The Holocene
2015, Vol. 25(3) 435­–444
© The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/0959683614561891
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Introduction
In the present-day debate concerning the possible effects on biodiversity
of the on-going climate change and of human impact,
the understanding of the environmental feedback on past climatic
and environmental variations is of fundamental interest. Although
significant papers retrace in detail the recent vegetation and climate
history of central-eastern Mediterranean (e.g. CombourieuNebout
et al., 2013; Djamali et al., 2013; Di Rita and Magri, 2009,
2012; Jahns, 2005; Jahns and Van den Bogaard, 1998; Karkanas
et al., 2011; Kouli and Dermitzakis, 2008, 2010; Noti et al., 2009;
Sadori et al., 2010a, 2011, 2013; Tinner et al., 2009) within the
increasing interest of climatic and environmental evolution under
Mediterranean conditions, most is still to be known.
In particular, the Balkan region features a number of wide
natural lakes that record Pleistocene and Holocene palaeoenvironmental
history. Climate and vegetation history for upper
Pleistocene and Holocene sediments (Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa)
has been described in many recent papers (Aufgebauer
et al., 2012; Leng et al., 2010; Panagiotopoulos et al., 2013; Wagner
et al., 2009, 2010). Lacustrine sediments of Lake Dojran and
Lake Butrint have been characterized and used to understand
environmental changes (Ariztegui et al., 2010; Francke et al.,
2013). Denèfle et al. (2000) and Bordon et al. (2009) investigated
the vegetation history and climate interpretation of former Lake
Maliq.
The role in the past of either environmental or human forcing
in shaping the present landscape is still a matter of discussion.
Anyway, it is becoming clear that a synergy between climate
changes and human agency took place in different ways in different
time periods and ecosystems (Bowes et al., in press; Di
Pasquale et al., 2014; Kouli, 2012, in press; Magny et al., 2013;
Mercuri and Sadori, 2014; Mercuri et al., 2011, 2013, 2014; Pepe
et al., 2013; Sadori et al., 2004, 2010b, in press; Zanchetta et al.,
2013). Whether human societies adapted to climate changes or
collapsed is still matter of debate.
Vegetation, climate and environmental
history of the last 4500 years at lake
Shkodra (Albania/Montenegro)
Laura Sadori,1 Marco Giardini,1 Elsa Gliozzi,2 Ilaria
Mazzini,3 Roberto Sulpizio,4 Aurelien van Welden5
and Giovanni Zanchetta6
Abstract
Three parallel overlapping cores have been taken in the Albanian side of Lake Shkodra (Albania/Montenegro). The chronological frame of the record,
spanning approximately the last 4500 years, has been assessed using four radiocarbon dates and four well-known tephra layers of Italian volcanoes.
Multidisciplinary analyses turned out to be decisive to understand environmental, climatic changes and human impact. Here, we focus on palynology.
The humidity at Shkodra was always enough to allow the developing of a luxuriant arboreal vegetation. The pollen percentage diagram does not record
important changes in terrestrial plants percentages. Arboreal pollen (AP) shows only a rather slight decrease, with ‘natural forests’ replaced by intensive
cultivation of chestnut and walnut in the last seven/eight centuries. The rather minimal changes in composition and dominance are because of the fact that
the pollen rain comes from different vegetation belts, from the Mediterranean to the alpine one. Two major periods of humidity are found, one at the
base of the pollen concentration and influx diagram, before 4100 yr BP, the other at 1300 yr BP. Minima in pollen influx and concentration occurred soon
before 4000, at ca. 2900 and at ca. 1450 yr BP These minima, interpreted as aridity crises, show a temporal coincidence with the so-called Bond events
1-3 already found in other central and eastern Mediterranean records. The minimum in AP occurring after 500 yr BP could represent the record of the
‘Little Ice Age’, even if it could be the effect of a strong land use.
Keywords
Bond events, climate and environmental changes, human impact, Lake Shkodra, Mediterranean, mid to late Holocene, Palynology
Received 21 August 2014; revised manuscript accepted 29 September 2014
1Dipartimento di Biologia Ambientale, Università ‘La Sapienza’, Italy
2Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università Roma3, Italy
3Istituto di Geologia Ambientale e di Geoingegneria, CNR, Italy
4Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e Geoambientali, Università degli
Studi di Bari, Italy
5Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), Norway
6Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università di Pisa, Italy
Corresponding author:
Laura Sadori, Dipartimento di Biologia Ambientale, Università ‘La
Sapienza’, P.le Aldo Moro 5, Roma I-00185, Italy.
Email: laura.sadori@uniroma1.it
561891HOL0010.1177/0959683614561891The HoloceneSadori et al.
research-article2014
Research paper
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436	 The Holocene 25(3)
Recently, several authors discussed the late-Holocene sedimentology,
palaeolimnology and tephrochronology of Lake
Shkodra (Mazzini et al., 2014; Sadori et al., 2012; Sulpizio et al.,
2008; Van Welden et al., 2008; Zanchetta et al., 2012b).
Our contribution focuses on palynology and aims to provide
new insights about the palaeoenvironmental history of the area.
Moreover, in this study, we try to understand whether and at
which extent human history has potentially interacted with environmental
factors in one of the best-preserved area of the
Balkans.
Site setting
Lake Shkodra, Liqeni i Shkodrës in Albanian, Skadarsko Jezero
in Montenegrin, is the largest natural freshwater lake in the Balkan
region (Figure 1). It is a transboundary lake located at the
Albania/Montenegro border (42°21′54″, 19°09′52″ in the North,
42°03′15″, 19°30′00″ in the South, 42°03′15″, 19°30′00″ in the
East, 42°21′19″, 19°01′28″ in the West). The lake surface is only
at ca. 5–10 m.a.s.l., being quite variable through the years as not
only the rainfall but also numerous rivers and subterranean
springs abundantly feed the lacustrine water (Jacobi, 1978). The
lake, of tectonic-karst origin, has a sub-elliptical shape and is ca.
45 km long and ca. 15 km wide. It has a coastline (including
islands) 207 km long, and an average depth between 5 and 6 m. It
is surrounded by NW-SE elongated reliefs (up to 2750 m.a.s.l.)
parallel to the Adriatic Sea. To the southwest, the chain of the
Tarabosa and Rumia mountains, from 10 to 15 km wide, peaks up
to 1600 m. They separate the lake from the Adriatic Sea coast. The
catchment (ca. 5500 km2) mainly consists of carbonate rocks
(limestones and dolomites), with minor exposures of siliciclastic
rocks. The main tributary of the lake is the Moraca River, and the
Bojana River is the only outflow, draining water towards the
Adriatic Sea.
The lake area, depending on water level fluctuations, is quite
variable, ranging from 353 km2 (at a minimum lake level of
4.6 m.a.s.l.) to 500 km2 (at a maximum lake level of 9.8 m) (Beeton
and Karaman, 1981; Lasca et al., 1981; Van Welden et al., 2008).
Although the climate of the area is Mediterranean, with pronounced
summer aridity (<50 mm of rainfall in July), very high
rainfall amounts are recorded on the mountains surrounding the
lake. For the period 1970–1990 at the meteorological stations of
Podgorica and Shkodra, the measured rainfall is between 2000
and 2800 mm/yr, even if some areas received over 3000 mm annually.
It is remarkable that humidity is never lower than 50% as
sunshine hours and temperature in summer are high, causing a
high evaporation (Keukelaar et al., 2006). In Shkodra, the mean
annual air temperature is between 14 and 16°C, with the highest
average temperature recorded in August (21.4–27.5°C) and the
lowest average in January (0.5–6.5°C) (APAWAand CETI, 2007).
Temperature in winter is low because of the high elevations and
predominant easterly and northerly winds. Wind activity is determined
by cyclonic factors of the Mediterranean and Balkan areas,
but also by local factors.
The lake and its surroundings are among the richest reservoirs
of plant and animal life of all Europe, so the region is considered
as a biogenetic reserve of European importance (Keukelaar et al.,
2006). In the watershed of the lake, Dhora (2005) surveyed a very
high number of botanical and animal species: 1900 vascular
plants (147 aquatic ones), 1100 microalgae (420 diatom ones), 57
mammals (3 aquatic ones), 282 birds (112 aquatic), 54 fishes, 6
amphibians, 28 reptiles (4 aquatic ones), 6000 insects (210 aquatic
ones) and 54 freshwater molluscs. Considering the aquatic microfauna,
Petkovski (1961) described 9 species of ostracods from the
Montenegro side. Pulevic et al. (2001) found 12 species. A
detailed study on the present-day ostracods of the lake is on-going
(Mazzini et al., 2014).
Concerning the flora, the Mediterranean and Balkan elements
predominate, but several species of Central Europe have their
southern distribution limit in the area, giving to the region a special
phytogeographic interest. In fact, the geographic, geomorphological
and climatic features of the lake basin, in particular the
proximity to the sea and the presence of high mountains around
the lake, favour the spread of rich and diversified vegetation. The
vegetation is organized in altitudinal belts, from the lake level to
top mountains, ranging from evergreen Mediterranean vegetation
to alpine pasturelands. Besides aquatic and riparian species, the
vegetation is mainly composed of Mediterranean shrubs, mixed
oak woodlands and beech forests mixed with conifers. Among the
last, fir, spruce and pines are quite common. Stands of willows
grow as small forests or as randomly scattered trees, mainly on
the northern shore and in the flooding area. Shkodra’s oak (Quercus
robur L. ssp. scutariensis Čer.) forests can be found only in
few small stands with Fraxinus oxycarpa M. Bieb. ex Willd. and
Periploca greca L. The shibljak vegetation (the local name for the
evergreen Mediterranean scrubland) is found up to 300–
500 m.a.s.l. It is mainly constituted by evergreen trees and shrubs
like Quercus ilex L., Phillyrea latifolia L., Juniperus oxycedrus
L., Erica arborea L., Olea europea L., Arbutus unedo L. and Laurus
nobilis L. They are accompanied by many deciduous species
like Pistacia terebinthus L., Carpinus orientalis Mill., Crataegus
monogyna Jacq., Paliurus spina-cristi Mill., Fraxinus ornus L.
From about 300 up to 700 m of altitude, the oak zone is found,
with deciduous and semi-deciduous oaks like Quercus trojana
Webb, Quercus cerris L., Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., Quercus
frainetto Ten. and Quercus pubescens Willd. At higher altitude,
between ca. 600 and 1700 m, the beech belt is found.
Common trees of this zone are Fagus sylvatica L., Acer
Figure 1.  Location map of Lake Shkodra and of coring site (source:
esri landsat shaded basemap).
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Sadori et al.	 437
pseudoplatanus L. and Sorbus graeca (Spach) Kotschy. In some
areas, beeches are mixed with pines and may reach 1900 m.
Among pines, the most common species are Pinus leucodermis
Antoine and Pinus nigra J.F.Arnold. Alpine pastures cover the
areas over 1800–1900 m of the lake basin. The only spread shrub
of this zone is Juniperus sabina L. (APAWA and CETI, 2007;
Keukelaar et al., 2006).
The fact that Lake Shkodra is a shallow lake favours the development
of a rich aquatic flora with great variety. The total number
of aquatic macrophytes for the whole area is 164 species belonging
to 66 genera and 43 families. The phytoplankton population is
mainly composed of diatoms (Keukelaar et al., 2006).
There is very little available archaeological and historical
information about past human impact on the watershed. Unpublished
data (Michael Galaty, personal communication) seem to
date the start of prehistoric occupation in the watershed around
3000 years BC, with archaeological sites mainly located on the
hills at that time. A detailed field survey concerning pottery was
led, in the frame of the Shkodra archaeological project (PASH,
Projekti Arkeologjike i SHkodres) 2010, by Maria Grazia Amore
in the area at the southeast of the lake. PASH is directed by Lorenc
Bejko and Michael Galaty. Preliminary data show that the
pottery dated to Post-Medieval/Modern Period is overwhelming,
especially in the plain, the Hellenistic/Roman Period is the second
best represented, but with predominance in the hills. The same
pattern of the last is followed by the pottery dated to the Classical
Period. The important town of Shkodra, located to the southwest
of the lake and 10 km apart the drilling point, was the capital of
Illyria (mid-3rd century BC) conquered by Romans during the
2nd century BC. It soon became an important trade and military
route. During the first years of 7th century AD, with Barbarian
populations menacing the empire, the city was given by Byzantine
emperors to Serbs which ruled, fighting against Bulgarians
and Byzantines and giving hospitality to crusaders (the Serbian
King Bodin welcomed the Provençal leaders in 1096), until 14th
century when Shkodra surrendered to Venice, in order to have
protection from the Ottoman Empire. After two sieges, the town
became an Ottoman territory in AD 1479. Shkodra was a major
city under Ottoman rule in southeast Europe until the early 20th
century. This importance was because of its geo-strategic position
connected through land-routes to Prizren, the other important
Ottoman centre, and through the Adriatic Sea to the Italian
ports. The city was an important meeting place of diverse cultures
from other parts of the Empire, as well as influences coming
westwards, by Italian merchants. Shkodra’s importance as a
trade centre in the second half of the 19th century was owed to
the fact that it was an important trading centre for the entire Balkan
peninsula and the whole Mediterranean. Over the last
100 years, Shkodra lost the economic autonomy it had enjoyed in
previous centuries (Hoti, 1999; http://www.albanianhistory.net/
texts20_1/AH1916_2.html).
Materials and methods
Three parallel overlapping sediment records cored down to the
depth of 7.26 m (Van Welden et al., 2008) have been used for a
multidisciplinary research. The cores were recovered in the Albanian
side of the lake (Figure 1), and one composite sediment
record was obtained using palaeomagnetic and sediment constraints.
Tephra, geochemical, stable isotopes results have been
published (Sulpizio et al., 2010; Zanchetta et al., 2012b). Ostracod
results are in publication (Mazzini et al., 2014). Here, we
focus on palynology. For pollen and microcharcoal analyses, a
total of 56 samples was chemically processed at a fairly regular
pace, once the record was dated. The chronological framing of the
core (Figure 1), spanning approximately the last 4500 years, has
been assessed using four radiocarbon dates and four well-known
and well-dated tephra layers (Sulpizio et al., 2010). Two are from
Somma-Vesuvius (Pollena, AD 472; Avellino, ca. 3800 cal. yr
BP), one from Etna (FL, ca. 3300 cal. yr BP) and one from Campi
Flegrei (AMS, Agnano Mt. Spina ca. 4400 cal. yr BP). In the text,
ages are expressed as calendar years BP or AD.
For each palynological sample, 1/1.5 g of dry sediment was
chemically processed with strong acids, HCl (37%) and HF
(40%), and hot NaOH (10%). In order to estimate the pollen and
microcharcoal concentration, a tablet containing a known amount
of Lycopodium spores (Stockmarr, 1971) was added. To draw the
pollen percentage diagram, different pollen basis sums have been
used, following the criteria listed by Berglund and Ralska-Jasiewiczowa
(1986).
Concerning the genus Quercus, three oaks pollen taxa have
been distinguished following Smit (1973): Quercus robur type,
which comprehends all deciduous oaks, Quercus ilex type
including all the evergreen oaks, and Quercus cerris type, comprehending
all semi-deciduous oaks. Oleaceae are broken down
into Fraxinus cf. oxycarpa, Fraxinus ornus, Phillyrea and
Olea. Fraxinus cf. oxycarpa includes Fraxinus oxycarpa Bieb.
and Fraxinus excelsior L. as their pollen grains cannot be distinguished
(Punt et al., 1981). As concerns hornbeams, they
were morphologically separated in two pollen taxa: Ostrya
carpinifolia/Carpinus orientalis and Carpinus betulus. As far
as Pinus, all pollen grains were tentatively ascribed to ‘montane’species
on the basis of their size (Roure, 1985). Pediastrum
colonies belong to different species, the most represented being
Pediastrum simplex. The different species were not anyway
routinely discriminated.
Charcoal particles were counted in pollen slides, measuring
their shortest axis and sorting them in three dimensional fractions:
10–50, 50–125 and >125 µm. Particles between 10 and 50 µm
provide an indication of regional fire; fragments between 50 and
125 µm give an image of fire occurrence at landscape/regional
scale, while the occurrence of fragments >125 µm is generally
taken as an evidence of local fire (Whitlock, 2001).
Pollen concentration (PC) has been used to elaborate influx
data, once the chronology was assessed. Pollen and microcharcoal
influx data are an estimation of the amount of pollen grains
and charcoal fragments deposited in a given time (Berglund and
Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, 1986). Pollen influx (PI) data depend on
plant biomass. Charcoal influx data depend on the burnt biomass
and are obtained from concentration data. These last are normalized
into influx data using sedimentation rates.
Pollen percentages, concentrations and influx data are presented
as single curves and ‘ecological’ groups together with
microcharcoal data (concentration and influx) curves of the three
dimensional fraction in Figures 2 and 3. The diagrams have been
drawn (Tilia software, Grimm, 2011) with taxa curves against
both time and depth scales. A dendrogram created using CONISS
(included in TILIA software) was used to identify the four pollen
assemblage zones (Figures 2 and 3).
Pollen results
Pollen of arboreal plants (AP) and pollen of non-arboreal plants
(NAP) percentage, concentration and influx values of selected
groups and taxa are shown in diagrams (Figures 2 and 3). AP is on
average slightly over 84% (Figure 2a). From ca. 4500 (bottom
core) to 800 yr BP, AP is on average 87%, ranging from 80% (at
3100 yr BP) to 94% (at 1950 yr BP). In the last seven centuries,
AP% is ca. 74% on average with a minimum (68%) centred at
around three centuries ago. PC values of AP (Figure 2b) are rather
stable with minima at ca. 4000, 2900, 1450 and at 370 yr BP. PI
values (Figure 2c), even if showing a similar trend and minima at
the same ages, are less stable with important expansions at 4300
and 1300 yr BP.
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438	 The Holocene 25(3)
Figure 2.  Pollen percentage (a, top), concentration (b, middle) and influx (c, bottom) diagrams of plant groups and algae. Mesophilous
plants: Quercus robur type, Quercus cerris, Carpinus betulus, Corylus, Castanea,Acer, Fraxinus oxycarpa, Ostrya/Carpinus orientalis,Tilia, Ulmus, Hedera.
Mediterranean plants: Quercus ilex type, Olea, Ericacee, Fraxinus ornus, Pistacia, Rhamnus, Phillyrea, Ephedra. Montane plants: Pinus, Betula, Fagus,
Abies, Picea. Riparian plants: Alnus, Salix, Populus, Synanthropic plants: Castanea, Juglans, Olea,Vitis,Asteroideae, Chenopodiaceae, Cichorioideae,
Leguminosae, Plantago, Rumex, cereals, Secale, Urticaceae.Aquatic plants: Alisma, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Myriophyllum spicatum, Nympheaceae,
Sparganium,Typha,Algae: Pediastrum, Botryococcaceae, Cosmarium, Spirogyra, Zygnema.
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Sadori et al.	 439
Main arboreal taxa (Figure 3a) typical of different vegetation
belts that contribute to the pollen rain such as Quercus robur type
(deciduous oaks), Pinus, Fagus, Ostrya/Carpinus orientalis,
Quercus ilex type (evergreen oaks) and Quercus cerris type
(semi-deciduous oaks) are the most represented. Olea, present
from bottom core, increases in the last two millennia, with an
important expansion (reaching 23% at 270 yr BP) since ca. 700 yr
BP. Among riparian trees, Alnus is dominant. Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae,
Gramineae and Cyperaceae are the most abundant herbaceous
taxa, even if none of them ever exceeds 7% (Figure 3b).
Algal remains are mainly concentrated in the last 1000 years (Figure
2), and the bulk is formed by Pediastrum colonies. Fires are
never strong, as indicated by concentration and influx curves of
microcharcoals between 50 and 125 mµ. The vegetation history is
described using the four pollen assemblage zones.
Zone SK1 (4495–2818 yr BP/2545–868 years BC): AP% are
between 80 and 93, total PC between 16,500 and 48,000 (pollen
grains per gram) and total PI between 1900 and 11,000 (pollen
grains per year): the highest AP% matches the highest AP influx
value at ca. 4300 yr BP. Mesophilous taxa are the most abundant
(Figures 2a and 3); between them, Quercus robur type (21–40%)
is overwhelming. Pinus (6–21%), Fagus (3–10%),
Ostrya/Carpinus orientalis (4–12%), Carpinus betulus (0–6%),
Quercus cerris type (1–9%), Quercus ilex type (2–7%), Alnus
(2–6%), Corylus (1–5%) and Fraxinus ornus (1–7%) are worth of
mention. Herbs are quite rare (Figures 2b and 3), among them
Chenopodiaceae are the most abundant (0–6%). An expansion of
algae, mainly Pediastrum (Figures 2 and 3), is recorded from
3300 to 2900 yr BP, when riparian trees show a decrease (Figure
2a). Microcharcoal influx values show one peak at ca. 4200 yr BP
in correspondence with an increase of total PI (Figure 2c). The
second episode of fire is found at ca. 2900 yr BP. The most prominent
peak of synanthropic taxa is found together with anAP influx
and concentration peak at ca. 3700 yr BP.
Zone SK2 (2731–1299 yr BP/781 years BC–AD 651 years):
AP% are between 81 and 94, total PC between 5300 and 57,000
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FL
Pollena
tephras
Figure 3.  Pollen percentage diagrams of arboreal (a, top) and non-arboreal (b, bottom) selected taxa. Curve magnification 5×.
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440	 The Holocene 25(3)
(pollen grains per gram) and total PI between 1200 and 10,000
(pollen grains per year): the lowest total PC and influx, AP% and
Mediterranean taxa percentage are recorded at 1400 yr BP.
Mesophilous taxa are the most abundant in percentages and reach
their maxima in this zone (Figures 2 and 3a); between them,
Quercus robur type (25–43%) is overwhelming. Pinus is between
4% and 12%. The first occurrence of Juglans dates back to
2400 yr BP. Olea, present since bottom diagram, has a slight
expansion between 2000 and 1600 yr BP. Large charcoal fragments
(Figure 2) are recorded between 2700 and 2400 yr BP and
again at 2000 yr BP. Algae, mainly constituted by Pediastrum,
peak (25–26%) around 1700 yr BP.
Zone SK3 (1214–811 yr BP/AD 736–1139 years): AP% are
between 81 and 91, total PC between 14,000 and 32,000 (pollen
grains per gram) and total PI between 3300 and 7600 (pollen
grains per year). Pinus increases (14–24%) and Quercus robur
type shows a weak tendency to decrease (25–34%, Figure 3a).
Important changes are not found in other taxa percentages, apart
from trilete spores from ferns increasing with pine. At 900 yr BP
there is a blooming of Pediastrum.
Zone SK4 (726 to −24 yr BP/AD 1224–1974 years): AP% are
between 69 and 81, total PC between 6000 and 17,500 (pollen
grains per gram) and total PI between 500 and 2400 (pollen grains
per year). Quercus robur type (11–27%) shows a clear decrease
and, together with Pinus (13–20%), is the most abundant taxon,
followed by Mediterranean taxa (Figures 2 and 3a). Among the
last, Olea (between 3–10% shows a peak of 23% at 270 yr BP),
increases since bottom zone, mirroring the curve of Quercus
robur type. Castanea (1–3%) shows an increase in this zone.
Cyperaceae (1–7%) are rather abundant and many other herbs
that belong to synanthropic taxa increase. In the last 500 years,
Pediastrum is blooming, with percentage between 50% and 80%.
Among aquatic plants Alisma and Nympheaceae are the most
abundant. Pseudoschizaea (Figure 2a) has an expansion in this
zone.
Interpretation and discussion
The percentage pollen diagrams do not record important changes
in terrestrial plants all over the investigated period (Figure 3). The
AP% curve (Figure 2) is showing only a rather slight decreasing
trend from bottom to top diagram, with meaningful changes only
in the last 700/800 years. Before 800 yr BP, AP% is always over
80% (average 87%), and subsequently shows an average value of
74%. Changes occurring in the last seven centuries can be
ascribed to human impact and evidenced mainly by olive, but also
by chestnut and walnut, plantation and a general clearance of
‘natural forests’ replaced by intensive cultivation of fruit trees. A
confirmation of enhanced land use comes also from Pseudoschizaea,
a NPP (non-pollen palynomorph) whose presence indicates
erosion in the catchment (Pantaleón Cano Villanueva,
1997). Regional fires (all fragments) are quite important at ca.
4200, 3000 yr BP and in the last 1600 years. Traces of local fires/
use of fire (50–125 µm) are found at ca. 4400, between 2750 and
2100, and between 1300 and 1200 yr BP. Only at 4400 yr BP, fire
seems to be linked to the available fuel (plant biomass), as a peak
of charcoal matches high AP influx and concentration values. In
all the other cases, a relation between fire and trees is not found at
Shkodra. The intensification of fire occurring in Classical and
Roman times and in the early Middle Ages could be an evidence
of human activity in the area as indicated by historical data.
A simple explanation for the rather low changes occurring in
this record is that the pollen rain preserved in the Lake Shkodra
sediments is coming from quite different altitudes (5–
2000 m.a.s.l.). In the last 4500 years, the forests around the lake,
organized in vegetation belts as today, showed minimal changes
in composition and dominance (Figures 2 and 3). In the case of a
climate change, plants could in fact migrate to an upper or lower
vegetation belt. As a matter of fact, the humidity at Shkodra was
probably always enough to allow the development of luxuriant
arboreal vegetation and a ‘simple’ migration of the vegetation
belts in altitudes. If this is a good point in explaining the high
present-day biodiversity, it is rather disappointing for the study of
climate changes that we know occurred in the second half of the
Holocene. Such panorama is also not of great help in understanding
changes in vegetation and landscape.
The rapid and significant changes recorded in PC and influx
diagrams are of difficult interpretation but can represent the evidence
of climate and environmental changes. These curves should
in fact reflect changes in the plant biomass, the first being the
‘raw data’ and the second representing the data ‘cleaned’ using
sedimentation rates (Berglund and Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, 1986).
Minima of PC and PI can be considered as moments of forest
opening.
Under this light, important changes happened soon before
4000, at ca. 2900 and 1450 yr BP, in correspondence with minima
in PI and PC probably because of strong decrease in humidity.
These minima show a temporal coincidence with the so-called
North Atlantic Bond events 1-3 (Bond et al., 1997), found also in
other central and eastern Mediterranean records (Sadori et al.,
2011, in press).
Considering the PI record of AP, two major periods of humidity
are found, one at the base of the diagram, before 4100 yr BP,
the other at 1300 yr BP. Both these periods have a correspondence
in the δ18O record (Figure 3 in Zanchetta et al., 2012b). According
to archaeological data, there is no evidence of early Bronze Age
settlements by the lake (the lake was at that time a marsh, see
Figure 12 in Mazzini et al., 2014), while Serbs ruled the city of
Shkodra since 7th century AD. The minimum in AP PI occurring
after 500 yr BP (centred at 370 yr BP) could represent the record
of the ‘Little Ice Age’ (LIA), even if it has possibly a different
explanation, as this could be also the effect of an increasing land
use under the Ottomans.
Beside the use of concentration and influx data, another way
to interpret pollen data is to use cumulative curves of vegetation
types, depicting possible ‘migration’ of vegetation belts (Figure
2) caused by changes in precipitation and temperature. Of course,
the first climatic parameter is the main limiting factor in Mediterranean
environment and the easier one to detect.
Mesophilous vegetation is overwhelming along the recorded
4500 years, with slight changes of difficult interpretation. Maxima
in mesophilous vegetation (influx and concentration) are
found at 4100 yr BP (between AMS and Avellino tephras) and at
1300 yr BP. The δ18O record (Figure 4 and Zanchetta et al., 2012b)
evidences the presence of a humid period before 4100 yr BP. This
was also found in the lacustrine sediments of Lake Dojran
(Francke et al., 2013). Triantaphyllou et al. (2013) found a warm
and humid phase recorded in the Levantine Sea and Aegean Sea
sediments between 5500 and 4000 yr BP. In one of the records
(NS14, near Kos Island, Figure 1), there is an expansion of deciduous
oaks (the bulk of mesophilous vegetation at Shkodra)
between 5200 and 4100, with a decrease at 4300 yr BP. A decrease
in humidity at ca. 4300 yr BP is also found to the Southeast of
Shkodra both in speleothems (Soreq cave, Bar-Matthews and
Ayalon, 2011) and in archaeobotanical records (Arslantepe, Masi
et al., 2013a, 2013b, 2014). Falls of AP centred at ca. 4200 yr BP
were found in other central and eastern European pollen records
(Di Rita and Magri, 2009; Sadori et al., 2004, 2011, 2013). Also
other proxies, such as lake level records and glacier advances
(e.g. Giraudi et al., 2011; Magny et al., 2009; Zanchetta et al.,
2012a), indicate changes in humidity in the same period.
At Shkodra, montane vegetation is the second in importance
and has a percentage reduction in zone SK2, between ca. 2700
and 1300 yr BP (Figure 2). This seems to be a warm period with
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Sadori et al.	 441
humidity as high as that recorded before 4100 yr BP. The δ18O
curve from the same sediment record (Zanchetta et al., 2012b and
Figure 4b) registers maximum humidity between 2700 and
1200 yr BP, apart from a dry episode around 1850–1900 yr BP.
Another important change in the vegetation physiognomy occurs
at ca. 1200 yr BP, with mesophilous, Mediterranean and riparian
trees decreasing, while montane ones and ferns increase (Figure
2). The increase of montane vegetation is mainly because of
‘montane’ pines pollen and the meaning of this environmental
change is difficult to interpret.
Analyses of ostracods and Characeae contained in the sediment
core indicate that a sharp change in the water environment
happened around 1200 yr BP (Figure 4e and f). The interpretation
of this phenomenon (Mazzini et al., 2014) is at the same time
simple and complex, confirmed by historical sources and consists
in the hypothesis of a transition from a marsh to a lake only
around 1200 cal. yr BP. A climatic cause for this environmental
change is excluded, and could be related to hydrological changes
in the emissary of the lake (Mazzini et al., 2014). Pollen data confirm
the non-climatic origin of this change.
In Figure 4, some curves are coupled according to either particular
parallelism (PC vs total organic carbon (TOC)) or apparent
dissimilarity (PI versus δ18O; Pediastrum colonies versus Carbon
Nitrogen ratio (C/N); pollen of water plants (WP) versus Characeae
gyrogonites, pollen of riparian plants (RP) versus ostracods
frequency).
The climate signal (Figure 4a and b) obtained by PC and PI is
in good agreement with geochemical indicators (TOC and δ18O).
The amount of pollen preserved in the sediments has a quite similar
trend to that of organic carbon, with the clear meaning that
plant biomass is strongly influencing the quantity of carbon
deposited in the lake. Indeed, such a good similarity is not found
between 2500 and 2000 years ago.
Arid phases are indicated by both PI (high values) and δ18O
(low values) in the two quite specular curves (Figure 4). They are
marked by grey shaded rectangles and show a good correspondence
with Bond events (Bond et al., 1997). Between ca. 2400
and 2000 years ago, the correspondence between the two curves is
always amazing, but less effective.
The C/N curve shows a strong decrease just before the blooming
of Pediastrum, a colonial alga (Figure 4c). This minimum can
be easily explained. It is well known that C/N ratios help to distinguish
between algal and land-plant origins of sedimentary organic
matter. This distinction arises from the absence of cellulose in
algae and its abundance in vascular plants and the consequent
relative richness of proteinaceous material in algae, and it is
largely preserved in sedimentary organic matter (Jasper and Gagosian,
1990; Meyers, 1994). The minimum found in the curve
C/N matches the minima found in PC and PI values of terrestrial
plants. The three peaks of Pediastrum occurring in the last millennium
could have been also favoured by water pollution because of
agriculture and livestock (Janssen, 1968). Between the 11th and
13th century, the passage of the crusaders in Albania and in the
region of Shkodra could be an explanation for this rising impact
occurring since the 11th century (Elsie, 2010).
Comparing WP percentages and Characeae occurrence (Figure
4d), it appears clear that when the first ones increase, the last show
minima. This pattern occurs until ca. 1300 yr BP. After this date,
Characeae disappear and WP increase. This could find a proper
explanation in an increase of lake level (Mazzini et al., 2014).
In the last diagram (Figure 4e), we compare ostracods and RP.
The two curves are often specular, generally suggesting that if the
200 400 600
0 2 4 6
total organic carbon
(%)
-10 -9 -8 -6
∂ 18
O
0 20 60 100
total pollen
(influx)
0 4 8 12
0 500 1000
Pediastrum
(influx)
0 10 20 30 40
Ostracoda
(normalized frequency)
0 2 4
aquatic plants
(%)
0 20 40 60
riparian plants
(%)
4 8 120
-7
CARB
2000
1500
1000
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
age(cal.
(yr(BC/AD)
500
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
depth
(cm)
age(cal.
(yrBP)
AMS
Avellino
FL
Pollena
tephras
Lake Shkodra (Albania) - core SK13
0
ba c d e
(‰ PDB)
X100valves
X100gyrogonites
X100colonies
X1000pollengrains
X100pollengrains
total pollen
(concentration)
Characeae
(normalized frequency)
C/N
(molar ratio)
Figure 4.  Comparison between pollen, continuous line (this paper), and other proxies, dotted line (Mazzini et al., 2014; Zanchetta et al.,
2012b).The light grey rectangles mark arid phases roughly corresponding to the ages of Bond events 1-3 (Bond et al., 1997).
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442	 The Holocene 25(3)
lake level rises, the ostracods increase and the shoreline becomes
more distant. This is indicated by a reduction of riparian trees.
The most important change seems to occur at ca. 1300 yr BP.
Conclusion
In the investigated pollen record, no important changes in plant
physiognomy are found, probably because of the environmental
features of the lake catchment (orography). Forests, mostly deciduous
ones, are dominant all over the investigated period. In the
case of a climate change, vegetation could have migrated to different
altitudes and plants typical of all the vegetation belts found
at present could have been able to survive. The fact that the lake
area has a very high total biodiversity (species–area relation-
ship = 0.875, Keukelaar et al., 2006) finds a confirmation on the
vegetation history depicted by palynology. In the last 4500 years,
the aridity was never enough to prevent the presence of luxuriant
vegetation.
The last millennium is an exception to the previous pattern,
with a strong increase of Mediterranean and cultivated trees
and use of fire, because of very high human impact. This landuse
change can be easily explained as in the mentioned period,
many populations contended the supremacy of Shkodra, the
town located 10 km to the southeast of the coring site. Increasing
impact is visible since AD 1200 (the crusaders of 1101 were
there and Venetians obtained from Byzantine to rule the area in
the 14th century AD) and indicated also by NPP as Pseudoschizaea.
The vegetation belt most affected by this important
land use (olive tree and chestnut cultivations in particular) is
the mesophilous one. This quite late human impact is in agreement
with the (scarce) archaeological and historical data that
suggest a quite late use of the plains surrounding the lakes. Following
Mazzini et al. (2014), the lake was a swampy area until
Middle Ages. A close comparison of palaeoenvironmental and
archaeological data is in progress and will hopefully provide a
key to understand such complex human and environmental
dynamics.
Climate changes are detected in AP concentration and influx
diagrams, with minima indicating meaningful forest openings.
The major changes are recorded at ca. 4000, soon after 3000 and
at ca. 1500 yr BP. These are in good agreement with geochemical
data from the same core (δ18O and TOC, Zanchetta et al., 2012b).
There is also a good correspondence between forest openings at
Shkodra and temperature decreases in northern Atlantic cores
(Bond et al., 1997). The traces of ‘Medieval Warm Period’(MWP)
and of the LIA are not visible in the pollen record, probably
masked by a strong human impact.
Environmental changes are easily detected through a strict
comparison with palaeolimnological data (ostracods and Characeae,
Mazzini et al., 2014). Pollen data (see Figure 4e, RP versus
ostracods) are in agreement with the hypothesis of a lake level
increase at ca. 1300 yr BP. The fact that there is a contemporary
percentage decrease of deciduous elements and an increase of
montane taxa could reinforce this hypothesis: in the case of an
increase of both the lake level and surface, the flat lands could
have been submerged. In the pollen percentage diagram, this
would imply a decrease in mesophilous taxa (mainly oaks) previously
widespread there. Pollen analyses confirm that there is not
a climatic cause for this change that, as expected, is not visible in
the δ18O record.
The multidisciplinary approach followed in the study, although
enhancing the difficulties in the interpretation of existing links
between single proxies, once again proved to be a precious tool in
distinguishing the different signatures occurring in the sediment.
In fact, palynology alone as well as ostracodology or geochemistry
could not disentangle three fundamental aspects: climate
change, environmental change and human impact.
Acknowledgements
We are in debt to archaeologists working in the area (PASH project),
namely, Michael Galaty, Lorenc Bejko and Maria Grazia
Amore. Professor Rexep Kochi (Institute of Geosciences, Energy,
Water and Environment, Polytechnic University of Tirana)
provided useful literature and constant assistance during field
surveys.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency
in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
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