater for
elderly populations. There is also some limited coverage of urban metabolism as a
future city concept, a possible legacy of the Metabolists, a group of influential Japanese
architects and city-builders in the 1950s (Japan Times, 2013; Asahi, 2014; Worrall,
2011).
The diversity of future cities activity in Singapore is reflected in the Singaporean
media. The Straits Times is the city-state’s   most   widely   read   English   language  
broadsheet, and reports on future city publications, research and events are relatively
frequent. For example, The Straits Times has reported recently on: the World Cities
Summit (held in the city) which called for more liveable and sustainable cities; the
publication   of   a   government   white   paper   on   Singapore’s   future   sustainability; and
government innovations in transport planning. Research associates from the Centre
for Liveable Cities (Jessica Cheam) and the Future Cities Laboratory (Dr Alexander
Erath) are contributors to the newspaper.
48
2. 6 Think tanks, policy institutions and research institutes
Of the think tanks, policy institutes and research institutes which publish and/or
operate in the English language, a handful focus entirely on future cities (e.g. the
Future Cities Institute, the Future Cities Collaborative). Others deal with a broader
subject area but are undertaking workstreams which explore the future of cities. Some
cities even have their own think tanks e.g. the Sheffield Urban Think Tank, to help
them plan for and deliver successful urban futures.
There is an extremely variable focus on the future across think tanks and research
organisations, but the most common futurist urban issues they explore appear to be:
Future urban mobility
Think tanks researching for less car dependent or smarter mobility cities are among
the most common form of future urban thought leadership. The Audi Urban Future
Initiative, the European Parliamentary Research Service  (the  European  Parliament’s  
think tank) and Forum for the Future are three such examples. Such organisations
often explore alternative transport  and  commuting  methods.  ‘Smarter  than  Car’,  for  
example, is a Beijing based think tank which has defined new concepts such as Bicycle
Urbanism, Negotiated Flow and Bicycle Livelihoods as approaches to facilitate future
urban movement. Think tanks in this area are typically advocates for greater
integration of transport options. The EPRS and Canadian Urban Institute both argue
for better integration of the different urban mobility modes to encourage citizens to
change their mobility choices. Similarly, the Forum for the Future report Megacities
on the Move finds that real time traffic information and virtual meetings will have a
role to play in improving efficiency (Canadian Urban Institute, 2014; Forum for the
Future, 2010).
Smart and digital futures
A number of think tanks and research institutes have sprung up in recent years which
focus predominantly on smart or digital cities. These include the Future Cities Institute
(Australia), Sustainable Digital Cities (Australia) and the Fraunhofer Fokus Centre for
Smart Cities (Germany). They explore how to create innovation ecosystems for city
growth, and generally advocate integrated city systems. The Fraunhofer Fokus Centre
works in partnership with business, government and the EU to develop practical,
demand-oriented initiatives for application in developed and developing cities. Other
think tanks have individual initiatives or research programmes on the topic of digital
or future cities. For example, The Institute for the Future (USA) has developed a
‘forecast  map’  called  ‘The  Future  of  Cities,  Information  and  Inclusion’  which  charts  the  
crossover between urbanisation and digitalisation. It identifies the harnessing of data
as a critical issue for the next decade and beyond (IFTF, 2011).
49
Future of specific cities
Several policy institutes and think tanks are considering how to secure optimum
futures for a particular city. These think tanks often have a strong economic emphasis
to their work. In New York, the Center for an Urban Future is dedicated to providing
solutions for growing and diversifying the local economy, expanding economic
opportunity and targeting problems facing low-income neighbourhoods. In the UK,
the Centre for London aims to develop new ways of addressing the challenges London
faces, and to foster fresh thinking about its future. Housing and infrastructure in
Future London are major workstreams. The Centre also explores how London can
remain an economically competitive global city in the future, whilst also building
stronger ties with the rest of the UK.
Sustainability
The question of how to achieve a Sustainable City is one which is frequently tackled by
think  tanks  and  research  institutes.  However,  the  term  ‘sustainability’  does  not  have  a  
clearly defined meaning when used by these organisations, and the sub-themes and
agendas encompassed can be quite different. For example, Sustainable Cities
International   focuses   on   the   traditional   ‘resource   based’   interpretation   of  
sustainability – it looks primarily at energy use, urban air and water. For the Future
Cities   Collaborative,   however,   the   stated   aim   of   ‘building   sustainable   cities’   is   an  
umbrella for a broader remit. The Collaborative: works with mayors to encourage
urban revitalisation and improved liveability; looks at alternative transport
possibilities; place making, disaster management and urban design; and researches
more adaptive solutions to energy and water demands. Meanwhile, the Intel
Collaborative Research Institute on Sustainable Connected   Cities   adopts   a   ‘human  
centred’   interpretation   of   sustainable   cities   and   is   concerned   with   enhancing   and  
changing how people live, interact and engage with cities (Schöning et al, 2012).
Character of the built environment
The Royal Institute of British   Architects   think   tank,   ‘Building   Futures’,   aims   to  
promote public and political debate on the future of the built environment, and its
socio-economic and environmental impact over a twenty-year horizon. It seeks to map
how digital technology, rising sea  levels  or  the  UK’s  ageing  population  may  come  to  
shape the future city. The Why Factory (see section 2.4 above) also produces models
and visualisations of the built environment in cities of the future.
The emerging themes we describe above highlight that most English-language urban
future think tanks are based in the developed world. There appear to be fewer
institutes considering the future city in developing nations, however, those that do tend
to tackle rather different issues. The African Centre for Cities (2013), for example,
50
explains that in Africa, preparing cities for the future is an urgent political and
governance challenge:
“[I]ssues of adequate food supply, affordable shelter, employment opportunities,
water and waste management, public transportation, crime and disease, and
environmental   degradation   and   climate   change…intertwine   with   critical   social  
processes such as exclusion and conflict, which require effective socio-political
management  institutions  and  processes.”  
City planning is a particularly key issue for many developing nation think tanks
working in the future cities space. The Africa Research Institute for example frequently
publishes on urban planning: see for example, its recent publication Who Will Plan
Africa’s  Cities?  (Africa  Research  Institute,  2013).    
Prathima Manohar, founder of The Urban Vision, an Indian think tank, expressed the
difficulties for developing nations in engaging with the future in an interview with the
Financial  Times,  explaining  “Policymakers  are  struggling  to  deal  with  the  present  and  
are finding it impossible to look at the next wave of urbanisation, which will be bigger
and will grow at a very  fast  pace.”  (Fontanella-Khan, 2010)
2.7 Supranational and inter-governmental organisations
Inter-governmental and supranational organisations have become increasingly
engaged and influential on urban issues and challenges. An inter-governmental
organisation – such as the United Nations, NATO and the World Bank - is a treatyratified
association of states designed to promote and execute international cooperative
agendas in areas such as peace-keeping, environmental protection, or
economic growth. Inter-governmental  organisations  may  have  some  ‘supranational’  
features or agencies, whereby states accept that decisions made at the higher level are
binding both in theory and practice. This section includes the World Bank in its
analysis due to the bank’s  global  focus  and  links  with  the  United  Nations,  but  other  
international financial institutions are reviewed separately in section 2.8.
The sheer size and breadth of focus of most inter-governmental organisations means
that they do not tend to have an organisation-wide consensus about what the future of
cities either means or should look like. The UN, for example, has many sub-divisions
that operate and affect the future cities dialogue separately. Their interpretations of
the future city align with their own specific remits. For example, UNISDR, the UN
Office  for  Disaster  Reduction  Risk  is  concerned  with  city  resilience.  It  runs  a  ‘Making  
Cities  Resilient’  campaign,  which  provides  support  and  recommendations  for  cities  
and   local   government.   Meanwhile,   UNEP,   the   UN’s   environment   programme,   is  
51
concerned with carbon neutrality, reduced greenhouse gases and the green economy
in the future city. Even UN agencies, which would not at first sight be linked with the
future cities agenda, are carrying out work which will affect future cities – for example
UNESCO (in heritage preservation), UNHCR (refugees and migration) and UNICEF
(children’s  citizen voice).
Equally,   the   European   Union’s   responsibilities   are   extremely   broad,   and   cover  
economic, social, political and environmental spheres. Its vision for the European City
of Tomorrow, therefore, covers very general principles. The envisioned city is a place
of advanced social progress, democracy, cultural dialogue and diversity,
environmental regeneration, and an engine of economic growth (EU, 2011). Despite
the extensiveness of supra-national   organisations’   involvement   with   future   city  
thinking, certain themes are apparent or prevalent. This section outlines these key
themes, but also summarises some of the broader ideas on the future city that the
organisations have developed, which have had profound implications for how national
policymakers and corporate decision-makers understand the future city.
Systems of cities and city systems
In   2009,   the   World   Bank’s   landmark   World Development Report identified the
concept  of  ‘systems  of  cities’,  and  recognised  the  distinct  roles  played  by  larger  and  
smaller cities within a national or regional system. The complementary economic
functions of cities within a system have immediate implications for planning the future
of cities in terms of where innovation can be fostered, what sectors are to be
encouraged, and how transport can best serve the overall system functionality. The
Bank’s  urban  strategy  focuses  on  partnering  with  national  and  city  governments  to  
build these productive systems of cities.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has been
instrumental   in   leading   the   move   away   from   ‘one-size-fits-all’   national   urban  
programmes. It recognised that a much deeper engagement with spatial policies and
with the relationships between cities in a regional or national system is necessary in
order to secure optimal outcomes for future cities (Clark and Clark, 2014). Its future
cities policies and programmes tend to demonstrate to and assist with city leaders in
maximising productivity and employment growth, with a keen eye on sustainability
and affordable housing (OECD, 2014a).
In 2014, UN Habitat has produced a consensus document that describes The City We
Need (Figure 2.9). This establishes essential paths for building a New Urban Agenda
towards the 2016 Habitat III Conference, which is run with a number of global partners
(UN Habitat, 2014).
52
The City We Need is a very clear overview of the future
cities discourse within UN-Habitat and its partners. It
is adamant that public service provision and systems
upgrades   alone   “do   not   address   basic   structural  
problems nor do they offer answers appropriately
scaled for tomorrow’s  challenges.”  Instead,  it  calls  for  
a  “well-coordinated  system  of  systems”.
“Consider   [a   city’s]   complex   and   interlocking  
systems: engineering arrangements, social and
cultural organizations, economic structures and
environmental components. If like a tree where
different parts work in harmony, they heighten
possibilities for prosperity. But if like a machine they
run amuck, they malfunction and heighten human
frailty” (UN Habitat, 2014).
It  is  significant  that  the  terms  ‘smart’  or  ‘integrated’  do  not  appear  once  in  The City We
Need document. Instead, its social and governance focus means that inclusive (6
mentions), planned (6) and resilience (4) are more central to the narrative.
Smart cities
The European Commission has taken considerable interest in the smart cities agenda.
In 2011 it launched the Smart Cities and Communities European Innovation
Partnership to boost the development of smart technologies in cities by: pooling
research resources from energy, transport and ICT; and concentrating them on a small
number of demonstration projects which will be implemented in partnership with
cities.  In  2013,  €365  million  in  EU  funds  were  earmarked  for  demonstration  of  these  
types of urban technology solutions.
One  example  is  GEYSER  (“Green  nEtworked   data  centres   as   energY  proSumers   in  
smaRt   city   environments”),   an   international   consortium   of   ten   European  
organisations  awarded  €3m  funding  to  achieve  the  intelligent  integration  of  energyefficient
networked urban data centres, powered partly by renewable energy. GEYSER
aims to trade off energy (i.e. power and/or heat) exchanges with smart city
infrastructures against workload exchanges with other Data Centres in its network
(Wattics, 2014).
Horizon  2020  is  the  EU’s  new  funding  programme  for  research  and  innovation.  It  has  
a  total  “pot”  of  nearly  €80  billion  in  funds  available  over  7  years  (2014  to  2020),  of  
which  €92.32  million  in  2014  and  €108.18  million  in  2015,  are  being  allocated  for  
Figure 2.9 Cover of The City We
Need
53
smart city projects. Under the funding programme, cities apply for funding for their
own  ‘lighthouse’  projects  i.e.  demonstrator  projects.  Those  cities  that  propose  schemes  
with a holistic approach to the three pillars of low energy districts (integrated
infrastructure and sustainable mobility) and which are easily replicable across the EU
will be favoured (EU, 2014). The Smart Cities Stakeholder Platform is the European
Commission's new web-based platform for those interested in smart urbanism. Open
to anyone who registers, it aims to cultivate smart cities by bringing stakeholders
together from across Europe to exchange ideas, launch projects and improve policy at
local, regional, national and EU level.
The  World  Bank  is  also  involved  in  the  ‘smart  city’  space.  Its ICT sector collaborates
with urban sector staff to make operations smarter, but there has not yet been an
adjustment in lending activities to respond to the opportunities or challenges around
smart cities. Instead the Bank is involved in preparing local governments themselves
to be smarter clients. Where the Bank has been active is in targeting improvements in
particular systems, namely water metering, electricity metering, building energy, and
energy efficiency more generally. It is also active in basic transport innovation, such as
street lighting to improve traffic flow and electronic citywide systems. It aims to
develop a toolkit for cities thinking about e-government holistically, so that they can
make informed choices when private sector firms approach them to sell a given system.
Urban Sector Manager Abha Joshi-Ghani  has  said  that  “smart  cities”  in  developing  
country  contexts  is  “really  about  good  governance.  It’s  about  giving  basic  services  to  
our  citizens.  It’s  about  liveability.  It’s  about  how  we are using our resources. It is how
a city functions on a day-to-day  basis… doing  more  with  less”  (Clark  and  Moonen,  
2014).
The OECD also works to develop ICT applications for smart grids, smart sensor
networks, and systems in the water and health sectors (OECD, 2014b).
Sustainable development
Amongst the supranational organisations engaging with sustainable urban
development,  is  the  World  Bank’s  Low  Carbon,  Liveable  Cities  Initiative,  launched  in  
2013, helps cities finance sustainable development, building fiscal and data capacity.
Furthermore, its Sustainable Cities Initiative focuses on building adaptability and
mitigation capability across Europe and Central Asia.
The  OECD’s  future  cities  policies  and  programmes  tend  to  demonstrate  and  assist  city  
leaders in maximising productivity and employment growth, but with a keen eye on
sustainability and affordable housing. In 2013 the OECD held an International
Conference on Future of Cities in Kitakyushu, Japan, where the Green Growth in Cities
report highlighted the role green investment can play in generating growth and jobs.
54
It drew on case studies of Paris, Chicago, Kitakyushu and Stockholm to identify green
policies that can respond to urban growth priorities, and suggested how to implement
and finance them.
UN-Habitat, the UN agency for human settlements, is one of the most active UN bodies
in the future cities conversation. It hosts the bi-annual World Urban Forum, one of the
largest city conferences in the world. Although themes of the WUF have been varied,
there  has  been  a  general  trend  towards  sustainable  or  ‘balanced’  development  as  an
organizing idea (Figure 2.11). In 2012, the WUF entitled The Urban Future covered
themes of urban planning institutions, prosperity, productivity and mobility.
Figure  2.11:  Themes  of  UN  Habitat’s  World  Urban  Forum  since  2002
Source: Wuf7 (2014)
Cities without slums
The Cities Alliance, formed in 1999, is an unusual partnership organisation in that it
unites several supra-national and inter-governmental organisations, namely the
World Bank, UN-Habitat and the European Union. It also has a wider range of
partners, including city networks (Metropolis and UCLG), national governments
(including the USA, Australia, Norway and the Philippines) and NGOs (Slum Dwellers
International and Habitat for Humanity International).
Shortly after its formation the Alliance produced the Cities without Slums Action Plan,
a plan with a proposed target of improving the lives of 100 million slum dwellers by
the year 2020. This joint plan signified the first time such a measurable target had been
set in the international development arena (Cities Alliance, 2014a). It was
subsequently incorporated into the United Nations Millennium Declaration in 2000
as Target 11 of the Millennium Development Goals. Progress in achieving the Cities
without Slums goal will be monitored through two indicators: (i) the proportion of
people with access to improved sanitation; and (ii) the proportion of people with access
to secure tenure (Cities Alliance, 2014b).
55
2. 8 International financial institutions
International financial institutions (IFIs), including the World Bank, are active
participants in the future cities discourse, shaping future urban development through
their  lending  policies.  A  2014  paper  produced  for  the  Future  Cities  Catapult,  ‘Urban  
Innovation and Investment: the Role of International Financial Institutions and
Development  Banks’  (Clark  and  Moonen,  2014),  examines  these  policies  in  detail.  
International financial institutions and development banks operate at global, regional
and sub-regional levels, and may have both public sector and private sector lending
arms (Figure 2.12). Roughly 10-15% of the total portfolio of most IFIs goes to
designated  ‘urban’  programmes,  in  addition  to  sector  spending  that  also  impacts  city  
development. As a result, IFIs have become critical development partners to cities,
supplying invaluable technical and knowledge support and tailored solutions, based
on their unique experience of investing in challenging urban environments.
Figure 2.12: Typology of international financial institutions and development banks
engaging with future city needs
56
Future-oriented partnerships with cities are a growing feature of IFI practice. An
examination  of  IFIs’  lending  policies  is  a  good  indicator  of  their  future  city  conceptions  
and concerns. The early development stage of most IFI clients means the finance
institutions tend to draw on ideas of resilience, inclusiveness and sustainability rather
than smartness or digital solutions.
The  most  common  ‘themes’  or  areas  of  IFI  (future-oriented) urban lending are:
Integrated city systems
Since 2008, IFIs have been gradually incorporating aspects of integrated multi-sector
development  and  ‘city  systems’  thinking  into  their  approach  to  cities.  This  is  a  response  
to surging demand for urban services, a deeper understanding of urban processes, and
the need for integrated solutions. Innovation for IFIs tends to refer to the next stage or
next threshold of priorities in a specific context of incremental development. In
practice, this means support for: metropolitanisation processes; smarter investment
in infrastructure; promotion of long term and resilience thinking; empowerment of
city management systems; help to shape national urban policies; adaptation of
financing instruments to support combined approaches and life cycle financing; and
the mobilisation of citizens around investment needs. IFIs that have adopted positive
ideas of integrated urban systems include the Asian Development Bank, the Islamic
Development Bank and the European Investment Bank.
Future urban mobility
Transport infrastructure and mobility are a key area of investment for many IFIs,
comprising up to a third of total lending. Development Banks often need to fill a
financing deficit in this area because the long construction risk periods create
difficulties in obtaining affordable project finance from conventional lenders. IFIs are
active in part-financing metro systems, bus rapid transport networks, and high-speed
urban freeway projects, as well as multi-modal systems (Clark and Moonen, 2014).
Sustainability
IFIs use the term sustainability frequently in relation to their future cities investments,
to indicate not just low-carbon aspirations, but also cities that are well managed, well
planned and efficient. For example the Inter-American  Development  Bank’s  Emerging
and Sustainable Cities Initiative, established in 2011, helps growing medium-sized
cities make more informed planning decisions and take fast actions towards smart
urban development. It focuses not just on environmental sustainability of growth, but
on comprehensive urban development, fiscal sustainability and good governance.
Sustainability   is   also   one   of   the   European   Investment   Bank’s   priority   areas   for  
additional funding, as part of its ambition for lower-carbon growth and effective urban
mobility (Cities Alliance, 2014b). An energy-efficient power system is also important
57
for IFIs working in challenging environments such as KfW and the European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (EBRD).
Resilience
A number of IFIs focus on building resilience in their investee cities – usually referring
to  the  capacity  to  withstand  climate  change.  The  Asian  Development  Bank’s  Urban  
Climate Change Resilience Fund is supporting and scaling up initiatives across 25
medium-sized cities in Asia to mitigate against unusual weather events and sustained
periods  of  flooding  and  drought.  Similarly,  The  African  Development  Bank’s  Clean  
Technology Fund (CTF) offers a mix of financial incentives, risk mitigation tools,
technical assistance, and knowledge transfer to help make adaptation and mitigation
investments more attractive to private investors. KfW is also moving towards the idea
of resilient cities, and is using data in order to understand what kind of basic climate
change investments can be most effective (Devex, 2013). Resilience does not yet tend
to imply economic or social capabilities in these IFI framings, but instead tends to be
used to help cities think about the longer-term and the importance of responding to
external shocks.
2.9 City networks
Cities are assembling in national, regional or international networks to share
experiences and information, to work towards shared goals or in relation to common
interests, or to achieve critical mass for lobbying or political purposes. These networks
of cities make important contributions to the discourse on the future city more
generally. Membership of an influential network can provide cities with a real
possibility of influencing the future cities debate, as well as providing cities with an
opportunity to share ideas and learn from the experience of others.
Some networks connect cities not only with each other, but also with other
stakeholders, including the private sector. The World Economic Forum connects
business, political, academic and other leaders, offering an environment for urban
developers and the private sector to exchange best practices. Its Future Urban
Development Initiative seeks to foster greater collaboration in order to accelerate the
transition towards innovative urban development models. Under the Champion City
scheme, the WEF brings together experts from different sectors in a nominated city
(Tianjin was the inaugural city in 2012) to identify strategies and outline
implementation paths to address key urban development challenges.
The largest (and probably most influential) city networks consider, discuss and seek to
affect a very wide range and large number of urban issues and future city themes. These
might include climate change, safety and security, transport, art and culture,
education, or housing. For example:
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United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG). An influential
network which represents local governments on the world stage and
supports international co-operation between cities. It is concerned with a
full range of city issues, including climate change, gender equality, local
finance, disaster risk reduction, social inclusion, migration, culture and
water  and  sanitation.  In  2010  at  UCLG’s  third  international  congress,  the  
constituent   members   adopted   “The   City   of   2030   – Our   Manifesto”,  
outlining common goals for the future city. The range of goals is striking –
the future city is described as (amongst other characteristics): a democratic,
self-governing city; an inclusive city; a city with a vision; a liveable city; a
creative city; a secure city; a mobile city; a city without slums; and a cleaner,
greener, more compact city (UCLG, 2013).
Metropolis (World Association of the Major Metropolises).
Brings together representatives from many emerging and developed cities
to debate shared challenges. Based in Barcelona, it runs initiatives in the
areas of Governance, Social Inclusion, Urban Innovation and
Sustainability.    The  theme  of  its  2013  Annual  Meeting  was  ‘Caring  Cities’  
which encompassed sessions on Safer Cities, sustainability, city financing,
housing, Smart/Agile Cities, citizen engagement, resource resilience, urban
innovation, food resilience and transport (Metropolis, 2013).
Eurocities. A network  of  local  governments  from  over  130  of  Europe’s  
cities (and 40 partner cities) drawn from across 35 countries. It works with
the  European  Parliament  and  European  Commission  influencing  policy  ‘to  
ensure that it is based on front line experience and to increase recognition
and  resources  for  cities’.  It  provides  a  forum  for  knowledge exchange, and
seeks to influence citizen behaviour (Eurocities 2014a). Eurocities supports
the   EU’s   2020   Strategy   (which   sets   out   targets   in   employment,   R&D,  
climate change, education and social inclusion) and describes its own
priorities   as   ‘citizens, climate   and   jobs’.   These   broad   priorities   house   a  
multitude of sub-themes from smart cities, to urban regeneration,
education and mobility (Eurocities 2014b).
Conferences, whilst not networks in themselves, constitute important networking
opportunities in which cities, the private sector, academics and civil society groups can
join together to share knowledge, experience and lead thought development. Their
agendas can provide valuable insights into the future city concerns and priorities of
both cities themselves, and the broader networks of actors and stakeholders with
whom they work. A scan of recent and upcoming future city conferences reflects
extremely  broad  interpretations  of  the  ‘future  city’,  for  example:  ‘Arab  Future  Cities  
Conference’,  Doha  April  2014  (smart  cities);;  ‘Future  Cities’,  Dubai  September  2014  
(resilience   and   sustainability);;   ‘The   Future   of   Our   Cities’,   Hastings   2014   (climate  
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change);;  ‘Future  Cities’,  Copenhagen  November  2013  (green  cities,  intelligent  energy  
use   and   big   data);;   ‘Cities of   the   Future:   BRE   Trust   Research   Conference’,   London  
February   2014   (energy,   infrastructure   and   wellbeing);;   and   ‘Cities   of   the   Future:  
Innovation  in  Practice’,  Istanbul    September  2013  (water  security).  As  with  formal  city  
networks, the largest conferences and those which attract the most significant
numbers of city leaders tend to cover a large number and diversity of future city themes
within one conference. For example:
In Asia, the World Cities Summit 2014 will convene Mayors, ministers and city
leaders to discuss liveable and sustainable cities. Six thematic tracks will be
pursued and discussed: Safe and Liveable Cities; Will Mayors Rule the World;
Making Plans into Reality; Building Resilient Cities; Innovative Urban
Solutions for Liveable and Future-ready cities; and Future Mobility.
The  New  Cities  Summit  claims  to  be  “the  leading  global  event  on  the  future  of  
the  urban  world”.  In  its  three  years  of  operation,  it  has  facilitated  “Re-thinking
Cities”  (2014)  - the transformation of the 21st metropolis through technology,
as  well  as  the  “Human  City”  (2012)  ,  the  future  of  urban  mobility,  big  urban  
data and future proofing cities.
Whilst the largest city networks and conferences focus on a large and diverse range of
future city themes, a couple of issues emerge as recurring concerns. These most
prevalent   future   city   themes   do   not   only   concern   ‘mega-networks’,   but   have   also  
spawned a plethora of more tightly-focused city groupings:
Climate change and environmental mitigation
City networks most visibly convene around the environmental sector in pursuit of
tightly defined aims. There are several potential explanations for this. First, most city
leaders share the view that not only is climate change very urgent, but also that
prevention and mitigation strategies are a key responsibility of those in charge of the
built environment and transport systems. City governments tend also to have some
important administrative responsibilities and fiscal capabilities in these sectors.
Second, there has been a perceived failure of national governments to take sufficiently
bold actions to address climate change, whereas city leaders have found it easier to
gain local citizen support. In some cases this is due to urban problems, such as poor
air quality, threats from flooding and other impacts of extreme weather, and concerns
about food security.
Lastly, cities have received support from influential leaders (Bill Clinton, Al Gore,
Michael Bloomberg, and others) and from inter-governmental organisations such as
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the World Bank, UN and OECD. Examples of influential climate change-focused city
networks include:
The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40). A network of the large
international   cities   committed   to   “resilient   and   liveable   megacitiesdemonstrating
action, impact, and opportunity."
The Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCRN). A
network of ten core cities in India, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam, partfunded
by the Rockefeller Foundation, experimenting to collectively improve
the ability of the cities to withstand, to prepare for, and to recover from the
projected impacts of climate change.
The World Mayors Council on Climate Change. A network of over 80
local government leaders working to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.
Energy Cities. The European Association of local authorities in energy
transition. With more than 4,500 member cities, Energy Cities has a long-term
vision of a low energy city with a high quality of life for all.
The South-East Asia Eco-Cities Network. A network recently established
by the Industrial Development Organisation to share knowledge and learn
from   Japan’s   eco-cities achievements. The five cities are Pintan, China;
Iskandar, Malaysia; Cebu, the Philippines; Map Ta Phut, Thailand; and Da
Nang, Vietnam (Eco-Business, 2013).
ICLEI (known as Local Governments for Sustainability). An
international association of over 1000 cities local and metropolitan
governments that seeks to prepare cities for sustainable development.
Originally focused purely upon environmental initiatives, it has broadened its
mandate to the whole sphere  of  ‘sustainability’,  to  include  smart  infrastructure  
and green economic transition. ICLEI also runs a Future City Leaders initiative
- a global network and capacity building programme for young elected
municipal leaders interested in urban sustainability.
Secure cities
City networks working towards developing secure and safe future cities are visible
around the world. The proliferation of these networks is partly attributable to the fact
that cities are the perceived targets of major security threats: whether criminal,
terrorist or even nuclear. They are centres of trafficking (drugs, weapons, or human),
organised, violent and petty crime. As such, crime prevention and security issues are
of particular importance to cities and city leaders. Furthermore, just as with climate
change, there has been a perceived failure of national governments to achieve results
in securing safe cities, or even to co-operate fully in relation to cross-border security
issues (Barber, 2013). Examples of city networks aiming to achieve secure future cities
include:
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European Cities Against Drugs. Europe’s  leading  organisation  promoting  
a drug free Europe. The network has 249 city members across 30 European
countries, including 20 capital cities. The organisation hosts annual Mayoral
conferences, and works to develop initiatives against drug abuse, opposing
legalisation and promoting policies to eradicate drug abuse (ECAD, 2014).
Mayors for Peace. A network established by the Mayor of Hiroshima in 1982,
which aims to provide a means for cities to work together for the abolition of
nuclear weapons. It has 6,000 member cities from 158 countries across the
world.   The   organisation’s   2020   Vision   Campaign   sets   a   goal   of   abolishing  
nuclear weapons by 2020 (Mayors for Peace, 2014).
European Forum for Urban Security. A Paris based network which unites
250 local authorities from 17 countries working on all major issues relating to
urban safety and security. Its Cities Manifesto calls for the promotion of long
term, proactive crime prevention policies. Signatories agree to invest in crime
prevention  “to  guarantee that the security of future generations, indispensable
to  the  quality  of  life  in  cities,  is  a  basic  right  for  all”  (EFUS,  2014).  
Healthy cities
Although a less widespread focus than climate change or urban security, a number of
city networks around the world are focused on healthy future cities themes. In the USA,
both  the  US  Conference  of  Mayors  and  the  National  League  of  Cities  run  ‘Healthy  City’  
programmes which seek to develop cities as centres of healthy eating and active living
(Leadership for Healthy Communities, 2014). Within Europe there are more than 30
‘National  Healthy  Cities  Networks’,  which  have  been  designated  as  such  by  the  World  
Health  Organization  (WHO).  The  WHO’s  objective  is  that  the  city  networks  should  
create a supportive environment which enables cities to put health improvement and
health equity at the core of all local policies (UK Healthy Cities Network, 2014). In Asia,
the Alliance for Healthy Cities has city members from Australia, Cambodia, China,
Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Mongolia and Vietnam amongst others. Network
members also include national governments, NGOs, private sector businesses and
academic  institutions.  Members  subscribe  to  the  WHO’s  approach  to  ‘Healthy  Cities’,  
incorporating health issues and health concerns into all aspects of public policy
(Alliance for Healthy Cities, 2014).
2.10 Philanthropic organisations
Philanthropic foundations, primarily in the US, but also in the UK and Japan, have
become major forces in the future cities sphere. They engage in the future cities space
as  a  means  of  ‘giving  back’  to  society,  in  accordance  with  their  overall  objectives  and  
founding principles. They possess the endowments, attributes and assets to support
urban innovation locally, often engaging with multiple local governments and
62
jurisdictions. Many foundations are more active than ever in partnering with other
stakeholders to solve long-standing problems of urban fairness, access and
productivity.
Major philanthropies have significant funds to spend on furthering their future cities
agendas, and invest these funds in a variety of ways; direct city spending, research
sponsorship, awareness-raising through collaborations e.g. the Rockefeller
Foundation sponsorship of the Guardian Cities micro-site. Similarly, the Ford
Foundation sponsors urb.im - a social platform which engages urban practitioners and
social activists in focused problem-solving to reduce urban poverty in developing
countries.
Although the roots of many philanthropic foundations are in the US, their reach and
influence   on   cities   and   their   futures   is   broad:   The   Rockefeller   Foundation’s   100  
Resilient Cities campaign (see further details below) received applications from 400
cities across 6 continents (Rockefeller Foundation, 2014b):  The  US  based  Bloomberg’s  
Mayor Challenge is open to any European city with more than 100,000 residents; and
since its launch in 2007 the Gates Foundation Urban Poverty Special initiative has
committed nearly $150 million to organisations working in urban centres in Africa,
Asia, and Latin America.
The major future city themes addressed by philanthropic institutions include:
The inclusive city
Philanthropic institutions often interpret future cities through the lens of poverty and
inequality reduction, and see the city of the future as a vehicle for promoting inclusion.
The Ford Foundation is a very influential organisation engaging with the future of
cities. The Foundation has a long history of international involvement with long-term
city development, including metropolitan planning in cities like Calcutta, Delhi and
Ahmedabad in the 1950s and 1960s. After a hiatus, it is now promoting an optimistic
view on the potential of cities, led by empowered Mayors, to pursue urban sustainable
development goals through good policy and planning (Don Chen, personal
communication,  April  22nd  2014).  Its  programme,  ‘Just  Cities’,  invests  (and  leverages  
co-funding) in initiatives for sustainable, inclusive and just city futures. Its
programme’s  aim  is  to  ‘advance a vision of how fairness, opportunity and equity can
serve  as  the  defining  features  of  this  new  era  of  urbanization.’  (Ford  Foundation,  2014).  
George  Soros’  Open  Society  Foundations  works  to  ‘build  vibrant  and  tolerant  societies  
whose governments are  accountable  and  open  to  the  participation  of  all  people’  (Open  
Society Foundations, 2014). Their cities work aims to find solutions to urban
63
challenges which impede opportunity and justice. Recent forward-looking cities
projects  include:  the  ‘At  Home  in  Europe’  project  which  supports  innovative  city-based
initiatives,  enhancing  opportunities  for  full  and  equal  citizen  participation;;  and  ‘Living  
Together’,  a  range  of  projects  which  promote  inclusion  of  minority  groups  in  11  cities  
in Europe (Open Society Foundations, 2014b). Similarly, the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation’s   ‘Urban   Poverty   Special   Initiative’   focuses   on   building   the   capacity   of  
organisations working on the ground with the urban poor, integrating the voice of the
poor into the urban planning process and building city-level partnerships.
In the UK, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation, which has an overall aim of inspiring
social  change,  has  a  focus  area  of  ‘Cities,  growth  and  poverty’  looking  at  how  to  more  
effectively link urban growth and jobs to households in poverty.
Figure 2.13 illustrates the breadth of areas in which philanthropies concerned with the
inclusive city are active.
Figure  2.13:  Themes  encompassed  within  the  concept  of  a  ‘Just’  or  ‘Inclusive’  city
Even where inclusivity is not the main future city focus of a particular philanthropic
organisation, smaller projects still deal with inclusion and poverty reduction. For
64
example, the Rockefeller Foundation focuses primarily on Resilient Cities, but also
runs  ‘Informal  City  Dialogues’  in  which  it  works  with  residents  of  Lima,  Accra,  Manila,  
Chennai, Nairobi and Bangkok to find out how innovation in the informal sector can
be used to create resilience and inclusion in future cities.
Resilient cities
The Rockefeller Foundation has firmly focused its attentions on resilience of future
cities. Its 100 Resilient Cities Centennial Challenge (Figure 2.14), launched in 2013,
will select 100 cities which have demonstrated commitment to building their capacities
to prepare for, withstand and recover or even thrive from shocks and stresses. It will
provide them with technical support and resources for developing and implementing
urban resilience plans for a 3 year period.
The Challenge defines
resilience as bouncing
back and emerging
stronger from
unexpected shocks climate
change,
environmental hazards,
war, terrorism or civil
unrest - rather than
economic or market
turbulence. 33 of the
final 100 cities have been selected so far (as of March 2014) and these cities are
generally those at risk from rising sea levels, civil unrest or natural hazards e.g. New
Orleans, Rotterdam, Christchurch, and Ramallah (Rockefeller Foundation, 2014b).
Leaders of the future city
Bloomberg Philanthropies, founded by former Mayor of New York Michael Bloomberg,
sees future cities as spaces whose character will be determined by their leadership. The
Bloomberg  Mayors’  Challenge  competition,  initially  run  in  the  USA  and  since  extended  
to the EU, seeks to inspire city leaders to come up with bold ideas that solve major
problems and improve city life – which can ultimately be shared with other cities. The
city with the most innovative and transferable idea receives $5million to put it into
action. The intention is to transform the way local government thinks and works. It has
also  entered  into  partnership  with  NYU’s  Robert  F.  Wagner  Graduate  School  of  Public  
Service to develop resources for city leaders across the world.
Figure 2.14 Welcome Page of Rockefellers 100 Resilient Cities
Centennial Challenge
65
Climate change and sustainability
The   Clinton   Foundation’s   Clinton Climate Initiative (CCI)   reflects   Bill   Clinton’s  
personal interest in climate change mitigation. The CCI Cities program works in
partnership with the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, a network of 63 cities from
around the world, in order to implement meaningful and sustainable climate-related
policies and programs. It works in a broad range of areas in order to improve climate
change outcomes in cities of the future, specifically: Energy; Finance and Economic
Development; Measurement and Planning; Sustainable Communities; Transport;
Waste; Water; and Adaptation.
Other collaborations between foundations have also been set up to pool knowledge and
money around urban sustainability. The Funders' Forum on Sustainable Cities is a
foundation-led network committed to engaging in sustainable and inclusive growth in
cities by addressing urban poverty, opportunity and governance. The lead foundation
is the European Foundation Centre in Brussels, whose 2014 annual assembly explores
urban social movements. The Forum’s  work  pays  attention  to  managing  population  
and infrastructure size and needs in expanding cities, investing in community wellbeing
and safety, and sustained leadership and proper policy execution. Partner
foundations must show interest and commitment to dialogue and patient solutionbuilding,
and participate at the annual World Urban Forum. Other participating
foundations include the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, The Ford Foundation, The
German Marshall Fund of the United States, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian,
Fundación AVINA and Realdania, with membership expanding rapidly in 2014
(European Foundation Centre, 2014).
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, based in the UK, is primarily concerned with
promoting   resource   efficiency   and   movement   towards   a   ‘regenerative   circular  
economy’  and  a  sustainable  future.  The  Foundation  engages  with  future  cities  as  a  key  
space in which the circular economy will be built. It promotes third party activities,
events or initiatives which deal with future cities from a point of view of resource or
energy efficiency (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2014).
Samsung, the multinational corporate, also carries out philanthropic activity in this
area. As a corporation, its corporate social responsibility focuses are on children and
the  environment,  and  this  carries  into  its  future  cities  philanthropy.  Samsung’s  Global  
Youth for the Environment Forum promotes urban environmental awareness amongst
school children, with lectures on topics such as Climate Change and Sustainable Cities,
and the Roles of Municipalities in Building Sustainable Cities (Samsung Village, 2014).
The Mori Memorial Foundation, based in Tokyo, is a major philanthropic foundation
and research institute focused on the future of cities. Established in 1981, it aims to
create  urban  environments  that  ‘lead  to  sustainable  life  for  all’.  The  foundation  adopts  
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a   broad   interpretation   of   ‘sustainable’   which   encompasses   environmental,   social,  
political and financial considerations. Particular focus areas are ageing in the future
city (particularly in Tokyo), and city attractiveness to both inhabitants and visitors –
an idea explored by the Foundation’s   Global   Power   City   Index  (see   Box   5),   (Mori,  
2014).
Integration of city systems is not yet a theme widely taken up by philanthropic
institutions. The Ford Foundation is one exception, which notes that Just Cities will
only  be  created  with  “fresh  thinking and new partnerships that reach beyond municipal
borders, unite the public and private sectors and offer integrated approaches to
perennial  challenges  like  transportation,  housing,  education  and  the  environment”.  
2.11 City indices and benchmarks: key trends in notions of successful
cities/future cities
Urban indices produced by multi-governmental institutions, business consultancies,
research foundations, media outlets and cities themselves, have become one of the
most important means of tracking future city trends and patterns. Their assessments
of performance and perception provide a distinctive insight into how cities are coping
with the accelerated pace of change and the demand for new strategies and approaches
to internationalisation. They also illustrate what different groups consider important
about cities in comparative and competitive perspective, both now and in the future.
A recent 2013 analysis of over 150 national and international indices worldwide
provides several important pointers of city success in the medium-term future
(Moonen and Clark, 2013). These include studies by organisations as varied as the
Economist Intelligence Unit, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, UBS, IW
Consulting (Germany) and Perú Económico (see Appendix 1). The review identified
ten categories of indexes, rankings and benchmarking studies that variously reflect the
priorities of citizens, mobile global firms, investors and visitors:
• All-round urban provision (7 indexes)
• Finance, investment and business environment (25 indexes)
• Macroeconomic performance (10 indexes)
• Quality of life (29 indexes)
• Knowledge economy, human capital and technology (18 indexes)
• Infrastructure and real estate (19 indexes)
• Environment and sustainability (14 Indexes)
• Image, brand and destination power (12 indexes)
• Culture and diversity (8 indexes)
• Cost of living and affordability (8 indexes)
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Box 4: How City Indices and Rankings work
Indices draw on a complex synthesis of available data, expert analysis and
perception surveys to develop ideas about what does, and will, constitute city
success.   Indices   are   not   only   a   source   of   ‘home   truths’   about   the   comparative  
strength  of  a  city’s  provision  in  a  given  area.  They  also  provide insight into what
kinds of city are likely to thrive in the future.
The  Global  Power  City  Index,  devised  by  the  Japan’s  Institute  for  Urban  Strategies  
and the Mori Memorial Foundation in 2008, has been a highly influential index that
has highlighted the strengths and weaknesses of large cities. The GPCI aims to be a
valuable tool for establishing future-oriented urban strategies, especially for Tokyo.
It assesses quantitative performance in the areas of Economy, R&D, Cultural
Interaction, Liveability, Ecology and Natural Environment, and (transport)
Accessibility. Unusually, it collates these results to assess how well cities provide for
the needs of different citizens - for managers, researchers, artists, visitors and
residents - to consider which demographics are being properly served. Although the
established world cities perform very well in this index, medium-sized central
European cities such as Frankfurt, Berlin, Zurich and Vienna all excel.
PwC’s  Cities  of  Opportunity  series  is  deliberately  focused on how prepared cities are
for  an  uncertain  future.  Its  2012  edition  contains  a  new  section  entitled  ‘The  City  
Tomorrow’,  which  draws  from  Oxford  Economics’  research  on  regional  and  world  
models. PwC has produced a model which gauges how cities will far in  five  “what  if”  
scenarios, depending on the trajectory of trade, economy, technology and social
demands over the next decade. Cities such as Toronto, Stockholm and Sydney are
consistently well-rated in this index, because of their economic and liveability
balance and their adaptability to new trends.
fDi  Magazine’s  Cities  of  the  Future  combines  large  datasets  with  an  expert  judging  
panel to assess the capacity of cities to promote inward investment over the medium
term. The main categories are not just economic scale and cost efficiency, but also
human resources, quality of life, business friendliness and FDI promotion strategy.
As such, cities with strong higher education institutions and attainment, reliable
health and school systems, existing concentrations of high-tech and knowledge
firms, and incentives and vision for future investor types, score well. In their
respective continents, the cities of Edinburgh, Bangalore and Santiago de Chile all
perform very strongly, even when their macro-economic conditions are not that
highly rated.
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The Hamburg Economic Development Board and Berenberg Bank have combined
to produce a biannual economic index ranking the 30 German cities of the future,
where productivity levels are high, innovation systems function well, and
international connectivity and flow is large. It views German city future success as
depending on attracting corporates, a strong regional political framework, sound
public finance, fast networks within the region, and the development of strategic
development pathways.
Source: Moonen and Clark (2013)
Indexes covering liveability, green cities, international image and cost of living have
become widely read and very influential internationally because of the appeal of
comparing city progress. Our study has found that a significant share of future cities
language use is linked to or inspired by results and phraseology derived from
international indices. They have inspired local debate about infrastructure projects, air
pollution, social mixity and ingredients for long-term tourist attraction.
When examined in aggregate, indices results and trends also show several important
factors that are linked to future success and potential:
Political  stability  and  business  framework  play  a  growing  role  in  cities’  capacity  
to attract investment. The largest global city economies not only benefit from
scale, but also possess the openness, reliable business environments and legal
and regulatory frameworks that assure increasingly risk-averse investors (as
well as tourists, students and firms).
Position in regional system - Cities still operate in a regional system that has
distinct assets that will shape how they evolve in the next 2-3 economic cycles.
European cities have peerless reputation for tolerance, diversity, openness,
culture, architecture, history and entertainment. North American cities excel
as a group for human capital, diversity and technology sector competitiveness
(energy, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology and IT). Leading Asian cities tend to
possess high infrastructure investment capabilities and the fastest growing
consumer spending demographic. Latin American cities tend to share similar
challenges around metropolitan governance, fiscal decentralisation, informal
housing, congestion and declining working-age populations.
‘First-mover’   cities   in   key   sectors   are   generally   more   resilient   to   global  
economic changes. Leading start-up and innovation cities such as Boston, San
Francisco and Tel Aviv have maintained their positions as world-class
‘ecosystems’  for  entrepreneurship.  Prominent  financial  centres  such  as  Zurich  
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and Toronto have retained or strengthened their position, at the expense of less
mature centres, even as emerging business capitals have become more
important nodes. Similar trends also appear for those cities that made early
initiatives in international higher education or the green economy.
Medium-sized cities are proving more capable of combining economic
dynamism with liveability and environmental imperatives. German,
Scandinavian and Canadian cities of between 1 and 4 million population are
showing how to blend a specialised institutional and corporate presence with
attractive lifestyle, high quality education at all tiers, and tangible
commitments towards sustainability. Others of similar scale are replicating and
adapting these approaches, for example in Latin America with a specific
programme - Ciudades Emergentes y Sostenibles - run by the Inter-American
Development Bank.
Finance   and   investment   tools   are   beginning   to   have   an   impact   on   cities’  
capacity to ensure infrastructure systems are functional and competitive.
Recent forecasts suggest that larger developing cities will need to invest 40% of
their growth over the next generation to maintain adequate infrastructure and
assets, compared to around 20% for more developed cities. The strong
performance of some emerging cities is linked to their span of service delivery
control, their wide access to locally-generated tax revenues, and their
productive mutual arrangements with higher tiers of government. Among
developed cities, the capacity to attract private sector investment has been
critical to performance since 2008.
3.
SHAPING
THE FUTURE
CITY
71
3. SHAPING THE FUTURE CITY
Discourse around future cities has developed a breadth and depth which has not been
seen before. Ideas, ideals, projections and predictions are springing from an ever
increasing array of stakeholders. Fortunately, contextual changes in recent years
means that cities are becoming better equipped than ever before to act on these new
ideas and projections.
Of course, it is important to recognise that cities around the world are highly diverse
social, economic, environmental and political entities. Cities vary hugely in terms of
size, wealth, demographics, level of development, quality and standard of living,
institutional framework and their degree of political and fiscal autonomy. These
variables combine to create highly place-specific contexts which are extremely
important. These specific circumstances will inevitably affect the pathways that
individual cities take, and the degree of control they have over their own futures.
Nonetheless, the emergence of new governance frameworks in recent years, including
the development of new tools and systems, means that cities are becoming better
equipped than ever before to plan for and shape their futures. Major new developments
include governance, finance, technology and leadership.
3.1 Governance
OECD analysis in 2009 highlighted that in the new wave of globalisation, most
important domestic policies have increasingly strong cross-sectoral and intergovernmental
dimensions. Most services and policies, whether in education, transport,
planning, housing, waste, energy, immigration, or the economy, involve multiple tiers
of government, and no tier of government is able to act effectively alone. The
complexity   of   governance   has   prompted   a   rethinking   of   ‘one-size-fits-all’   national  
urban programmes and policies, and city and metropolitan development strategies.
Over the past five years, several global organisations (including the OECD, World Bank
and UN) as well as national governments, have grasped the need for a much deeper
engagement with spatial policies, and with the relationships between cities in a
regional  or  national  configuration  (the  ‘system  of  cities’).  This  is  especially  the  case  in  
democratic upper-income nations, but system-aware policies are also appearing in
middle-income nations. Governments recognise, for the first time, the need to improve
the quality and fluidity of city clusters and metropolitan agglomerations, and the
importance of such clusters and agglomerations operating through well led and
managed city systems. These latest developments give new impetus to the tasks of
economic development, spatial planning, and governing metropolitan growth.
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The scale and speed of urbanisation has meant that many cities have grown beyond
their historic boundaries, and have sprawled to form larger metropolitan areas. This
has led to challenges in fostering joined-up metropolitan coordination around landuse,
transport, business clustering, sustainable growth and identity. The alignment of
institutions, investment, and infrastructure with the functional geography of an
expanding metropolitan area can be practically difficult to achieve. Thus a second new
feature of the governance landscape is the wide range of metropolitan governance
innovations. These innovations include consolidation of certain specific powers, such
as planning powers (e.g. New York), partnerships between neighbouring
municipalities (e.g. Zurich, Amsterdam, Gdansk-Gdynia-Sopot in Poland), and
agreements  with  national/state  governments  and/or  the  private  sector  (e.g.  the  UK’s  
‘City  Deals’).  Making  new  governance  arrangements  efficient  and  effective  will  be  key  
to the viability and success of other future city initiatives.
3.2 Finance
The recent direction and development of cities has been largely shaped by the public
finance system: the means of financing public goods and services, the raising of tax
revenues and the allocation and distribution of money. Traditionally, instruments for
municipal finance, whether revenue-generation, transfers from higher tiers of
government, expenditure responsibilities or the capacity to borrow money, have
tended to be controlled by central government and to constrain urban areas from
making long-term investments to shape and determine the future of their cities.
Many cities – including cities in the UK - are still compelled to petition wealthier tiers
of   government   to   ‘win’   backing   for   trophy   projects   and   to   compete   with   other  
jurisdictions for sources of revenue. In some more decentralised systems, for example
in Sweden and Norway, cities have acquired stronger powers to pursue and recruit
finances and have greater autonomy to determine their own strategic direction and
futures. These greater powers are not without their issues: they can hinder intermunicipal
cooperation, lead to the distortion of planning policies in favour of increased
revenues, or can promote competitive tax cost cutting between neighbouring areas.
Nonetheless, calls for greater fiscal autonomy at the metropolitan level are growing
louder in nations as diverse as the UK (McGough, 2014), Canada, Zimbabwe and
countries in South Eastern Europe.
Crowd-funding mechanisms (mostly online) are also increasingly accessible for varied
projects and innovations, many in cities. Although to date most funding is for creative
arts and technologies, small-scale infrastructure projects are also beginning to be
crowd-funded. Recent examples include the Luchtsingel pedestrian bridge in
Rotterdam, the greening of Stephenson Square in Manchester, the pedestrianisation
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and greening of a flyover in Liverpool, and the extension of fibre broadband
connections in Kansas City (Alperovich, 2013; Spacehive, 2014; Friends of the Flyover,
2014; Neighbor-Ly, 2014). We may see this trend continue, or potentially even grow to
encompass larger scale infrastructural projects.
3.3 Technology
Technological developments have opened up a new world of possibilities for cities. IT
promises greater integration of city services and products than ever before. Different
city functions such as health, energy, water, waste, communications, buildings and
transport have the potential to be integrated into networks which optimise their
efficiency and outputs. New cities are being built with technology at their core to
facilitate  the  creation  of  such  integrated  networks.  In  South  Korea’s  Songdo  City,  for  
example, technology will connect every component of the city including schools, offices
and homes. Residents will be able to control functions of their homes remotely. In Rio
de Janeiro, IBM has created a central control system which integrates and analyses
data from 30 city agencies, including weather forecasts, traffic conditions, and
information from the emergency services (Cisco, 2014; Singer, 2012).
Existing cities are also carrying out technological upgrades and connecting everyday
objects together via the internet in order to boost efficiency of urban infrastructure.
This  connection  of  physical  objects,  the  ‘Internet  of  Things’,  provides  scope  for  cities  
to completely overhaul their operation and management. One inevitable effect is that
cities today are one of the biggest new customers for technology companies. As section
2 explored, many cities have already begun to collaborate with large technology firms,
including Cisco, IBM, Intel, Microsoft and Siemens, to better integrate their existing
infrastructure and improve operational efficiency (Siemens, 2013).
The explosion of measurements and statistics produced by and available to cities – the
emergence  of  ‘big  data’  – is providing new opportunities for citizen engagement and
citizen-led  innovation.  Mobile  phone  technology,  ‘apps’  and  social  media  allow  citizens  
to record complaints, ideas, images and suggestions whilst on the move. City
authorities and communities can also use ever-growing bodies of data to improve
understanding of citizen behaviour and service usage, and build transparency and
accountability by opening up their records and statistics for public consumption – the
growth   of   ‘open   data’.   With   the   growth   of   technology   and   datasets   also   come   new  
privacy, surveillance and data misuse challenges for future cities. Cities also face
challenges around data quality and comprehensiveness, data collection and analysis –
particularly aligning data from different sources - and of course managing the sheer
volume of data which is produced. Big data needs to be robust, accessible and
‘interpret-able’  if  it  is  to  provide  cities  with  meaningful  opportunities  and  solutions.
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3.4 Leadership
A new era of strong leadership means city leaders take an increasingly proactive role
in leading city agendas. As cities face new challenges and pressures, cities and city
leaders are responding in creative ways. Many are appointing city leaders for the first
time – Tbilisi (Georgia), Bristol (UK), Geelong (Australia) and Shahat (Libya) are just
some of the cities that have recently introduced direct election of mayors. Elsewhere,
city leaders are adopting innovative forms of partnership working, for example in
urban regeneration and infrastructure development, or are developing mechanisms for
public participation e.g. through participatory budgeting. These tools will assist in the
shaping of the future city.
There is a growing consensus and recognition that individual city leaders can catalyse
real change in cities (Acuto, 2013). They benefit from a proximity to their electorate,
and   often   adopt   a   pragmatic   ‘can   do’   ethos   which   has   seemed   to   elude   national  
leadership. Their charisma and vision can help them play the part of ambassador and
honest broker for a city, and can even help cities to develop their own brand or
‘personality’.  From  Michael  Bloomberg  and  Thomas  Menino  in  the  US,  to  Patricia  de  
Lille in Cape Town and Ron Huldai in Tel Aviv, cities worldwide are benefiting from
leaders who are focused, consistent, visible and influential.
4.
CONCLUSIONS
76
4. CONCLUSIONS
4.1 The future of cities: an emerging science
Current thinking about future cities is more wide ranging and diffuse than ever.
Although research, planning and speculation about the future of cities is not new,
today’s  context  is  distinctive.  At  least  four  macro  trends  are  visible:  the  surpassing  of  
50% urbanisation globally; the expansion of cities into metropolitan areas and regions;
the seriousness of environmental and climate change challenges; and the shift in the
centre of gravity of the global economy combined with population mobility. Together,
these factors are focusing minds and attention on the future much more clearly.
Systems thinking
Technological and conceptual breakthroughs in the way we think about cities and
recognise their potential has added a great deal of momentum to these mega trends.
One such breakthrough is the thinking about cities in systemic terms. Knowledge
teams within the OECD and World Bank have begun to develop a much more detailed
sets  of  insights  about  ‘city  systems’,  ‘systems  of  cities’,  and  ‘system  of  systems’,  drawing  
from scientific and academic understandings of complexity theory and regional science
(World  Bank,  2009;;  Clark  and  Clark,  2014).  System  thinking,  when  applied  to  cities’  
has begun to provide new practical and analytical models of getting to grips with the
bewildering complexity of urban life.
The fate of fads
As we have seen, the Future City lexicon has been growing for over 20 years, with
different phrases and buzzwords becoming more popular at different times.
Sustainable cities, digital cities, eco cities and smart cities have all had their spot in the
limelight, and resilient cities is now enjoying its own spell as a guiding terminology
among research, policy and technology communities.
First movers and their motivations
During   the   peak   of   each   phrase’s   popularity,   influential   ‘first-mover’   organisations  
have offered definitions and clarifications to try to create a consensus about what a
term means for cities and how to prepare them for the future. Despite initial attempts
to consolidate future cities lexicon into a globally agreed set of terms, there is still no
established and authoritative set of meanings. Smart cities, for example, are still
associated with either sensors and household data, integrated citywide systems
management, or the social and economic knowledge of citizens. Liveable cities may
refer to cultural and diversity assets, environmental quality, or even daily convenience.
Sustainable cities may signal low-carbon energy usage, green space and transport, or
77
neighbourhood participation. In other words, the dominant future city ideas are not
yet   firmly   ‘branded’.   The   choices   made   by   corporates   are   driven   by   competitive  
dynamics while those made by governments and decision-makers often reflect
aesthetic and political choices rather than clear grasp of distinct meanings.
Figure 4.1: Most common themes or phrases revealed in an English language scan  of  ‘future  
cities’
Choosing future city vocabularies: One size does not fit all
One of the reasons for the complex and overlapping evolution in future cities language
over time is that cities themselves are extremely varied. Not only are there enormous
differences  in  size  and  population  (from  urban  ‘villages’  the  size  of  a  London  suburb,
to sprawling conurbations more populous than the UK), cities are also at very different
stages of maturity, development and living standards. Some have a core urban fabric
and culture that dates back for several hundred years, while other so-called  ‘instant
cities’  have  been  created  from  scratch  in  the  last  20  years.  The  word  city,  then,  today  
covers a tremendously broad range of social, economic and environmental entities,
whose future priorities and vision will inevitably differ.
One of the chief limitations with the highly branded, and somewhat faddish, nature of
the language around future cities and city solutions is that most formulations involve
a recipe, formula, or a template for success or progress. The problem is that with such
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diversity in the character and the systems of cities it is almost impossible to capture
the nuances of individual cities and the multiplicity of cities within a catch-all formula.
Self-governing cities
The entities we know as cities also vary hugely in their degree of self-government. Some
cities are fully self-governing or have a strong and well-financed metropolitan system
of government. Many others are collections of under-resourced and fragmented
municipalities. In general, the political and financial empowerment of cities around
the world is out of sync with their perceived economic importance. This disparity has
become a major catalyst for debate, advocacy and research about the future of cities.
Future city languages have sprung up to convey ideas about desirable cities because
they add to the case for improving the contexts and capabilities of city government.
Leadership of language
The choice of language in which to express ideas about future cities is, therefore, often
a matter of leadership. The discipline of future  cities  is  an  ‘emerging  science’  whose  
methods, concepts, and language are still to be conclusively established. What is
instead visible is a constant process of creation, adaptation and adoption of new
language. New, or reworked, phrases have helped to illuminate new ways of thinking
and bring in new stakeholders, but often at the expense of a coherent set of
propositions about cities. The language of future cities is still faddish. Furthermore, as
newly engaged countries and cities take up and institutionalise new language in their
urban programmes and projects, the prospect of global consensus around terminology,
if not concepts, becomes ever more challenging.
4.2 Geographic trends
This review has indicated that some terms have a firm geographical anchor, while
others have diffused globally quite evenly. Eco cities has endured most in China and
the Middle East, while smart cities have been widely accepted in Europe and North
America.  ‘Green  cities’  and  ‘compact  cities’  still  have  firm  relevance  in North America
and  Australia,  while  in  India  ‘sustainable  cities’  and  ‘innovative  cities’  are  widely  used.    
Perhaps  most  significantly,  it  is  ‘future  cities’  that  has  the  broadest  cross-section of
appeal in the English language, generating interest not only in the UK, North America
and South Asia but also in Latin America.
While the success of terms is constantly fluctuating, it is likely that older terms will
continue to remain popular due to their historical legacy and their enduring appeal to
niche  audiences.  The  ‘compact  city’,  the  ‘inclusive  city’  and  ‘youthful  city’  all retain a
resonance in specific contexts, and long-term eco and digital city initiatives will ensure
these terms are still in use for at least the next couple of decades. This suggests that
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awareness of national preferences in future city labelling practices, and how this
labelling relates to wider strategies, will be important in engaging effectively with
governments and decision-makers.
Language choices are key to driving support
The choice of future city vocabulary is important in helping cities generate momentum
behind the transition from one cycle of development to the next. The Japanese interest
in compact, dense and comfortable future cities reflects concern with the demographic
future of their cities, as the population average age reaches a record high. The African
megacity priority for model suburban high-tech districts reflect an urgent concern to
be competitive in higher value sectors. And the preoccupation in Dubai with
technological  integration  and  ‘smartness’  are  a  response  to  doubts  about  its long-term
economic and environmental viability after the financial crisis. Future city language is
often about aspiration and mobilising groups behind important agendas
Some nations are taking a lead
Several countries are more active in citing and engaging in future cities than others:
Japan, Singapore, UK and the UAE are particularly prolific. It does not appear to be
the case that individual countries or regions are separating developing, detached
interpretations of what the future should be or how it should be conceptualised.
Interpretations orbit around a broad consensus on the appropriate set of themes and
priorities, and the area of priority may often reflect what is economically most urgent
and politically most achievable. An important visible trend is the existence of a
relatively small number of influential bodies or individuals who are the source of
authoritative knowledge and are driving the agenda – an agenda which is then picked
up by other stakeholders around the world and shaped to their own needs.
4.3 Generators, adopters and adapters
A review of future cities ideas, terminologies and practice over time indicates that there
are three kinds of stakeholder in future cities: the generators and thought leaders; the
pragmatic adopters; and the creative adapters (Figure 4.2). We explain these different
roles below, and list stakeholders where appropriate. As this is principally an English
language scan, it may not capture the entire future cities market, but our review
indicates that the major players listed below comprise a clear majority of the global
innovators in this field.
Generators
A set of innovators, thought leaders and agenda drivers are emerging in the future
cities  space.  These  individuals  and  organisations  are  the  ‘generators’  or  influencers
whose innovation catalyses and inspires activity worldwide, in both policy and
commercial  circles.  Among  this  group  of  ‘generators’  are:  
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The think-tanks and thought-leaders: he Centre for Liveable Cities in
Singapore, Stockholm Environment Institute, McKinsey Global Institute,
GaWC, The Climate Group, Mori Memorial Foundation, African Centre for
Cities and Michael Bloomberg and Bloomberg Associates.
The inter-governmental organisations and their specialist
departments: UN-Habitat, EU regional policy, World Bank and WBI, Cities
Alliance and OECD Territorial Development.
Academic urban laboratories: University College London Urban Lab, MIT
Senseable City Lab, Harvard Graduate School of Design and Center for the
Environment, LSE Cities, Brookings Institution, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Columbia University and NYU.
The technology developers and vendors: Siemens, Cisco, Arup and IBM.
City networks: UCLG, EuroCities, CityNet, C40, ICLEI and many others.
It is from these institutions, individuals, and networks that new interpretations of
future cities are cultivated, developed, disseminated and first applied.
Adopters
A second group of actors adopt the ideas for themselves. This is well illustrated in the
corporate world, where the ideas generated by Siemens, IBM and Cisco have been
picked up by a wider group of multi-nationals, such as Cap Gemini, Accenture,
Schneider Electric and Hitachi, as well as those in sectors as diverse as construction
(Cemex) and law (Bird and Bird). Financial institutions, philanthropic organisations
and university departments also adopt future city language and build programmes and
initiatives around them. Adopters turn new future city ideas into globally relevant
practice.
Adapters
As ideas diffuse around the world, terms are picked up by even more users who adapt
terms and ideas for their own purposes. This adds to the complexity of the existing
lexicon, and the diversity of meanings and themes encompassed within any one term.
Adapters are often city governments or private sector providers that look to use
monikers  such  as  ‘smart  city’  or  ‘city  of  innovation’  to  establish  a  new  project,  vision  or  
market in a local setting.
One  example  of  adaptation  is  the  idea  of  the  ‘liveable  city’.  When  it first emerged in the
English-speaking world, the phrase was used mainly in the context of quality of life
debates amid concerns about pollution, congestion and safety. The term was picked
up very early in Singapore, however, where it also refers to a city’s  global  (economic)  
competitiveness.  Singapore’s  liveability  discourse  and  agenda,  which  was  developed  to  
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a  large  extent  by  the  city’s  Urban  Redevelopment  Authority,  has  become  a  defining  
benchmark for other Asian cities seeking to make the transition towards higher value
economy and higher functionality city systems (Roy and Ong, 2011). Meanwhile, the
World Bank has also adapted liveability to incorporate low-carbon goals, as part of its
Low-Carbon Liveable Cities (LC2) Initiative. Liveability, in this context, refers to the
putative long-term  benefits  of  ‘climate  smart’  development  (World  Bank,  2013a).  
A  similar  pattern  is  visible  in  the  case  of  ‘sustainable  cities’.  In  the  years  following  the  
1992 UN Rio Earth Summit, sustainability was a term which largely had ecological
connotations. Since then it has come to encompass economic, environmental and
social priorities. Most recently, the World Bank report Financing Sustainable Cities
adapts the term sustainability to mean the long-term viability of a city’s  fiscal  capacity  
and investment channels. In this case, the content of sustainability is considered less
important that the ability to pay for strategic needs (World Bank, 2013b). This example
shows that large organisations can be thought leaders at the global level and adapters
at the local level.
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Fig. 4.2 Typology of future cities stakeholders
This three tier engagement with future cities – generation, adoption, adaptation – can
be helpfully visualised by exploring the life cycle of a single term. We have studied the
rise   of   the   ‘resilient   cities’   concept   since   the   mid-1990s. Figure 4.3 tracks the
appearance of the exact term in a Google search over time. The term first appeared in
1995, and began to establish itself in the aftermath of 9/11, amid concerns about how
New York would bounce back from the shock of mass terrorism. A close study of
resilient city thinking reveals that just a handful of thought leaders were working to
develop the idea in the 1990s, in Japan in relation to natural disasters, and in the USA
in relation to the science of city form.
Around the turn of the millennium, bodies such as the UNCRD, planning departments
at MIT and University of North Carolina, began to explore resilient cities with more
critical mass and momentum. The US was the centre of this emerging resilience
discourse, as cities began to face the challenge of responding to potential terrorist and
other external threats. By the mid-to-late 2000s, scholars in Australia and the World
83
Bank’s  East  Asia  department  began  to  publish  influential  primers  on  resilient  cities,  
which began the 2nd phase of adoption, by city pressure groups and multi-city
networks.
Since   2008,   technology   firms’   R&D   has   adapted   resilience   to   their   own   market  
ambitions, while cities and municipalities have adapted ideas of resilience to the
challenge of employability and multi-cultural harmony. All the while new university
programmes and media outlets have continued to adopt the language of resilience,
cementing it as one of the major frames of reference for thinking about future cities
today. Resilience is still in the first phase of its life cycle as it continues to multiply
outwards to new parts of the world.
Fig  4.3  Generators,  Adopters  and  Adapters  of  ‘Resilient  Cities’  thinking  over  the  past  two  
decades
Source: Moir, Moonen, and Clark using Google data
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4.4 Cycles of future cities thinking
Future cities thinking at the global level has moved into a new gear over the last decade,
but it is clear from this  review  that  we  remain  in  its  first  ‘wave’  or  cycle.    Agendacreators
and thought leaders have emerged, but with so many different organisations
adopting and adapting their insights, there is a huge amount of jostling for position –
to become the go-to firms, designers, think-tanks, funders, and even cities to learn
about successful urban innovation.
As we approach the end of this first cycle and the transition into a second cycle, we
observe that the concepts behind the branded language are increasingly merging. In
terms of detail and vision, the future city concepts are often highly compatible with
each other, even if the language differences imply distinctiveness or incompatibility.
As stakeholders become rapidly more informed about global practice in the future city
sphere, a high degree of crossover and overlap is taking place.
As future thinking continues to evolve, we expect to see thought leaders consolidate,
partner and extend their influence. In some parts of the world these ideas may settle
and become mainstream currency. This step change will mark the start of a second
future cities cycle, based on a more consistent and well defined set of principles.
The review of future cities vocabulary also suggests, however, that we can expect new
terminologies to emerge, and existing ones to endure. This pattern of emerging and
persisting language will occur at different speeds in different parts of the world, and in
different sectors and communities. As such, there will no unified channel of
communication, and no single agreed model or framework, about future cities.
It will continue to be important be aware of and responsive to the different ways future
cities are described and imagined, because they show how cities matter and in what
ways they will need to succeed. Awareness of future city language also helps
understand longer term trends and avoid succumbing to fads. As the discourse of
future cities becomes more multi-disciplinary, evidence-led and conceptually
watertight, understanding the intention and meaning of all the terms in play will
become a key part of sound decision-making.
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APPENDIX 1: 150 URBAN
INDICES AND BENCHMARKS
Source: Moonen and Clark (2013)
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WHAT ARE FUTURE CITIES?
ORIGINS, MEANINGS AND USES
Compiled by The Business of Cities for the Foresight
Future of Cities Project and the Future Cities Catapult
Written by: Emily Moir, Tim Moonen, Greg Clark
June 2014
futurecities.catapult.org.uk
@futurecitiescat
info@futurecities.catapult.org.uk