Academic Writing for Graduate Students

A.      A distinctive feature of academic writing style is choosing the more formal alternative
when selecting various parts of speech.


Choosing a single verb instead of phrasal or prepositional phrases:


Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault.                -  less formal style

Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault.          – academic style

Exercise I: Choose a verb from the list that reduces the informality of each sentence. Note that
you may need to change tense of the verb from the list

assist                    reduce                 create                  investigate        raise

establish             increase              determine         fluctuate             eliminate


1.       Expert Systems can help out the user in the diagnosis of problems.

2.       This programme was set up to improve access to medical care.

3.       Research expenditures have gone up to  nearly $350 million.

4.       The use of optical character readers (OCRs) should cut down the number of problems with
the U.S. mail service.

5.       Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects.

6.       Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of the energy problem completely.

7.       Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years now.

8.       This issue was brought up during the investigation.

9.       Engineers can come up with better designs using CAD.

10.   The emission levels have been going up and down.


Exercise II: Substitute a single verb for the phrase in italics, so that the sentence sounds more
formal

1.       The implementation of computer-integrated-manufacturing has brought about some serious
problem.

2.       The process should be done over until the desired results are achieved.

3.       Plans are being made to come up with a database containing detailed environmental
information for the region.

4.       Subtle changes in the Earth’s crust were picked up by these new devices.

5.       Proposals to construct new nuclear reactors have met with great resistance from
environmentalists.


Other parts of speech: try to choose words which are not only less informal, but also more precise.


The government has made good progress in solving environmental problems.

The government has made considerable progress in solving environmental problems.

Exercise III: Supply a more academic word or phrase for the one in italics in each sentence

1.       We got encouraging results.

2.        The results of a lot of different projects have been pretty good.

3.       A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen if the process is automated.

4.       The reaction of the officials was sort of negative.

5.       The economic outlook is mighty nice.

6.       The future of Federal funding is up in the air.

7.       America’s major automakers are planning to get together on the research needed for more
fuel efficient cars.


B.      There are also some grammar related recommendations for maintaining a formal academic
writing style


Avoid contractions: will not instead of won’t


Use the more appropriate formal negative forms:

not … any  no

not … much  little

not … many  few


The analysis didn’t yield any new results.

The analysis yielded no new results.


Limit the use of “run on” expressions, such as “and so forth” and “etc.”:

These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and so on.

These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and other electronic devices.


Avoid addressing the reader as “you”:

You can see the results in Table 1.  The results can be seen in Table 1.


Limit the use of direct questions:

What can be done to lower costs?

We now need to consider how costs can be lowered.


Place adverbs next to verbs rather than in the initial or final position:

Then the solution can be discarded.  The solution can then be discarded.


Exercise IV: Reduce the informality of each sentence

1.       The government did not allocate much funding for the program.

2.       This problem doesn’t have many viable solutions.

3.       The blood is withdrawn slowly.

4.       If you fail the exam, you can’t enter the university.

5.       OK, what are the causes of deformation? Many possibilities exist.

6.       A small bit of ammonium dichromate is added to the gelatin solution gradually.

7.       These special tax laws have been enacted in six states: Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, etc.


C.      Establishing a clear connection of ideas


Linking words and phrases can help a writer maintain flow and establish clear relationships between
ideas. Here are some examples:


LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES

ADDITION

furthermore, in addition, , in addition to, moreover

ADVERSATIVE

although, even though, despite the fact that, however, nevertheless, despite, in spite of

CAUSE AND EFFECT

because, since, therefore, as a result, consequently, hence, thus, because of, due to, as a result
of

CLARIFICATION

in other words, that is, i.e.

CONTRAST

while, whereas, in contrast to, however, on the other hand, unlike, conversely

ILLUSTRATION

for example, for instance, namely

INTENSIFICATION

on the contrary, as a matter of fact, in fact



Exercise V: Choose the right connector for each gap

1.       a) for example          b) that is             c)
nevertheless                               d) on the other hand

2.       a) for example          b)nevertheless                               c) whereas         d)
then

3.       a) and hence              b)then                 c) on the other hand     d) conversely

4.       a) conversely             b) while              c) despite                           d)
and hence

 “The job of theoretical physicists is not only to explain what their experimental colleagues have
discovered but also to predict phenomena that have not yet been found. Quantum theory,
1______________, was largely driven by empirical results, 2____________ Einstein's general theory
of relativity was more a product of speculation and thought experiments. Speculation,
3______________, is a vital part of the scientific process. When Paul Dirac wrote down his equation
describing how quantum particles behave he wasn't just explaining the electron, whose properties
had been well established in experiments. His equation also predicted the hitherto undreamed-of
positron, 4_______________ the whole concept of antimatter. Such speculation is not a flight of
fancy. It is always constrained by mathematical consistency and compatibility with established
laws. It is a common fallacy that physics is only about what has already been confirmed in
experiments. The Higgs boson had no foundation in empirical reality when it was predicted in 1964.”

Mike Duff, professor of theoretical physics at Imperial College London (cited in Guardian, June 16,
2013)


Punctuation depends on the type of clauses in the sentence:


nonfinite+ finite  use a comma

Despite some complaints from new members, his speech was well

received.


Finite + finite  use a semicolon + linking word + comma

Birds fly; however, fish swim.


Finite + nonfinite  use a comma

Birds fly, while fish swim.


Exercise V: Edit the following passage by adding semicolons or commas where necessary


Aluminum alloys are now more important in the automobile industry than ever before. The government
is pressuring the industry to produce cars of high quality and with high fuel efficiency hence car
makers are replacing traditional iron-based alloys with aluminum alloys. Aluminum alloy parts are
typically one-third to one-half the weight of those made with steel as a result cars with all
aluminum use approximately 50% less fuel than those with steel components. Although most aluminium
alloys are soft they can have a higher tensile strength than steel. Adequate alloy and solution
treatment can increase their tensile strength thus resulting in a vehicle with good impact
capacity.



Exercise VI:  Read the following passage. Think of the ways of improving its flow (supply
appropriate linking words or phrases, use pronouns to avoid repeating the same words, use proper
punctuation)


Lasers have found widespread application in medicine. Lasers play an important role in the
treatment of eye disease and the prevention of blindness. The eye is ideally suited for laser
surgery. Most of the eye tissue is transparent. The frequency and focus of the laser beam can be
adjusted according to the absorption of the tissue. The beam “cuts” inside the eye with minimal
damage to the surrounding tissue – even the tissue between the laser and the incision. Lasers are
effective in treating some causes of blindness. Other treatments are not. The interaction between
laser light and eye tissue is not fully understood.










Sources:

Swales, J & Ch. Feak, Academic Writing for Graduate Students, 2012

http://www.theguardian.com/science