Academic Vocabulary
CAMBRIDGE
50 units of academic vocabulary reference and practice
Self-study and classroom use
Michael McCarthy Felicity O'Dell
Academic
Vocabulary in
Use
50 units of academic vocabulary reference and practice
Self-study and classroom use
Michael McCarthy
Felicitv OfDell   §1 gamble
■   ^* ■ ■       ■ ^ y " " WW UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Contents
Acknowledgements 5
To the student and the teacher 6
Working with academic vocabulary
1 What is special about academic English?   discipline, virtually, quantify
Key nouns Key verbs Key adjectives Key adverbs
Phrasal verbs in academic English
2
3
4
5
6
7 Key quantifying expressions
8 Words with several meanings
9 Metaphors and idioms
Word combinations
10 Nouns and the words they combine with
11 Adjective and noun combinations
12 Verbs and the words they combine with
13 Prepositional phrases
14 Verbs and prepositions
15 Nouns and prepositions
16 Fixed expressions
At academic institutions
17 Applications and application forms
18 College and university: the UK system
19 Systems compared: the US and the UK
20 Academic courses
21 Study habits and skills
22 Online learning
Ways of talking about ...
23 Sources
24 Facts, evidence and data
25 Numbers
26 Statistics
27 Graphs and diagrams
28 Money and education
29 Time
30 Cause and effect
theory, model, pattern
attempt, establish, explain
relevant, abstract, significant
comparatively, eventually, simply
put forward, go through, write up
a substantial amount, in excess of, no fewer
than
set, accommodate, issue
shed light on, remain in the dark, the battle
against
heated debate, pivotal role, to collate results important contribution, major concern, widespread support
loosely based on, examine the evidence, suggest an alternative solution
in conjunction with, on behalf of, for the most part
focus on, consent to, account for dissertation on, rationale for, progress towards in a variety of ways, with the exception of, be that as it may
entry requirements, referee, deadline
student union, tutorial, research student
dormitory, freshman, fraternity
diploma, credits, defer
reading speed, mind map, rote learning
online community, username, subject header
primary source, draw on, body of literature distort the facts, hard evidence, empirical data random, tally, estimate standard deviation, correlate, proportion pie chart, intersect, decline student loan, cost of living, receipt century, simultaneous, in the near future trigger, give rise to, chain reaction
Academic Vocabulary in Use 3
Opinions and ideas
31 Talking about ideas
32 Reporting what others say
33 Analysis of results
34 Talking about meaning
35 Research and study aims
36 Talking about points of view
37 Degrees of certainty
Functions
38 Presenting an argument
39 Organising your writing
40 Making a presentation
41 Describing research methods
42 Classifying
43 Making connections
44 Comparing and contrasting
45 Describing problems
46 Describing situations
47 Processes and procedures
48 Describing change
49 Evaluation and emphasis
50 Summary and conclusion
Reading and vocabulary
1 Good friends 110
2 Australia 111
3 The World Wide Web 112
4 The human brain 113
5 Nanotechnology 114
6 International law: an overview 115
Reference
1 Formal and informal academic words and expressions 116
2 Numbers, units of measurement and common symbols 120
3 British and North American academic vocabulary 122
4 Spelling variations 126
5 Word formation 128
6 Abbreviations 132
Key 136
List of phonemic symbols 166 Index 167
movement, hypothesis, stance pinpoint, cast doubt on, implication deduce, outweigh, critical transparent, comprehend, misinterpret objective, to further, instigate impartial, ideology, hold views tendency, likelihood, allegedly
beyond the scope of, furthermore, the extent to which
with a focus on, at this point, respectively address a topic, handout, take questions carry out a procedure, case study, replicate component, consist of, marital status correlate with, mutual, interaction distinction, similarly, whereas experience difficulties, deal with, resolve a problem
context, integral, stable simulation, to supplement, output expansion, diminish, perceptible change inadequate, contradictory, acknowledge bring to a close, in the final analysis, finally
4   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Acknowledgements
Authors' acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank their colleagues at Cambridge University Press, especially Martine Walsh, Caroline Thiriau and Noirln Burke, whose wise expertise and support have been invaluable throughout this project. We are also very grateful for the thorough and useful input provided by Bernard Seal from Cambridge University Press New York. We thank Alison Silver for the professional job she carried out so efficiently in preparing the final manuscript for production and printing. Linda Matthews too deserves our thanks for organising the production schedules for the book.
We must also thank the lexicography and computational team at Cambridge University Press whose work with the Cambridge International Corpus, the Cambridge Learner Corpus and the CANCODE corpus of spoken English (developed at the University of Nottingham in association with Cambridge University Press), enabled us to make a fully corpus-informed selection of the academic vocabulary we focus on in these materials.
We acknowledge with gratitude the pioneering work on academic word lists done by Averil Coxhead. In planning this book we made considerable use of her lists at http://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/index.shtml.
Also, as always, we thank our domestic partners for their patience and support during the writing of this book.
Michael McCarthy & Felicity O'Dell Cambridge, April 2007
Publisher's acknowledgements
Development of this publication has made use of the Cambridge International Corpus (CIC). The CIC is a computerised database of contemporary spoken and written English which currently stands at over one billion words. It includes British English, American English and other varieties of English. It also includes the Cambridge Learner Corpus, developed in collaboration with the University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations. Cambridge University Press has built up the CIC to provide evidence about language use that helps to produce better language teaching materials.
The authors and publishers would like to thank all the ELT professionals who reviewed the material:
Sue Argent, Long Dalmahoy, Scotland; Jennifer Bixby, California, USA; Jane Bottomley, Manchester, UK; Cherry Campbell, California, USA; Anthony Cosgrove, London, UK; Rosie Ganne, London, UK; Ludmila Gorodetskaya, Moscow, Russia; Mark Krzanowski, London, UK; Joseph McVeigh, Vermont, USA; Julie Moore, Bristol, UK; Brendan 6 Se, Cork, Ireland; Barbara Roosken, Tilburg, The Netherlands.
The authors and publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material in Academic Vocabulary in Use. While every effort has been made, it has not been possible to identify the sources of all the material used and in such cases the publishers would welcome information from copyright holders.
Cambridge University Press for the extracts on p. 14 (3A second text) from Mechanics 1 (International) by Douglas Quadling, copyright © 2002; p. 112 'The World Wide Web' from Telecommunications by Stuart Kennedy, copyright © 2001; p. 141 sentences from Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press; NewScientist for the extracts on p. 25 (8.4) from NewScientist, 30 March 2006; p. 113 'The Human Brain' by Helen Philips, from NewScientist, 4 September 2006; p. 114 'Nanotechnology' by John Pickrell, from NewScientist, 4 September 2006, reproduced by permission of NewScientist Magazine; Scientific American for the extracts on p. 27 (9.3) 'Shutting down Alzheimer's' by Michael S. Wolfe, from Scientific American, 5 May 2006; p. 110 'Good Friends' by Klaus Manhart, from Scientific Americany April/May 2006, reproduced by permission of Scientific American Inc. All rights reserved; Nature for the extract on p. 39 (15.4) from Nature Vol. 441, 4 May 2006, published by Nature Publishing Group; Indiana University for the extract on p. 55 (23.4), copyright © 2004, the Trustees of Indiana University, reproduced by permission of Indiana University; the Wikipedia website for the extract on p. 70 (31A) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page; ResCen, Middlesex University for the text on p. 78 (35B) from the Rescen Research website http://www.mdx.ac.uk/ rescen/main_pages/profile.html, reproduced hy permission of the Centre for Research into Creation in the Performing Arts (ResCen) at Middlesex University; Thomson Learning for the extract on p. Ill 'Australia' from World of Earth Science (Vol 1) by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth (Editor), copyright © 2003, reprinted with permission of Gale, a division of Thomson Learning: www.thomsonrights.com; Legal Information Institute for the adapted text on p. 115 'International law: an overview' from the website www.law. cornell.edu/wex/index.php/international_law, copyright Legal Information Institute 1996-2007, reproduced by permission of Legal Information Institute.
Photographs
The publishers are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright photographs and material:
p. 20 © Thomas Fricke/Corbis; p. 36© Robert E. Daemmrich/Stone/Getty Images; p. 66 © John Henley/ CORBIS; p. 74 © age fotostock/SuperStock; p. 76 © Helen King/Corbis; p. 77 © Jerry Schatzberg/CORBIS; p. 88 © image 100/Corbis.
Illustrations
Kamae Design pp. 35, 40, 44, 60, 61, 62, 63
Academic Vocabulary in Use 5
To the student and the teacher
Who is the book for?
This book is for anyone who wants or needs to learn the kind of English which is used in academic contexts. It deals with the kinds of language used in academic textbooks and articles as well as in lectures and seminars. It also presents vocabulary relating to being a student at a university or college in that it covers such topics as Applications and application forms, Money and education and Academic courses associated with university life. It will be particularly useful for students preparing for IELTS or any other examination aimed at assessing whether candidates' English is at a high enough level to study in an academic institution where English is the medium of instruction. It will be helpful for people who need to attend - or indeed give - lectures and presentations in English or to participate in international conferences. It will enable students who have to prepare assignments or write up a dissertation in English to do so in a much more natural and appropriate way.
What kind of vocabulary does the book deal with?
The book presents and practises the kind of vocabulary that is used in academic speech and writing regardless of which discipline you are concerned with. So it considers words and expressions like concept, cast doubt on, put forward a theory and come to a conclusion. It does not deal with the specialist vocabulary of any particular subject such as medicine or physics. Such specialist terms are often relatively easy to master - they will be explained and taught as you study the subject and these words may indeed sometimes be similar in English and your own language. However, it is the more general words used for discussing ideas and research and for talking and writing about academic work that you need to be fully familiar with in order to feel comfortable in an academic environment. Despite the fact that they are much more frequent than specialist words, these more general words are often felt to be more difficult to learn. It is, therefore, extremely useful to approach them in the systematic way suggested by this book.
One positive aspect of this kind of academic vocabulary is that there are relatively few differences depending on whether you are studying in London or New York, Delhi or Sydney, Johannesburg, Dublin, Wellington, Singapore or Toronto or indeed any other place where you may be using English for academic purposes. Academic English tends to be a truly international language and the units of the book focus on vocabulary that will be essential for you regardless of where you are studying now or may study in the future. There are some differences between the words used to describe people and places and these are highlighted in Units 18 and 19. References 3 and 4 also focus on some vocabulary and spelling variations. In the units of the book we use British English spelling conventions except when quoting texts which originally used American spelling.
Much of the vocabulary in the book is neutral in the sense that it is equally appropriate for both written and spoken contexts. We indicate those instances where a word or expression is too formal for use in speech or too informal for use in academic writing.
6   Academic Vocabulary in Use
How was the vocabulary for the book selected?
The academic vocabulary focused on in this book was all selected from language identified as significant by the Cambridge International Corpus of written and spoken English and also the CANCODE corpus of spoken English developed at the University of Nottingham in association with Cambridge University Press. These enormous corpora include large collections of written and spoken academic text and so it was possible to identify language that is distinctive for academic contexts. We also made considerable use of the Cambridge Learner Corpus, a corpus of tens of thousands of learner scripts from students taking Cambridge ESOL exams all over the world. From this corpus we were able to learn what kinds of errors students taking, for example IELTS, were typically making.
In planning this book we made considerable use of Averil Coxhead's work on developing academic word lists. Her lists can be found at http://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/ index.shtml and we would highly recommend that students of academic vocabulary investigate this site.
How is the book organised?
The book has 50 two-page units. The left-hand page presents the academic vocabulary to be focused on in the unit. You will usually find examples of academic vocabulary presented in context with, where appropriate, any special notes about their meaning and usage. The right-hand page checks that you have understood the information on the left-hand page by giving you a series of exercises practising the language that was presented.
The units are organised into different sections. The first introductory section includes nine units which look at basic aspects of academic vocabulary such as what is special about academic vocabulary, key verbs and key quantifying expressions. The second section devotes seven units to how words typically combine with one another in academic English. The third section has six units focusing on aspects of life at academic institutions. The fourth section provides eight units discussing ways of talking about such things as numbers, time and cause and effect. Then we have seven units exploring aspects of opinions and ideas and finally there are thirteen units with a functional focus such as organising a text, comparing and contrasting and describing change.
Towards the end of the book you will find six reading texts relating to different academic disciplines with exercises based on the vocabulary in those texts. We hope that you will find these useful examples of how to use texts to expand your knowledge of academic vocabulary in English and would recommend that you read these texts and do the exercises on them even if they relate to an academic subject that is very different from your own.
There are six reference sections dealing with some key areas where we felt it would be useful for you to have lists of items that could not be presented as fully in the main body of the book, i.e. Formal and informal academic words and expressions; Numbers, units of measurement and common symbols; British and North American academic vocabulary; Spelling variations; Word formation and Abbreviations. Where appropriate, these reference sections provide space for you to add further examples of your own.
At the end of the book there is a Key with answers to all the exercises and an Index of all the key words and expressions, indicating the units where they can be found. The pronunciation is provided for standard British English.
How should I use this book?
We recommend that you work through the nine introductory units first so that you become familiar with key aspects of academic vocabulary and how best to study it. After that you may work on the units in any order that suits you.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 7
What else do I need in order to improve my academic vocabulary?
You need a notebook or file in which you can write down all the academic vocabulary that you study in this book as well as any other words and expressions that you come across elsewhere. In your vocabulary notebook it is important to record such things as:
• examples of the word or expression in use
• typical word combinations - you might, for example, note down adjectives or verbs typically associated with a noun that you want to learn or nouns, adverbs or prepositions associated with a verb
• any special features of the word (e.g. is there anything special about its grammar or pronunciation, or is it particularly characteristic of either written or spoken English?).
You may also find it helpful to record such things as:
• any other information that might help you to learn the word (e.g. is it similar to any word in your own language, or does it, perhaps, share a root with a word that you already know?)
• any additional vocabulary that learning this word may help you to learn (e.g. does a verb have a related noun, or what is the opposite of an adjective?)
• any extended uses of the word being focused on (e.g. can it be used metaphorically, or does the same word have other meanings in the way that so many English words do?).
One very important aspect of learning vocabulary is to organise the words and expressions you meet; this will help you remember them better. You can do this in a number of ways. In recording words many learners find it helpful to include little diagrams such as word bubbles, for example:
to i^erprct
■to Ars.Aly££ dCMO^-trAte
or word forks, for example
to idarv-tify -the —
— £*.ctor£
A Common A* i£olA"ted A lArJveriAl
You also need to have access to a good dictionary. We strongly recommend the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary as this provides exactly the kind of information that you need in order to be able to understand and use English vocabulary. Through its example sentences it provides you with the information you need about how the word is used in practice and which other words it typically combines with. The dictionary also helps you with difficult items such as phrasal verbs, for example, indicating whether the object can come before the particle {set up the apparatus I set the apparatus up; go through a set of calculations, but not go a set of calculations through). This dictionary is available as a book and on a CD-ROM and can also be accessed online at www.dictionary.cambridge.org. You will need a specialist dictionary relating to your own subject area as well. Your teacher may also be able to recommend other dictionaries for your specific needs.
8   Academic Vocabulary in Use
As well as working through the units in this book you should read as much English as you can in the subject areas that are most relevant for you. If you are new to studying in English, you could start by reading a textbook aimed at students at a slightly lower level than you are at as far as the subject area is concerned; or you might prefer to read the latest articles in your field from a journal or the internet. If you have easy access to the web, then there is an enormous wealth of material available for you to study and learn from; many universities and other academic institutions have extensive websites, for example, as do professional organisations and journals.
So, good luck with your work in academic English. We hope that the materials in this book will help you to enjoy and to benefit fully from your studies. We hope you will be able to share ideas in a creative, exciting way with scholars from all over the world and we wish you the very best for a successful and rewarding academic life in English.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 9
What is special about academic English?
Everyday words and academic uses
Many words in academic English are the same as everyday vocabulary, but they are often also used with a slightly different meaning, which may be specialised.
everyday or academic use	meaning	academic use	meaning
Standards of discipline in schools have declined.	ability to control oneself or other people	Nanotechnology is a relatively new discipline.	area of study
Underline your family name on the form.	draw a line under it	The research underlines the importance of international trade agreements.	gives emphasis to
The lake was frozen solid.	not liquid or gas	We have no solid evidence that radiation has caused the problem.	certain or safe; of a good standard
Vocabulary and academic style
• In writing, academics use many expressions which are neutral, but they also use rather formal expressions which are not common in everyday language. Knowing whether an expression is formal or just neutral is important.
neutral	more formal	neutral	more formal
in short, briefly, basically	in sum, to sum up	try	attempt
only	sole(ly)	mainly/mostly	primarily
almost / more or less	virtually	typical of	characteristic of
However, very informal vocabulary may be used in spoken academic styles in classes and lectures. Learn to understand such language when you hear it but be careful not to use it in essays and written assignments. Here are some examples of teachers using informal language. 'OK. Have a shot at doing task number 3.' [more formal: Try/Attempt to do ...] 'There's no way schools can be held responsible for failures of government policy.' [more formal: Schools cannot in any way be held ...] • Academic language tries to be clear and precise, so it is important to keep a vocabulary notebook (see page 8) and learn the differences between similar words, as well as typical word combinations (underlined here).
The building is a prime example of 1920s architecture, [excellent in quality or value] The group's primary concern is to protect human rights, [main / most important]
Noun phrases
Academic language puts a lot of information into noun phrases rather than spreading it out over a whole sentence. For example, instead of saying Radiation was accidentally released over a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area for a long time, an academic might say The accidental release of radiation over a 24-hour period caused widespread long-term damage. It is therefore important to learn the different forms of a word, for example:
noun	verb	adjective(s)	adverb(s)
accident		accidental	accidentally
quantity/quantification	quantify	quantitative/quantifiable	quantitatively/quantifiably
Finally, be aware of 'chunks' or phrases which occur frequently, and learn them as whole units. Examples: in terms of, in addition, for the most part, in the case of, etc. (See Unit 16.)
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
I. I    Each word in the box can be used in two ways, one an everyday way, the other a typically academic way. Complete each pair of sentences using the same word for both sentences and making any necessary grammatical changes.
generate   turn   solid   confirm   identify   underline   character   pose   nature focus
1	A	She loves to	for photographs in front of her fabulous house.
	B	The events	a threat to stability in the region.
2	A	It was difficult to	the camera on the flower as it was so small.
	B	We should	our attention on the most important issues.
3	A	I called the airline and	my reservation.
	B	The data	my hypothesis that animal-lovers enjoy better health.
4	A	The power plant .	electricity for the whole region.
	B	This issue always	a great deal of debate among academics.
5	A	The murderer was	from fingerprints discovered at the scene.
	B	In this theory of history, progress is closely ... .......with technology.	
6	A	She became interested	in conservation.
	B	The first lecture in the	series was on the                 of human communication.
7	A	Jim's a very interesting	. I hope you meet him.
	B	The book attempts to	explain the fundamental                   of social life.
8	A	I saw her	to her husband and whisper something in his ear.
	B	Let us now	to the subject of town planning.
9	A	He always	every new word when he's reading.
	B	The study.....	the fact that very little research exists.
10	A	The liquid became	. as the temperature was lowered.
	B	The study lacks	evidence and therefore its conclusions are doubtful
1.2 Use more formal alternatives to the words in bold. Make any necessary grammatical changes.
1 The book is mainly concerned with the problem of policing the internet.
2 Almost every school in the county had reported problems with the new system.
3 The work of the Institute is not only devoted to cancer research.
4 Basically, we believe we have demonstrated a significant link between the two events.
5 We tried to find a new way of understanding the data.
6 The study is a really good example of the way sociologists collect their data.
7 The reaction is typical of the way large corporations keep control of their markets.
8 There's no way London can be compared to Sydney as a place to live and work.
1.3 Read the text and then answer the questions.
The production of plastics depends heavily on petroleum, but a novel way of making plastics out of sugar could reduce our reliance on oil. The discovery that a chemical in sugar can be converted relatively easily into a substance similar in structure to the material obtained from petroleum has led to the claim that plastics could soon be produced cheaply using the new method.
1 Underline two verbs with adverbs after them which it would be useful to learn as pairs.
2 Underline two adverbs next to each other which it would be useful to learn together.
3 What are the noun forms of the verbs produce, rely, discover and claim}
Academic Vocabulary in Use   I I
Key nouns
This unit focuses on some frequent and important nouns in academic English. See also Units 10, 11 and 15.
General nouns referring to ideas
example (with prepositions underlined)	comment
She wrote an article on the subject of class.	thing which is being discussed, considered or studied
The theme of the poem is emigration.	main subject of a talk, book, etc.
The students were given a list of essay topics.	used to refer to what one is studying or writing about
There was a lively debate on the issue of globalisation in the seminar yesterday.	subject/problem which people are thinking/talking about
Political theory is a popular undergraduate subject Einstein's theory of gravitation has been questioned recently.	statement of the rules on which a subject of study is based or, more generally, an opinion or explanation
The model of climate change presented in the Stern Review seems to be becoming a reality.	a representation of something as a simple description which might be used in calculations
The book is called 'The Nature of Intelligence'.	main characteristic of something
Human behaviour is based on the principle of least effort	basic idea or rule that explains how something happens or works
More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena
example (with prepositions underlined)	comment
Repetition is an important aspect of speech development in children.	one individual part of a situation, problem, subject etc.
Automatic backup is a feature of the new software.	a typical quality of something
The political motives for the government's actions are beyond the scope of this essay.	range of a subject covered by a book, discussion, class, etc.
The study revealed a pattern of results which could be interpreted in either of two ways.	showed a regularly repeated arrangement
During 2005, the number of violent attacks increased to an alarming degree.	amount or level
Nouns referring to ways of thinking, processes and activities
Read these titles of academic books and articles. Note the key nouns and their prepositions.
Micro-organisms in water: their significance1 and identification2
Renewable energy: a critical assessment3 of recent research
The Case4 for Change: Rethinking Teacher Education. Towards a New Approach5
Perspectives6 on Ecological Management: A study of public awareness7 of river pollution
Citizens' Views on Healthcare Systems in the European Union
Epidemiological research into8 asthma and allergic disease: establishing a standardised methodology9
1 importance 2 ability to establish the identity of something 3 judgement of the amount, value, quality or importance of 4 arguments, facts and reasons in support of or against something 5 way of considering something 6 different particular or individual ways of considering something 7 having special interest in or experience of something, and so being well informed 8 research is often also used with the preposition on 9 a system of ways of studying something
%jf       Research is uncountable. Don't say They carried out some interesting researches.To make it ^ plural you can just say 'studies', or 'research studies' or 'pieces of research'.
12   Academic Vocabulory in Use
Exercises
2.1 Look at A. Choose the most appropriate noun to complete each sentence.
1 Environmental topics I issues I principles should be at the top of today's political agenda.
2 In the exam students had to choose three from a choice of ten essay subjects I theories I topics.
3 There are still people who are reluctant to accept Darwin's model I topic I theory of evolution.
4 The professor decided to take moral courage as the issue I theme I model for his inaugural lecture.
5 The London underground map is best understood as a model I principle I topic showing how the different stations relate to one another rather than a precise representation of their distances from each other.
6 The Peter Issue I Principle I Theme states that members of a hierarchical group will usually end up being promoted to the point at which they become incompetent.
2.2 There are six phrases containing errors underlined in this paragraph. Can you correct them?
The study showed that local police can play an important role in crime prevention. It makes a strong case of boosting the numbers of community police officers although it warns against increasing police presence on the streets at an alarming degree. Its methodological was based on a range of interviews asking members of the public for their views in how best to prevent crime. Unfortunately, how to implement this recommendation was out of the scope of the study but at least it serves a useful purpose in raising awareness to the issue.
2.3    Look at these titles of academic books (A-H). Then match them to their subject areas (1-8).
A The Nature of Democracy
B The Significance of Dreams
C The Features of Glaciated Landscapes
D The Assessment of Language Skills
E An Approach to Free Verse
F The Identification of Bees
G Perspectives on Modern Taxation
H New Perspectives on Cleopatra
1 economics
2 education
3 literature
4 history
5 geography
6 psychology
7 politics
8 zoology
2.4    Match the beginning of each sentence with
1 The study revealed a regular
2 The research focuses on one particular
3 The writer makes a powerful
4 The writers take an original
5 Until recently there was little
6 I think you should broaden the
7 To date, there has been little research
8 There are many important
the most appropriate ending.
scope of your research.
awareness of the problem.
issues facing the world today.
into the environmental effects of nanoparticles.
approach to their theme.
aspect of modern society.
pattern of changes in temperature.
case for restructuring parliament.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   13
Key verbs
In this unit we look at some important verbs in academic English.
Verbs for structuring academic assignments
Look at these tasks which students have been given. Note the key verbs.
Discuss some of the problems involved1 in investigating attitudes to diet and health. Write a critical review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an investigation you yourself could conduct2. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different methods.
Starting from rest, an aircraft accelerates to its take-off speed of 60 m s-1 in a distance of 900 metres. Illustrate3 this with a velocity-time graph. Assuming4 constant acceleration, find5 how long the take-off run lasts. Hence calculate6 the acceleration.
7 ft
'The fact that nations agree to follow international law demonstrates that we can identify ideals that are trans-national and trans-cultural.' How far is this statement true? Critically analyse any recent event which supports or challenges9 the statement.
Examine10 how industrial growth has affected any two developing countries. Provide" statistical evidence where necessary and include a discussion of likely future trends.
1 which are part of/included in 2 organise and do 3 draw something in order to explain something 4 accepting something to be true 5 discover by calculating (see 6) 6 judge the number or amount of something and adding, multiplying, subtracting or dividing numbers 7 show, make clear 8 recognise someone or something and say or prove who or what they are 9 questions whether it is true 10 look at or consider carefully and in detail 11 give
More key verbs
These extracts from academic books contain other key verbs.
In developing methods to explain the significance of health status measures, one can classify1 ways of establishing2 quality of life into two main types.
The length of time spent on the tasks may account for3 the decrease in motivation which was seen4 in many of the participants.
The data presented5 in Chapter 3 showed6 that the age of the subjects was not the main factor. Political theory attempts7 to build bridges between different schools of political thought.
1 divide things into groups according to their type 2 discover or get proof of 3 explain 4 see is often used in the passive in academic style 5 given 6 proved 7 (formal) tries
Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs
Often in academic style, a verb + the noun form of the key verb is used.
verb	verb + noun	example
explain	give/provide/offer an explanation (of/for)	The model provides an explanation for the differences between the two sets of data.
explore	carry out an exploration (of)	Kumar carried out an exploration of music genius.
emphasise	place/put emphasis (on)	The hospital puts a lot of emphasis on training nurses.
describe	give/provide a description (of)	The book gives a description of modern Europe.
The verbs affect and effect are different. To affect means to influence, to effect means to make something happen / to bring about. The burning of fossil fuels has negatively affected the global climate. The procedure has been successful and has effected a return to normal functioning of the engine. See Unit 30 for more on affect and effect.
14   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
3.1 Match each verb from A in the box on the left with its synonym from the box on the right.
affect  attempt  calculate   challenge   demonstrate compute   distinguish  give influence
identify   include   investigate   provide involve   question   show   study try
3.2 Choose the best verb from B or C to complete these sentences. Put the verb into the correct form.
1 As can......................................from Table II, participation figures have been steadily falling since 1970.
2 Different authors have......................................for the President's actions in different ways.
3 Mendel attempted to devise a system for......................................the many different types of pea
plant that he grew.
4 It is often most effective......................................your data in a chart or table.
5 The data we have collected.....................................that there has been a downward trend with
regard to job satisfaction over the last 50 years.
6 The aim of the research is......................................a new software application which will help
aviation engineers design more sophisticated aircraft.
7 The archaeologists should be able to use carbon dating techniques......................................exactly
how old the bones are.
8 Charles Darwin attempted......................................the existence of different species in terms of
evolution.
3.3 Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair.
1 Greig's article supports Park's theory. Greig's article challenges Park's theory.
2 Describe the new tax regulations. Discuss the new tax regulations.
3 Lodhi provides new data. Lodhi considers new data.
4 Titova conducted four sets of experiments. Titova examined four sets of experiments.
5 Lee established why such changes occur. Lee investigated why such changes occur.
6 Okaz assumed that the data were reliable. Okaz proved that the data were reliable.
7 Illustrate the magnitude of the deceleration. Find the magnitude of the deceleration.
8 The events effected economic development. The events affected economic development.
3.4 Rewrite each sentence using the word in brackets and make any necessary changes to other words.
1 Erikson's theory explains the fluctuations in the figures for this period. (provides)
2 Bevan explored the relationship between family background and political ambition. (exploration)
3 The book describes the life and times of Abraham Lincoln, (description)
4 Cheng's theory emphasises the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition. (puts)
3.5 In academic style, noun phrases can often be used instead of some of the key verbs. |0    Complete each phrase with the appropriate noun. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1 investigate = conduct, carry out an 4 affect = have an......................................on
......................................into/of 5 attempt = make an...................................... to/at
2 illustrate = provide an......................................of 6 classify = make, provide a.......................of
3 analyse = provide, carry out an.......................of
Using the tasks in A as a model, prepare some assignment topics for students studying any subject that you are familiar with.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   15
Key adjectives
For any adjective it is useful to know whether it is typically followed by a specific preposition and whether it has any synonyms (adjectives with a similar meaning) or antonyms (adjectives of opposite meaning).
Adjectives and prepositions
Here are some extracts from academic texts, with adjectives followed by to or of.
Language development is conceived as some of the responses to the questionnaire
relative1 to one's own past performance, >       were specific4 to young male respondents.
or relative to that of others. others were common5 to all the respondents.
How can we make science relevant2 to f We need to plan technologies which are
environmental policy? Poor communication ' appropriate6 to the needs of small farmers,
between scientists and politicians is It was typical of the farmers in the study that
characteristic3 of the situation today. i they had a negative attitude to technology.
1 true to a particular degree when it is being compared with other things 2 connected with what is happening or being discussed 3 (rather formal) typical of 4 only found in 5 belonging to or shared by two or more people or things 6 suitable or right for a particular situation or occasion
Adjectives and their opposites
Look at this abstract from a dissertation on drug abuse. In most cases you can work out the meanings of the opposites (which follow each numbered adjective), based on the definitions.
We cannot discuss drug abuse as an abstract1 problem without considering concrete examples of abuse and their social consequences. Abuse is rarely a simple2 issue; it usually results from a complex set of circumstances. Both quantitative3 and qualitative research is necessary to gain a full picture of the situation. By combining research methods, we may obtain an accurate picture of the causes and results of abuse, in contrast with the inaccurate assessments which often result from purely quantitative studies. A significant4 amount of fear and prejudice surrounds the notion of abuse, and the media have a role which is also not insignificant in promoting such fears. The dissertation concludes that rough5 estimates of the number of drug addicts need to be made more precise by properly defining addiction.
1 existing as an idea, not as a material object; opposite: existing in a form that can be seen or felt
2 having or made of only one or a few parts 3 based on numbers and statistics; opposite: usually research using non-number-based methods such as interviews, focus groups, etc. 4 important or noticeable 5 fairly correct but not exact or detailed; opposite: exact and accurate
Other important, frequent adjectives and typical combinations with nouns
There was an apparent1 discrepancy between the two sets of results.
We noted a potential2 problem with the experimental design which we had to deal with first.
The principal3 cause of the failure was a sudden temperature change.
The research used a rigorous4 methodology which had been tested on many occasions.
1 seeming to exist or be true 2 possible when the necessary conditions exist 3 first in order of importance 4 careful to look at or consider every part of something to make certain it is correct
Remember to say typical of, NOT typical fdr. Learn adjectives with the prepositions that often follow them, as in A.
16   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
4.1 Look at A. Correct the preposition errors in these sentences.
1 A lengthy discussion of the advantages of solar power is not relevant with an essay that required you to focus on wind turbines.
2 It is typical to the disease for it to start with an itchy rash.
3 This methodology is not appropriate about the kind of research you are planning.
4 The use of original metaphors is characteristic from the writer's style.
5 Relative with previous attempts to explain the phenomenon, this interpretation is quite persuasive.
6 The dark hair and eyes are common for all people from the region.
4.2 Rewrite each sentence using the opposite of the adjective in italics.
1 Karlsson checked the figures and agreed with me that they were accurate.
2 The solution to the problem is a simple one.
3 Make rough calculations before you begin to write up your results.
4 The army played a significant role in events.
5 Hernandez prefers to discuss ideas in abstract terms.
4.3 Match the adjective on the left with the noun it often combines with on the right.
1 apparent methodology
2 rigorous problem
3 principal discrepancy
4 potential cause
4.4 Now use one of the combinations from 4.3 to complete these sentences.
1 There is an......................................in your figures.
2 Management's refusal to listen to the workers' demands was the......................................of the riots.
3 Lamaque devised a......................................which has since been used successfully by many other
researchers in the field.
4 We spotted a......................................with our procedure and so we changed it in two areas.
4.5 Choose the best adjective from the box to complete these sentences.
qualitative   complex   potential   rigorous specific
1 The plant is difficult to grow and needs very......................................conditions to survive.
2 His tutor was critical of his work for not being.....................................enough.
3 In the past the northern tribes looked on the tribes of the south as ....................................enemies.
4 We chose a....................................approach to our research and interviewed individuals personally.
5 A......................................set of circumstances led to a civil war in 1897.
When you come across any of the key adjectives from this unit in your reading, note it down in a phrase so you build up a set of useful phrases using the adjective.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   17
Key adverbs
This unit deals with just some of the adverbs that are particularly frequent in an academic context. You will find more in other units throughout this book.
Adverbs that compare
adverb	meaning	example
comparatively/ relatively	in comparison with something else	Our sample was relatively/ comparatively small.
especially/particularly	more than usual	The process was not especially/ particularly difficult
specially	more than usual (spoken English only) for a specific purpose	The exam was specially hard this year. We used specially designed equipment.
somewhat (opposite: considerably)	(slightly formal) a little, slightly	When we tested younger boys, we obtained somewhat/considerably different results.
primarily	mainly	Amir is primarily interested in bio-physics.
mostly/largely	almost completely (but not totally so)	The research was largely/mostly successful.
directly (opposite: indirectly)	without anything else being involved	The illness is (in)directly linked to poor housing.
Adverbs that relate to numbers or time
There are approximately 20 varieties of bird in this species, [roughly, about]
There are precisely 48 different managerial posts in the company, [exactly]
Interviewees frequently misunderstood one of the questions, [often]
We eventually obtained the results we were hoping for. [in the end, after some time]
Ultimately we plan to repeat the experiment, [finally, after other things have been completed]
Adverbs that relate to how things are stated
Hall's latest article essentially1 differs from his earlier work in that it is explicitly2 critical of the government. Generally3, his disapproval of their policies was only conveyed implicitly4 in his previous writing, but here he specifically condemns their handling of a number of issues.
1 referring to its main characteristics; also basically 2 openly 4 not directly, suggested or implied rather than stated
Adverbs that restrict or limit
usually, also on the whole
merely = exactly and nothing more: The medication will merely make the symptoms bearable; it will not cure the disease.
simply Note that simply can have different meanings. To put it simply, the risks of this approach would seem to outweigh its advantages, [plainly] The book presents difficult ideas simply, in a way appropriate for the layman, [easily; someone who isn't a specialist in the field] The exam results were simply dreadful, [absolutely, without doubt] hardly ever = almost never: The tribe has hardly ever had contact with the outside world.
C
£ventuo//y means 'in the end'. It does not mean 'perhaps/possibly'.
We will perhaps/possibly (NOT eventually) discover life on other planets in the future.
Eventually [in the end], we were able to interview all 20 children involved in the test
18   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
5. I    Look at A and B. Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair.
1 Heinrich's experiments were mostly successful. Heinrich's experiments were most successful.
2 The results were somewhat surprising given the circumstances. The results were especially surprising given the circumstances.
3 First-year students are directly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees. First-year students are particularly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees.
4 The study is primarily concerned with urban alienation. The study is ultimately concerned with urban alienation.
5 The team eventually obtained unpredicted results. The team frequently obtained unpredicted results.
5.2 Choose the more appropriate adverb from the options.
What you are saying is essentially I merely true. To put it basically I simply, there is specially I basically no significant difference between the two writers' theories. However, one of them writes in a simply / precisely dreadful style while the other has eventually I possibly a more impressive style than any other contemporary scientist.
5.3 Change the sentences using adverbs which mean the opposite of the underlined ones.
1 There were roughly 350 people living in the village in 1958.
2 Parents seldom complained that the school authorities failed to inform them of changes.
3 We investigated the problem and initially found some small errors in the calculations.
4 The temperature was exactly half a degree lower than the average.
5 Singh (1998) is explicitly critical of existing theories of economic growth.
6 Soil erosion is specifically caused by water or wind.
7 Senior citizens almost always use the internet to communicate with one another.
8 The disease is directly linked to environmental factors.
5.4 Underline the adverbs in these texts. Then answer the questions.
Marine conservationists are currently attempting to save the world's coral reefs. One plan is to literally glue the damaged reefs back together, using coral artificially raised in underwater labs. Reefs are increasingly under attack from human activity as well as from events occurring naturally, such as hurricanes and tsunamis. A recent UN report warns that 30% of the world's coral reefs have been completely destroyed or are severely damaged.
Scientists have recently discovered that ants can remember how many steps they have taken. By carefully shortening or lengthening the legs of ants, the team observed that short-legged ants apparently became lost and could not easily find their way home to the nest. Similarly, ants with longer legs typically travelled 50% further than they needed to and were also temporarily unable to find the nest. It seems ants can definitely count their steps.
1 Which adverb means 'in the same way'?
2 Find two pairs of adverbs that mean the opposite of each other.
3 Which adverb means the opposite of 'a long time ago'?
4 Which adverb means 'more and more'?
5 Which adverb could be substituted by seriously?
6 Which adverb means 'for a limited time'?
Find an article of interest to you in your discipline and underline all the key adverbs.Then check that you understand their meaning.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   19
Phrasal verbs in academic English
Although phrasal verbs occur most frequently in more informal spoken and written English, they are also not uncommon in an academic context. You will hear them used in lectures and will read them in serious journals. From this unit only go/look back over and work out are not appropriate for a formal written assignment.
Phrasal verbs and one-word synonyms
Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms. These are usually of Latin origin and sound more formal than their phrasal verb equivalent but both are appropriate when writing or talking about academic subjects. Vary your language by using both.
phrasal verb	synonym	example
put forward (an idea/view/opinion/ theory/plan)	present	In her latest article Kaufmann puts forward a theory which is likely to prove controversial.
carry out (an experiment / research)	conduct	1 intend to carry out a series of experiments.
make up	constitute	Children under the age of 15 make up nearly half of the country's population.
be made up of	consist of	Parliament is made up of two houses.
point out	observe	Grenne points out that the increase in life expectancy has led to some economic problems.
point up	highlight	The study points up the weaknesses in the current school system.
set out (to do something)	aim	In his article Losanov sets out to prove that...
set out	describe	The document sets out the terms of the treaty.
go into	discuss	In this book Sergeant goes into the causes of the Civil War in some depth.
go/look back over	revise, review *	Please go/look back over this term's notes.
go through	check	Go through your calculations carefully.
* Revise is the BrE synonym and review the AmE synonym. (Revise in AmE only means to edit or change something to make it better; review is not used in BrE in the context of preparing for a test as focused on here.)
Carrying out research
ft
After completing her first degree in zoology Meena went on to1 apply to graduate school. She wanted to work on2 animal behaviour at a well-known institute in New Zealand. She set up3 a series of experiments investigating how bees communicate. She has noticed some curious behaviour patterns but has not yet worked out4 why her bees behave as they do. What she has observed seems to go against5 current theories of bee behaviour. When she has completed all her research she will have to write it all up6.
1 do something after doing something else 2 study, work in the field of 3 prepared, arranged 4 come to a conclusion about s not be in agreement with 6 (of an important document) write in a final form
Consult a good dictionary when you use phrasal verbs in your writing. For example, a good dictionary tells you when the object can be used before the particle (e.g. write your results up) and when it cannot (e.g. this goes against current theories).
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
6.1 Rewrite the sentences replacing the underlined word in each sentence with a phrasal verb from A. Note that both versions of each sentence are equally appropriate.
1 We conducted a series of experiments to test out our hypothesis.
2 Before the test you should revise Chapters 7 and 8 of your textbooks.
3 In his article on the American Civil War Kingston discusses the reasons why the situation developed in the way it did.
4 Cole presents some fascinating theories on the development of language in his latest book.
5 The psychologist observed that it was very unusual for a young child to behave in this way.
6 Please check your work again carefully before handing it in.
7 In this article Simpson aims to prove that the Chinese reached America long before the Vikings.
8 Women now constitute over half the student population in most universities in this country.
6.2 Fill in the missing words in this paragraph.
As part of my MA I've been doing some research on language acquisition. I've been
working (1)...................................how young children learn their mother tongue. I've been
carrying (2)......................................some experiments to see how much reading to young
children affects their language development. I've had a great supervisor who has
helped me set (3) ............................... my experiments and she's also pointed (4)
lots of interesting things in my data that I hadn't noticed myself. I'm busy writing my
work (5)...................................... now and I think 1 should be able to put (6) ....................... some
useful ideas. It's been really fascinating and I hope I may be able to go (7)
lo do a doctorate in the same field although I certainly never set (8) to do
a PhD.
6.3 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.
1 Feudal society was made forward a convincing theory with regard to this question.
2 Carlson was the first to put up the flaws in the school's testing methods.
3 Her results appear to go out the solution to the algebra problem.
4 The investigation pointed out a lot of basic information about all the world's
5 It took him a long time to work countries.
6 The geography book sets against what she had found in her earlier studies.
up of clearly defined classes of people.
6.4 Answer these questions.
1 What sort of things might a scientist carry out?
2 If you want to study something in more depth, what might you go on to do after getting a first degree?
3 What do postgraduate students typically have to write up at the end of their studies?
4 What sort of things do good students regularly look back over?
5 What sorts of things do scholars typically put forward in their lectures or articles?
6 Why is it sensible to go through any maths calculations that you had to make as part of a research study before you draw any conclusions?
Academic Vocabulary in Use   21
Key quantifying expressions
Quantifying expressions are important in academic English as it is often necessary to comment on figures or trends. You will find more useful language for talking about numbers in Units 25 and 26 and in Reference 2, which focuses on measurement.
Number and amount
Learners of English often choose the wrong noun relating to quantity. For example, you say a great (not large) deal (informal) or a large/great amount of an uncountable noun such as money, interest or influence. However, you say a large number of a plural noun such as articles, books or words. Both a number and an amount can be described as small, considerable, substantial, significant, enormous, total, surprising, excessive [too much/many], fair [quite a lot] and reasonable [acceptable].
Other nouns relating to quantity
The size of our survey was relatively small-scale. We sent out 2,500 questionnaires in total1. Although a couple2 of people did not respond, the bulk3 of those sent questionnaires have completed them. The survey shows that, as a whole4, the population is becoming more aware of the importance of recycling. Only one of5 our spondents said that he recycled less than he used to.
respc
1 in all 2 two or three, a few 3 the majority 4 considered as a group rather than individually 5 notice how respondents is in the plural; it is a common error to write a singular noun after one of... (respondents/surveys/conclusions, etc.)
C    Comparing numbers and quantities
expression	example	comment
exceeding	Results exceeding 5 cm were eliminated from the survey.	(formal) means higher than
in excess of	People who drive in excess of the speed limit will be fined.	means over, used mainly in official or legal writing
fewer and fewer / less and less	Fewer and fewer people are staying in the same job throughout their lives.Young people are becoming less and less interested in politics.	a steadily declining/decreasing number of, decreasingly
more and more	There is more and more interest in the topic. People are becoming more and more aware of the environment.	a steadily increasing amount of, increasingly
more or less	The experiment was more or less a success.	(slightly informal) means mostly or approximately
no fewer than	No fewer than 200 people responded.	used to suggest the number was unexpectedly large
% Jt      Note the significant difference between few and a few and between little and a little. /W,        Few [Not many] people enjoy X's music. A few [Some] people enjoy it. We had little [not f ▼        much] response to our survey. We had a little [some] response to our survey. In other words, few/little has a more negative tone than a few / a little.
22   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
7.1 Complete the sentences using the correct forms of the words in italics.
1 In a......................................number of cases, there was no reaction at all to the drug, surprise
2 The analysis demanded an......................................amount of computer time, exceed
3 ......................................numbers of birds inhabit the lake during the winter, consider
4 The course requires a......................................amount of prior knowledge of computers, reason
5 The survey took a......................................amount of research time and costs were high, substance
6 The two dams can hold in.....................................of two cubic kilometres of water, exceed
7 In......................................, 12 areas of the Southern Indian Ocean are now closed to deep-sea
fishing, totality
8 Groups......................................four people were considered too large for the experiment, exceed
9 No......................................than 2,000 new computer viruses are created every year, few
10 In a......................................number of cases, surface damage was noticed, signify
7.2 The sentences below are typical of spoken English. Replace the underlined words to make them sound more appropriate for a written assignment.
1 The bulk of our work is concerned with carbon emissions.
2 We have noticed that fewer and fewer students are joining the course.
3 Our team spent a fair amount of time getting funding for the research.
4 In a couple of cases, we could not find any reason for the outbreak.
5 We spent a great deal of time on the project.
6 As you repeat the experiment, use less and less water each time.
7.3 Read the text and answer the questions.
For some years now, scientists have been using a powerful new machine to recreate the conditions that existed at the birth of the universe. The machine generates a massive number of hot, dense, bursts of matter and energy, simulating what happened in the first few microseconds of the beginning of the universe. After no more than ten microseconds, the particles of matter joined together, like water freezing into ice, forming the origin of more or less everything we see in the universe today.
1 Which expression explains how long scientists have been using this machine?
2 Which expression tells us how many bursts of matter and energy the machine generates?
3 Which time period does the machine simulate?
4 Which expression states how long it was before the particles of matter joined together?
5 Which expression in the last sentence means approximately}
7.4    Rewrite the paragraph using the opposites of the underlined words or expressions.
There have been a small number of studies investigating the impact of email on interpersonal communications. None of the studies has been large-scale but they suggest some interesting trends in patterns of email use. From one of the older studies it seems that more and more people send in excess of 50 emails daily. Moreover, it appears that a substantial number of senior citizens use email a lot more frequently than younger people do.
Find five quantifying expressions from one of your textbooks and write your own sentences using them.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 23
Words with several meanings
Set
Many words in English have more than one meaning. The word set, for example, is one word with a particularly large number of distinctly different meanings. As our focus is academic English, some key uses of set are illustrated by these examples.
a) Set the instruments to zero, [get something ready so it can be operated]
b) I would like to set some ground rules for the course, [establish]
c) The decision set a number of changes in motion, [caused to be in a stated condition]
d) We must set a time for our next meeting, [arrange]
e) Concrete sets as it cools, [becomes solid]
f) The students entered the room and immediately set to work, [started work]
g) The condition is associated with a particular set of symptoms, [group]
h) We have a number of set books to study in our literature class, [that must be studied]
More academic meanings for familiar words
Here are some more words which in an academic context may have a different meaning from those you are familiar with from your knowledge of general English.
word	academic meaning(s)	example
accommodate (verb)	change to allow something to fit in	He had to adapt his theory to accommodate new information.
contract (verb)	shorten, become smaller	As the metal cools it contracts.
occur (verb)	exist	Some valuable minerals occur naturally in these rocks.
reference (noun)	author or book mentioned in a piece of writing to show where information was found	You must provide a list of references at the end of your assignment.
revolution (noun)	complete turn (e.g. of a wheel)	Time is measured by the revolution of the earth around the sun.
structure (noun)	way in which parts of a system or object are organised or arranged	The structure of this element is particularly complex.
Words with several different academic meanings
Many academic words have specific meanings according to their discipline. Channel, for
example, has specific meanings in electronics, linguistics, biology, physics and geography.
So you will, of course, need a specialist dictionary for your own subject.
Other words, e.g. issue and point have several generally important academic meanings.
The writer takes issue with Kwame's interpretation, [raises arguments against]
In your essay you should address a number of key issues, [topics]
Have you seen the latest issue of the Malaysian Medical Journal} [edition]
Jackson raises some interesting points in his article, [opinions, ideas, information]
The writer takes a long time to get to the point, [most significant part]
If you come across a word that you think you know but it does not seem to make sense in that context, check to see whether it has another distinct meaning. If so, write it down with both (or all) its meanings in your vocabulary notebook.
24   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
8.1 Which meaning given in A does set have in these examples?
1 If you don't set to work immediately you won't finish the task by the end of term.
2 Before we start I'd like everyone to set their watches to precisely the same time.
3 Professors will set a date for the submission of assignments relating to their own courses.
4 We expected the mixture to set quickly but it had not hardened by the morning.
5 Before leaving the area, the retreating army set the farm buildings on fire.
6 The engine's performance has set a new fuel consumption record.
7 During the first semester, music students have to study a number of set pieces.
8 There are a whole set of issues that need to be discussed.
8.2 Choose a word from B to complete each sentence. Change the form if necessary.
1 When you are doing research it is sensible to keep good records of all your......................................
as it can be difficult to locate sources later.
2 This medical condition is most likely to......................................in fair-skinned people.
3 In first gear the engine makes ten......................................for every......................................of the wheels.
4 Wealth, the theme of the anthology, is general enough to......................................a wide variety of
approaches.
5 The.................................of society in Ancient Rome can be said to resemble that of the modern USA.
6 They carried out an experiment to check whether the gold......................................or expanded
under a range of different conditions.
8.3 Which word could fit in each of these sets of phrases?
1 discuss the following...................................... 3 take......................................with
underline the key...................................... the latest......................................of the New Scientist
make some thoughtful...................................... a controversial......................................
2 to......................................a precedent 4 a......................................of communication
a......................................of exercises the English......................................
a......................................book to......................................one's energies into
8.4 Read this text about some new medical software. For each underlined word give the meaning in the text and one other meaning. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary.
A simulator showing how outbreaks of infection might spread around the world would be of great assistance in the struggle to contain such diseases. Researchers at the World Health Organization maintain that to effectively confront emerging infectious diseases, they need a significant amount of computing power. A global epidemic simulator would mimic climate simulators which monitor the movement of weather systems. It would record where disease outbreaks occur, where they are heading and, crucially, would allow scientists to test out virtual mitigation measures to see which might work best on the ground.
8.5   Jokes are often based on words having several meanings. Explain this joke.
A neutron goes into a bar, orders a drink and asks how much it will be. The barman replies: 'For you, sir, no charge.'
Look at a textbook on an academic subject of special interest to you. Look for some of the words in this unit and decide which meaning they have in your text.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 25
Metaphors and idioms
A metaphor is a way of using language which describes something by indirectly comparing it to something else with similar characteristics. For example, you might say an academic 'attacks' or 'demolishes' someone's theory or argument, just as an army can attack an enemy or workers can demolish a building. If a metaphor is used so often that the original force of the comparison is lost then it may be called an idiom. For example, people often use the idiom 'I'm snowed under with work at the moment'. Originally this was a metaphor based on the idea of a great deal of work having the characteristics of 'snow' (deep, overwhelming everything else and making movement difficult). However, this expression has been used so frequently that it no longer gives people a mental picture of snow.
Metaphors and idioms referring to light and darkness
The present experimental data may shed (new) light on1 the formation of the planets.
Views on depression have changed in (the) light of2 recent studies of the brain.
Novelists, poets and essayists often use history to illuminate3 their understanding
of human behaviour. The book provides an illuminating discussion of how languages change.
Animal models can be used to elucidate4 basic principles of the developmental origins of
adult diseases.
The report revealed the glarings discrepancy between patients' needs and what the health
service can offer them, and highlighted6 the need for a new approach.
The report shines a light on7 the questions surrounding child care and provides crucial data.
Substance abuse continues to destroy individuals and communities, and researchers remain in
the dark8 about what can ensure successful recovery from addiction.
The book dealt with economic policy in the shadow of9 the Civil War of 1994-1999.
1 provide an explanation for it which makes it easier to understand. We can also say cast or throw light on 2 because of 3 show more clearly something that is difficult to understand 4 explain or make clear (from the Latin lucidus meaning 'clear')   s something bad that is very obvious (to glare means to shine too brightly) 6 emphasised something important 7 focuses on 8 continue in a state of not knowing something 9 in a situation where something bad has happened or is happening
Metaphors and idioms referring to war and conflict
Look at these extracts from lectures where the speakers use such metaphors and idioms.
'Critics opposed to D.H. Lawrence attacked his novels on various grounds, both trivial and important. But despite the apparent diversity of opinion, Lawrence's critics were united on what they saw as several serious problems.'
'It's useful at the present time to look at Japan's experience in the battle against air pollution, and it's a battle no nation can afford to lose.'
'In the last two poems we see the poet becoming increasingly detached from the material world, retreating' more into his own mind than before.'
'Lawsuits can certainly affect the value of a company, and firms need strategies to combat the onslaught2 of lawsuits.'
'Parents and teachers need to maintain a united front3 on the
question of bad conduct at school.'
'In the last ten years or so, children have been bombarded with4
increasing amounts of violence in the media.'
1 going back 2 a very powerful attack 3 remain united in their opinions and agree on how to act 4 forced to experience, subjected to
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
9.1    Choose a word from the box to complete each sentence.
9.2
9.3
elucidate remained
glaring shadow
highlights shed
illuminate shine
light
1 The results of the investigation......................................a light on the pressures of the global
economy on farmers in developing countries.
2 Until recently, scientists have......................................in the dark as to the causes of the disease, but
a recent breakthrough promises to......................................new light on the problem.
3 Our whole notion of time and space has changed in the......................................of recent
developments in physics.
4 These communities have lived for decades in the......................................of poverty and social
deprivation.
5 The collapse of the bridge......................................the need for a more rigorous analysis of the
effects of constant traffic movements.
6 The team carried out a series of experiments in an attempt to.............................the mysterious
processes at work in the organism.
7 The article helps to ....:.................................for the ordinary reader some of the more difficult
references in Shakespeare's plays.
8 The professor found some......................................errors in one student's calculations.
Rewrite these sentences using metaphors of conflict instead of the underlined words.
1 Scientists who don't agree with this theory have recently attacked its basic assumptions.
2 Governments need to remain in complete agreement on the issue of economic migrants.
3 Nowadays, we get a huge number of advertisements every time we watch TV or open a magazine.
4 G. J. Frankin has recently moved away from the view that economic processes cannot be altered, and is now moving towards a different approach.
5 The efforts against crime will fail without police and community cooperation.
6 The protests were a response to the devastating sudden large number of trade restrictions on small producers.
Look at this text and underline key words and phrases which construct the main metaphor: 'the human brain is a computer'.
Shutting down Alzheimer's
The human brain is a remarkably complex organic computer, taking in a wide variety of sensory experiences, processing and storing this information, and recalling and integrating selected bits at the right moments. The destruction caused by Alzheimer's disease has been likened to the erasure of a hard drive, beginning with the most recent files and working backward. As the illness progresses, old as well as new memories gradually disappear until even loved ones are no longer recognized. Unfortunately, the computer analogy breaks down: one cannot simply reboot the human brain and reload the files and programs. The problem is that Alzheimer's does not only erase information; it destroys the very hardware of the brain, which is composed of more than 100 billion nerve cells (neurons], with 100 trillion connections among them.
Look at some of the textbooks you use. Can you find any examples of metaphors or idioms there relating to light and darkness or war and conflict?
Academic Vocabulary in Use 27
I 0   Nouns and the words they combine with
Nouns often combine with specific verbs, for example carry out research, pay attention, or with specific adjectives, for example medical research, undivided attention.
Adjective + noun
noun	adjectives that often combine with it	example
contact	useful, valuable, personal, constant, close, frequent, intermittent1	1 made some useful contacts at the conference.
debate	considerable, heated2, intense, public, animated3	After the lecture there was a heated debate.
element [= factor]	crucial, decisive, fundamental	Timing is a crucial element of the experiment
elements [= parts]	conflicting, contrasting, constituent4	There are conflicting elements in the artist's work-
energy	excess, sufficient, nuclear	Wind turbines create sufficient energy for the town's needs.
phenomenon	common, isolated, natural, recent, universal	Such anti-social behaviour is a recent phenomenon.
results	conflicting, (in)conclusive, unforeseen5, preliminary6, encouraging, interim7	Our preliminary results were encouraging.
role	decisive, challenging, conflicting, influential, key, pivotal8	Student activists played a pivotal role in the riot.
sample	random, representative	A representative sample of the population was surveyed.
in ... terms	absolute, broad, relative, general, practical, economic	People are better off in economic terms.
way	alternative, efficient, fair, practical, convenient, proper, acceptable	It is important to treat your research subjects in a fair way.
1 from time to time 2 strong, often angry 3 lively 4 that combine to make something 5 not expected 6 first 7 temporary 8 important
Noun + verb
Most of the nouns in the table above are also strongly associated with specific verbs.
You can come into contact with someone or something or you can establish, maintain, break off or lose contact.
Academics may engage in debate or contribute to a debate. You talk about the debate surrounding an issue.
You can combine, differentiate or discern [recognise] the elements of a chemical compound. You consume [use], conserve, generate [create], save or waste energy. Phenomena emerge or occur and students will try to observe, investigate and then explain those phenomena.
Academics collect, collate [organise] and publish their results. Sometimes results are questioned or invalidated [shown to be wrong]. Occasionally they are even falsified! Roles may be defined or strengthened. People or factors can play a role or take on a role. You can take or provide or analyse a sample.
You can discover, devise [think up], work out or develop a way to do something.
i
Whenever you notice a noun that seems to be key as far as your own studies are concerned, write it down with the adjectives and verbs it is typically associated with.
28   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
10.1 Answer these questions about the adjective + noun combinations in the table in A.
1 Put these types of contact in order of frequency - frequent, constant, intermittent.
2 Which of these is a representative sample and which is a random sample: a sample chosen by chance, a sample chosen as typical of the population as a whole?
3 Which adjective describes the opposite of a common phenomenon}
4 Would you be pleased if you did some research and got inconclusive results}
5 What adjective other than key can be used with role to give a similar meaning?
6 Which suggests that there is more energy - excess or sufficient energy?
7 Can you name three people who play an influential role in a child's development?
8 If two of the four constituent elements of most language exams are reading and speaking, what are the other two?
10.2 Fill in the gaps in these sentences with a verb from B. Change the form where necessary.
1 I first......................................into contact with Abdul when I started my doctoral research in 1987.
2 The country......................................so much energy that we don't......................................enough to meet all
our needs.
3 The space race.....................................an important role in post-war politics.
4 In her research project Diana.....................................the phenomenon of extra-sensory perception
but she was not able to come to any significant conclusions.
5 Although Hans's rivals attempted to......................................his results, they met with no success.
6 Green's poetry successfully......................................elements from a number of different traditions.
I 0.3    Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.
1 It took the team a long time to devise surrounding the issue of global warming.
2 During the war we had to break a blood sample for analysis.
3 There has been a lot of heated debate the role of project leader.
4 Ian Hartmann was invited to take on to the debate on cloning.
5 Part of my role was to collate off contact with colleagues abroad.
6 The doctor wanted me to provide seems to be emerging.
7 Scientists all over the world contributed the key elements in a graph.
8 A new and unexpected phenomenon a way to solve their problem.
9 Using shading helps to differentiate the results of our experiments.
I 0.4    Choose the best word from the box to fill each of the gaps.
conflicting        crucial define discern engaging
heated interim maintaining        practical proper
publish random taking
1 She obtained her results by......................................a...................................... sample of the population.
2 Before we go any further we must......................................each of our roles more precisely.
3 We must decide what is the......................................way to proceed, in......................................terms.
4 The group succeeded in......................................contact long after they had all left college.
5 My trip to Africa was the......................................element in my decision to work in conservation.
6 Specialists in the field of bio-engineering have been......................................in......................................debate
on this issue for some time.
7 I am told that Smythe is about to......................................some......................................results.
8 Professor Powell was able to......................................some......................................elements in different
accounts of the incident.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 29
I I   Adjective and noun combinations
This unit focuses on a number of adjective + noun combinations which are particularly frequent in academic contexts.
Adjectives suggesting importance
adjective	comment	some of the nouns it frequently goes with
important	significant can convey the same meaning and both adjectives often go with these nouns	aspect, contribution, difference, implications, point, question, reason, element
significant	can also mean large in size and as such goes with these nouns	increase, reduction, number, proportion
major	the opposite, minor, also often goes with these nouns	role, changes, problem, factor, issue, concern, difference, theme, contribution, point
enormous/ considerable	enormous can mean very large or very important; considerable means large or of noticeable importance (i.e. slightly less strong than enormous)	amount, expansion, number, range, diversity, difference, variation, extent, degree, impact, power, influence, significance, interest
particular	means special	interest, attention, significance, importance, concern
Note that a feature of academic writing is that it often uses an adjective + noun phrase to suggest importance of some kind instead of just using an adjective, e.g. Marx's contribution is of particular significance instead of Marx's contribution is very significant.
Adjectives suggesting frequency
Widespread means that something happens in many places or among many people. It often combines with such nouns as belief, acceptance, support, opposition, assumption, use. For example, There is widespread support for government policy in urban areas.
Common can mean frequent. With this meaning it often combines with such nouns as experience, practice, use, concern. For example, It is increasingly common practice for UK teenagers to take a gap year before entering university.
Note that common can also mean 'shared' and as such it combines with knowledge, ground, feature, interest. For example, There is much common ground between the two writers.
Specific means relating to one thing and not to things in general. It often combines with context, information, case, type, form, purpose, characteristics, conditions, example. For example, The reaction occurs only under specific conditions.
Other useful adjective and noun combinations
Inevitable is often used with words relating to results or changes such as consequence, outcome, collapse, decline, conflict, effect, developments, [unavoidable]
Explicit combines with words relating to how things are presented, e.g. reference, statement, comparison, account, mention, [clear and exact, communicated directly]
Relevant combines with words relating to evidence of different types, e.g. data, documents, information, details, factors, [connected with what is being discussed]
30   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
I I. I    Look at these statements about some academics. Complete each sentence with an appropriate adjective or noun. There may be more than one answer.
1 Davison did a considerable......................................of research into earthquake prediction.
2 Rawlinson drew......................................attention to the problem of energy consumption.
3 Werner's work had an enormous.....................................on the way we design bridges today.
4 A......................................proportion of Thomaz's work was devoted to international law. Three
of her five books were on the subject.
5 Prestyn made only a......................................contribution to modern psychology, but it was an
interesting one, nonetheless.
6 Baklov's work has some extremely......................................implications for our work today.
I 1.2    Rewrite the sentences using adjectives from the opposite page instead of the words in bold.
1 There is opposition among students in many places to the idea of longer semesters.
2 The destruction of the riverbank will cause a decline which is bound to happen in the numbers of small mammals.
3 School standards are a concern which occurs frequently among parents nowadays.
4 Nowhere in the article does the author make mention in a direct, clear and exact way of the 20 cases which were never resolved.
5 There is very little ground which is shared between the two ways of addressing the problem.
6 The paper is too general and lacks examples which relate only to individual things.
I 1.3    Make sure you know the noun forms of these adjectives. Write them in the table. Use a ta^j    dictionary if necessary.
adjective	noun	adjective	noun
significant		important	
relevant		valuable	
interesting		useful	
frequent		broad	
I 1.4    The sentences below came from lectures. Adapt them for use in an academic article by
replacing the phrases in bold. In each case use an adjective from the box combined with a noun from 11.3 to make a phrase like of great interest.
huge      high      enormous      great considerable
1 Johnson's work is very relevant for any student of medical engineering.
2 The research will be very valuable to anyone interested in economic planning.
3 It was an event which was terribly important in the history of Latin American politics.
4 Partich's book is an extremely broad work.
5 Sorlan's book was a very significant work in the development of political theory.
6 This software will be quite useful in the analysis of large amounts of numerical data.
7 The method she outlines is very interesting to anyone investigating sleeplessness.
8 'You know' is an expression which is very frequent in informal spoken English.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   3 I
Verbs and the words they combine with
How verbs combine with other words
You should note a number of things about verbs in an academic context, in particular:
• any nouns often used with the verb and whether the noun goes before or after the verb, for example, the research/theory is based on, to pose a problem/question/threat
• any adverbs often used with the verb, for example, mainly/partly/loosely based
• any prepositions following the verb, for example, to base something on something else
• if the verb is often used in the passive, for example, be based on, be associated with.
verb	nouns	adverbs	examples
base (on)	research, theory, story, hypothesis	mainly, partly loosely	The story was loosely based on a true event which occurred in l892.The theory is mainly based on the writer's initial study.
associate (with)	word, idea, theory, term	generally, commonly, invariably	A decrease in consumer spending is generally associated with fears of instability.The word is commonly associated with youth culture.
discuss	idea, problem, issue, question, topic, theme	at length, briefly, thoroughly	Wilson and Crick (1965) discuss the problem at length. Sim's article discusses the issue thoroughly.
establish	relationship, connection	firmly, clearly, conclusively	Geologists have been unable to firmly establish a connection between the two types of fossils. Lopez conclusively establishes a relationship between the two phenomena.
examine	facts, evidence, effects, aspects	briefly, critically, thoroughly	We shall now briefly examine the evidence for the existence of dark matter. Our aim is to thoroughly examine the effects of stress.
demonstrate	existence, need, effects, importance	clearly, convincingly	The study clearly demonstrates the importance of support for dementia sufferers. Harvey's work convincingly demonstrates the need for a new approach to the problem.
identify (with) (often used in passive)	causes, factors, issues, properties, needs, approach, origin	correctly, clearly, closely	This approach is closely identified with the work of H. Crowley during the l950s.The article clearly identifies the factors influencing the decision to go to war.
B    More verbs in combination with nouns, adverbs and prepositions
• pose - This inevitably poses a question concerning the stability of society. Parks poses a challenge to Kahn's theory.
• suggest - The most recent results strongly suggest a different interpretation of the situation. The article suggests a new approach to the problem.
• list - Here I simply list the main hypotheses/causcs/features/characteristics; they will be examined in detail below.
• refer - The book refers frequcntly/specifically/in passing to the 1956 economic crisis.
• observe -This is due to the changes/trends/differences we observed earlier.
XRemember, we say based on, NOT based in. We discuss a problem I an issue, NOT discuss about a problem I an issue. Note any verb + preposition combinations that differ from those of your first language.
32   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
12.1    Choose the most appropriate adverb for the verb in bold, and add it to the sentence. Note the word order used on the opposite page.
1 Paulson's research demonstrated the need for a new approach to the study of stress, invariably      convincingly closely
2 As was observed, there is a strong correlation between house prices and inflation, closely     critically earlier
3 In the study of language, 'tense' refers to the coding of time in the form of the verb, specifically     strongly briefly
4 Classical liberal economics is identified with the theories of Milton Friedman, thoroughly     closely conclusively
5 Chapter 1 discusses the main issues, but they are dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 2. closely      simply briefly
6 To date, no research exists that establishes a connection between behaviour, personality traits, and leadership traits.      firmly      thoroughly critically
7 SENTA is a computer programming language based on Logo, strongly     slightly loosely
8 Social research techniques were applied to examine the effects of the policy on the poor, strongly      mainly critically
1 2.2    Complete each sentence with a suitable noun. There may be more than one answer.
1 Here we list again the main......................................of the present study and show which have been
proven and which have been rejected.
2 The graph enables us to observe recent broad......................................in mortality rates.
3 The researchers concluded that it is still difficult to identify the......................................of the time-related changes in human beings that we call ageing.
4 A seminar was held to discuss the......................................of children's rights in the light of the
Convention on the Rights of the Child.
5 Wu demonstrated the......................................for a comprehensive plan in preparation for a pandemic.
I 2.3    Complete each sentence with three possible nouns. Use a dictionary if necessary.
|0    1 These figures lead me to suggest an alternative (1).............................(2).............................(3).............................
2 It is clear that these developments pose a new (1).............................(2).............................(3)..............................
3 Before we reach any conclusion, it is important to examine the (1).............................(2)............................
(3).............................•
12.4    Underline useful verb + adverb combinations in this text.
The world is facing a looming water crisis. Disputes over allocation have steadily increased in the last decade, and demand has grown rapidly. Water is likely to generate the same degree of controversy in the 21st century as oil did in the 20*. If we take no action now, new conflicts are likely to occur periodically around the world. At the moment, instead of seeking solutions which directly address multiple needs, countries focus a little too narrowly on local issues and typically opt for expensive and inferior solutions. What is needed are decisions which can be quickly implemented and a debate which will seriously consider more than the short term needs of individual states.
I 2.5    Use one of the combinations you underlined in 12.4 to complete each sentence.
1 Various measures were introduced last year to......................................the issue of identity theft.
2 The justice system needs to......................................the impact of a prison sentence on offenders.
3 The number of university applications has been......................................over the last 50 years.
4 The article......................................on one angle of the problem rather than taking a broad view.
5 The suggested measures should be......................................to avoid further problems.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 33
Prepositional phrases
Notice the prepositional phrases in the texts below. A book review
The Guide to the Semi-Colon in English was written by Keith Pedant in conjunction with1 a team of researchers at Boardham University. In comparison with2 previous works on the semi-colon, this is a very substantial volume. In addition to the main text there are a number of appendices. These are to some extent3 the most useful parts of the book as, in line with4 modern linguistic practice, they provide a wealth of real data. In spite of5 its potentially dry topic, the book contains many fascinating examples, in the sections dealing with the history of the semi-colon in particular. With the exception of6 the final chapter, this book may be of some interest to the general reader as well as the specialist but on the whole7 is mainly for those who have a professional interest in punctuation marks.
1 working together with 2 same meaning as in contrast to 3 notice also to a greater/lesser/ certain extent 4 following, same meaning as in accordance with 5 despite, not prevented by 6 not including (NB NOT except) 7 generally
A talk to a genealogy club
Chairperson: Now, at this stage1 in the proceedings it's my pleasure to introduce our speaker tonight, Dr Anna Klein, the country's leading family history specialist. Anna, I'd like to welcome you on behalf of2 all our members.
Anna Klein:   Thank you. My own interest in the subject came about as a result of
discovering some old letters in the attic at home. I found them by chance3. They'd been written by some relatives who'd emigrated to Canada a hundred years or so before and for me, as a ten-year-old then, they were by far4 the most exciting things I had ever read. They were, for the most part5, extremely well-written and, from then on, I was determined to learn as much as I could about my family. In other words6,1 had started out on my genealogical journey. In some ways, I was very lucky. I was able to collect quite a bit of key family information on the basis of the old letters and this enabled me to track down some relations living in Montreal. They, in turn, provided some contacts with Australian cousins and so it continued. In the process, I've learnt a great deal, not only about my own family, but also in terms of7 how to approach tracing one's family. In most respects8 it's been a thoroughly enjoyable adventure though there have been some difficult moments ...
now, also at this point 2 representing (NB NOT on the-part-of) 3 accidentally 4 very much
5 generally 6 to express something differently, often more simply 7 as far as (how to approach was concerned 8 considering most aspects of the experience
■)
Note that on the one hand and on the other hand are used to contrast two different ways of looking at an issue. On the one hand flying is much more convenient than going by train, but on the other hand, train trove/ is often much more interesting.
34   AcademicVocabulary in Use
Exercises
13.1    Complete the prepositional phrases as used in these press announcements.
5
Professor Soltero said that,.............................line
.............................government guidelines, the researchers
had consulted local people.
.............................the exception.............................one study in
1986, no major research had been carried out till now, Dr Peters stated.
A spokesperson for the drug company said that,
..........................................................stage, it is too early to make
strong claims about the drug.
ii .i  0   f * i
Dr Leiman said that while.............................the
...........................hand the government wanted to
encourage research,............................the.............................
hand they were reducing funding for universities.
Professor Karpal said that, ......the basis
.............................her studies so far, she was optimistic
that a cure for the disease would be found.
Lauren Charles said that,..........................................................
whole, social conditions had improved since the
report, especially.............................terms.............................jobs
and housing for the poorer sectors.
to.......................addition......... a new building on the
campus, the team will receive a very generous grant to conduct their research.
The Professor said that he was delighted to accept
the award.............................behalf.............................the whole
university.
13.2    Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.
1 The conclusions are fair in
2 Dr Carr's team got the grant, in
3 We had little money to spare; in
4 We need people's personal data, in
5 We made an important discovery; in
6 This latest paper is quite short in
7 The Indian study was carried out in
some ways it was sheer luck, conjunction with an American project, comparison with other articles in the series, spite of being the smallest team to apply, most respects, though some are questionable, other words, we were underfunded, particular their parents' history of illnesses.
13.3
Read this paragraph about the discovery of dinosaurs. In each sentence there is one error in the use of a prepositional phrase. Correct each error.
A bone discovered on chance in the 17th century was the beginning of the search for dinosaurs. From then in, scientists and the public have been fascinated by these creatures. In accordance to beliefs at that time, the initial discovery was thought to be the bone of a human giant. However, in 1824, a scientist, William Buckland, calculated that the bone belonged to a 12-metre, flesh-eating reptile and named it Megalosaurus, on the process giving us the first of the wonderful list of exotic names for dinosaurs. The 17th century discovery had, on turn, led to a series of further finds around that time. All these at a greater or lesser extent confirmed Buckland's theories. For far the biggest dinosaur discovered to date was probably over 40 metres long. To the most part, dinosaurs ranged from the size of a chicken to that of a giraffe. At most respects, what we know about their habits is still very limited. What we do know is at least on some extent based on pure speculation.
Use a dictionary to find an example sentence using each of these phrases: on the one hand, on the other hand, on behalf of, with the exception of, except. Write them out and then add one more sentence for each one relating to your own academic discipline.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 35
14
Verbs and prepositions
Verbs with on - sentences from academic articles
Chapter 1 of Huang's book focuses on violent human behaviour.
Sura's article draws on data gathered over a period of ten years, [uses in support of his/her case] The introduction to the book comments briefly on a case study carried out in Brazil. In this section I concentrate on the economic aspects of immigration.
The book is based on a number of studies carried out during the 1990s, [often used in passive] The method used by Scanlon relies on / rests on* two basic principles, [''"(formal) is based on]
Verbs with to - teachers talk to students
We assigned1 the tasks randomly to the experimental group and the control group to see how the subjects would react to the different problems.
OK, let's turn to the more difficult cases that I mentioned earlier. How should a doctor respond to a patient who doesn't consent to treatment when it seems to be essential?
Malaria poses a major health risk to people who are exposed to infection where malaria is common. In 1997, 13% of deaths among children were attributed >2 malaria in one area in Zaire.
When you're planning a questionnaire, always attend to3 design issues such as of questions and how clear they are.
We can't really say that an increase in inflation of two per cent amounts to4 an economic crisis, and I refer here to some recent stories in the media which are highly exaggerated and which can be traced to5 a deep misunderstanding of how inflation operates.
1 give a particular job or piece of work to someone   say or think that something is the result of something (often used in passive) 3 deal with, give one's attention to 4 be the same as something, or have the same effect as something 5 discover the origin of something by examining how it has developed (often used in passive)
Other prepositions
	verbs	examples
with	associate, provide, couple, equip	Note: In the active voice, as in the first example, this group of verbs follows the pattern verb + object + preposition + complement Note also that these verbs are often used in the passive, as in the second example. We try to equip our laboratories with the latest technology. Heart disease is often associated with unhealthy life styles.
from	depart, benefit, emerge, exclude	In this book, Heme departs from his earlier theory, [takes a different view] Some of the data were excluded from the final analysis.
of	write, speak, convince, dispose	Abuka writes/speaks of the early years of industrial development [both are rather formal] We must convince people of the need for water conservation.
for	account, search, call, argue	Lung cancer accounted for 20% of deaths in men. [formed the total of] Hopper (1987) argues for a new approach to English grammar, [opposite: argue against]
The verbs emphasise and stress are used without any preposition (NOT en). The study emphasises/stresses the need for more controlled experiments to back up the conclusions. Divide is followed by into (NOT divide in). The subjects were divided into three groups.
36   AcademicVocabulary in Use
Exercises
14.1 Put the words in the right order to make sentences. Use the punctuation to help you.
1 period. / focuses / the changes / The article / on / the / the post-war / economy / US / in / in
2 commented / student's / inconsistencies / a / The professor / of / in the / essay. / on / number
3 conducted / The / is / last / based / a series / theory / of / five / on / years. / over the / experiments
4 on / assistants. / The / research / relies / work / conducted by / professor's / experiments / his
5 is / are / very / your / your / studies / important / concentrate / to / over. / on / until / It / exams
6 was / The / draw / some / to / primary / on / only recently / become / have / available. / writer / sources / which / able
14.2 Put these verbs in the right box.
account      argue      assign      associate      attribute      benefit      call      consent convince depart      dispose      equip      exclude      provide      react      refer      search write
for	from	of	to	with
				
				
I 4.3    Now choose one of the word + preposition combinations from 14.2 to complete each sentence. Change the form of the verb if necessary.
1 The lecturer.....................................us......................................a number of very good writers on the subject.
2 Traffic accidents............................................................................most hospital admissions at the weekend.
3 The poets John Keats and Lord Byron are closely...........................................................................the English
Romantic Movement.
4 Remember to......................................carefully...................................„. all waste material.
5 Most people believe that they would ........................enormously....................................having more
job security.
6 My parents tried to......................................me......................................the advantages of studying abroad.
7 I have been............................................................................an article on this topic for ages.
8 Our experiments......................................us......................................the data we needed to prove our
hypothesis.
9 The head of department............................................................................the lecturer's request for leave of
absence.
10 Mary Raskova......................................very movingly..........................her experiences in Rwanda.
I 4.4    Correct the sentences. All of them have errors connected with prepositions.
1 The course leader divided her students in five groups.
2 They had to trace everyone who had been exposed for the infection.
3 At the moment we have too few nurses attending at too many patients.
4 Excellent teaching coupled for first-class research have made this a successful college.
5 The country emerged off the crisis as a much stronger power.
6 Joe got an interest in politics from his uncle who often spoke over his days as a senator.
7 The government called to an investigation into the explosion at the nuclear reactor.
8 In your speech don't forget to emphasise on the advantages of studying here.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 37
I 5   Nouns and prepositions
Groups of related nouns sharing prepositions
Sometimes groups of nouns with related meanings share the same prepositions.
nouns	preposition(s)	example
book, article, essay, lecture, dissertation, project, assignment	about, on	In 1978, Da Silva published a book about1 the history of emigration. She wrote a dissertation on2 teenage slang in New York.
research (see also B), investigation, inquiry	into	Kelly (1969) conducted an investigation into the origins of international terrorism.
analysis, examination, exploration (see also B), study	of	The article offers an analysis of the potential impact of the H5N1 Avian Flu virus.
problem, difficulty	of, with	He gave a lecture on the problem of global warming. One difficulty with this approach is that a set of results may allow different interpretations.
reason, motivation, rationale (see also B)	for	Economists have recently questioned the rationale for government spending.
1 and 2 about tends to be used for more general subjects; on is frequently used for more specific, detailed works, although both may be found in both uses
See also the notes on prepositions after nouns in Unit 44.
Nouns commonly associated with particular prepositions
You can also learn the nouns which most frequently come before a particular preposition. Some of these are in A above. The following examples are all titles of academic articles.
nouns	preposition	example
look, attempt, point, age	at	An attempt at integration of economic and psychological theories of consumption
changes, differences, increase, decrease	in	Gender differences in risk-taking in financial decisionmaking
insight, inquiry, research, investigation	into	An investigation into sleep characteristics of children with autism
work, research, influence, emphasis, effect	on	Genetic influence on smoking - a study of male twins
basis, idea, part, lack, exploration, means	of	A computerised clinical decision support system as a means of implementing depression guidelines
need, reason, basis, case, preference	for	Assessing organisational culture: the case for multiple methods
relation, approach, response, attention	to	Communicating with strangers: an approach to intercultural communication
attitude, tendency, move, progress	to/towards	Progress towards sustainable regional development
principle, rationale, assumptions, logic	behind	Questioning the assumptions behind art criticism
relationship, difference, distinction	between	The relationship between educational technology and student achievement in mathematics
38   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
I 5.1    Fill in the missing prepositions. In questions 4 and 5, more than one answer is possible.
1 One difficulty......................................the class questionnaire was that some students had already
left the course and could not be contacted.
2 She wrote a dissertation......................................wild flower conservation in Finland in the 1990s.
3 The book is an exploration......................................the origins of the economic crisis of 1997.
4 The rationale......................................the present research is the need to better understand the
process of agreement in international law.
5 Research......................................spoken language has been considerably assisted in recent years by
the availability of computerised databases or 'corpora'.
6 Prippen's (1984) book was an inquiry......................................the foundations of nationalism.
7 What is Kazuo Matsui's book......................................? Have you read it?
8 He did a study......................................the problem......................................side-impact automobile collisions.
I 5.2    Correct the mistakes in the use of prepositions in these sentences. There may be more than one mistake per sentence.
1 Her dissertation produced some interesting insights to how young children develop a visual sense of the world and the age in which development is most noticeable.
2 The reason of the unwillingness of the people involved in the demonstration to be interviewed was fear of being arrested later.
3 Hierstat's approach at the analysis of solar phenomena is different from that of Donewski. He questioned the assumptions under much of the previous research.
4 Changes of the rate of growth of the cells were observed over time.
5 A lack in funding led to the cancellation of the project, and social scientists blamed the negative attitude of the government on social science research.
6 Jawil's article puts great emphasis into the need of more research and argues the case of greater attention on the causes of poverty rather than the symptoms.
I 5.3    Using a dictionary if necessary, match each noun with the preposition that usually follows it.
Nouns:   attitude      difference      effect      emphasis      insight preference
principle      rationale      reason      relationship tendency
Prepositions:   behind      between     for     into     on to/towards
I 5.4    Underline typical academic noun + preposition combinations like those on the opposite page.
The possible ecological effects of climate change are often in the news, as is the matter of whether the potential impact can be predicted. New work on a migratory1 bird, the pied flycatcher, takes things a stage further by showing how a climate-related population decline was actually caused. Timing is key. Over the past 17 years flycatchers declined strongly in areas where caterpillar2 numbers (food for the nestlings3) peak early, but in areas with a late food peak there was no decline. The young birds arrive too late in places where caterpillars have already responded to early warmth. Mistiming like this is probably a common consequence of climate change, and may be a major factor in the decline of many long-distance migratory bird species.
' which travels to a different place, usually when the season changes 2 small, long animal with many legs which develops into a butterfly 3 young birds
Academic Vocabulary in Use 39
I 6   Fixed expressions
If we look at a corpus of academic texts, we see that certain chunks of language occur very frequently in spoken and written contexts. This unit looks at some of the most useful ones.
Number, quantity, degree
Look at these comments written by a college teacher on assignments handed in by her students. Note the expressions in bold.
a good paper, it's clear you've speiA-t a great deal of time researching the subject awA you quote a wide ravage of sources.
\
1 more than
sorue good points here but it's not clear to what extent you're nware of all the Issues
| involved, global trade affects nations in a variety of ways.
j qrade: c
3
/ thinfe you've ntisunderstood the topic to soi^te extent, you've written in excess of' 3,£O0 words on areas, that are act relevant. Let's talfe.
Jworas on ' entirely Oracle: f
Generalising and specifying
In this class discussion, the students make fairly general statements, while the teacher tries to make the discussion more specific.
Marsha: Well, I think on the whole parents should take more responsibility for their kids. Teacher: Yes, with respect to1 home life, yes, but in the case of violence, surely the wider
community is involved, isn't it? I mean, for the purposes of our discussions about
social stability, everyone's involved, aren't they? Marsha: Yes, but in general I don't think people want to get involved in violent incidents, as
a rule at least. They get scared off. Teacher: True. But as far as general discipline is concerned, don't you think it's a
community-wide issue? I mean discipline as regards2 everyday actions, with the
exception of school discipline. What do you think, in terms of public life, Tariq? Tariq:     I think the community as a whole does care about crime and discipline and things,
but for the most part they see violence as something that is outside of them, you
know, not their direct responsibility. Teacher: OK. So, let's consider the topic in more detail3,1 mean from the point of view of
violence and aggression specifically in schools. Let's look at some extracts from the
American Medical Association's 2002 report on bullying. They're on the handout.
1 or in respect of, or (more neutral) with regard to 2 another neutral alternative to 1 3 or (more formally) in greater detail
Linking points and arguments
The increase in house sales is due to the fact that inflation fell in 2004. At the same time, tax rate reductions were beginning to have an effect.
Joslav used an eight-point scale in the questionnaire, as opposed to1 a four-point one, by means of which he showed that attitudes covered a very wide range, in the sense that the results were spread very evenly over all eight points.
It's very difficult to interpret these data. Be that as it may2, there is some evidence of a decline in frequency. For this reason, we decided to repeat the experiment.
In addition to surveying the literature on population movements, we also reviewed work carried out on family names in five regions.
1 rather than 2 a typical academic way of saying 'although I accept that this is true'; more common in speech than in writing
40   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
16.1    Choose one of the expressions in A to fill in the missing words in this feedback to a student from one of her teachers.
Yov hdf/o had a vor^ gpod form (I) ...................................... . You have- done, (2) .................................
work, and have- also tafcc-n parf" in (3) ...................................... Social acf'w'rtioc,. \ow c.porirmc^
acA\v'vY\c£, rnat| rwe- mtorfcr&d tvifh tjo^r Ghid\c4 (4) ...................................... ki/f t^oiz
£-fi([ manage! fo wr'&& (5) ...................................... "DpOO words for i^ow ond-of-i&rw
a&igttMont, wHcM, I am pbaSeJ -iro royort, was of a H^o standard.
16.2    Use the words in the box to form eight different phrases that are useful for academic
discussions.
I
a as as at be for for general in
in it may most       of on part reason rule
same       terms      the the the that this time whole
I
I 6.3    From the point of view of meaning, which expression in each set doesn't belong, and why?
1 in genera], by means of which, as a rule, on the whole
2 as regards X, as far as X is concerned, with the exception of X, with respect to X
3 as a whole, in addition to, for the most part, in general
I 6.4    Choose the best expression to complete each sentence.
1 .........................................................our discussion, I'd like to focus on the US context.
A For the purposes of        B In the sense that C From the point of view of
2 There is some evidence of an improvement in the economy but,........................................................, there
is unlikely to be much change before next year.
A for this reason B as a rule C be that as it may
3 I'd like to consider education.........................................................industry.
A in the case of B from the point of view of    C with the exception of
4 I'm not sure.........................................................you agree with Qian's theory.
A by means of which B to what extent C as regards
5 We will now discuss the development of the Surrealist Movement..........................................................
A on the whole B to some extent C in more detail
16.5    Complete these sentences in any logical way.
1 I enjoy watching most sports with the exception of................................................................................................................
2 A poor relationship between parents and children is often due to the fact that
3 I love reading English novels as opposed to........................................................................................................................................
4 In your first year of graduate school you have to take an end-of-year exam in addition to
5 It was a very useful course in the sense that...........................................................................................
Academic Vocabulary in Use   41
Applications and application forms
Here we look at applying for a place at a UK college or university. Institutions following the US system have different processes, which are usually described on their web pages.
Getting information
Read this information about preparing an application for postgraduate study.
What should I do first?
Do all you can to learn about the careers' that will be open to you after studying - and what qualifications you will need in order to get the job you want.
What qualifications do I need for postgraduate study? A first degree is required to study at postgraduate level.
The specific entry requirements for each course of study are listed on the individual course pages. If needed, clarification2 may be sought3 from the department you are applying to.
4
Your performance in previous schooling is very important to your application profile . What are the requirements for international students?
In addition to the general admission requirements, international applicants must submit5:
• A transcript6 of university courses and grades, translated into English, and
• Results of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) or Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), unless you have received English-medium7 education for at least one year. Applicants must have a minimum IELTS score of 6.5 or a TOEFL score of 580.
Are any grants8 or scholarships9 available for international students?
Visit our International Office pages for details.
1 the job or series of jobs that you do during your working life 2 making something clear by giving more details or a simpler explanation 3 past participle of seek: 'to look for' 4 overall character of the application 5 give something for a decision to be made by others 6 official document listing courses completed and
grades received 7 where all the classes are taught in English 8 money given specially by the government to a person to enable them to study 9 money given by a school, college, university, etc. to pay for the studies of a person with great ability
The application process
Look at this email from Tania to Liam. Tania is applying to study at Wanstow University.
Hi Liam,
At last I've filled in my application form and sent it off. It took ages. As well as all my personal details they wanted the names of two referees', financial guarantees2, and I had to attach a personal statement saying why I wanted to go to Wanstow. Anyway, the deadline3 is next Friday, then the website said they'd take about six weeks to process4 the application after they acknowledge5 it, then I might be called for6 an interview. By that time the references have to be in. I'm just hoping that because I'm a mature student71 might have a good chance of being offered a place - Wanstow has a lot of mature students and they have a strong equal opportunities policy8. The fees9 are pretty high, but I can get a student loan10 if I get in". Love, Tania
1 person who knows you and who is willing to describe and, usually, praise you, to support your application 2 formal acceptance of financial responsibility and ability to pay (e.g. proof of a bank account) 3 final date by which something must be done 4 deal with documents officially 5 say that they have received it, NOT accepted it 6 asked to attend
7 a student at a college or university who is older than the usual age 8 principle of treating all people the same, regardless of sex, race, religion, etc. 9 amount of money paid for a particular service 10 money which must be repaid when one has completed one's studies " (informal) if I am accepted and given a place
42   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
I 7.1    Read the text in A and answer a potential student's questions about the university.
1 Is it possible to do a postgraduate degree without having been to university before?
2 Where can I get more information about what qualifications I need for a specific course?
3 Will they want to know about my university grades?
4 When is an IELTS or TOEFL score not needed?
5 What IELTS score should applicants have?
I 7.2    Match the first half of the word combination on the left with the second half on the right.
personal
equal
minimum
financial
mature
tough
seek student application first
opportunities form
statement
score
competition clarification
student
guarantee
loan
degree
I 7.3    Why does the university want each of these things? Answer in full sentences using, where possible, some of the vocabulary from the opposite page.
1 the names of two referees 4 a transcript of courses taken and grades
2 financial guarantees 5 a minimum TOEFL or IELTS score
3 a personal statement
I 7.4    Number the actions to show the order in which they usually happen for a prospective student.
wait for the application to be processed
.......... find an appropriate course
.......... attend an interview
.......... attach a personal statement to the form
.......... decide on what career they would like to do
.......... be offered a place
.......... be called for an interview
.......... ask referees if it is all right to put their names on the application form
.......... check that they fulfil the necessary entry requirements
.......... fill in an application form
I 7.5    Complete the missing words in this email with words from the opposite page. The first letter of each word is given to help you.
IE
Hi Miles,
I'd love a c......................................as an international lawyer and am really hoping I can
g......................................in to Wanstow University to do a p....................................g......................................course in
law there. I've f......................................in all the necessary forms and just hope that my academic
p......................................will be good enough for them. I think I fulfil all their e.....................................
r.....................................but who knows! It took me ages to get the t.....................................of my college
g......................................, etc. translated but I managed to get everything in by the d.......................................
So now I just have to wait to see if they c......................................me for an interview or not. Fingers
crossed! Lucia
Look at the website of any English-speaking university that interests you. What information do they provide about applying to that university? Make a note of any other useful vocabulary you find there.
AcademicVocabulary in Use 43
I 8   College and university: the UK system
Key
A Halls of residence1
B Unrversity 5"u?rc,
stnff c*r park C Administration2 r.uil<!in^
Arts Faculty3 Building E Great Hall4 F University Hoilth Centre
G University Bookshop, Cafeteria visitors' car p?rk
H University Library
I   Student Uninn
J Spoils grounds
K School- of Encinoennj?
L Arts Lecture Theatre
Places
1 a college building where students live 2 the main offices of the university, often shortened to 'admin' 3 a group of departments or schools (see 6) in a college which specialise in a particular group of subjects 4 a large hall where graduation ceremonies and other important events are held 5 a building
specially used by students to meet socially; the term also refers to the organisation of students which arranges social events and offers other services 6 part of a college or university specialising in a particular subject or group of subjects 7 a large hall with rows of seats, where lectures are held
People, structures and activities
Dr Ward, Adviser to International Students, is giving an introductory session for new international postgraduate students in the Department of English Language at Wanstow.
Dr Ward:   Let me tell you about the staff. The Head of Department is Professor1 Bradley. He will be giving some of the postgraduate seminars2 as well as giving some of the first-semester lectures3. Then there are two Senior Lecturers4. They'll be handling lectures and tutorials5. Then there are six lecturers6 - they're all listed in your information pack. You'll also meet our Research Assistant, Angela Gorski, and there are four research students doing PhDs. Each of you will be given a personal tutor7, who will be one of us. If you want to talk to any of us, our office hours are on the noticeboard and on the web page. Any questions?
Student:   Is the personal tutor the same as our dissertation supervisor8?
Dr Ward:   No. You'll be given a supervisor when you choose your dissertation topic. He or she'll supervise you during the spring semester9 and the summer vacation10. Your personal tutor looks after your general academic welfare. You can also talk to a student counsellor11 if you have any personal problems, and there's also a postgrad rep12.
'4 and 6 professor is the most senior academic    9 the university teaching year is normally
title; senior lecturers are below professors in academic rank, and lecturers are below senior lecturers 2'3 and 5 seminars consist of a teacher and a group of students meeting to study and discuss something; lectures are more formal events where larger groups of students listen and take notes; tutorials are usually smaller groups where students discuss their work with a teacher 7 teacher who works with one student or a small group 8 teacher with responsibility for a particular student
divided into two semesters; the word term is also often used for the periods when students are in residence at a university 10 period when universities or colleges are closed; the word holiday is also used by students 11 someone trained to listen to students and give them advice about their problems 12 (informal) short form of postgraduate representative (someone who acts officially for that group of students)
44   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
18.1 Look at A. Which building must students go to if they want to:
1 speak to a lecturer in the history department?
2 find information about student clubs?
3 visit someone who is living in the student accommodation?
4 enquire about payment of fees?
5 attend a graduation ceremony?
6 listen to a talk about English literature?
7 see a doctor?
8 borrow a book?
18.2 Read the text in B and answer the questions.
1 Are there likely to be more people in a seminar or a tutorial?
2 Who is the academic who guides a postgraduate student through their dissertation?
3 What word is used for the holiday period between university terms or semesters?
4 What is the difference between a personal tutor and a student counsellor?
5 What is the difference between a postgrad rep and a student counsellor?
I 8.3    Fill in the missing words in this email with words from the opposite page.
see
Hi Mum,
I've settled in well here at Wanstow. I like my room in this hall of....................................... I went
to my first......................................this morning - it was on research methodology - and there were
hundreds of students there. The......................................was very good - it was Professor Jones,
our head of....................................... Tomorrow I'll have my first......................................- that'll be just me
and one other student. We'll be discussing what we have to get done by the end of the
..................................... I need to try to think some more about the topic for my.......................................
When that is finalised I'll be assigned a....................................... I'll be expected to see him or her
at least once a week during their office............................... I hope I'll like him or her. You hear
some awful stories!
Daisy L. _J
I 8.4    Put the words in the box into the correct category.
cafeteria librarian
research assistant sports grounds
counsellor library
research student tutor
lecture postgrad rep seminar tutorial
lecturer professor sports centre lecture theatre
people	place	event
		
Are universities/colleges in your country roughly based on a similar system to the UK one, or are there important differences? Make sure you can describe the main features in English. If yo country's universities/colleges are more similar to the US system, study Unit 19.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 45
Systems compared: the US and the UK
In US universities, many of the words for people and places are the same as those used in the UK (see Unit 18), but there are some differences.
Terms with different meanings in US and UK university systems
US example	meaning/comment	UK example	meaning/comment
Are you faculty or student?	If you are faculty, you are a member of the academic staff.	The faculty will have to come to a decision on this.	Faculty refers to a group of departments (see Unit 18) with similar interests.
The grading rubric for term papers has been revised.	A rubric is a set of criteria or guidelines which tells how an assignment will be graded or scored.	Some students misread the exam rubric and didn't answer enough questions.	Instructions on an exam paper or in a textbook as to how a task must be done.
1 went to college in St Louis. 1 attended Washington University. 1 took some fascinating courses at college.	The word college in American English refers broadly to the undergraduate experience, whether it is at a two-year community college, a four-year college, or a large state university in the US. A specific institution can be a college (granting undergraduate degrees only) or a university (granting undergraduate and graduate degrees).	She went to university in Scotland. She graduated from university in 1996.	In British English, university refers to the undergraduate experience. In both American and British English, no article is used before co//ege or university in these examples.
Her brother went to school at Harvard.	School is often used to mean university. A common question is 'Where did you go to school?' meaning'Where did you go to college?'	1 went to school in London, then 1 went to university in Bristol.	Refers to primary or secondary education; school can also refer to a university department which covers several different teaching areas (e.g. School of English and Journalism).
Different US terms
I wonder who should be on my PhD committee1. My advisor2 suggested Dr Fry and Dr Roe. I have a lot of studying to do. I have my comps3 in two weeks.
Let's meet in Harley Commons4 at 7.30 pm, and we can study for tomorrow's quiz5, OK? It was tough being a freshman6 because I wasn't used to such difficult finals7, but life got a bit easier when I became a sophomore8. It was easy enough as a junior9, but then it got tough again when I was a senior10.
As a graduate student", I get to attend seminars with some of the top people in my field. The fraternity12 and sorority13 houses are all round the edge of the campus.
1 a group of teachers who advise a PhD student 2 equivalent of the UK supervisor (see Unit 18) 3 short for comprehensive examinations, subject-area tests required of graduate students in some areas of studies 4 area where students can meet socially and eat in dining halls 5 short test on areas which have been taught 6 new, first-year undergraduate (also used in the UK) 7 final examinations at the end of the semester 8 second-year student, from the Greek sophos, wise, and moros, dull 9 third-year student 10 fourth-year student " student with a bachelor's degree (e.g. BA, BS) who is enrolled in a master's degree programme, equivalent of postgraduate student in the UK 12 a social organisation for male students 13 a social organisation for female students
46   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
I 9.1     Look at A. Who is more likely to be speaking - a British person or an American? Why?
i [ Qply faultycan eat nere-)
All professors use the same rubric for grading term papers.
I went to school at Millintown, where I got my masters and PhD.
IS
My department is within the Faculty of Engineering, j
The rubric required students to answer all three questions on the exam paper. -^-—-
I 9.2    Put these levels of student in an American university in order of seniority, starting with the first-year student. Explain what kind of student each term refers to.
graduate student     junior     freshman     senior sophomore
I 9.3    Are the following statements true or false? If false, explain why they are incorrect.
1 An advisor is someone who helps American students with their emotional problems.
2 Women usually join a fraternity.
3 Finals means a student's last semester at university or college.
4 A PhD committee is a group of graduate students.
19.4    Use the clues to complete the crossword. Across
1 Sometimes used to refer to college or university in the US
2 A short test of material that has been taught
3 Test to assess whether a student knows subject material required for a graduate degree
4 A social organisation for female students
5 A fourth-year student in the US Down
6 A second-year student
7 A general word meaning academic staff in the US
Academic Vocabulary in Use 47
Academic courses
Course descriptions
Look at this extract from a UK university's web pages. American websites may use different terms.
Diploma/MA in English Language and Culture
* Qualification: Diploma1 or MA. Duration: One year full-time or two years part-time.
The course is a 180-credit2 course, consisting of 120 credits of core3 and elective4 modules5 plus a 60-credit dissertation module. Core modules are obligatory. Candidates not wishing to proceed to the MA may opt for6 the Diploma (120 credits without dissertation).
* Course description: The course covers all the major aspects of present-day English language and culture. Topics include grammar, vocabulary, language in society, literature in English (for a full list, see the list of modules). Elective modules only run if a minimum of ten students enrol7. The modules consist of a mixture of lectures, seminars, workshops and tutorials8.
* assessment9: A 3,000-word assignment10 must be submitted for each core module. Elective modules are assessed through essays, projects and portfolios". The word limit for the dissertation is 12,000 to 15,000 words.
Candidates must achieve a pass grade in all four core modules (20 credits each), plus 40 credits in elective modules (minimum of 30 credits in the English department plus 10 optional credits from modules offered by other departments), and, for MA, must pass the dissertation module (60 credits).
Candidates who achieve a grade average of 70% or more over all modules may be eligible'2 for a distinction'3.
' a qualification between a bachelor's degree and a master's degree 2 unit which represents a successfully completed part of a course 3 most important parts of a course of study, that all students must do 4 which are chosen s one of the units which together make a complete course taught especially at a college or university 6 choose 7 put one's name on an official list of course members 8 see Unit
18 for the meaning of these; a workshop is a meeting to discuss and/or perform practical work in a subject 9 judgements of the quality of students' work 10 a piece of written work " a collection of documents that represent a person's work 12 having the necessary qualities or fulfilling the necessary conditions 13 a special mark given to students who produce work of an excellent standard
B    Other aspects of courses
Dr Ward is holding a question-and-answer session for new MA students.
Can we defer' the dissertation if we can't stay here during the summer? Yes, you can defer for a year, but don't forget, if you do go home, you won't be able to have face-to-face supervisions2. Are the in-sessional3 language courses compulsory?
No. Most of you did the pre-sessional, which is the most important. But there are good in-sessional courses you can sign up for, especially the EAP4 writing course. If we get the MA, can we go on to do a PhD immediately?
Not automatically. You have to show you can do PhD standard work first anyway, and then upgrade5 to the PhD programme after a year or so.
' delay until a later time 2 individual meetings with the teacher who is responsible for the student's dissertation 3 courses held during the main teaching semesters; pre-sessional courses are held before the main teaching semesters begin 4 English for Academic Purposes 5 become officially registered for the higher degree
Reza: Dr Ward:
Simon: Dr Ward:
Angela: Dr Ward:
When addressing someone with a PhD, always use their family name, e.g. Excuse me, Dr Lopez. Only medical doctors can be addressed simply as Doctor, without using their family name.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
20.1 Answer the questions about the text in A.
1 How long does the Diploma or MA course take if you study full-time?
2 How many credits is a dissertation worth?
3 What is special about core modules?
4 What is the difference between doing a Diploma and an MA?
5 How many students are required for an elective module to run?
6 How long do assignments have to be?
7 What kinds of classes do the students get?
8 On what kinds of work are they assessed?
9 What is the maximum number of words allowed in a dissertation? 10 What do students have to do to get a distinction?
20.2 Complete the missing words in this email from a student to a friend.
Diploma     dissertation      in-sessional      MA     module     PhD project
sign
20.4
Hi Erika,
How are things going with you? I'm sorry not to have written to you sooner but I've
been desperately busy with the linguistics (1)......................................I have to do for the elective
(2)......................................I'm taking this term. It's really interesting and I think I might decide to
do my final (3)......................................on a similar topic. At first I was only planning to do the
(4)......................................but now I've decided to have a go at an (5)....................................... I might even
(6)......................................up for a (7).....................................if they'll have me! PhD students are usually
offered some language teaching on the (8) .....................................EAP courses they run for foreign
students, so it would be useful for my CV for the future.
Shoshana
20.3    Choose the correct word to complete each sentence.
1 I started out doing an MA but then decided to upgrade I defer to a PhD.
2 Students whose first language is not English usually have to attend a(n) in-sessional I pre-sessional language course before their main classes start.
3 Only six students have enrolled I opted, so the MEd programme will not run this year.
4 Most students decide to sign / proceed to the MA after completing their Diploma course.
5 Core modules are obligatory I optional.
6 When I was doing my PhD I had monthly one-to-one seminars I supervisions.
7 I won't be able to finish the dissertation this year, so I'll have to opt I defer till next year.
8 Assessment I Assignment consists of a three-hour end-of-module exam.
Complete the table below. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary.
verb	noun	adjective
opt		
		obligatory
	supervision +	
	assessment +	-
-		eligible
Compare your own course, or one you hope to do, with the course described in A in terms of duration, modules and assessment.
AcademicVocabulary in Use 49
Study habits and skills
Time management
West Preston University has a web-based self-assessment questionnaire on time management
666
CD
Time management: Rate your ability to organise your time.
1 Do you begin working on end-of-semester assignments early in the semester?
2 Do you meet deadlines' for submitting work?
3 Do you ever have to request an extension2 for your work?
4 Do you spend hours cramming3 just before an exam?
5 Do you make a to-do list4 each week?
6 Do you include extra-curricular5 activities when you plan your study time?
often	sometimes	never
	*	
s		
#		
	*	
		
		
1 complete your work by the official final day or time 2 ask for more time beyond the deadline try to learn a lot very quickly before an exam 4 make a list of things you should do 5 outside of the subjects one is studying
Study habits and problems studying
Here are some students' comments about study habits and problems associated with studying.
'I try to prioritise1 the most difficult or urgent task first, when I feel more motivated.' 'I'm a slow reader. I need to improve my reading speed. I find revision before exams really difficult. I can only revise for about two hours at a time. My mind starts to wander2.' 'I always try to review3 my lecture notes within 24 hours of the time I took them. I do need to improve my note-taking.'
'I use tricks to memorise things, like mnemonics4 and visualising5. I try to brainstorm6 the topic and draw mind maps7 before I write a first draft8 of an essay.' 'I know rote learning9 isn't very fashionable nowadays, but I find it useful to learn some things by heart'0, especially lists of things.'
'I try to make a study plan each semester - but I never manage to keep to it!'
'I always try to get the books I need from the library on long-term loan. Short-term loan is
never long enough, even though you can sometimes extend it for 24 hours.'
'In an exam I make rough11 notes for each question, otherwise my mind just goes blank12.'
1 decide which things are the most important      ideas on a topic are related 8 text containing so that you can deal with them first 2 I start       all the main ideas but not in a fully developed thinking of things not connected to my studies read or study again 4 e.g. a very short poem or a special word used to help you remember something 5 forming an image in your mind
6 think of a lot of ideas very quickly before considering some of them more carefully
7 diagram or drawing showing how different
form 9 (often used with a negative association) learning something so you can repeat it from memory, rather than understand it 10 in such a way that you can say it from memory 11 not exact or detailed; approximate 12 you cannot remember a particular thing, or you cannot remember anything
50   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
21.1    Match the first part of the word combination on the left with the second part on the right.
meet	to-do	extra-curricular	study	activities	an extension	loan	draft
time	long-term	lecture	note-	deadlines	learning	plan	management
request	first	rote	draw	mind maps	list	taking	notes
2 1.2    Complete each sentence with a word combination from 21.1.
1 I always try to.........................................................but this time I'm afraid I'm going to have to
.......................................................... If only I could stick to the.........................................................I make at the
beginning of every semester!
2 You should show the.........................................................of your essay to your tutor before you do any
more work on it.
3 Helena missed the class but she borrowed the.........................................................from a friend.
4 Some people find it more helpful to.........................................................when they are studying than to
take traditional notes.
5 This is an incredibly useful book. Fortunately, I've been able to take it out of the library on..........................................................
6 Students who are working part-time as well as studying have to be particularly good at
7 Some students get distracted from their studies by all the........................................................which most
universities offer.
8 I always make a.........................................................when I'm getting ready to go on a trip.
9 .........................................................is often considered a very old-fashioned way of learning nowadays.
10 .........................................................is very important during lectures; you can't remember everything.
2 1.3    Answer these questions about study habits.
1 Can you think of an example of a mnemonic?
2 If you were brainstorming some good study habits, what would you write down?
3 In your opinion, what sorts of things are useful to learn by heart?
4 When do you start cramming before an exam?
5 Does your mind ever wander when you are studying? If so, what do you start thinking about?
6 Have you ever experienced your mind going blank during an exam?
7 Do you try to prioritise certain types of work? Which types?
8 Why is it a good idea to make rough notes before answering an exam question?
21.4    Here are some more useful words relating to study habits. Say in your own words what each expression in bold means. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary.
University Library: Notice to all undergraduates
Undergraduates are reminded that all books on loan must be returned by noon on June 30th, 2008. Overdue items will incur a fine of 50 cents per day. Failure to clear fines and overdue books may result in loss of borrowing rights. Additional regulations apply to inter-library loans (see the University Library web pages).
University Librarian
Ask some of your fellow students about their study habits using the questions from the questionnaire on the opposite page.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   51
22   Online learning
A    What is online learning?
What makes studying online different from face-to-face study is that it uses the internet as the primary means of communication. Learning is often organised through a virtual learning environment (VLE)1. This provides discussion areas and links to readings and other resources as well as letting students submit assignments2 electronically and take quizzes online. Online courses are often collaborative3 with students posting messages4 for each other to read and working together to construct knowledge5. As a result students in virtual6 classrooms develop a sense of being part of an online community and feel much less isolated than they might in traditional distance courses7. The teacher's role is to set appropriate tasks, to moderate8 discussions and to provide feedback9. Teachers may also conduct online tutorials10.
1 software that allows staff and students to interact (e.g. WebCT or Blackboard) 2 hand in essays or other work 3 involve students working together 4 making a contribution to an online discussion 5 build up understanding of the topic 6 online 7 courses where the student studies at home using materials sent by the academic institution 8 gently control, by asking questions and encouraging learners to make connections 9 comment on students' work 10 teaching sessions for individuals or small groups of students
Key terms
term	meaning	word combinations
hybrid/blended course	a course that combines both online and face-to-face (f2f) teaching and learning	enrol on a hybrid/blended course take/do a hybrid/blended course
a (mailing) list	online discussion group managed through a software program - each message or contribution is sent to a common email, then forwarded to all members	post a message to a list subscribe to a list1 unsubscribe from a list2
discussion forum	area of website or VLE where you can post a message for other participants to read and reply to	participate / take part in a discussion forum
username	form of your name the software recognises and so lets you go further — it can be case-sensitive3	enter your username
a thread	an ordered row of comments in a discussion forum on a specific topic	start a new thread contribute to a thread follow a thread
1 join a list 2 leave a list 3 the use of upper and lower case letters must exactly match what was entered as the username when setting up the account [upper case = capital letters]
Netiquette [rules for effective online communication]
• Reread your message before hitting send.
• Use an appropriate subject header.
• In a mailing list 'lurk before you leap', i.e. observe the conventions others use before joining a discussion yourself.
• Obey the KISS principle (Keep it Short and Simple).
• Don't flame other posters, [be very rude to other members of an online group]
f 1  Could you do well as an online student? Read the profile of a virtual student at EI  www.virtualstudent.com/html/profile.html. Note any useful vocabulary there.
52   Academic English in Use
Exercises
22.1     Look at A and fill in the gaps in this email from a student on an online course.
CD
Hi Jean,
My online course is brilliant. We use Moodle which is VLE software-that means (1]......................................
learning environment. You get to know the other students well even though the web's our only
(2)......................................of communication. I really feel I'm part of an online (3)....................................... It's also
great as you don't have to go to the library - all the readings and other (4)......................................are online
and there are (5)......................................to them in Moodle-just click and you've got them. We work in
groups - the teacher sets various collaborative (6)......................................and then provides
(?)......................................on our work. We have to take a (8)......................................every week but it's just a set
of easy multiple-choice questions. At the end of the course we have to (9).....................................a big
assignment. Anyway, it's really fun.
Ellen
22.2    Match the first part of the expression from the left-hand box with the second part on the right.
construct enrol enter hit
moderate
post start subscribe take part unsubscribe
from a mailing list in a discussion group the send button to a mailing list discussions
a new thread knowledge messages your username on a hybrid course
22.3
22.4
Now choose word combinations from 22.2 to complete these sentences. Change the verb form where necessary.
1 When you log on you will be asked to.........................................................and password.
2 A long time ago I.........................................................for marine engineers. I don't want to receive
messages from it any more but now I can't remember how to..........................................................
3 I really enjoy.........................................................for language teachers and yesterday I.................................................
about teaching grammar online.
4 I decided to......................................................... as I thought it would be good to experience a course
with both online and face-to-face elements.
5 You will save yourself a lot of embarrassment if you get into the habit of always rereading what you've written before.........................................................and..........................................................
6 Online instructors must be good at.........................................................so students can work together to
Answer these questions.
1 How would you feel if someone flamed you? Why would you feel like that?
2 Are your computer usernames and passwords case-sensitive?
3 Why do you think the KISS principle is important for online posts?
4 Is lurking online a good or a bad thing? Why?
5 Why is it important to choose subject headers carefully?
6 Have you any experience of being in a virtual classroom? What was it like?
Use an online search engine (such as Google or Yahoo!) to do a search on on//ne courses + the subject you are interested in. Click on one of the links it finds. Note any interesting vocabulary relating to online study that you find on that site.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 53
23 Sources
Referring to source materials
Look at these extracts where the writers are talking about their sources. Although these writers occasionally use T, many academic departments advise against doing this in writing if possible.
This paper begins with a review of the literature on1 patient communication. The medical literature suggests that patients with serious illnesses tend to communicate poorly, especially if the disease is not considered by the patient to be particularly threatening.
1 a summary and evaluation of all the important works written on a particular subject
This essay draws its data from the most important primary source2 of information on manufacturing in Nigeria: the Central Bank of Nigeria. I shall make reference3 to this source throughout this essay. Several recent secondary sources4 were also consulted.
2 an original document or set of documents giving information about a subject 3 slightly more formal alternative to refer to 4 books or articles about a subject, not original documents
For this project, I consulted the county archives5 in an attempt to explain why there were so many deaths in 1846 and 1847. These proved a valuable resource. I also surveyed the literature on6 agricultural production during the 1840s. However, I only directly cite7 those works which are particularly relevant in the present study.
5
a collection of documents of historical importance 6 searched for all the important works, summarised and evaluated them 7 refer to for illustration or proof
An extensive body of literature8 exists on the effects of wildfires9. Wildfires have burned across the western United States for centuries, but their effects are not fully known or documented10. The present study draws primarily on11 the work of Gordon (1996).
8 also 'body of knowledge'; note how it combines with extensive and exist fires starting naturally, not caused by human action 10 written about 11 uses information mainly from
As noted12 in a recent report, Australia has been at the forefront of developments in e-learning. This success is often attributed to13 Australia's geographical position, but the factors catalogued14 in the report reveal a more complex picture. _ _
12 given special mention 13 people often say that this is the cause 14 recorded, listed
More ways of referring to sources
Beeching's seminal1 work laid the foundations2 for the field of functional analysis. Keynes's ideas were set out3 in his book, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936. This work changed the way we look at how economies function. Elsewhere4, Keynes claimed to be developing classical economic theory. Design of compact heat exchangers is dealt with in Appendix A of the report, treated5 separately from the main body6 of the report.
1 important and original work from which other works grow 2 created the first ideas from which a major set of ideas grew 3 gave all the details of his ideas, or explained them clearly (especially used about writing) 4 in another work by him 5 more formal version of deal with 6 the main part
54   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
23.1    Match the beginning of each sentence with
1 The letters proved to be a valuable
2 An extensive body of literature
3 Newspapers are a good primary
4 The data are not given in the main
5 Plastics are not dealt with in the present
6 The thesis begins with a review of
23.2
23.3
the most appropriate ending.
study, which focuses on metals only, body of the book; they are in the appendix, the literature on intellectual property rights, exists on human to animal communication, source for the period 1980-1985. resource for the study of the poet's life.
Rewrite the sentences using the word in brackets.
1 The article refers to the work of Hindler and Swartz (1988). (makes)
2 Schunker's book was a useful critique for understanding the pre-war period. I also consulted original government papers, (secondary)
3 Tanaka's book uses data from several Japanese articles on galaxy formation, (draws)
4 In a different paper, Kallen reports on his research into cancer rates among farm workers. (elsewhere)
5 Han consulted the documents of historical importance in the Vienna Museum. (archives) Complete the table. Use a dictionary if necessary. Do not fill in the shaded boxes.
noun	verb	adjective	adverb
	attribute		
document			
	consult		
		primary	
catalogue			
foundation			
note			
	suggest		
		extensive	
	cite		
23.4
Look at this advice about plagiarism [pronounced /'pleid33nz3m/, the serious offence of using other people's work while pretending it is your own, without clearly acknowledging the source of that information] given to students by an American university. Underline words and phrases which mean:
1 Expressing the same message in different words
2 Things known by everyone
3 Stating that one has obtained one's information from that source
4 Direct repetition of what someone has written or said
5 Stating that you have benefited from someone's work
How can students avoid plagiarism?
To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit by acknowledging your source whenever you use: another person's idea, opinion, or theory;
any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings - any pieces of information - that are not common knowledge;
quotations of another person's actual spoken or written words; or a paraphrase of another person's spoken or written words.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 55
Facts, evidence and data
Being able to use the vocabulary in this unit well will help you avoid repetition in your writing. Countable or uncountable nouns
Fact is a countable noun and evidence is uncountable - you can refer to one piece of evidence or to the body of evidence [large amount of evidence].
Some people consider data as a plural noun - these data show an unexpected trend - while others consider it as uncountable - this data differs from last year's. This is a particularly interesting piece/item of data. The tendency is increasingly to use data as an uncountable noun but you will see both forms and may use it whichever way you prefer yourself.
Words often used with facts, evidence and data
Researchers try to establish the facts. They hope that the facts will bear out1 or support their hypothesis. Most carefully check their facts before presenting them to others although there are, of course, dishonest people prepared to distort2 the facts in order to claim that their facts are interesting, relevant3, undeniable or little-known.
1 confirm 2 change 3 connected to the topic being discussed
Notice how fact is also often used in sentences like the following:
It is hard to account for the fact that4 share prices rose over this period.
The problem stems from the fact that5 there is a basic conflict of interests.
The lecturer drew attention to the fact that6 the economy was starting to improve.
4 explain why 5 has arisen because 6 emphasised that
Researchers may look for, collect, examine and consider evidence. The evidence they collect may point to or suggest a conclusion. If the evidence is growing or widespread it may serve to support a theory. In writing up their research they aim to provide or offer sufficient evidence to support their theories. They are happy if the evidence they find is convincing or powerful and are less happy if the evidence is flimsy7 or conflicting8. They are pleased if new evidence comes to light9 or emerges and if they find abundant10 evidence. They may talk about finding hard evidence".
7 not strong 8 contradictory 9 becomes known, see Unit 9 10 plenty of     evidence which is reliable and can be proven, used mainly in spoken in English
reliable12. obtain suggests
comprehensive13. organise reflects
The data is  accurate. You analyse data.       Data   indicates something.
empirical14. interpret shows
record demonstrates
12 can be trusted 13 full, complete 14 based on observation rather than theory Giving examples
You often need to give or provide an example to illustrate the facts you're presenting. A good example can be described as striking, clear, vivid, illuminating or telling. Sometimes, particularly in written English, the word instance is used as an alternative to example. There is a striking instance of the author's use of metaphor in the final poem. We shall now analyse one specific instance of this problem. Say can be used in informal English instead of for example. Try and finish writing the report by, say, next Friday.
There are many verbs in English which can be spelt either -ise/-yse or -/ze/-yze depending on whether the writer is using British English or American English spelling. See Reference 4.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
24.1 Fill the gaps in this extract from a university seminar on forest conservation. Some students are questioning aspects of a presentation given by Sandra, one of the group. The first letter of each missing word is given to help you.
Aidan:    I enjoyed your presentation, and you've e......................................some interesting facts about
the loss of forests year on year, and it's u......................................that tropical forests are in
danger. But I think the evidence you o......................................for your claim that sustainable
forest exploitation is failing is very f.....................................and not very c......................................at all.
We need to c.....................................a lot more data. Right now there's a lot of c......................................
evidence, so we can't say for certain that it's not working.
Sandra:   If you want h...................................... evidence, just look at the International Tropical
Timber Organisation, and read their latest report. Their evidence d......................................
that only three per cent of tropical forests are being managed properly.
Petra:     Well, I've read the ITTO report, and actually it d.....................................attention to the fact
that their previous report had found only one per cent of forests were properly
managed, so you may be d.................................the facts a little by just looking at one
year. And also, there's a lot of 1......................................-k......................................work being done with
local people to encourage them to conserve the forests, so you could say there's g.....................................evidence that things are getting better.
Dr Li:     Hmm, I don't think we're going to agree on this. I think, as usual, it's a question of how you i......................................the data. Thanks, anyway, for your presentation, Sandra.
24.2 The sentences below are correct. Vary them by substituting the words in bold for words or expressions with similar meanings.
1 The data show that the drug education project has been successful.
2 The data in the latest study are more complete than in the earlier one.
3 This is the most interesting piece of data in the whole thesis.
4 What a clear example this is of the power of the human mind!
5 Unfortunately, the facts do not bear out the hypothesis.
6 We cannot explain the fact that attitudes are more negative now than five years ago.
7 The problem arises from the fact that the software was poorly designed.
8 The article gives examples of different methods which have been used over the years.
9 New evidence has emerged that the cabinet was not informed of the Minister's decision.
10 We need to examine the evidence before we can reach a conclusion.
11 The evidence suggesting that sanctions do not work is plentiful and very strong.
12 A considerable amount of evidence now exists, but we always try to get more.
13 We have a lot of observed data which suggest the problem is on the increase.
14 This is a clear example of how conservation can benefit local people.
24.3 One word in each sentence does not fit the sentence. Which is it?
1 Thorsen's aim was to establish I check I bear out I present the facts.
2 The evidence suggests I points to / supports / emerges a different conclusion.
3 Lopez collected I reflected I obtained I recorded some fascinating data.
4 The writer provides some growing I telling I striking I illuminating examples.
5 The evidence Mistry presents is convincing I -flimsy I vivid I conflicting.
Look at any text from your discipline and see what words are used with facts, data and evidence. Are they the same as the ones in this unit? Note any different ones.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 57
25 Numbers
Types of numbers
Numbers in a group together may be called a series or set of numbers. If the order in which they occur is significant then they may be called a sequence of numbers. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 is a sequence of numbers, for example - it represents the numbers 1 to 5 squared.
1, 3, 5, 7 ... = odd numbers; 2, 4, 6, 8 ... = even numbers; 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 ... = prime numbers. The highest number in a group is the maximum and the lowest is the minimum. The room holds a maximum of SO and we won't run the class without a minimum of 12 students.
An approximate number is one which is roughly correct but is not the precise or exact number. Look at the figures and work out in your head what the approximate answer is likely to be. Then use a calculator to find the exact number.
An aggregate is a number reached by totalling a set of numbers = the total. The average mark achieved in the exam is calculated by taking the aggregate of all the marks and dividing by the number of exam entries.
A discrete number or unit is something which is separate and cannot be divided into smaller numbers or units of the same thing. The opposite of discrete is continuous. A bag of apples, for example, could be considered as consisting of discrete items whereas apple sauce could be considered - by mathematicians, at least - as continuous.
A constant number or quantity is one that does not change. In the experiment we varied [changed] the amount of water in the beaker but kept the amount of salt added constant. A random number is one chosen by chance, i.e. it is not predictable.
Working with numbers
The word figure is often used to refer to the symbol used for a number. Write the total number in words and figures.
Verbs that are frequently used with the word number include calculate [work out] a number, estimate1 a number, round a number up/down2, total [add up] a set of numbers. Numbers can also tally3. My figures don't seem to tally with yours. You can also deduct [take away, subtract] one number from another number.
1 make a rough guess at 2 make a fraction, e.g. \ or 0.78 into the nearest whole number
3 match, agree
Values and variables are also useful terms when working with numbers. Values are individual numbers in a set of data. The graph shows the temperature values for different months of the year. Variables are characteristics that can take on different values for different members of a group or set being studied. In investigating living standards you must take key variables such as social provision and cost of living into account.
The incidence of something refers to how frequently it occurs. The incidence of twins in the population is growing. When talking about numbers, magnitude simply refers to the size of something, whereas in other contexts it indicates large size or importance. Write down the numbers in order of magnitude, beginning with the smallest.
When making calculations in, say, an exam, it is often a good idea to make an estimate4 first of what the answer is likely to be. Then you will see if your final answer is in the right area5 or not. Exam candidates are also often advised to show their workings6 so that the marker can see how they arrived at their answer and they may get credit for their method even if the final answer is incorrect.
4 rough guess 5 approximately the same 6 leave all their calculations on the page 58   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
25.1 Answer these questions.
1 What is five squared?
2 What is the next prime number after 19?
3 How is this sequence of numbers created? 3, 9, 27, 81
4 What is the aggregate of this set of test marks? 6, 8, 9, 5, 6, 7
5 If you round up 6.66, what number do you have?
6 9 and 4 - which is a whole number and which is a fraction?
7 In your country is tax automatically deducted from employees' earnings?
8 Is an accountant pleased or displeased if figures that he/she is checking tally?
25.2 Dr Syal is advising one of his dissertation students who is interested in pollution in road tunnels. Complete the conversation. You are sometimes given the first letter to help you.
Dr Syal: You could c.....................................the total number of private cars that use the tunnel each
week, based on the day-to-day figures, and get an a......................................figure for how
much carbon they're all emitting.
Melissa: How p......................................would that figure have to be?
Dr Syal: Oh, it doesn't have to be exact, you just need to e......................................more or less what
the total pollution will be. Then you can check to see if those figures t......................................
with the figures that have already been published for similar tunnels. And the
figure won't be c......................................of course; it'll go up and down depending on lots of
factors such as weather conditions, average speed, etc.
Melissa: But can we say if the figures will be true for the future too?
Dr Syal: Well, we do know that the traffic growth has been c......................................over the past ten
years; it hasn't ever gone down, so I think you can make some useful predictions.
Melissa: Should I present each daily total as a d......................................item or can I just put them all
together into one figure for each week?
Dr Syal: A weekly total is fine, and you can....................................it up or.....................................to the
nearest 100.
Melissa: Right, OK. Thanks so much for your help.
25.3 Rewrite these spoken sentences so that they are more appropriate for writing, using the word in italics in an appropriate form.
1 There were fewer car accidents last year, incidence
2 We made a rough guess at what the final figure might be. estimate
3 The graph shows the results from the lowest to the highest, magnitude
4 A computer program helped us work out the significance of the different variables, calculate
5 Taking x away from y will help you arrive at the correct answer, subtract
6 The results from the first experiment were not the same as those we got from the repeat experiment, tally
25.4 Fill in the gaps in this advice a maths lecturer is giving her students.
In the exam, don't forget to show all your (1).............................as we want to see how you
(2)...................................... at your results. Make your (3)..............................very carefully - you'd be amazed
at how many people submit answers that are hardly even in the right (4)............................... And
please write legibly - we must be able to distinguish all your (5)............................. ! When doing
graphs, plot your (6)......................................carefully and if asked to describe an experiment don't
forget to take all significant (7).....................................into account. Good luck!
Find some examples of the use of numbers in your own subject area. Note down some interesting phrases or sentences.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 59
26 Statistics
A    Basic statistical terms
Notice the key vocabulary in these three short texts about statistics.
Six children are 7, 8, 8, 8, 11 and 12 years ol Their average age is 9 years old (the sum of their ages divided by six). The mode (the most frequent value) is 8. The median is 9.5 (the halfway point
between the two extremes of the range).
A normal distribution of data means that
most of the examples in a set of data are close to the average, while relatively few examples tend to one extreme or the other. Normally distributed data shown on a chart will typically show a bell curve. It will often be necessary to work out the extent to which individuals deviate' from the norm2 and to calculate the figure that represents standard deviation3.
Statisticians are often concerned with working out correlations4 - the extent to which, say, left-handedness correlates with intelligence. They must ensure that any ■ data they collect is valid, i.e. that it is measuring what it claims to measure - all the subjects in the sample5 must be appropriately and accurately assessed as left- or right-handed,
Ifor example. The figures must also be reliable, i.e. they would be consistent6 if the measurements were repeated. Usually, statisticians hope that their calculations will show/indicate a tendency, e.g. that left-handed people will be shown to be significantly7 more intelligent than right-handed people.
' differ 2 the average 3 average difference from the norm 4 connections, often as cause and effect 5 the subjects of the experiment or group representing the total population measured
6 the same 7 noticeably
A probability' problem
Notice the vocabulary in this problem from a statistics textbook.
Sue picks a card at random2 from an ordinary pack of 52 cards. If the card is a king, she stops. If not, she continues to pick cards at random, without replacing them, until either a king is picked or six cards have been picked. The random variable3, C, is the total number of cards picked. Construct a diagram to illustrate the possible outcomes4 of the experiment, and use it to calculate the probability distribution5 of C.
' likelihood of something happening 2 by chance 3 number or element of a situation that can change 4 results 5 assessment of probabilities for each possible value of C
Other useful nouns for talking about statistics
In a class of 8 women and 4 men, what proportion1 are male? Answer: one third
In the same class what is the female to male ratio2? Answer: 2:1
The figures show a trend3 towards healthier eating habits.
The study investigates the increase in the volume4 of traffic on the roads.
1 number compared with another number 2 relationship between two numbers showing how much bigger one is 3 change in a particular direction 4 amount, quantity
We say 10 per cent (NOT the-l 0 per cent or 10 percentage) of students got an A for their exam but the percentage of students achieving an A has increased.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
26.1    Complete the sentences.
1 The six subjects who took the test scored 24, 22, 16, 16, 16, and 14 points out of 30. The ......................................was 16. The......................................score was 19 and the......................................score was 18.
2 The......................................of all donations to the charity in 2003 was $3,938. The smallest donation
was $10 and the largest was $130. Most were around the......................................point of $60.
3 Each questionnaire item asked respondents to choose one of a......................................of six options,
with the two......................................being 'very dissatisfied indeed' and 'completely satisfied'.
26.2    Use the correct form of the words in the box to complete this text.
distribute
trend      significant     probable      random      correlation outcome
vary
Life insurance companies base their calculations on the laws of......................................, that is
they assess the likely......................................, given the different......................................such as age, sex,
lifestyle and medical history of their clients.The premiums are therefore not chosen at
......................................but are carefully calculated.The......................................of ages at which death occurs
and causes of death are studied to see if they......................................with other factors to be
taken into account in setting the premiums. Naturally, the companies also monitor social .....................................and react to any changes which might.....................................affect mortality rates.
26.3    Answer the questions.
1 There are 12 male students and 6 female students in the class. What is the ratio of males to females? And what proportion of the class is male?
2 If I am collecting data on course choices among second-year undergraduates and my sample is too small, what exactly do I need to do?
3 If my data show that students have a tendency to choose the type of clothing their friends choose, does it mean that they always, often or rarely choose similar clothes?
4 If I repeat the same experiment three times and the results are not consistent, is my method reliable?
If 20 out of 200 students fail an exam, what proportion, in percentage terms, failed? If the average score in a test is 56, and Barbara scores 38, by how many points has she deviated from the norm?
If the volume of court cases increases, what changes: the type of case, the size of each case or the total number of cases?
What does standard deviation tell us? (a) What the standard of something is, (b) what the norm is, or (c) what the average difference from the norm is? 9 If a general survey of teenage eating habits asks questions about what teenagers eat for
breakfast and lunch, is the survey likely to be valid? 10 Here is a graph showing how many students got scores within each 10-mark band in a biology test. Are the scores normally distributed? What is the shape of the graph called?
What kinds of statistical data are likely to be discussed in your discipline? Find a relevant chart, graph or table and write about it using some terms from this unit.
5
6
8
30-39 ' 40-49 ' 50-59 ' 60-69 ' 70-79 ' 80-89 ' 90-100'
range of scores
Academic Vocabulary in Use   61
7   Graphs and diagrams
I.
I ii i histogram
Number	Amount
1	10
2	5
1	20
tabic
cross-section flowchart
Types of diagrams
pie chart        Ml   I   I   I bar chart
Diagrams are visual ways of presenting data concisely. They are often also called figures. In an academic article they are usually labelled Fig. (Figure) 1, Fig. 2, etc. A pie chart is a circle divided into segments from the middle (like slices of a cake) to show how the total is divided up. A key or legend shows what each segment represents. A bar chart is a diagram in which different amounts are represented by thin vertical or horizontal bars which have the same width but vary in height or length. A histogram is a kind of bar chart but the bar width also varies to indicate different values. A table is a grid with columns and rows of numbers.
A cross-section is something, or a model of something, cut across the middle so that you can see the inside. A cross-section of the earth's crust, for example, shows the different layers that make it up. A label gives the name of each part of the cross-section. Cross-section can also be used to mean a small group that is representative of all the different types within the total group (e.g. the survey looked at a cross-section of society). A flowchart is a diagram which indicates the stages of a process.
□ Weekly pocket money received by teenagers in the UK
age
A graph
The graph presents data relating to teenagers and pocket money. A random sample of 1,000 teenagers were surveyed and the average pocket money received at each age has been plotted on the graph. The x axis or horizontal axis indicates age and the y axis or vertical axis shows the amount of money received per week. The graph shows that 15-year-olds receive twice as much pocket money as 13-year-olds. From the graph we can see that the amount received reaches a peak at the age of 18 and then starts to decline. This decline can perhaps be explained by the fact that many teenagers start earning and stop receiving pocket money at the age of 18.
Graphs are drawn by plotting points on them and then drawing a line to join adjacent points. If there are two lines on a graph - separate lines, for example, to indicate boys' and girls' pocket money - then the lines would probably cross or intersect at various points. Lines that run parallel to one another never intersect.
Graphs show how numbers increase or decrease. The nouns increase and decrease have the stress on the first syllable, but the verbs have the stress on the second syllable. Numbers can also be said to rise or grow and fall, drop or decline. The nouns rise, growth, fall, drop and decline, like increase and decrease are followed by in (to explain what is rising) or of (to explain the size of the change), e.g. a rise of 10% in the number of cars. Other verbs used about growth include double1, soar2, multiply3, appreciate4 and exceed5.
1 grow to twice the size; opposite = halve 2 (dramatic word) rapid movement upwards; opposite = plummet 3 grow rapidly to a very large number 4 used about the value of something, e.g.
a painting or car; opposite = depreciate number; opposite = fall below
go over, expresses a number in relation to another
Note that graph is a noun and graphic [relating to drawing: vivid, especially when describing something unpleasant] is usually an adjective. The economics teKtbook contains a lot of fascinating graphs. My nephew studied graphic design.The book contains same very graphic descriptions of the massacre. Graphics can be used as a plural noun to refer to pictorial material, e.g. The graphics in that computer game are brilliant
62   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
27.1    Look at the chart. Complete the commentary with words from the opposite page.
rs entering downtown West City
n
number of cars per day
e chart. ... the number of cars entering the downtown area
of West City each day over an eight-year period (years 1-8). The totals
are listed on the......................................axis {give two answers), while the years
are listed on the......................................axis {give two answers). To the right of
the graph we see the....................................... The number of cars......................................
over the period. The total rose in the first few years and......................................a
......................................in year 5, after which the numbers started to......................................
This can be......................................by the......................................that a new mass transit
railway was opened in year 6, which is a......................................illustration of how
good public transport can dramatically affect car use.
year
27.2 Answer the questions.
1 Draw examples of a pie chart and a bar chart.
2 "What would be the best type of diagram to present the different layers of rock in the Grand Canyon?
3 In a table, what is the difference between columns and rows?
4 What would be the best type of diagram to present the different stages in a research project you did?
5 How many segments are there in the pie chart opposite?
6 If you look at two adjacent columns in a table, are they next to each other or separated?
7 What is another name for a legend in a diagram?
8 What type of data collection are you doing if you survey the first 50 people you come across?
9 What do two lines on a graph do if (a) they intersect and (b) they run parallel to each other?
27.3 Make the rather informal words in bold sound more precise and academic.
1 The different bits of the pie chart show the numbers of people in each age group.
2 She kept a record by marking the midday temperature on a graph for a month.
3 People's salaries usually reach their highest point when they are in their late 40s. 3 This flowchart shows the different bits of our project over the next five years.
5 The two lines on the graph cross each other at point A.
6 Draw a line connecting the points that are next to each other.
7 The government's popularity in the opinion polls is beginning to fall.
8 If you look along the top line of the table you can see the figures for the 1950s.
27.4 Change the sentences using words with the same meanings as the words in bold.
1 Populations of some bird species in South Asia have crashed by 97% in recent years. The number of cases of death by poisoning has increased sharply.
2 In 2007 the child mortality rate was lower than 60 deaths per 1,000.
3 The average family car in the UK goes down in value by 20% per year. This means its value has fallen by more than half after just three years.
4 A typical piece of land on the edge of the city will go up in value by 15% per year, and house prices have gone up rapidly in the last six months.
5 Business courses have increased greatly in number while science programmes have gone down.
6 The temperature was higher than 45°C in some parts of the country during the heatwave.
7 Between 1983 and 2006, the number of this species of condor* went up from 22 pairs to 273. Other bird populations have gone up by two times in the same period.
8 The numbers of old soldiers attending regimental reunions are becoming smaller each year.
* large birds from South America
AcademicVocabulary in Use 63
Money and education
Financing your studies in the UK
• Search for funding - are you eligible1 for a scholarship or other award2?
• Budget planner-work out your yearly expenditure3 and total cost of your course.
Tuition fees4: From 2006/07, no full-time student will have to pay tuition fees before or during their course. Instead, students will be able to defer payment5 by taking out a student loan, which they will only start to repay once they have left college.
Grants: From September 200G, new full-time students from lower income households will be able to apply for a non-repayable maintenance grant6 of upto£2,?00 (approximately US $5,400] a year. Grants are payable in three instalments7, one at the start of each term.
Bank accounts: Student bank accounts are similar to normal current accounts but they also have additional benefits such as interest-free overdrafts8.
Student loans: Student loans are available to help you meet your living costs while studying. The loans are fixed at a low interest rate. ?5 percent of the maximum loan is available to all students regardless of other income9. After your entitlement10 has been assessed the information will be passed to the Student Loans Company who will make any payments and maintain your account.
Managing debt: Since student grants were abolished in 1998, most students struggle to make ends meet1'. Student debt has soared12 and many can now expect to accumulate13 debts of over£10,000.
Cost of living: London is the most expensive place to study in the UK. Although students in London receive bigger loans to compensate for the increased costs, there is no variation in the amount of financial support available for students in other more expensive areas.
I
1 do you meet the requirements 2 money available for students to get (e.g. by doing well in an exam or by fulfilling certain requirements 3 spending {AmE: expenditures) 4 what students pay for being taught 5 arrange to pay later 6 money to live on which does not need
to be paid back 7 parts 8 amount that can be borrowed from the bank without paying any interest charges 9 money you receive from work or parents, for example 10 how much you can be given     manage financially 12 risen dramatically 13 build up
Conference Grants for graduate students in the US
Conference Grants cover up to 60% of an applicant's accountable expenses . The maximum Conference Grant per applicant is $700. Amounts spent in excess of a Grant allocation, even if documented with original2 receipts3, cannot be reimbursed .
Transportation (by the most economical5 means available), lodging6 (excluding food), registration fees7, and expenses related to presenting a paper (photocopying, etc.) are all accountable. Restaurant bills and costs related to personal advancement, such as copying and distribution of resumes8, are not accountable expenses.
II
1 spending money that can be claimed back
2 not photocopies 3 pieces of paper proving money was paid 4 paid back (after money has already been spent) 5 spending as little
money as possible (cf. economic = relating to the economy) 6 BrE: accommodation 7 money paid to register for a conference 8 pronounced /'rezumei/; BrE: CV, pronounced /,si:'vi:/
64   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
28.1    Use the words from the box to fill the gaps in the text.
a grant       compensate the cost of living       tuition fees debt
earning       make ends meet      repay take out loans       considerable expenditure
Few students get.........................................................to help them study and so many.........................................................while
they are at university.This is because they have to pay............................................ .They also cannot
avoid......................................................on everyday life.This is particularly hard for students in London
where......................................................is higher than elsewhere in the country. Students living in London are
allowed to have bigger loans to help.........................................................for this. Students do not need to start
to....................................................their loan until they are.......................................................a reasonable salary. But
starting working life with a large.........................................................makes it much harder for young people to
.....................................................even once they start earning.
28.2 Rewrite these sentences using the word in brackets.
1 Answer these questions to find out whether you have the right to apply for a student grant. (eligible)
2 I've opened a bank account that I can take money out of at any time. (current)
3 Most people seem to be finding it harder to find enough money for their everyday living costs, (meet)
4 Increasing numbers of students leave college owing a lot of money, (accumulate)
5 Parents often help their children financially while they are at university, (support as a noun)
6 The amount of tax that people pay depends on how much money they receive from earnings or other sources. (income)
7 It is possible to pay back your loan later but you may well end up paying more than you would have done if you had repaid it sooner, (defer)
8 You pay for your hotel first and we pay you back later, (reimburse)
28.3 Correct the two vocabulary errors in each of these sentences.
1 The cost of life is so high here that students have to live in the most economic way they can.
2 As student debts have soured over the last few years, far more students now leave university with a huge overdrawn.
3 Our Student Loans Officer will let you know if you have any entitle to a loan and, if so, will help you to organise taking one off.
4 You must have original recipes if you want to claim your expense.
5 If you run out of money before the next installation of your grant is due you can get an interest-less loan.
28.4 Answer these questions about student finance.
1 Do students have to pay tuition fees for higher education in your country?
2 Should all students get a non-repayable maintenance grant to study? Why (not)?
3 What kinds of scholarships and other awards are available in your country?
4 Do you think all students should be eligible for free loans? Why (not)?
Find a website relating to financial arrangements for students at a university you know or are CM     interested in. Which of the words and expressions from this unit do you see there? Make a note u     of any other useful vocabulary you find there.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 65
Time
Periods of time
A century = 100 years. A decade = 10 years. An annual conference is one that happens every year. A quarterly journal is one that comes out four times a year. An era is a particular period of time that is marked by special events or developments, e.g. the post-war era, an era of rapid social change.
A phase is any stage in a series of events or process of development. A phase or stage can be initial [beginning], intermediate [middle] or final. It may also be described as preceding [happening before now], current [happening now], critical [particularly important] or transitional [in the process of change].
Adjectives relating to time
adjective	example	meaning
concurrent	There were concurrent riots in several northern towns.	occurring at the same time
contemporary	1 studied all the contemporary accounts of the battle 1 could find. Jo is researching contemporary music.	dating from the same period existing now
eventual	The eventual cost of the project is likely to exceed €10 million.	happening or existing later, after effort or problems
forthcoming	My article will be published in the forthcoming issue of the New Scientist	happening soon
ongoing	Helen has a number of ongoing projects.	happening now
simultaneous	There were simultaneous concerts in several cities.	happening at the same time
subsequent	The book examines the war and the subsequent changes in society.	happening after something else
successive	Successive governments would face similar problems.	happening immediately after something else
temporary	Georgia got a temporary position at the university.	not for a long period; not permanent
How times change		
In recent times - particularly the last 20 years - society has gone through a period of considerable change. Prior to the 1990s very few people had access to a home computer. Nowadays1 the majority of homes have at least one computer. This expansion in home computing has coincided with2 the emergence3 of internet technology. At the moment we are at a stage where the situation is still evolving4. Subsequent generations will live in a very different world although we do not know exactly how things will develop over the next few years, in the near future5, or, least of all, in the distant future6.
at the present time (used to compare with the past, particularly in spoken English or more informal writing) 2 happened at the same time as 3 appearance 4 gradually changing 5 at a time which is not far away 6 far away in the future
Some time words, e.g. early, late, daily can be both adverbs and adjectives, e.g. a(n) eariyl late/daily meeting, we met early'/late/'daily. But nowadays is only an adverb. We talk about presentlpresent-daylcurrent problems NOT nowadays problems.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
29.1     Read these emails sent out to staff and postgraduate students from their university. Complete the time expressions. You are given the first letters.
The i..............................p........................of the
construction of the new sports centre will begin on 1st March. From that date until completion of the works, the West Car Park will be closed. A
t...............car park will be available during the
period at Campus East, and a new, p..................
car park will be opened when the f............
stage of construction of the centre is completed.
Due to o.....................................technical, problems, emails
with large attachments may not be accepted by the university's server. This is likely to continue during
the t......................................period while a new server is
being installed. This will reach a c,....................................
stage next week, when problems may be greatest. We apologise for the inconvenience.
29.2 Choose the correct words in italics to complete these sentences.
1 In I At the moment, I'm writing up my thesis. I hope to finish in the near I next future.
2 Our research is at I in an intermediate I ongoing stage - we now need to analyse our data.
3 The emergency I emergence of internet technology has transformed the travel industry.
4 The university has gone I got through a period of great change in the latest I last decade.
5 In the far I distant future, scientists may be able to cure almost all common diseases.
6 Anti-social behaviour is a nowadays problem I a problem nowadays in many big cities.
7 A series I serial of events occurred in 1986 which changed the political climate in the country. In consequent I subsequent years, two new parties were formed which became engaged in concurrent I eventual attempts to win over voters.
8 Prior of I to 2001, the industry was unregulated. In recent I the last years, however, the government has introduced new regulations.
9 In 1968, a monetary crisis coincided with 11o a huge budget deficit, and most contemporary I temporary political commentators warned that the eventual I forthcoming cost to the nation would be enormous.
29.3 Fill in the missing forms. Do not fill the shaded boxes. Use a dictionary if necessary.
noun	verb	adjective	adverb
		eventual	
		successive	
	evolve		
emergence			
	coincide		
period			
Write five sentences relevant to your discipline using forms from the table.
Please report by 29 July 2007 all publications
for the c.....................................academic year, including
f........................ papers and books (with the
expected date of publication). These are needed
for the University's a......................................report for 2007.
Include any publication from the p......................................
year (2006) which was not published at that time but which has since appeared.
The University today celebrates a c......................................
of research. 100 years ago this month, the Centre for Medical Research was officially opened.
In the last d......................................alone, five major new
research centres have opened, a record for a ten-year period. We look forward to the start of
a new e......................................of research over the
n......................................f........ .......years.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 67
Cause and effect
Much academic study is concerned with establishing cause and effect or the relationship that exists between events, objects, variables or states of affairs. Cause and effect is often described using conjunctions like because, prepositions like due to and because of and adverbs like therefore and consequently. In this unit, however, we focus on nouns and verbs relating to cause and effect. Pay particular attention to the prepositions they are used with.
A    Verbs relating to cause and effect
You are probably already familiar with these verbs relating to cause and effect: make, cause, create, do, produce, force. Here are some other useful verbs.
Her grandmother influenced / had a considerable influence on Sarah's choice of career. Parental attitude largely determines how well a child adapts to school, [is the main factor affecting]
The teacher motivated them to work hard, [made them want to do something positive] The flow of traffic through the town is facilitated by the one-way system, [made easier] The speech provoked an angry response, [caused, usually something negative] The explosion was triggered by the heat, [started, usually something sudden and negative] The tilting of the earth on its axis accounts for the change in the seasons, [explains] Sid's determination springs/stems from his desire to improve the world, [is the result of] The country's victory gave rise to a new mood in society.
The mobile phone contributed to the information revolution, [was one factor influencing]
The child was given drugs to stimulate growth, [cause something to develop or function]
The exhibition generated a lot of interest, [aroused, caused to exist]
The drugs may induce nausea, [cause, often used in a medical context]
The teacher's presence inhibited the teenagers' discussion, [prevented it from being as free as
it might otherwise have been]
A number of benefits can be derived from this situation, [gained as a result] B    Nouns relating to cause and effect
noun	example	meon/ng/comment
chain reaction	The incident set off a chain reaction which affected us all.	set of related events in which each one causes the next one
consequence	The war had major consequences.	results
effect, impact	The effect/impact of the film on the audience was very powerful.	influence
end	Does the end justify the means?	note how end here means aim
origin/source	The accident was the origin/source of her later problems.	beginning or cause
outcome	We hope for a positive outcome to the discussions.	result or effect of an action
precedent	There are several precedents for taking such a decision.	something that already happened and provides a reason for doing the same
reason	What was the reason for his success / why he succeeded?	note how reason is often followed by for or why
While cause can be both a noun and a verb, effect is usually a noun.The equivalent verb is affect. Her father's problems affected her deeply. Her father's problems had a profound effect on her. Note the formal and infrequent verb effect [= achieve], mainly used in the phrase to effect a change. (See also Unit 3.)
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
30.1 Replace the underlined words with a more precise verb of cause or effect. Note that all the sentences below are appropriate for essays apart perhaps from 6 with its use of 'got'.
1 Researchers are investigating why chocolate causes headaches in certain people.
2 Wilson's most recent paper has caused a great deal of interest among sociologists.
3 The drug caused headaches and dizziness among a number of subjects in the test.
4 Having an end-of-term prize helps students to do well in their class tests.
5 Intensive farming has been a significant factor in the decline of bird populations.
6 The missile test got an immediate and very strong response from adjacent governments and from the United Nations.
7 Astrologists believe that people's lives are largely affected by the planets and stars.
8 The barrier affects the flow of water into the area to prevent flooding in the rainy season.
9 A leak in the tank explained 40% of the fuel loss, and evaporation took away another 5%.
10 The renovated college buildings have wider doors and corridors to make the use of wheelchairs easier.
11 The Minister cut taxes in an attempt to affect the economy, which was performing poorly.
12 Britain has received many economic benefits from membership of the European Union.
30.2 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.
1 The article explores the origins major consequences for larger families.
2 One small explosion set off a chain precedents for his decision.
3 The confusion probably stemmed rise to a widespread sense of disillusionment.
4 The proposed new tax could have of the concept of democracy.
5 The disastrous events of 2003 gave reaction, causing massive damage.
6 The judge explained that there were from a lack of communication.
30.3 Choose the correct word in italics to complete these sentences.
1 De Routa's work in the 1970s influenced on I to I - the development of computer science.
2 The acid seemed to have no affect I effect whatsoever on the plastic.
3 Everyone hoped for a positive outcome upon I off I to the meeting between the two governments.
4 The reason for I to I of the failure of the project was a lack of funding.
5 The impact of global warming for I on I to the polar ice caps is now understood more clearly.
6 The journalist wondered what particular ending I end the government had in mind when it decided to build a national tennis academy.
30.4 What are the nouns from the same root as these verbs? Use a dictionary if necessary. 6^        motivate    facilitate    influence    provoke    trigger    contribute    stimulate    induce derive
30.5 Now rewrite these sentences using a noun instead of the verb.
1 Byron's poetry influenced Romantic poets in a number of other European countries.
2 Tree pollen can trigger hay fever attacks in vulnerable people.
3 In obstetrics the drug can be used to help induce labour.
4 The new economic measures were introduced to stimulate the faltering economy.
5 Tomoko is studying what motivates world-class athletes.
Find a text describing a major event or series of events (e.g. an accident, a war, a social change) and note all the verbs and nouns in it relating to causes and effects or results.Write your own example sentences using these words.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 69
3 I   Talking about ideas
Postmodernism
Look at the useful language for talking about ideas in the description of one idea below.
Postmodernism describes a movement of intellectual thought which has had a major impact on a number of academic disciplines3 since the late 20th century. Perhaps the best way to understand postmodernism is as a reaction4 to modernism. Modernism emphasises purity, honesty and total truth; for example, when an artist attempts to express the essence5 of a whole subject with a single line. In contrast, postmodernism asserts that experience is personal and cannot be generalised6 and that meaning is only for the individual to experience, not for someone else to dictate. Thus, postmodernists maintain that the person who, for example, admires a painting or reads a poem is free to interpret its meaning, and that different people will come to very different, but equally valid7, conclusions as to what that meaning is.
1 group of people sharing aims or beliefs
2 thinking in general 3 subjects 4 process of change stimulated by something else, often
moving in the opposite direction 5 the most important quality or characteristics 6 presented as something that is always true 7 appropriate
A number of words that are useful for talking about ideas have irregular plurals - criterion/ criteria, phenomenon/phenomena, hypothesis/hypotheses, analysis/analyses, thesis/the: They all originate from Ancient Greek. Perhaps this sentence will help you remember them. There are several different hypotheses which claim to explain these phenomena and in his doctoral thesis Kohl offers an analysis of each hypothesis in accordance with a rigorous set of criteria.
Some useful nouns relating to ideas
word	meaning	example
concept	principle, idea	The concept of honesty is understood differently in different cultures.
framework	system of rules, beliefs or ideas used as the basis for something	Mary is working on an analytical framework to help people design and evaluate training courses.
model	simple description useful for discussing ideas	The writer uses a Marxist model as the basis for his discussion of the economy.
notion	belief, idea	She doesn't agree with the notion that boys and girls should be taught separately.
perception	belief, opinion, held by many people	The novel had a powerful impact on people's perception of the war.
stance	way of thinking, often publicly stated	The government has made their stance on the boycott issue clear.
viewpoint	opinion, way of looking at an issue	The article provides a different viewpoint on this difficult topic.
In academic writing it is best to avoid In my opinion and to use a less personal expression like It can be argued that ... or Most (people) would agree that ... You discuss an idea or talk/write obout an idea but NOT discuss about an idea.
70   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
31.1    Replace the words in bold with words from A with similar meanings.
1 Many educators believe that different learning styles are equally acceptable.
2 In the UK a university faculty is a unit where similar subjects are grouped together.
3 The French impressionists were a key group with shared aims in European art.
4 The most important quality of international law is the application of a single standard for strong and weak nations alike.
5 Researchers spend much of their time trying to understand the meaning of their data.
6 Some 19th century artistic styles were a direct response to the ugliness of industrialisation.
7 Harvey (2003) stresses that the findings of the study cannot be said to be always true, as only a small amount of data was used.
8 In the late 20th century, intellectual ways of thinking were greatly influenced by ideas of gender and race.
3 1.2    Change the words in bold from singular to plural or vice versa, as instructed. Make any other necessary changes to each sentence.
1 There's an interesting PhD thesis on water resources in the library, (make plural)
2 What were your main criteria in designing your survey? (make singular)
3 She was interested in strange phenomena connected with comets, (make singular)
4 The hypothesis was never proved, as the data were incomplete, (make plural)
3 1.3    Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.
1 We must never accept the notion on the role of the United Nations in times of war.
2 The task of choosing an analytical on gender and language use very clear.
3 The book expresses his viewpoint of dark matter to explain certain observations.
4 Tannen has always made her stance that intelligence is connected to race.
5 Consumers have different perceptions of family healthcare which changed everything.
6 The report laid out a new model of what low price and high quality mean.
7 Physicists developed the concept framework is an important stage in any research.
3 1.4    Read the text and then answer the questions. Use a dictionary if necessary.
§
Autonomy and creativity are two key concepts in the humanities which are often thought to be not part of scientific thinking. However, recent projects in the sciences suggest this is not true. For example, the attempt to load the components of human consciousness into a computer is a fundamentally creative activity which has profound implications for our understanding of what a human being is. Such science may make us change our way of thinking about moral and philosophical questions and may make it possible for those in the humanities to find a new grounding for their own work.
1 Which noun means 'independence / the right to think in one's own way'?
2 Which noun means the opposite of 'the sciences'?
3 Which adjective means 'felt or experienced very strongly or in an extreme way'?
4 What are the noun forms of think and understand used in this text?
5 Which adjective in the text means 'relating to standards of good or bad behaviour, what is right and wrong, etc.'?
6 Which noun in the text means the same as 'foundation/basis'?
Choose five words that you particularly want to learn from this unit and write sentences using them in relation to your own discipline.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   71
32   Reporting what others say
Reporting verbs
Reporting what others say is a key aspect of academic English and you need a range of verbs to do this in an appropriate and varied way. Note the structures used with each verb.
In her latest article Morton explains how information technology is changing society. Schmidt describes the process of language change.
Kon suggests that all poets are strongly influenced by their childhood, [says indirectly or tentatively]
Lee states that problems arose earlier than was previously thought, [says directly] Uvarov claims/asserts/contends/maintains/declares that the causes of the revolution can be traced back to the 18th century, [says something is true directly and firmly, often used when others disagree]
Van Ek implies that other historians have misinterpreted the period, [suggests indirectly] Patel argues that governments should continue to fund space research, [use of this verb suggests he gives reasons for his view]
Greenberg emphasises/highlights/stresses the importance of taking a liberal approach, [gives particular importance to]
Levack observes/notes/comments/points out that there are contradictions in Day's interpretation of the poem, [states but does not develop at length]
Kim demonstrates/shows how Bach's music draws considerably on earlier composers' work. Gray proves there is a link between obesity and genes, [shows that something must be true] In the book Dean mentions some new research in the field, [refers to briefly] Mcintosh pinpoints the key features of the period in question, [focuses in on] Vaz advances/puts forward/proposes a new theory, [used with idea, theory, hypothesis] Davidson casts doubt on previous research in the field, [suggests it is inaccurate] Gerhard questions previous interpretations of the play, [expresses doubts about]
Reporting nouns
Academic writing also frequently uses nouns rather than verbs to report others' ideas (see Unit 1). Notice the corresponding nouns for some verbs in A. Note how these nouns often head long phrases (underlined below) which can be either the subject or the object of the verb.
Morton provides an explanation as to how information technology is changing society. Schmidt gives a description of the process of language change. Kon's suggestion that poets are influenced by their childhood is uncontroversial. Lee's statement that problems arose earlier than previously thought has been challenged. Uvarov's claim/assertion/contention that the causes of the revolution can be traced back to the 18th century is worth considering in some depth.
Van Ek's implication that other historians have misinterpreted the period has caused some controversy, [suggests indirectly]
Patel's argument that governments should continue to fund space research is convincing. Greenberg's emphasis/stress on the importance of taking a liberal approach is not new. Levack's observation that there are contradictions in Day's interpretation of the poem has been supported by a number of other scholars.
Kim's demonstration of the way in which Bach's music draws on the work of earlier composers is fascinating.
Gray's proof of the link between obesity and genes is of considerable interest.
According to is used when reporting others' viewpoints rather than one's own. For example, according to Greene and Willis ... but in my opinion ... NOT according to me.
72   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
32.1    Fill in the missing verbs and nouns.
noun	verb	noun	verb
implication			describe
	observe	statement	
argument			emphasise
assertion			explain
	contend	demonstration	
32.2 Rewrite the sentences using nouns instead of the verbs in bold and beginning as shown.
1 Harkov contends that continued population growth will be a more serious problem than global warming, but this is not accepted by many scientists. (Harkov's ...)
2 'Global symmetry' states that the laws of physics take the same form when expressed in terms of distinct variables. ('Global symmetry' is ...)
3 The report implies that no individual government will ever be able to control the internet. (The report makes ...)
4 Dudas demonstrates how dangerous genetic modification might be. (Dudas provides ...)
5 Groot emphasises the role of schools in preventing teenage drug abuse. (Groot puts ...)
6 Lenard observes that women use expressions such as 'you know' in English more than men but this was later proved to be inaccurate. (Lenard's ...)
7 Plana explained the possible origins of the pyramids in Guelcoga but this has been disputed by Ruiz. (Plana's ...)
8 Wilson describes the ancient alphabet of the Guelcoga people. (Wilson gives ...)
9 Wu argues that daylight-saving time should be extended throughout the year. (Wu puts ...) 10 The President asserts that he cares about fighting poverty. (The President makes ...)
32.3 In each sentence two of the options in italics are possible and one is not. Which is not?
1 The author notes I observes I pinpoints that commodity prices change depending on the season.
2 Grey puts forward I proves I advances a controversial theory to explain climate change.
3 Philipson claims I questions I challenges the accuracy of Malwar's figures.
4 Trakov stresses I emphasises I asserts the importance of pilot testing before carrying out a survey.
5 Ripoll advances I demonstrates I shows how large-scale urban planning can go wrong.
6 Thompson's assertion I contention I description that no member of the committee was informed of the director's plan is incorrect.
7 Evans declared I cast doubt I maintained there was no causal link between the events.
32.4 There is one mistake in each of these sentences. Find and correct it.
1 According to me, courses in academic writing should be compulsory for all new students.
2 It has not yet been proof that the virus can jump from species to species.
3 Richardson emphasises on a number of weaknesses in the theory.
4 Taylor mentions to several studies which have looked at the problem in the past.
5 Pratt's suggest that the poet may have suffered from depression is an interesting one.
6 Our latest results cast doubt to our original hypothesis.
Ettj  Find some examples of reporting what others say in an academic article or textbook in your Efl     own field. Do they use language from this unit? Copy out any interesting examples.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 73
Analysis of results
Analysis in academic texts
Academic texts often include sections which deal with the analysis of data. In analysing a social or political issue, the writer may need to come to / reach a conclusion about the advantages and disadvantages of a particular course of action1. The writer may, for instance, conclude that the benefits outweigh2 the drawbacks3 or vice versa. An analysis may be a matter of weighing up4 both sides of an argument, taking into account all the relevant aspects5 of the issue and discussing all the points6 raised by the research. When analysing the results of a scientific experiment, the writer is likely to need to take account of a range of variables7. In their analysis scientists try to deduce8 as much as they can from their data, drawing conclusions that are soundly9 based on their results.
1 way ot doing something 2 are of more importance than 3 disadvantages 4 think carefully about 5 (of a problem or situation) parts, features 6 idea, opinion or piece of information that has been presented in relation to the topic 7 number, amount or aspect of a situation which can change 8 reach an answer by thinking carefully about the known facts 9 completely, firmly
Weighing up results
In the text in A did you notice an interesting metaphorical use of language - the image of weighing up ideas and of considering whether advantages outweigh disadvantages? Arguments are, as it were, placed on each side of the scales and the judge or jury then have to come down on one side or the other. A particularly strong argument may tip the scales in favour of one side.
Noticing how language can be used metaphorically may help you to extend the use of the words you know. Make a note of any examples that you come across and try to find other examples of language based round the same metaphor.
Sentences relating to analyses
The survey provided some useful insights into the problem, [points that help us to understand more clearly]
The results point to an interesting trend, [show, indicate]
On the basis of our data we would predict continuing social unrest, [say something will happen in the future]
We found that women constitute 40% of the workforce, [account for]
We began with a critical review of the literature in the field, [giving opinions] Most of our respondents were critical of the new law. [not pleased with, negative about] We are reaching a critical period in terms of global climate change, [very important] The patient is in a critical condition, [serious]
deeply critical = very negative   absolutely critical = extremely important
BRemember how English words often have several distinct meanings. Note examples as you meet them.
74   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
33.1    Complete the expressions with a word which can combine with the words given.
i— moment — review comments
come to —, draw reach
come down on one —,
a............................. be in favour of one —
see both —'
.............................(s) of
an argument
33.2
33.3
33.5
Now complete the sentences with a word from 33.1.
1 You should write a .....................................review of the literature at the start of your dissertation.
2 It is difficult to reach a......................................without a lot more data.
3 A good essay presents both......................................of an argument and evaluates them properly.
Complete these extracts using words from the opposite page. You are given the first letters of the missing words to help you.
Which is better the night before an exam? To study longer and get less sleep or to study less and sleep longer? After
w......................................up the evidence scientists
have come to the c.................................that the
advantages of getting more sleep
o................................the d.......................................
Research has provided i into the link between sleep and memory development, suggesting that sleep is essential for memory. But there are many
v.................................to t.............................account
of in sleep and memory research, such as dreaming, phases of sleep and types of
memories. Dreams c.....................................about
25% of a typical eight-hour sleep, but
research p.....................................to a connection
between memory development and non-dreaming sleep time.
When considering energy conservation,
we have to t. ............................i.............................
account various r......................................factors. But
how do we relate a particular
c..................................of action to its outcome? For
example, flying from London to Paris instead of taking the train is quicker but causes more pollution. You opt to cycle to work instead of driving in order to avoid adding to
pollution. What can we d............................... from
the evidence? Do our individual choices
make a difference? On the b.................................
of global data we can p......................................that
climate change will increase, but how much do personal choices affect the big picture? Could my choice to buy a second car tip
the s......................................and cause a global
catastrophe?
33.4    What does critical - or one of its related forms - mean in each sentence?
1 The hospital announced that the President remains critically ill.
2 Dixon was asked to write a critical review (or critique) of contemporary Irish poetry.
3 The writer was imprisoned for his open criticism of the government.
4 It is absolutely critical all measurements are recorded every hour.
Look at these sentences and underline any metaphorical uses of language. Explain them in your own words. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1 A recent survey has unearthed some interesting facts about commuting habits.
2 In predicting trends in inflation, economists often look at which direction the political winds are blowing.
3 Martins published a ground-breaking study of the formation of galaxies.
4 By digging into the archives, Professor Robinson was able to shed important new light on the history of the period.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 75
Talking about meaning
A    The importance of meaning
Academic study in any subject inevitably requires precision with regard to the meanings of the terms1 used. Many textbooks provide a glossary2 of the terminology3 of the subject and this should be referred to frequently, whenever the meaning of some new term is not transparent4. Often there are subtle distinctions5 between the way in which a word is used in a non-academic context and the way in which it is used in a specific academic discipline and the student needs to be able to distinguish between these different senses6 of the same word. When writing an essay or an article it is often appropriate to begin by defining7 the key words relating to the topic. If this is not done then the reader may find the writing ambiguous8 and may misinterpret9 the text. In lectures, too, the audience will require the lecturer to clarify what they are saying by providing a definition of any unfamiliar terms. This is essential if the lecturer is to communicate their meaning in a clear and coherent10 way.
1 words or expressions used in relation to meaning 5 small differences 6 meanings
to a specific context 2 list of words with 7 explaining the meaning of 8 having more
explanations of their meanings 3 special words than one possible meaning 9 understand in the
or expressions used in relation to a specific wrong way 10 carefully organised and making
subject 4 clear, often used when referring sense
The power of words
Writers may use words to express ideas or to convey a message1 or to evoke2 an atmosphere3. In scientific discourse4, if words are not used precisely, then it is hard for the reader to comprehend5 what the writer is trying to say. In literature, especially in poetry, the connotations6 that words have may be at least as important if not more important than what those words denote7. The reader has to infer8 the poet's meaning and this may involve a sensitivity to nuances of meaning9 and the ability to see things from the poet's perspective10.
1 key idea (e.g. in a book or film) 2 make someone feel something 3 feeling or mood 4 written or spoken text 5 understand
6 associations 7 mean 8 form an opinion on the basis of indirect evidence 9 small differences in meaning 10 point of view
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
34.1 Dr Babayan is advising Tomoko, one of his students who is about to start writing up her dissertation. Complete their conversation with words from the opposite page.
Dr Babayan: In the first chapter, you need a section where you d......................................your
t......................................
Tomoko:      I'm sorry, what does that involve exactly?
Dr Babayan: You explain your t......................................, the special technical words or phrases you're
going to use and what precise meaning they have so that your text is
t......................................, and every reader knows exactly what you mean when you use
a word or phrase.
Tomoko:      Does it have to be in the first chapter?
Dr Babayan: Well, usually, yes, though an alternative way of doing it is to provide an
alphabetical g.....................................at the back of the dissertation where readers can
look up the meaning. And remember, if you're using different s......................................of
the same word you must explain each one.
Tomoko:      That's my problem. I sometimes find it difficult to d......................................between the
different meanings. There are so many s......................................d......................................between
words and between the different meanings of the same words in English.
Dr Babayan: Yes, I know, but all languages are like that; it's just that you don't notice it in
your own language. Look, a dissertation is all about c......................................your ideas
in a clear, c......................................manner. If you use words which are a......................................,
your readers might m......................................your text. So it's always important to
c......................................what you intend to say.
Tomoko:      Hmm. Oh well, I'll try.
34.2 Add negative prefixes to the words in bold, using a dictionary if necessary.
1 The sign had been....................translated, so no one could understand what it meant.
2 I....................understood one of the exam questions and wrote about the wrong subject.
3 The text was quite....................ambiguous, so there was only one way of interpreting it.
4 Some of the totals had evidently been....................calculated, so the results were unreliable.
5 The essay was quite........ ........coherent, so it was almost impossible to follow the argument.
6 Sandra is good at French but...................pronounces a lot of words.
34.3 Use the words from the box in an appropriate form to complete the text.
denote   perspective   express   comprehend   evoke   nuance   discourse   convey   infer connotation
'And it's a hard rain's a-gonna fall'
The American songwriter Bob Dylan is often considered to be as much a poet
as a musician. He......................................his political ideas through folk songs in his early
period. His melodies were often simple but his words......................................complex
messages, often with subtle....................................... In one of his songs, he speaks of a
'hard rain' which will fall after a nuclear war. On one level the words....................................
real, radioactive rain, but the......................................of the words are many: life will be hard,
perhaps impossible. Perhaps the consequences will fall hard on the politicians
who started the war too. There are many things we can....................................from these
words. The song is part of the political.................................of the Cold War of the 1960s. It
.............................an atmosphere of fear and hopelessness. Seen from the....................................
of the post-Cold-War era, it may seem difficult to............................such fear, but at the
time, that fear was very real.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 77
Research and study aims
Expressing aims
word	example	comment
deliberate	We took the deliberate decision to keep our	= intentional; is often used for
	study small.	something negative
goal	have something as a goal, achieve your goal	we don't usually say 'reach your goal'
intention	with the intention of -ing, have no intention of -ing	verb = intend followed by the infinitive
motive	motive for -ing [reason]	verb = motivate; more general noun = motivation
objective	meet'/achieve objectives	= what you plan to do or achieve
priority	top priority, take priority over	implies a list of important things
purpose	Our purpose was to test our theory.	on purpose means deliberately
strategy	Their strategy was to proceed slowly.	detailed plan for success
target	reach/achieve/attain a target	= level or situation you hope to achieve
1 we also talk about meeting criteria
An example of a mission statement
Look at this web page for the Centre of Research into Creation in the Performing Arts. Note how the aims are expressed through the infinitive and in formal language.
eee
0? <
MISSION STATEMENT1
ResCen exists to further2 the understanding of how artists research and develop new processes and forms, by working with professional artists and others.
AIMS
To establish3 new understandings'4 of creative methods and their application in practice as-research, extending knowledge bases5 in these areas
To explore and challenge6 traditional hypothesis-based and critical-analytical research methodologies established within the university
To establish a critical mass7 of artist-researchers, meeting regularly, to instigate8 and inform9 new creative work across disciplines
To provide an infrastructure10 for practice-led and artist-informed postgraduate study within the university
To further develop criteria" for the definition and evaluation of creative practice-as-research, as part of the wider national debate
To contribute to the development of a national infrastructure supporting practice-as-research, at the interface12 between academic and other centres of art-making and its study 7
1 short written statement of the aims of an organisation 2 move forward, advance 3 encourage people to accept 4 understanding can be used as a countable noun in this context s the basic knowledge shared by everyone working in the areas 6 question
7 influential number 8 initiate, cause to start 9 provide knowledge that can influence
10 basic systems and support services
11 standards; singular = criterion 12 place where two things come together and affect each other
78   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
35.1     Rewrite the sentences using words and expressions from the opposite page and beginning as shown.
1 Protecting the privacy of our subjects must take priority over absolutely everything else. (We must give ...)
2 Our intention in designing the questionnaire was to make it as simple as possible to answer. (We designed the questionnaire with ...)
3 We aimed to define and evaluate a new approach to urban planning. (We had as our goal the ...)
4 I did not intend to become a scientist when I began my studies. (I had no ...)
5 A methodology based on a hypothesis does not work in some cases. (A hypothesis- ...)
6 Our project is located in the area where sociology and psychology meet. (Our project is located at ...)
Read these descriptions of their research by academics and then answer the questions. Use a dictionary for any unknown words.
Dr Janeja (in a lecture): 'We wanted to see if we could explain the fact that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.'
Dr Finstein (in an introduction to an article): 'Our research questioned the notion that larger mammals only appeared long after the dinosaurs had died out.'
Prof. Li (in a lecture): 'We carefully restricted our sample to people born within ten kilometres of the lake.'
Prof. Simons (in a lecture): 'We wanted to build on existing research and offer new insights into the effects of stress.'
Dr Andreas (in a conference presentation): 'We really wanted to put into practice some of the research on e-learning to improve our present system.' Prof. Horza (in an article): 'We were hoping to instigate a new type of investigation.' Dr Tadeus (in a conference presentation): 'We had no detailed plan at the outset; things developed as we went along.'
1 Whose team took a deliberate decision to do something?
2 Whose team wanted to further the understanding of something?
3 Whose team did not have a strategy for their research?
4 Who wanted to start something that had not existed before?
5 Whose team was interested in the application of something?
6 Whose purpose was it to establish a reason for something?
7 Whose research challenged an existing idea?
35.3    Answer the questions about the vocabulary in this unit.
1 What word can we use to refer to the basic support services and systems of a country?
2 What phrase can we use if everyone in a country seems to be discussing an issue?
3 What is another word for academic subjects?
4 What phrase means 'the basic knowledge of an academic field'?
5 How could the phrase the place where theory meets practice be reworded?
6 What verbs are typically used with (a) objective and (b) target}
7 What are the two noun forms connected with the verb motivate}
8 What is the opposite of theory-led research?
Go to the website for a course or institution that you are interested in.What does it state on its Efl|  Aims page? Note any interesting language there.
Acodemic Vocabulary in Use 79
35.2
§
36   Talking about points of view
Commenting on others' views
No one can be completely objective1 in their point of view. Inevitably, we all see things to some extent subjectively2. It is impossible to be truly impartial3. We tend to be biased in favour of4 things we're familiar with and prejudiced against5 things we have little experience of. Of course, everyone believes their own views are totally rational6.
1 not influenced by personal beliefs or attitudes, based only on facts 2 influenced by personal beliefs or attitudes 3 uninfluenced by personal beliefs or attitudes 4 showing an unreasonable liking for something based on personal beliefs or opinions; opposite = biased against 5 showing an unreasonable dislike for, based on personal beliefs or opinions (stronger and more pejorative than biased); opposite = prejudiced in favour of 6 based only on reason; opposite = irrational
People's views tend to change as they grow older and begin looking at life from a different standpoint7. Young people are more likely to be radical8 but then become more reactionary9 or conservative10 with age, considering their younger opinions immature".
7 set of principles or beliefs on the basis of which opinions are formed 8 believing that there should be extreme political or social change 9 (disapproving) opposed to political or social change or new ideas 10 not inclined to trust change, especially if it is sudden 11 (disapproving) lacking in experience; opposite = mature
An ideology is a theory or set of beliefs or principles, particularly one on which a political system or organisation is based. It often has slightly negative associations in English, implying something that is rigid and restricting. A philosophy, on the other hand, suggests a set of beliefs that is much more thoughtful and serious.
Word combinations relating to points of view
word combination	example	meaning
to hold views	My grandfather holds some surprisingly progressive views.	has opinions
to adopt/take a stance	It is important that the university should adopt a principled stance towards research.	take a position
to change/shift your position	Luisa was initially totally opposed to the idea but she has slightly shifted her position.	changed her point of view a little
have ethical objections to	Increasing numbers of people have ethical objections to the war.	dislike for reasons relating to morality
the principles underlying	Treat others as you would like to be treated' is a principle underlying much religious teaching.	basic idea lying behind
to encounter prejudice	As one of the few female students of the 1920s, my grandmother encountered a certain amount of prejudice.	experienced unreasonable negative behaviour
deep-rooted prejudice	John does not share his father's deep-rooted prejudices against women.	strong, unreasonably negative views
		
You can say in my opinion but NOT in my point of view.You can say from (someone's) point of view but it means from that person's way of looking at somet/iing rather than in that persons opinion. From the language teacher's point of view, it's good that all children have to learn a foreign language at school.
80   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
36.1 Change the words in bold to words which mean the opposite.
1 The views she expressed were totally rational.
2 The committee seemed to be biased against applications from younger people.
3 The book is an objective account of life in a small town in the 1920s.
4 The club rules were prejudiced in favour of children.
5 The President's daughter was quite mature for her age.
6 He has rather radical views about marriage.
7 Her views on education are rather radical, (use a different word from 6)
8 Supreme Court judges always act in a biased way.
36.2 Use the words in the box in an appropriate form to complete the sentences.
root      shift      adopt      encounter      underlie      philosophy      hold ethical
1 The......................................principles of Asian and European...................................are very similar.
2 People tend.....................................a more conservative stance as they get older.
3 She has always......................................the view that primary education should not start before the
age of seven.
4 Many people have......................................objections to investing in companies which support
corrupt regimes.
5 Some employers still have a deep-.....................................prejudice against employing older people,
and many older people......................................such prejudice when they apply for jobs.
6 The government seems to have......................................its position recently.
36.3 Answer the questions.
1 What verb could be used instead of shifted in exercise 36.2?
2 What verb could be used instead of adopt in exercise 36.2?
3 Which is incorrect: (a) in my point of view, (b) in my opinion, (c) from my point of view?
4 In what way does calling something an ideology make it sound slightly more negative than calling it a philosophy?
5 What single noun is formed from the noun point and the verb stand:
36.4 Vary these sentences by rewriting them using the word in brackets.
1 The people of the area have some unusual views about nature, (hold)
2 Most young people seem not to like the proposals on student fees. (objections)
3 Examiners tend to prefer candidates with clear handwriting. (biased)
4 Girls look at their careers in a different way from their mothers. (standpoint)
5 Let us now discuss the principles behind this approach, (underlying)
36.5 Read this short text and underline any words and phrases connected with points of view, opinions and ideas. Look them up in a dictionary if necessary and note them in your vocabulary book.
Academics have traditionally taken the view that their discipline is intellectually independent from all others. However, inter-disciplinary degrees are becoming more and more common, suggesting that preconceptions about what and how one should study may be somewhat misplaced. A more liberal view of education would advocate greater freedom to explore the links between different fields of learning, thus pushing the frontiers of knowledge in new and exciting directions. Many academics now feel that the future lies in this blending of ideas and the cross-fertilisation of thought which emerges from it.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   81
Degrees of certainty
This unit looks at the ways writers express how certain they are about the facts or opinions they are presenting. This unit deals with some vocabulary which will help you to handle certainty in academic writing appropriately.
A    Being tentative
It is a common mistake for students to present something as a proven fact when it is actually an opinion. In a serious piece of academic writing you should not, for example, write Girls are better at learning languages than boys; you could write, instead, There is some evidence to suggest that girls may be better at learning languages than boys or It can be argued that girls are better at learning languages than boys.
Here are some other expressions that are useful when presenting ideas that may be true but are not proven facts.
It may not be the case that girls are naturally better at foreign languages.
It would seem/appear that girls are more interested in languages than boys.
We can presume that all humans have the ability to learn a second language, [believe
something to be true because it seems very likely]
There appears/seems to be some evidence linking diet with language ability. There is some evidence that previous studies are unreliable.
We can draw the tentative conclusion that early language skills determine how successful a child will be at school, [possible, not yet certain]
B    It is true or almost certainly true
It is undoubtedly true that language ability is not simply a matter of intelligence, [without doubt, certainly]
It is, of course, essential to check data carefully, [shows the writer sees this as obvious]
It is evident that girls and boys develop at slightly different rates, [obvious, clear]
The best age for language learning is, apparently, the teenage years.
Pronunciation of unfamiliar sounds presumably comes more easily to young children.
The research is likely to lead to some interesting results. = The research will probably lead to
some interesting results.
Boys tend to have better practical skills than girls, [are likely to]
There is a tendency for boys to be more enthusiastic about team sports than girls, [it is often the case that]
There is every likelihood that the research will be completed by June, [it is probable] The situation is liable to change, [may change, is likely to change]
C    The writer is unsure
The research has allegedly come to some very significant conclusions, [it is claimed; the use of this adverb suggests that the writer does not believe the claims are true] Boys are considered to be more inclined to take risks than girls, [people think that - the implication is that the writer may not agree]
The perception of boys as poor language learners can be shown to be false, [common view, often one which the writer feels is inappropriate in some way]
The article is reportedly an excellent piece of work [it is reported that; the use of the adverb makes it clear the writer has not seen the article]
In the absence of evidence to the contrary we can assume that Laing is correct, [as there is no evidence to suggest the opposite]
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
37.1    Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.
37.2
1 We may
2 It would seem
3 Of course it
4 We can certainly
5 It may well turn out
6 It could be
assume that the exchange rate will continue to fluctuate.
not to be the case that all the questions were answered honestly.
to appear from all the findings that the test is reliable.
well discover that the problem was caused by overheating.
argued that conflict was inevitable after the events of recent years.
is true that not all factories cause huge amounts of pollution.
Insert adverbs based on the words in italics into suitable places in the sentences.
1 Russo was a member of a terrorist organisation, but it was never proved, allege
2 At that time, the population of tigers was widespread in the region, report
3 The collapse of the roof caused a sprinkler system pipe to burst, appear
4 To get a better job is a main motivation for going on to higher education, presume
5 We may conclude that water shortages are likely to increase rather than decrease. tentative
6 The students were guessing some of the answers instead of using their knowledge of the context, evidence
37.3    Complete the missing forms in the table. Use a dictionary if necessary. Do not fill the shaded boxes.
noun	verb	adjective	adverb
	tend		
evidence			
	seem		
		likely	
	perceive		
37.4
37.5
Change these sentences. Use different forms of the words in bold, as instructed.
1 There is little likelihood that everyone will fail the test, (use the adjective)
2 Students tend to leave preparation for exams till the last minute, (use the noun)
3 We saw evidence that some students had copied each other's answers, (use the adjective)
4 People commonly perceive that older people cannot learn musical instruments to a professional standard, (use the noun)
5 The melting of the polar ice caps seems to be inevitable, (use the adverb)
Make the sentences more formal by replacing the underlined words or phrases.
1 People generally think that rats are carriers of diseases.
2 There isn't much evidence to support the opinion that diesel cars cause more pollution than petrol cars.
3 It is extremely likely that rail passenger numbers will continue to decline.
4 In the absence of other evidence, we must conclude that right-handedness is not linked to intelligence in any way.
5 Of course, it is true that engineering graduates are in increasing demand.
6 The area near the river often floods in winter.
Look at a recent article reporting on some research in your own discipline. Can you find any examples of the kind of language discussed in this unit in it? Note down any examples that you find.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 83
38
Presenting an argument
Developing an argument: what it is about
Read these extracts from the opening paragraphs of student essays. Note the prepositions.
This essay is based on findings from recent research into cold fusion. The arguments I shall put forward are relevant to our understanding of Newton's laws. For the purposes of this essay, two opposing theories will be scrutinised. I shall refer to Ashbach's and Linn's work, respectively.
Many articles have been published on the subject of genetic modification of crops. The political arguments concerning population control are beyond the scope of this essay. The first section reviews recent literature, with reference to the arguments concerning economic policy.
Adding points to an argument
Bad diet and high stress levels, as well as lack of exercise, are key factors in causing heart disease; on top of which there is smoking, which is one of the most damaging factors. In addition to the questionnaire, we also conducted interviews with some of the subjects. A further argument in support of raising the retirement age is that life expectancy is increasing. Moreover/Furthermore1, many people enjoy working; for example / for instance2, in a recent survey, 68% of people said they would like to work till they were at least 70.
1 moreover is much more frequently used in academic style than furthermore 2 for example is much more frequently used in academic style than for instance
Qualifying: limiting and specifying an argument
Dr O'Malley is leading a class discussion on human rights.
O'Malley: OK. 'Human rights are rights which you possess simply because you are human.'
To what extent can we say that? What are the pros and cons1 of this view? Anna:       Well, I think it's too simplistic, in the sense that2 it ignores the rights of victims
and everyone else's right to life. So, provided that we remember this, then we can
give people basic rights, albeit3 with limitations. Kirsten:    Mm, that's all very well, but4 if you say human rights depend on, say, government
decisions about national security, then they're no longer rights, are they? They
become privileges. Having said that5, it's a complex issue with no simple answer.
Even so, I still think we must be careful not to give our rights away. O'Malley: OK. Fine. Apart from victim's rights, are there other arguments for restricting
rights? I mean we could look at protecting property, ending a chronically sick
person's life, and so on / and so forth6. Let's talk about the degree/extent to
which these are relevant. Ricardo:   Every sick person has the right to life, but at the same time we should be free to
decide when we want to die. O'Malley: Well, a lot of sick people can't make that decision for themselves, despite the fact
that we may respect their right to a dignified death. Ricardo:   Hmm. Nevertheless/Nonetheless7,1 think it's a key issue.
' (slightly informal) advantages and contrasts with what has just been said
disadvantages 2 used to explain precisely 6 (typical of spoken contexts) can be used
what has just been said 3 (formal) although separately or together {and so on and so
4 (informal, typical of spoken contexts) forth); can also be et cetera (more common in
indicates a partial agreement, followed by a writing - etc.) 7 however; nevertheless is more
disagreement 5 (typical of spoken contexts) frequent in academic style than nonetheless said when you wish to add a point which
AcademkVocabulary in Use
Exercises
38.1    Fill in the prepositions in this text about the first wife of Henry VUJ of England (1491-1547).
This essay examines the early life of Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536), focusing particularly
................... the period of her brief marriage (o Prince Arthur, his death at the age of 15 and her
subsequent marriage his brother Prince Henry, later to become King Henry VTII of
England. .................the purposes .................this essay, T shall pay little attention.............. cither the
earlier or the later periods of her life. Her eventual divorce from King Henry is, thus.
the scope ..................this essay. Much more has already been written..................the subject....................this
later period of her life. The literature reference...................the period is extensive but my
essay is largely based................. a couple of key sources, which are particularly relevant................. any
discussion of this period, and 1 shall refer________.......these throughout.
38.2    Which word comes next in these phrases?
1 the pros and...................................... 5 that's all very well
2 at the same...................................... 6 the extent to.................
3 and so on and so...................................... 7 in addition......................
4 having said...................................... 8 as well..................................
38.3    Use phrases from the box to replace phrases from the paragraph with the same meaning.
nevertheless the degree        as well as provided that
advantages and disadvantages       for instance furthermore
There are a number of pros and cons to take into account when considering the purchase of a hybrid (gasoline-electric) car. Such cars are, for example, undoubtedly better for the environment in the sense that they cause less air pollution. Moreover, the extent to which they rely on oil, a natural resource which is rapidly becoming depleted, is much less than is the case with conventional cars. Nonetheless, hybrid cars are not without their problems, Cost may be an issue and also the technical complexity of this relatively new type of engine. As long as you take these factors into account, there is no reason net to buy a hybrid car.
38.4    Choose the correct word or phrase to complete each sentence.
1 She wrote an excellent essay............with a certain amount of help.
A even so B albeit C despite the fact
2 A ................point must also now be made against a change in the law.
A furthermore B respective C further
3 He is a great poet....................his work has had a great influence on other writers.
A in the sense that B on top of which C provided that
4 Let us now discuss the influence of the revolution on the rich and the poor..................
A say B respectively C moreover
5 The riots resulted in much damage....................., we should not ignore the fact that the
disorder brought benefits to some.
A As well as B With reference to C Having said that
6 But there is a negative side to new technology. ................the advantages we also need to
consider a number of disadvantages.
A Be that as it may B Apart from C That's all very well but
Academic Vocabulary in Use 85
Organising your writing
Openings
Look at these openings from students' written work, and note the items in bold.
This assignment will address the problem of socio-economic data in health studies.
This dissertation is concerned with individual differences in the ability to connect thoughts
and emotions.
The aim of this paper is to explore constant acceleration formulae, with a focus on motion along a slope.
The purpose of this essay is to investigate the use of focus group interviews.
This thesis consists of four parts. Each part describes a different set of experiments which
contribute to the final results.
This assignment is divided into three sections, with each section devoted to a different aspect of world trade.
Organising the main points
useful when ...	items	examples
working through a list of different things	• first(ly), secondly, thirdly • next • lastly/finally	First(ly), let us look at the history of the problem. {firstly is more formal than first] Next, there is the issue of air resistance. Finally, let us consider increased taxation as a possible solution.
changing topics / bringing in new points	• we now / let us turn to • at this point	We now turn to the question of which model provides a better explanation of the phenomenon. At this point it is important to look again at the data.
referring forward in the text	• below • in the next section • later • the following	We shall see below that depopulation has been a major factor, [lower on the page or later in the essay/article] Later, 1 shall look at other possible reasons for this. The following example comes from Hillson (1998).
referring back to something	• above • in the preceding section • earlier • (as) we saw / have seen that/in	The above figures indicate a significant decrease. Three hypotheses were listed in the preceding section, [the section immediately before this one] 1 noted earlier that lack of fresh water was a serious problem. As we saw in section 2, this is a complex topic.
referring to examples, diagrams, pages, etc.	• see • consider • take, for example, • as can be seen in	For the complete results, see Appendix A, page 94. Consider Figure 1, which shows changes from 1976-8. Take, for example, Sweden, where industrialisation was rapid, as can be seen in Figure 2.
referring separately to different people or things	• respectively • the former • the latter	Groups A and B consisted of 14-year-olds and 16-year-olds, respectively, [i.e. group A was 14-year-olds and group B was 16-year-olds] Rostov and Krow both studied the problem.The former wrote a book; the latter published two papers, [the first and then the second person or thing mentioned]
Don't confuse firstly) with at first. At first means 'at the beginning', and refers to situations which change: At first there was no increase in temperature, but later, the temperature rose by 0.5°C. See Unit 50 for the difference between lastly and at last. Say as can be seen in Figure /, NOT as ft can be seen in Figure /.
See Units 16 and 50 for more useful expressions for organising your writing. Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
39.1    Choose a word from A to fill in the missing words in this introduction to a oaoer.
The (1)....... of this paper is to consider the nature of moral education in Soviet
children's literature. It is particularly (2)....................................with the moral values presented in books
published with the (3)....................................of teaching reading at primary school. The thesis
(4)....................................of four parts. The first part attempts to (5) .................................a number of general
questions relating to children's literature from any historical period. Parts 2, 3 and 4 are
(6)...............................specifically to the Soviet example. Part 2 is (7) ....................................into three main
sections, the first of which discusses the nature of the Soviet value system with a particular (8) ...............................on the work ethic.
39.2 Read the sentences and answer the questions about them.
1 Tolstoy's most famous novels are War and Peace and Anna Karenina, the former being first published between 1865 and 1869 and the latter between 1875 and 1877.
Which of Tolstoy's novels was published in the 1860s?
2 More precise data can be found in Table 3 below. Does Table 3 appear before or after this sentence?
3 Let us now turn to the question of the country's economic situation.
Has the writer already begun discussing the country's economic situation or not?
4 The brothers, Olaf and Erik, would go on to become professors of archaeology and Greek, respectively.
Which brother taught archaeology?
5 The preceding example is taken from Atakano (1991). Does the example come before or after this sentence?
39.3 Choose the correct word in italics to complete each sentence.
1 Take I Put I Look, for example, the case of Megginson which was described in Chapter 2.
2 At first I Firstly I would like to discuss the nature of 16   century English and then the impact that this had on the works of Shakespeare.
3 The article concerns I devotes I addresses the issue of the relationship between religion and politics in the modern world.
4 Look at Figure 3 under I below I beneath for more detailed information.
5 In the following I preceding section we shall deal with this issue in more detail.
6 For more detailed information see I go I turn Appendix B.
7 Let us now deal I see I consider Figure 2.1.
8 This aspect of the problem will be discussed latter I later I lastly in this article.
39.4 Rewrite the parts in bold using a phrase which includes the word in brackets.
1 As Table V shows there has been an increase in the numbers of students in higher education. (seen)
2 In Section 3 we take up again some of the arguments from Section 2. (preceding)
3 Now let us turn our attention to developments in Constantinople, (point)
4 The country consists of six provinces, (divided)
5 Let us now consider the issue of the reunification of Germany, (turn)
Academic Vocabulary in Use 87
40   Making a presentation
The language of presentations often contains less formal vocabulary than that of academic writing, so take care not to use the less formal expressions in your written work.
Introducing the presenter
Let's welcome Carmen Gregori, who's going to talk to us today on the subject of 'Healthcare in Paraguay'
Now I'd like to call on Mieko to make/give her presentation. Mieko, thank you.
OK, thank you everybody. Now, Dr Ulla Fcnsel is going to present her research to us.
f I'd like to introduce
Dr Li Meiju, who's going to address1 the topic of 'Preventive medicine'.
1 rather formal; we can also say formally speak to the topic ofX, or, less formally talk about X Getting started
'In this presentation I'd like to focus on recent developments in biomass fuels. I'll speak for about 45 minutes, to allow time for questions and comments. Feel free to1 interrupt if you have any questions or want to make a comment.'
'First I'll give a brief overview of the current situation with regard to intellectual property rights, then I'd like to raise a few issues concerning the internet. I'll try to leave2 time for questions at the end.'
'I'd like to begin by looking at some previous studies of ocean temperatures. There's a handout going round3, and there are some spare4 copies here if you want them.' 'In this talk I'll present the results of a study I did5 for my dissertation. I'll try not to go over time and keep to 20 minutes.'
1 an informal way of giving permission 2 less formal than allow - see 1 3 a more formal version would be which is being distributed 4 extra 5 or, more formal, carried out I conducted
During the presentation - and closing it
Now let's turn to the problem of workplace stress.	begin to examine or talk about
Moving on, I'd like to look at the questionnaire results in more detail.	going on to the next point; less formal than in greater detail
1 also want to talk about the supply of clean water, but I'll come back to that later.	or, more formal, return to
I'd just like to go back to the graph on the previous slide.	or, more formal, return to
Anyway, getting back to / to return to the question of inflation, let's look at the Thai economy.	getting back to is less formal than ta return to
The results were not very clear. Having said that, 1 feel the experiment was worthwhile.	a less formal way of saying nevertheless
I'll skip the next slide as time is (running) short.	skip (informal) = leave out / omit
To sum up, then, urban traffic has reached a crisis. That's all 1 have to say*. Thank you for listening.	have no more time left * informal - not used in writing
Well, I'll stop there as I've run out of time.Thank you.	have no time left
DrWoichek will now take questions*. Are there any questions or comments?	* rather formal = accept and answer questions
88   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
40.1 Fill in the missing words in these introductions to presentations.
1 Dr Anwar Musat will now......................................his research on soil erosion in Malaysian forests.
2 I'd now like to......................................on our next speaker, Eva Karlsson, to......................................(give two
answers) her presentation.
3 Ladies and gentlemen, let's......................................our next speaker, Professor Prodromou from the
University of Athens.
4 Thanks, everybody. So, Masanori is going to talk to us now............................................................................
subject...................................... 'Mental health issues in Japan'.
5 I'd like to......................................today's speaker, Dr Krishnan Guptar, who is going to......................................
the topic of metal fatigue in rail tracks.
40.2 Rewrite these sentences by changing the words in bold so they are less formal. Remember that both formal and informal styles may be correct, but that it may not always be appropriate to be informal.
1 We need to consider family income too, but I'll return to that later.
2 So, to proceed to the next point, I'll omit item 4 on the handout and instead talk about number 5 in greater detail.
3 I'll try to finish by 3.30, but don't feel you need to ask permission to leave if you have a class or other appointment to go to.
4 There is a handout being distributed and I have some further copies too if anyone wants them.
5 I'll finish there as my time has come to an end.
6 We didn't want to make people uncomfortable by having a camera in the room. Nevertheless, we did want to video as many of the sessions as possible.
7 I'd like to return to a point I made earlier about river management.
8 So, I believe our experiments have been successful. I shall end there. Thank you.
9 To return to the problem of large class sizes, I'd like to look at a study carried out in Australia in 2002.
10 I'll try not to exceed my time, so I'll speak for 30 minutes, to allow time for questions at the end.
40.3 Fill in the missing prepositions.
1 I'd like to focus.............................waterborne diseases in this presentation.
2 The situation.............................regard.............................exports has been very good in recent years.
3 I'd now like to turn.............................a different problem.
4 I always find it difficult to keep.............................just 30 minutes, so please tell me when I have
five minutes left.
5 I'd like to begin.............................asking you all to do a small task.
40.4 Write six sentences you might hear during a presentation using appropriate combinations of the words in boxes A and B. You may use words in box A more than once.
Box A Box B
present      take      raise      make give
issue      presentation      results      overview      comment questions
College and university libraries and departments often have audio or video recordings of talks, guest lectures and other presentations which can be borrowed. If you are able to do this, make a note of any useful words or expressions the speaker uses.
AcademicVocabulary in Use 89
Describing research methods
Useful word combinations
We may carry out a procedure or an experiment or a pilot study, [preliminary study] We use or, more formally, employ a method or a technique or an approach or an instrument or a device, [an object or method used for a special purpose] You can also use or employ any particular type of research methodology.
Apparatus [equipment for a lab experiment] is assembled and checked. Apparatus is an uncountable noun but you can talk about a piece of apparatus.
B    Types of research method
research method	what the researcher does	limitation of method
experimental study	manipulates1 a variable [anything that can vary] under highly controlled conditions to see if this produces [causes] any changes in a second [dependent] variable	done in the highly controlled setting of the laboratory - these conditions are artificial2 and may not reflect what happens in the infinitely more complex real world; other researchers often try to replicate3 successful experiments
correlational study	attempts to determine the relationship between two or more variables, using mathematical techniques for summarising data	only shows that two variables are related in a systematic way, but does not prove or disprove4 that the relationship is a cause-and-effect relationship
naturalistic (empirical) observation (also known as field study)	observes and records some behaviour or phenomenon5, often over a prolonged period, in its natural setting without interfering with6 the subjects or phenomena in any way	can be very time-consuming as researcher may have to wait for some time to observe the behaviour or phenomenon of interest; difficult to observe behaviour without disrupting7 it
survey	makes inferences from data collected via interviews or questionnaires	intentional deception, poor memory, or misunderstanding of the question can all contribute to inaccuracies in the data
case study	keeps in-depth9 descriptive records, as an outside observer, of an individual or group	often involves only a single individual as the subject of the study and this person may not be representative10 of the general group or population
1 makes changes to 2 not natural 3 do in exactly the same way 4 show something is not true 5 something that exists and can be
seen, felt, tasted, etc. 6 altering 7 making it change 8 comes to conclusions on the basis of 9 detailed 10 typical
Remember that phenomenon is the singular and phenomena is the plural.The same applies to criterionlcriteria. [a standard by which you judge, decide about or deal with something] See also Unit 31.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
41.1    Complete the sentences in these two texts with words from the opposite page.
Scientists disagree as to whether cold fusion, the controlled power of the hydrogen bomb in the
laboratory, is possible. In the past, some believed that e.................................s......................................under
la................................c...............................using palladium and platinum electrodes could in fact cause heavy
hydrogen atoms to fuse into helium and release energy, as the sun does. In carefully controlled
experiments, researchers believed they could ma......................................the v.....................................arising from the
complexity of the electrodes and other equipment used. In such co......................................CO...................................,
they argued, cold fusion was possible. However, attempts to r............................. some of the
experiments which claimed to be successful failed, and many now believe that cold fusion is in fact theoretically impossible.
-
Some linguists believe that we can best d how language is processed by
laboratory experiments. However, laboratory experiments are by definition ar.................
and may not r what happens in the real world. Other linguists believe, therefore,
that em......................o ................................is better, and prefer to carry out f............................studies
and c.......................... studies of individuals in na . se............................ .In this way,
i..........................-d................................data can be c......................................by observers without i....................................
with the process in any way, even though this may be a more t.................-c..........
method. However, individual studies in real situations may not be r...................................of the
general p ............ of second language learners. In short, both approaches have their
advantages and disadvantages.
4 1.2    Use the words in the box to complete the diagrams. Add alan and anything else needed to complete the phrase.
check   methodology   pilot study   procedure   assemble   technique   experiment   device piece
carry out
employ/use
apparatus
4 1.3    Now complete the sentences using phrases from 41.2.
1 It was a new................................of apparatus so we.................................it first and then ...................................it
before using it.
2 The team carried out a............................................................................ before conducting the main
......................................to see if the...................................... they were using was reliable.
3 The team needed to employ a different..................................for measuring the pressure, so they
used a new......................................which they manufactured in their own laboratory.
41.4    Correct the eight spelling and other vocabulary mistakes in these sentences.
1 It was very difficult to make reliable interferences from the data as we had so little.
2 A correlational study is a good way of seeing if one phenomena is related to another in a system way.
3 The experiment neither proved nor deproved Jessop's theory.
4 We had to explain the unusual scores of five of the subjets in the sample, who all had totals well below the norm. It was possible there were unaccuracies in the data.
5 An exterior observer can often unintentionally erupt the behaviour of the subjects they are observing.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   91
Classifying
Classifying means dividing things into groups according to their type. Useful nouns when classifying
word	example	meaning
category	Each of our students falls into one of three categories.	a group that shares some significant characteristics
component	Milk is an essential component of any young child's diet	a part which combines with other parts to create something bigger
existence	The existence of 'dark matter' in the universe was first proposed in 1933.	the fact that something or someone is or exists
feature	Effective use of metaphor is a feature of the poet's style.	typical part or quality
hierarchy	Humans can be described as being at the top of a hierarchy with amoebas on the bottom level.	system in which people or things are arranged according to their importance or power
nature	The nature of her work means that she is under a lot of stress.	type or main characteristic of something
structure	In this unit we shall be looking at the structure of the heart	the way in which the parts of a system are arranged
type	The lion is one type of large cat	group with similar characteristics, a smaller division of a larger set
One example of a classification system
There is an enormous variety/diversity of living things (or organisms). To help study them, biologists have devised1 ways of naming and classifying them according to their similarities and differences. The system most scientists use puts each living thing into seven groups organised from most general to most specific. Therefore, each species belongs to2 a genus, each genus belongs to a family, each family belongs to an order, etc. Species are the smallest groups. A species consists of3 all the animals of the same type who are able to breed and produce young of the same kind; each species is distinct from4 all other species. Biologists allocate5 all organisms to a position in this system.
1 thought of, invented 2 is part of 3 includes, is made up of 4 significantly different from 5 place (also assign)
Categorising people
When categorising people, it is often necessary to take age, gender1, social class, occupation, marital status and ethnic background2 into account. It may also be appropriate to consider the urban-rural3 dimension4. Age, for example, is important in that different generations tend to have different attitudes and other characteristics. Social class can be described in different ways; the term blue collar may be used to mean working class while white collar denotes5 middle class. The categories of student, homemaker (i.e. housewife/househusband), and senior citizen, as well as types of employment6 are subsumed7 under the heading8 of occupation or occupational background/status.
1 sex, male or female 2 racial background 3 city versus countryside 4 aspect, way of considering
something group
means    paid work    included as part of a larger group    title summing up a
92   AcademicVocabulary in Use
Exercises
42.1    Choose the words to complete these extracts from (1) a lecture and (2) a class. \
belong   categories   components   consist  distinct  diversity  fall  feature   structure type
'Computer programming languages usually......................................into one of four......................................:
imperative, functional, object-oriented and logic. These languages are......................................from one
another in how they operate. The......................................of imperative languages is based on commands,
you know, "do this, do that thing". Languages such as Fortran and COBOL....................................
to this...................................... Functional languages......................................of mathematical functions. The
......................................of object-oriented languages are commands which are combined with the data to
create "objects". The mam.....................................of logic languages is that they state facts or relations
between things. Now, in the case of human languages.......................................is considered a good
thing. In the case of programming languages, it suggests we still haven't found the best one!'
blue collar class devise employment ethnic gender generations homemakers occupational senior citizens
§
'For your end-of-year project, you must corry out a survey of consumer preferences
product or a type of product. You'll need to......................................a questionnaire, and you'll need
take a lot of factors into account. These include............................., that is how many males and/c
females are in your sample, social................................. , and so on. And also different........................
will it just be odults, or young people too? And what about......................................? They may be
retired, but they still buy a lot of things. Also, whot about..........................status? Are you going
to separate......................................and white collar workers? Or are you also interested in people who
are not in......................................, such as......................................, but who are often the ones who buy the
goods? And in our multicultural society, don't forget.................................background.'
42.2    Complete the table. Use a dictionary if necessary.
noun	verb	adjective	adverb
	.______..  .   ...,,...... ,	similar	
		different	
	allocate		
	describe		
42.3
42.4
Now choose a word from 42.2 to complete these sentences.
1 It is hard to...............................between these two...............................plants. They hardly...............................at all.
2 The professor persuaded the university to......................................more resources to his department.
3 There are some magnificent......................................passages in the writer's later novels.
4 In your essay comment on the......................................and the......................................between the two poems.
Vary the sentences by using words of similar meaning instead of the words in bold.
1 It is difficult to categorise human emotions as we know little about their basic characteristics.
2 Sensation and action can both be included under the term behaviour.
3 Linguists allocate all languages to a place in the system of language families, based on their grammars and other key aspects.
4 The atmosphere of the planet consists of different gases.
5 City and country people often differ in their political attitudes. Whether one is married or single is also a relevant factor.
AcodemicVocabulary in Use 93
43   Making connections
Connecting data and evidence
Read how a scientist used 14 cameras to study his baby son learning language.
In a child's life the progression from just making noises to using words meaningfully is still not completely understood. So an American scientist has collected 24,000 hours of video, complemented1 by 33,000 hours of audio, of his baby son. The scientist hopes computers will reveal links2 between the child's activities and his learning of language. He has divided each room into sections such as sink, table, fridge and stove. The computer picks out combinations of movements between these sections which are Tepeated. Researchers then piece together3 how these fragments correlate with4 specific activities, such as making coffee or doing the dishes. Eventually the computer will bring all the information together and provide statistics on how often the child observed an activity before finally producing a related word.
1 which has made the video better or more useful 2 show connections not seen before 3 try to discover the truth about something by collecting different pieces of information and considering them at the same time 4 are connected with, often in a way in which one of them influences the other
Expressing links and connections between people and things
Nowadays, the term 'hacker' is synonymous with1 a criminal who attacks computer systems. Originally, the word referred to2 a skilled programmer, and only later did it become associated with3 malicious attacks.
In humans and in chimpanzees, hand movements accompanied by speech or vocal sounds are made more often with the right hand than the left hand. Taken together, the data suggest4 that this phenomenon may date back as far as 5 million years ago.
In the 1980s, the wages of less-skilled US workers fell relative to5 those of more-skilled workers. The mutual6 influence of the inflow of less-skilled immigrants and the growth in US imports is also important.
Scientists have found evidence of an animal that can shrink and then grow again. Galapagos marine iguanas seem to change size, growing smaller or larger, possibly reflecting changes in the food supply.
The book examines the development of the bond7 between children and their parents. The relationship between individual development and the strength of the bond varies between sons and daughters.
In questionnaire A, zero corresponds to 'disagree strongly' and 5 indicates 'agree strongly'. In questionnaire B, the reverse8 is true, in that9 5 is equivalent to 'disagree strongly'.
1 the two are so closely connected that one suggests the other 2 related to 3 connected in people s minds 4 show an idea without stating it directly or giving proof 5 if something is relative to something else, it varies according to the speed or level of the other thing 6 influencing each other 7 close connection 8 opposite 9 used before giving an explanation for something
The prefix inter- indicates a link or relationship between things (see Reference 5).
Interaction10 between learner and learning material is a defining characteristic of education. He studied the interrelated" effects of families and peers on African-American youths. The article is concerned with the interplay12 between emotions and logical thinking.
10 communication with or reaction to 11 connected in such a way that each thing has an effect on or depends on the other 12 the effect two or more things have on each other
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
43.1 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending, and add the missing prepositions.
1 The study found links ....................gentle curves and sharp angles.
2 Jill's thoroughness is complemented ....................scholars from all over the world.
3 Musical talent correlates ....................information from a range of sources.
4 The sculpture is an unusual combination ....................his previous research.
5 The conference has brought ....................a computer programmer.
6 The researcher is trying to piece ....................use of the drug and heart problems.
7 Peter's study is closely related ....................her co-researcher's originality.
8 The term 'hacker' used to refer ....................mathematical ability.
43.2 Correct the errors in these sentences.
1 There is usually a very strong bind between a mother and her child.
2 Salaries have fallen over the last few years not in real terms but relating to inflation.
3 In the UK black cats are associating with good luck.
4 In the experiment, group A performed best on the manual dexterity test and least well on the memory test whereas for group B the reversal was the case.
5 'Malicious' is more or less synonym with 'nasty'.
6 The problems discussed above are all closely interrelationship.
7 Took together, the studies by Johnson and Mahesh provide very strong evidence that previous theories on the nature of this disease were flawed.
8 The research is original in this it approaches the topic from a completely fresh angle.
9 The painter loved to explore the interplaying between light and shade.
43.3 Choose words from the box to fill in the missing words in this text.
associated corresponds equivalent evidence suggest interaction       mutual reflects relationships reveals
......................................within a chimpanzee community is the theme of Gavros's fascinating
new book. It describes the various different......................................between the animals, and
.....................................how an individual's behaviour...................................his or her position in the
community, showing how the older females in particular offer each other................................
support. The book also provides.................................to.....................................that chimpanzees use
sounds in systematic ways to communicate with each other. One particular sound, for
example, clearly.....................................to the human cry of 'Watch out!' while another would
seem to be the.................................. of 'Help!' Certain gestures also seem to be.................................... with
specific meanings.
43.4    Here are some more examples of words beginning with inter-. Use your knowledge of what this prefix means to help you explain what the words mean.
1 Alf won a prize in an inter-university chess competition.
2 Interstate highways in the USA are usually wide and well-maintained.
3 Our economic interdependence means that recession in the US also affects us.
4 Intermarriage throughout the centuries had meant that most European monarchs at the beginning of the twentieth century were quite closely related.
5 The internet has enormously facilitated the interchange of information between scholars worldwide.
6 The design was a complicated construction of interconnecting parts.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 95
44   Comparing and contrasting
Prepositional expressions
Note the items in bold in these titles of journal articles and also note the prepositions.
express/on	notes
Problems in pain measurement: a comparison between verbal and visual rating scales	Between is used when two different things are being compared. Of is used when different examples of the same thing are being compared.
A comparison of different methods and approaches to homeschooling	
Mobility in the EU in comparison with the US	With and to are both used nowadays with similar meanings in these expressions. American English generally prefers compared with.
The effects of risk on private investment: Africa compared with other developing areas	
An exploration of the average driver's speed compared to driver safety and driving skill	
Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-I	This expression indicates that there is indeed a difference between the things which are compared.
Some psycho-physical analogies between speech and music	Comparisons between things which have similar features; often used to help explain a principle or idea.
Differences and similarities between mothers and teachers as informants on child behaviour	Between is used with difference when different groups of people or things are compared. In is used when different aspects of one thing are compared (here 'ethical perceptions').
Differences in ethical standards between male and female managers: myth or reality?	
Children's understanding of the distinction between real and apparent emotion	A distinction is a difference between two similar things.
Is globalisation today really different from globalisation a hundred years ago?	Different to is also used in UK academic usage, but different from is much more frequent Different than is often found in US English.
Useful linking expressions for comparison and contrast
44% of the male subjects responded negatively. Similarly, 44% of the female subjects said they had never voted in any election, [likewise could also be used here] There is a contrast between fiction and reality.
Older teenagers were found to be more likely than younger teenagers to purchase music CDs.
Conversely, younger teenagers purchased more video games, [in an opposite way]
Unlike Scotland, Irish mortality rates were relatively low for such a poor country.
Verb endings in some languages can show present, past or future tense, whereas in English,
verb endings can only show present or past, [while could also be used here; note the comma]
A recent study suggested that building a network of good friends, rather than maintaining
close family ties, helps people live longer into old age.
On the one hand, critics accuse the police of not protecting the public from crime. On the other hand, people also complained that the police were too oppressive, [used to compare two different facts or two opposite ways of thinking about a situation] In the north, the rains are plentiful. In the south the reverse is true and drought is common.
Remember to say the same as, NOT the same that or the same than. Say similar to, NOT similar as.
Don't confuse on the other hand (see above) with in contrast. In contrast expresses a marked opposition between two ideas: Chan sharply condemned the diplomatic moves; in contrast, his deputy,Tiong, saw them as an attempt to create political stability.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
44.1 Complete these sentences about comparing and contrasting.
1 The study looked at the different life chances of working-class children......................................
......................................to those of middle-class children.
2 The results showed a marked......................................{three possible answers) between the two
groups of plants being tested.
3 The title of her paper was: 'Retail price differences in large supermarkets: organic foods ......................................to non-organic foods'.
4 My project was a......................................of different styles of industrial architecture in the late 20th
century.
5 The result of the second experiment was very different......................................that of the first.
6 It would be interesting to do a......................................between the musical skills of teenage girls
and those of teenage boys.
7 The physicist drew an....................................between the big bang and throwing a stone into a
pond.
8 Gronsky believes cold fusion will soon be achieved in the laboratory.......................................
........................, his colleague Ladrass believes cold fusion is simply theoretically impossible.
44.2 Rewrite the sentences using an expression which includes the word in brackets instead of the underlined words.
1 The two groups were not the same as each other, (different)
2 The two groups of children were different, (contrast noun)
3 The three liquids had many things in common with one another, (similar)
4 The data revealed that the informants' responses were different, (differences)
5 The title of her paper was: 'A comparison of male attitudes towards prison sentencing and female attitudes', (compared)
6 In a similar way to the manner in which the economy of the north is booming, the south is also enjoying an economic upturn, (similarly)
44.3 Use linking expressions based on the word(s) in brackets to rewrite these pairs of sentences as one sentence. Make any other changes necessary.
1 The south of the country has little in the way of forests. The north of the country is covered with thick forests, (unlike)
2 A questionnaire is good. In this case, face-to-face interviews are better, (rather)
3 Asian languages such as Vietnamese are quite difficult for learners whose first language is a European one. The opposite is also true, (conversely)
4 Oil is plentiful at the present time. It will run out one day. (hand)
5 Boys tend to prefer aggressive solutions to problems. Girls, on the other hand, prefer more indirect approaches, (whereas)
6 In the post-war period, public transportation enjoyed a boom. Nowadays, it is little used. (reverse)
44.4 Are these statements true or false? Circle T or F. Use a dictionary if necessary. If the ^    statement is false, explain why.
1 If two things are mutually exclusive, one makes the other impossible.  T F
2 If two methods of doing something are compatible, they cannot both be used.  T F
3 If two things are equated, they are said to be similar or the same.  T F
4 If there are parallels between two phenomena, they are very different from each other.  T F
5 If there is an overlap between two things, they share some properties.  T F
Academic Vocabulary in Use 97
45   Describing problems
Introducing a problem
Note the way words are combined in these extracts from academic articles. As the mining operations became deeper and deeper, the problem of flooding arose1. In a recent survey, 34% of customers experienced difficulties with online buying. Walsh's paper discusses the controversy2 surrounding privatisation of health services. Conservation driven by market forces seems to be a contradiction in terms3. The topic is inadequately treated, and several errors are apparent4 in the analysis. Integrating the new member states poses5 a challenge to the European Union. The research raises6 the issue of rainforests and the people who live in them. The patient had difficulty in remembering very recent events. Most theories of the origin of the universe contain inconsistencies7. The results revealed shortcomings8 in the design of the questionnaire.
1 question/issue/difficulty/controversy also often combine with arise 2 a lot of disagreement or argument about something 3 a combination of words which is nonsense because some of the words suggest the opposite of some of the others 4 can be seen 5 threat/problem/danger also are often used with pose; the verb present can also be used with these nouns 6 question/problem also are often used with raise 7 if a reason, idea, opinion, etc. has inconsistencies, different parts of it do not agree 8 faults or a failure to reach a particular standard
Responding to a problem
verb	noun	example	meaning
react	react/ reaction	It was a study of how small firms react to the problem of over-regulation.	act in a particular way as a direct result of
respond	response	The Minister's response to the problem of inflation was to impose a price freeze.	his/her reaction to what has happened or been said or done
deal with		How should training courses deal with the issue of violence in the healthcare setting?	take action in order to solve a problem
tackle		Governments do not seem to be able to tackle the problem of urban congestion.	try to deal with
address		Governments need to address the problem of waste from nuclear power plants.	(formal) give attention to or deal with
mediate	mediation	The community leaders attempted to mediate between the police and the people.	talk to the two groups involved to try to help them find a solution to their problems
Solving a problem
The researchers solved the problem by increasing the temperature.
The team came up with / found a solution to the problem of water damage.
By using video, the researchers overcame the problem of interpreting audio-only data.
The two governments finally resolved1 the problem of sharing water resources. A successful
resolution2 to the crisis came in 1998.
The answer to the problem lay in changing the design of the experiment.
The book was entitled: 'Conflict Resolution: the Management of International Disputes'.
1 (more formal) solved or ended 2 noun form of the verb
98   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
45.1
45.2
Match the beginning of each sentence with the most
1 Students always seem to have difficulty
2 Ford pointed out that the methodology had
3 The need to find replacement fuels poses
4 The media continue to focus on the controversy
5 In the figures he presented several errors were
6 On their way across Antarctica they experienced
7 The results of the opinion poll raise
8 Problems caused by pollution in this area
appropriate ending.
surrounding the President, apparent.
some important questions for the Party.
many difficulties.
arose fairly recently.
in remembering this formula.
a number of inconsistencies.
considerable challenges for scientists.
There is a preposition missing in each of these sentences. Add it in the right place.
1 It is no easy task mediating unions and management.
2 In this lecture I plan to deal the later novels of Charles Dickens.
3 The answer to most problems in agriculture lies the soil.
4 He thought for a long time but was unable to come with a solution.
5 Green tourism may initially feel like a contradiction terms.
6 I wonder what the professor's reaction the article will be.
7 The company has experienced a number of difficulties the computer operating system.
8 Have you found a solution the problem yet?
45.3    Complete these tables. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary.
noun	verb
	solve
reaction	
	contain
error	
noun	verb
resolution	
	respond
contradiction	
	mediate
45.4    Choose one of the words from the tables in 45.3 to complete each sentence. You may need to change the form of the verbs.
1 The professor was very angry when the student.................................him so rudely and so
publicly.
2 As the saying goes, to......................................is human - we all make mistakes.
3 I hope someone will eventually come up with a.............................. to the problem of global
warming.
4 The diplomats are hoping to......................................between the two sides and so prevent a conflict.
5 The library......................................many rare and beautiful books.
6 I am still waiting for the committee's......................................to my request for an extension for my
dissertation.
7 At the beginning of the new academic year Marie..................................to make much more effort
with her assignments.
8 The lecturer......................................very angrily when I questioned one of her conclusions.
I^jj  Much academic work is based on asking questions or raising problems and finding solutions to CM    them. Find an article relating to your own discipline which discusses a problem. Note down any u I   interesting vocabulary that you find there.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 99
Describing situations
Existence and location
Look at these extracts from history lectures. Note the words in bold.
The existence of a large population of migrant workers put pressure on the country's infrastructure1.
Historians noted the absence3 of a clear political ideology in the actions of the workers.
We need to look at all the I circumstances2 surrounding r the events of 1926.
A.
Looking at events in their social context means taking all the factors of a person's social environment into account.
The conditions in which the poorest sector of the population lived were bad.
The status4 of women was not a serious subject of debate until the 1960s.
1 basic systems and services, such as transport and power supplies 2 facts or events that make the situation the way it is 3 opposite = presence 4 official position, especially in a social group
Factors affecting situations
(n) = noun   (v) = verb   (adj) = adjective
(opp) = opposite
word	examples	notes
constrain (v) constraint (n)	Scientists are constrained by the amount of funding they can obtain / are subject to the constraints of funding.	being controlled and limited in what they can do
restrain (v) restraint (n)	Growth in car ownership could be restrained by higher taxes. High land prices are a restraint on the expansion of private housing in the city.	limiting the growth or force of something
minimum (n/adj) (opp) maximum minimal (adj)	The minimum/maximum temperature was recorded at each stage. Damage to buildings was minimal.	smallest/largest amount allowed or possible very small in amount
confine (v)	Major industrial pollution is confined to the big cities in the north of the region.	limited to
restrict (v) restriction (n)	The government took measures to restrict the sale of tobacco products to young people. To fight traffic congestion, the city imposed a restriction of one car per household.	limiting something and reducing its size or preventing it from increasing
intrinsic (adj) (opp) extrinsic	English language is an intrinsic part of the college curriculum.	extremely important and basic characteristic of it
integral (adj)	Users' experiences are integral to the way libraries measure their performance.	necessary and important as a part of a whole
finite (adj) (opp) infinite	Oil is a finite resource; it will run out one day. There is evidence to suggest the universe is infinite.	having a limit or end /'famait/ having no limit or end /'infinat/
stable (adj) (opp) unstable stability (n) (opp) instability	It takes decades to create a stable democracy. Political instability is a threat to the whole region.	if something is stable, it is firmly fixed or not likely to move or change
100   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
46.1 Choose one of the words in bold in A to complete each sentence.
1 To understand the problem, we need to look at all the many factors which may influence development in the child's social and physical.......................................
2 It has been claimed that the......................................of teaching as a profession is not as high as it
used to be or as it should be.
3 The infrared aerial photograph seems to show the......................................of a large village around
1,000 years ago.
4 The company's president died in rather suspicious......................................and his son took over.
5 In the......................................of any clear instructions from above, I think we should decide
ourselves how to proceed.
6 The country can never become a major economic player unless it improves its.......................................
7 1 can't tell you what the word means unless you tell me it in.......................................
8 Students today live in very luxurious......................................compared with students in the past.
46.2 Change the words in bold to the opposite meaning.
1 The economy has been stable for several years.
2 Stability has been a feature of government in the country for the last decade.
3 The northern region possesses an apparently finite supply of uranium.
4 The presence of cholera in the area was noted by scientists in 1978.
5 A minimum temperature of 20 degrees must be maintained at all times.
46.3 Rewrite the sentences without changing the meaning, using the word in brackets.
1 In the 1960s the government restricted the amount of money you could take out of the country, (restriction)
2 The problem exists only in the capital city, (confined)
3 All fossil fuels will run out one day. (resources)
4 In the accident there was very little damage to the car. (minimal)
5 All research is constrained by funding decisions, (subject)
6 The fact that the country is socially unstable deters investors. (social)
7 Normally we would not behave in this way. (circumstances)
8 Most small children believe that fairies exist. (of fairies)
46.4 Choose the best word in italics to complete each sentence.
1 The government has introduced legislation to restrict I constrain smoking in public places.
2 Learning from your mistakes is an infinite I intrinsic part of making progress.
3 Her attempt to confine I restrain the children from making a noise in the library met with little success.
4 The professor always insists that even the most junior research associate is an unstable I integral part of the team.
5 What are the minimum I minimal requirements for getting a place on the course?
6 During the exam period restrictions are posed I imposed on visitors to the college.
7 There were some rather curious circumstances I contexts surrounding the case.
8 The level of taxation in the country is a major constraint I restraint on foreign investment there.
Find a news article about a scientific development and read the description of the situation which C9j     led to it (often to be found in the introduction). Note any useful general nouns used there.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   101
Processes and procedures
General nouns and verbs
Note the prepositions which follow the nouns in bold.
The next stage/step in the process of data collection was to send out 100 questionnaires.
The procedure1 for Experiment B was different from that of Experiment A.
The application2 of Thoren's method produced some interesting results.
They studied the behaviour of large corporations during periods of economic crisis.
The team carried out a computer simulation3 of climate change over the next 30 years.
Twenty-five subjects were selected from the first group to take part in the second analysis.
She designed a course to train students to utilise4 self-motivation strategies.
The article sets out to unify5 some concepts in the theory of economic growth.
Personal interviews were conducted to supplement6 the statistical data.
The experiments were repeated, in order to verify7 the results observed in the original data.
1 carefully controlled set of actions 2 using it for a practical purpose 3 a model of a problem or course of events 4 (formal) use something in an effective way 5 bring together/combine 6 add something to something to make it larger or better 7 make certain that they are correct
Social/political/economic processes
example with noun	equivalent verb	meaning
The emergence of nation states changed Europe in the 19th century.	Nation states emerged in the 19th century.	process of appearing or starting to exist
The paper is a study of water consumption in Brazil during 2001.	Millions of litres of bottled water are now consumed.	process of using fuel, energy, food, etc.
Ratification of the trade agreement took place in 2004.	The agreement was ratified in 2004.	process of making an agreement official
Security of supply is the most important priority in the gas industry.	The new pipeline will secure gas supplies for the region.	(formal) process of getting something
Before the advent of computers, scientific analysis was a slow process.	Before computers were developed/invented, analysis took a long time.	arrival of an invention (the noun has no verb form)
Technological processes and procedures
Look at these questions on a college website dealing with computer problems.
698
Is there any way to automate1 the process of converting a large number of text files to PDF format?
How can I display2 different values on the same bar in a bar graph?
How can 1 export3 data from my REFS software to a list of references in my dissertation?
Is there a fast way to input4 questionnaire results into a database?
How can I insert5 a footnote into my paper?
How can I save the numerical output6 from the BIGSTATS program as a text file?
make a process be operated by machines or computers, instead of by humans arrange something or a collection of things so that they can be seen 3 copy a large amount of it either to a different part of the computer's storage space or to another form of storage 4 put them into the computer's system 5 add 6 results produced by the programme
102   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
47.1
47.2
47.3
Choose the best word in italics to complete each sentence.
1 It is sensible to unify I select I verify your results before publishing them.
2 Hip replacement is usually a simple medical application I procedure I behaviour.
3 Many students supplement I utilise I verify their scholarships by doing some part-time work.
4 A computer stage I procedure I simulation shows what will happen if the ocean current does indeed change direction and start flowing from the Arctic to the West Indies.
5 As the next step I behaviour I application in our study we plan to carry out interviews.
6 Her aim is to form I design I function a radically different type of electric engine.
Rewrite each sentence, replacing the underlined word with a word from B or C opposite. Both the underlined words and the replacement words are correct in academic English; the difference is that the replacement words are more formal.
1 It is hardly surprising that people use far more electricity than they did ten years ago.
2 The arrival of the mobile phone has transformed the way young people manage their social lives.
3 The software allows you to present your data in a range of different types of chart.
4 A number of talented new designers have appeared this year.
5 You've missed out a letter here - you need to add a p between the a and the t.
6 He spent many years trying to create a machine that would automatically sort large numbers of coins.
7 The research assistants had to put in a huge amount of data to run the experiment.
8 The political party managed to gain more support than was anticipated.
Complete these tables and add the preposition which usually follows the verb or noun where you see (+). Use a dictionary for prepositions not given on the opposite page.
verb	noun
apply (+)	(+)
behave	(+)
simulate	(+)
(+)	selection (+)
	design (+)
ratify	(+)
(+)	insertion
verb	noun
	verification (+)
	utilisation (+)
emerge (+)	(+)
consume	(+)
secure	(+)
(+)	input
	display (+)
47.4    Choose a word from the tables in 47.3 to complete each sentence.
1 The article traces the................ of Korea as a major economic force.
2 Because of the drought everyone has been asked to reduce their water.......................................
3 I think it would be a good idea to............................... some tables into the first part of your article.
4 It took considerable negotiations before all parties were prepared to......................................the treaty.
5 This course will focus on the......................................of theory to practice.
6 It took me a long time to ....................................into the computer all the data from the survey.
7 Most psychology students choose to do a course on animal.......................................
8 My instructor gave some useful advice on how to.....................................a new group of experiments.
Use a dictionary to find some typical word combinations for these words — process, procedure and stage.Then write five sentences about aspects of your own subject using five of the word combinations.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 103
Describing change
Historical changes and their effects
The transition1 from agriculture to industry challenged the economic and political status quo2 in many countries. Millions of people abandoned3 villages and rural areas and moved into cities. The shift4 away from self-sufficiency meant most people became dependent on large corporations in one way or another, and had to adapt5 to new social environments and adjust6 to new ways of doing things. The move7 towards smaller, nuclear families brought about fundamental8 changes in family patterns in many parts of the world. Maintaining9 the old ways became increasingly10 difficult. On the other hand, the elimination" of diseases such as smallpox transformed12 millions of people's lives, and the expansion13 of healthcare in many countries saved countless lives. Technology enhanced14 most people's lives in some way. For many people, nonetheless, the negative impact15 of technology on the environment altered16 the way we think of our relationship with nature, and sustainable17 development, rather than development for its own sake, became an important goal for a number of countries.
1 change from one form to another 2 the situation as it was at that time 3 left for ever 4 change in position or direction 5 change to suit different conditions 6 become more familiar with a new situation 7 action taken to achieve something 8 in a very basic way 9 not allowing them to change 10 more and more 11 removal of 12 changed completely so that they are better 13 increase in size or extent 14 improved the quality of 15 powerful effect that something, especially something new, has on a situation 16 changed (usually slightly) 17 causing little or no damage to the environment and therefore able to continue for a long time
More verbs for describing change
The exchange rate between the euro and the dollar has fluctuated recently, [changed or varied, especially continuously and between one level and another]
The technicians modified the flow of oil through the engine, [changed it slightly to improve it] The company's lawyers amended the contract to take account of the new situation, [changed the words of a text, typically a law or a legal document]
Seven power plants were converted from oil to gas. [caused to change in form or character] After 20 years of trading in the US, the firm transferred their operations to Brazil, [moved] The economy recovered after three years of depression, [returned to a satisfactory condition] Oil supplies are diminishing rapidly. Acquiring new supplies is vital for many countries, [becoming less; (formal) obtaining, getting]
We need to refine our analysis to obtain more accurate results, [improve it, especially by removing unwanted material]
The government relaxed controls on imports in 1997. [make less strict or severe]
Plans have been drawn up to restore 50,000 acres of wetland to their former state, [return
something or someone to an earlier good condition or position]
Adjectives which often describe change
There was a gradual change in attitudes in the 1980s, [slow, over a long period of time] A sudden change in the temperature of the liquid occurred after some minutes. There is a marked change in how people perceive antisocial behaviour, [very noticeable] There was no perceptible change in the learning outcomes between Time 1 and Time 2. [which could be perceived, i.e. noticed or seen]
X
A change in and a change of are different. A change in temperaturelbehaviourlattitudesl composition/policy, etc. suggests a process where something has become different (e.g. smaller, more radical). A change of dothing/governmentJapprooch, etc. means the complete substitution of one thing for another.
104   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
48.1 Fill in the missing words in each sentence with a word formed from the same root as the tirif    word in brackets. You may need a dictionary to help you with items 7 to 10.
1 There has been an enormous......................................in aviation in recent years, (expand)
2 Economists are increasingly concerned that development should be.......................................
(sustain)
3 There has been no.....................................change in the patient's condition. (perceive)
4 The survey found that most people feel that modern life is becoming......................................
difficult, (increase)
5 Industrial......................................has, of course, transformed people's working lives, (develop)
6 The group's aims include the......................................of famine and poverty. (eliminate)
7 The apparatus worked well after we had made some......................................to it. (modify)
8 With increasing unemployment many people have had to make ..................................to their
lives. (adjust)
9 Many linguists have studied first language................................., or how people learn their
mother tongue, (acquire)
10 There is unlikely to be any.....................................of controls in the near future, (relax)
48.2 Answer these questions about the language in this unit.
1 If prices fluctuate what do they do?
2 If a disease is eliminated how much of it remains?
3 If interest in something is diminishing is it becoming less or more?
4 If there is a marked change in someone's behaviour is it a big or a small change?
5 If most people feel that mobile phones enhance their lives, do they feel that their lives have become better or worse?
6 If controls on imports are relaxed do they become more or less strict?
48.3 Choose the best word in italics to complete each sentence.
1 The economy now seems to be recovering I amending.
2 Many people now are converting I transforming to using solar power.
3 Our survey did not succeed in getting all the information we need and so we shall have to diminish I refine our questions a little.
4 Why do some people abandon / shift their families and disappear without a word?
5 It takes most people some time to alter I adjust to living in a new country.
6 In recent years most societies have seen a major change in the transition I status quo.
7 It is increasingly hard to adapt I maintain traditions in the face of progress.
8 There have been some attempts to restore I alter the environment to its original state.
48.4 Which preposition is needed to complete each phrase?
1 a change.............................the climate
2 to transfer money.............................a Swiss bank account
3 a shift..................................................... the countryside towards the towns
4 to have an impact...........................the cost of living
5 to relax controls.............................immigration
6 to adjust.............................changes
7 the transition.......................... one period to the next
8 to adapt.............................a new way of life
Academic Vocabulary in Use   105
49   Evaluation and emphasis
Adjectives for evaluating: opening sentences from science articles
The first comprehensive1 survey of coral reefs is being carried out in the Indian Ocean. Fundamental2 problems exist in current theories of the universe, a physicist claims. A ground-breaking3 discovery has been made in research into ageing and death. Important new information about the planets has been gained from the Orbis space probe. Working hours have increased and pressures at work have become more intense in the UK. A crucial stage in global warming could be reached within ten years, scientists say. The search for a unified theory of the human mind is misguided4, says a psychologist. The discovery of a dinosaur-like bone fossil in Africa is unique, according to scientists. In 1997, Irkan published a significant piece of research on open structures in bridges. Current responses to the global energy crisis are inadequate, a scientist has warned.
1 complete, including everything that is necessary 2 basic, from which everything else originates very new and a big change 4 based on bad judgement or on wrong information or beliefs
Teachers' evaluations of student assignments
• Good! The only criticism I have is that there is a notable1 lack of key references to work before 1990. You should have given credit to2 earlier work by Wilson and Healey.
• I am concerned about the validity3 of some of your analysis, and as a result, some of your conclusions may be invalid. Significantly, you had problems in Section C.
• I don't think the two different analyses you did are compatible4. It is not surprising that you had problems matching the two results, which could be viewed as almost contradictory.
• There are some solid5 arguments in Section A, but I think your conclusion in B is mistaken and lacks hard6 evidence. Your data are* rather limited. [*may also sometimes be is]
1 important and deserving attention 2 stated the importance of 3 basis in truth or reason 4 able to exist successfully together 5 of a good standard; giving confidence or support 6 clear, able to be proven
Other evaluative expressions
It is noteworthy that Holikov (1996) also had difficulty explaining the phenomenon.
It is worth recalling that three previous studies failed to find a link between the two events.
We should recognise/acknowledge how difficult it is to interpret these data.
These results are borne out by1 two other studies: Hermann (1998) and Wilson (2001).
In his seminal2 work, Abaka challenges3 current techniques, revealing flaws4 in data
interpretation.
1 confirmed, shown to be true 2 containing important new ideas, very influential 3 questions whether they are correct 4 faults, mistakes or weaknesses; we can say a method is flawed (adj)
Emphasising
The research underlined/highlighted the need for a new social policy for childcare.
• When used at the beginning of a sentence for extra emphasis, negative expressions are followed by inversion of the subject and verb. A form of do is used when there is no other auxiliary or modal verb.
Under/In no circumstances / On no account is it right to video people without consent. Seldom/Never (before)/Rarely in the history of Europe has there been such a crisis. In no way / By no means does this new study invalidate existing studies. Only in 1985 did the government accept that something needed to be done urgently.
106   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
49.1 Look at A and answer the following questions about the adjectives there.
1 Which two adjectives have negative associations?
2 Which adjective sounds most positive and exciting?
3 Which two words can be quite close synonyms and could be used, for example, in the phrase to play a(n)......................................role in the development oft
4 Which word has a similar meaning to the adjectives in 3 but is stronger or more extreme?
5 Which word means the only one of its type}
49.2 Choose the best words from the box to complete each of these sentences.
acknowledged       borne challenged       credit crucial
evidence flawed flaws ground-breaking
limited mistaken       seminal validity viewed
1 Nierinck gave......................................to the input of her research associates and ...........................that
they had played a......................................role in the project.
2 Unfortunately, these results are not......... ......out by other work in the field and you
are...................................to claim that there is hard.................................to support your theory. There
are......................................in some of your calculations, and they need redoing.
3 Herbert......................................Evensson on the......................................of his conclusions claiming that his
data were......................................and were too......................................to be reliable.
4 This superb article can be.................................... as a ........................piece of work which has made
......................................discoveries about the nature of cancerous cells.
49.3 Rewrite these sentences beginning in the way indicated.
1 It is by no means certain that all the students will pass their final exams.
By no means.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2 Never before had he taught such an outstanding student.
He..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3 The country has rarely witnessed such a display of public feeling.
Rarely..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................._..
4 In no way will we be able to halt the process of global warming.
We ..................................................................................................................................................................................................
5 Students will not be allowed to defer the completion of their thesis longer than one month under any circumstances.
Under no circumstances.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
6 We will only know the answer when we gather a lot more data.
Only when we...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
49.4 Rearrange the letters to make the word that fits the sentence.
1 The study__________the need for more research. shhhltiigg
2 I don't find your arguments either_____or convincing. doils
3 Unfortunately, the two studies came up with results which were not
__________. abcelimopt
4 She wrote the first_____________study of this___period of
Athenian history. oircpmeenhves / yek
5 It is______________that his work was initially criticised for being
tOO_______. trowh / llarignec / imitlde
6 The article__________the importance of literacy and numeracy skills in
early education, dlsrjenren
Academic Vocabulary in Use   107
Summary and conclusion
A    Conclusions and summaries: typical paragraph starters
Summarising is concerned with expressing the most important facts or ideas about something or someone in a short and clear form.
Concluding is concerned with (a) stating your position or opinion after considering all the information about something, or (b) stating that you have come to the end of something. Recapitulating is concerned with briefly repeating your main points.
Read these openings of the final paragraphs of academic articles. Note the useful expressions. As we have seen, the data are consistent across the three separate tests. To conclude / In conclusion, it seems that women's greater risk of depression is a consequence of gender differences in social roles.
To recapitulate1 the findings of the present experiments: mothers' speech to young children was simpler than their normal speech.
From these comparisons we may draw the following conclusions. As was expected, there are large differences between Russia and the two Nordic countries (Finland and Sweden). To sum up / To summarise / In summary2, in the case of high achievers in all professions, emotional competence is twice as important as purely mental abilities. In short3, emotional competence is the key.
To bring the paper to a close4, I summarise the main points5 here: siblings influence the development of behaviour, and problems among siblings are linked to other problems.
1 a less formal alternative is the short form to recap 2 (more formal) can also be in sum 3 used before describing something in as few words and as directly as possible 4 or bring to an end s or summarise the key points
B    Other useful words and expressions for summarising and concluding
We may summarise the findings in a few words: conserving wetlands is an urgent priority. The final point to stress is that pay is rarely the only factor in industrial disputes. To put it briefly / Stated briefly, complex motives contribute to strikes, [final is more formal than last] Praditsuk (1996) provides/gives a (brief) summary of Asian economic cooperation. In the abstract of the article, the authors claim to have made a breakthrough in cancer research, [shortened form of an article, book, etc., giving only the most important facts or arguments, usually printed at the beginning of the book or article]
The government only published a precis of the report, not the full report, [/'preisi/ a short form of a text which briefly summarises the important parts]
In this essay, I have attempted to review concisely the arguments in favour of intellectual
property rights in relation to the internet, [in academic style it is common to say that you
have attempted/tried to argue or demonstrate something instead of directly saying you did it;
concisely means in a short and clear way, without unnecessary words]
On balance, the overall picture seems to be that the political climate influences corporate
strategy, [after thinking about the different facts or opinions; general rather than in
particular]
In the final/last analysis, the only safe prediction is that the future is likely to be very different from the present, [said when talking about what is most important or true in a situation]
Don't confuse lastly and at last. Lastly refers to the final point or item in a list or a series of points being discussed, and is similar to finally. At last refers to something which happens after people have been waiting for it for a long time.
Remember, eventually does NOT mean 'perhaps*. It means 'in the end, especially after a long time or a lot of effort, problems, etc.*
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercises
50. i    Look at A. Rewrite each sentence, using the word in brackets.
1 To conclude, the tests suggest the drug has no dangerous side effects, (conclusion)
2 In short, losing the war was a humiliating defeat for the country on a number of different levels, (summarise)
3 To sum up, it is impossible to blame the disaster on one person alone. (summary)
4 From the survey we can conclude that advertising has a stronger effect on teenage girls than on other groups of the population, (draw / come give two answers)
5 To recap, there were a number of different reasons why the experiment was less successful than had been hoped, (recapitulate)
50.2 Choose a word from the box to complete each sentence.
abstract      analysis      balance      close      eventually      points      provide      put words
1 On.....................................it would seem that more people are against the proposed law than for it.
2 Authors submitting an article for the journal are requested to provide a brief......................................
outlining the contents of their article.
3 To......................................it briefly, General Pachai's attempts to manipulate the situation to his
own advantage......................................led to his own downfall.
4 Most theses......................................a summary of the literature in the field in their opening chapter.
5 In the final......................................no one can be completely certain as to what caused the crash.
6 To summarise the problem in a few......................................: manufacturing in the country has
declined drastically in the last ten years.
7 Let us now recap the main......................................in the argument.
8 Before bringing this paper to a..................................... , I should like to suggest some areas
requiring further research.
50.3 Choose either lastly or at last to complete each of these sentences.
1 After several months of negotiations, the two sides have......................................reached agreement.
2 First, we shall consider the causes of the war, then we shall look at the events of the war and,......................................, we shall discuss the consequences of the war.
3 She decided not to apply to Melbourne University. First and foremost, her marks were not likely to be good enough but also her parents did not want her to apply there. ......................................, none of her friends were considering going there.
4 My brother was very relieved when,......................................, he finished writing his dissertation.
5 Many congratulations on having reached the final unit of this book.......................................
50.4 What can you learn about the difference between the expressions in the end and at the end from these two sentences? Use a dictionary if necessary.
1 In the end, the government realised that the tax law had been a mistake and abolished it.
2 At the end of the book, Tao states that privatisation of public services is the solution.
50.5 Correct the six errors in this paragraph.
This paragraph is a precise of Academic Vocabulary in Use. To sum, the book provides 50 units covering key aspects of academic vocabulary. Stated brief, each unit has tempted to present and practise the words that all students need. The overalls aim of the book is to help students not only to understand but also to use academic vocabulary. In bringing the book to a closure, we hope we have helped you and wish you success in your future academic studies.
Academic Vocabulary in Use   109
Reading and vocabulary I
This section will give you further practice in the kinds of vocabulary you have studied in this book and will help you to become more aware of academic vocabulary as you read. The texts will be useful for you whatever discipline you are studying.
Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions.
QcwcL jrlenM
Psychologists have long known that having a set of cherished companions is crucial to mental well-being. In addition, a recent study by Australian investigators concluded that our friends even help to prolong our lives. The scientists analyzed data from a decade-long survey called the Australian Longitudinal Study of Aging, which was initiated in 1992. It concentrated on the social environment, general health, lifestyle and age of death of 1,477 persons older than 70 years. Study participants were asked how much personal and telephone contact they had with friends, children, relatives and acquaintances.
Researchers were surprised to learn that friendships increased life expectancy to a far greater extent than, say, frequent contact with children and other relatives. This benefit held true even after these friends had moved away to another city and was independent of factors such as socioeconomic status, health and way of life.
What exactly underlies this effect on longevity? Apparently, the scientists posit, it is not merely the mutual buoying of spirits that occurs among associates. What is more important is that the support given and received by friends is voluntary and pleasurable and not just the result of a sense of duty or convention. In contrast to our own families, we are able to choose our friends.
According to the Australian scientists, the ability to have relationships with people to whom one is important has a positive effect on physical and mental health. Stress and the tendency toward depression are reduced, and behaviors that are damaging to health, such as smoking and drinking, occur less frequently. The investigators speculate that in times of calamity in particular, our support networks can raise our moods and feelings of self-worth and offer helpful strategies for dealing with difficult personal challenges.
1 Which words and expressions in the first paragraph could the following substitute for?
1 friends one loves and cares for 3 extend 5 focused
2 extremely important 4 begun 6 subjects
2 Find in the text a word which:
1 means 'people' (more formal)    3 would be spelt differently in British English. How?
2 means 'is the hidden cause of   4 means a 'serious accident or very bad event'
3 Use words from the text to complete this table.
noun	verb	adjective
		conventional
help	help	
	expect	expectant
pleasure	please	
Once you have read the content of a text, look over it again and check that you know the different forms of important words in it, as in the table above.
I 10   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Reading and vocabulary 2
Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions.
Of the seven continents, Australia is the flattest, smallest, and except for Antarctica, the most arid, mcluding the southeastern island of Tasmania, the island continent is roughly equal in area to the United States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii. Millions of years of geographic isolation from other landmasses accounts for Australia's unique animal species, notably marsupial mammals like the kangaroo, egg laying mammals like the platypus, and the flightless emu bird. Excluding folded structures (areas warped by geologic forces) along Australia's east coast, patches of the northern coastline and the relatively lush island of Tasmania, the continent is mostly dry, bleak and inhospitable.
Tflpegrapty and1 «r»5»n ef -At^tr<»l»<»
Australia has been less affected by seismic and orogenic (mountain building) forces than other continents during the past 400 million years. Although seismic (earthquake) activity persists in the eastern and western highlands, Australia is the most stable of all continents. In the recent geological past, it has experienced none of the massive upheavals responsible for uplifting the Andes in South America, the Himalayas
in south Asia or the European Alps. Instead Australia's topography is the end result of gradual changes over millions of years. Australia is not the oldest continent, a common misconception arising from the continent's flat, seemingly unchanged expanse. Geologically it is the same age as the Americas, Asia, Africa, Europe and Antarctica. But Australia's crust has escaped strong earth forces in recent geological history, accounting for its relatively uniform appearance. As a result, the continent serves as a window to early geological ages.
Splitting 6f Ans\x*\i* ire** A*\\*rt\K*
About 95 million years ago, tectonic forces (movements and pressures of the earth's crust) split Australia from Antarctica and the southern supercontinent of Gondwanaland. Geologists estimate that the continent is drifting northward at a rate of approximately 18 inches (28 cm) per year. They theorize that south Australia was joined to Antarctica at the Antarctic regions of Wilkes Land, including Commonwealth Bay. Over a period of 65 million years, beginning 160 million years ago, Australia's crust was stretched hundreds of miles by tectonics before it finally cleaved from Antarctica.
1 True or false? Write T or F after these statements. If they are false, say why.
1 Australia is the driest continent in the world.
2 Australia has some animals which no other continent has.
3 These animals came to Australia when it was still joined to other landmasses.
4 There is no seismic activity nowadays in Australia.
5 The general geological appearance of Australia is very different in its different regions.
2 Underline in the text word combinations which mean:
1 approximately the same 4 a wrong idea which many people believe is true
2 huge changes 5  which apparently has remained the same
3 result of a series of events or a long process
3 Which word in the text means:
1 having a lot of green, healthy plants, grass and trees
2 not suitable for humans to live in
3 a metaphor that means 'something that enables you to see and learn about a situation'
4 develop a set of ideas to explain something
pMlj   Find a general geography text about your own country or region written in English and make a note of any useful word combinations you find there.
Reading and vocabulary   I I I
Reading and vocabulary 3
Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions.
Thei WDrlcIkJJWBjdjEb
Until the appearance of the World Wide Web (WWW), the Internet was mainly used by people who had some computer expertise. File transfer protocol (FTP) was the standard method by which data could be stored on or removed from a server, and if a document that had been transmitted had references to other documents then it was not straightforward to access them. In other words, FTP does not link separate documents together. In 1992, Tim Berners-Lee, working at Europe's high-energy physics research centre in Switzerland, wrote the first browser program which used a protocol called hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). This operates as follows: When a client requests a Web server to send a document, the request is sent using HTTP (rather than FTP). The Web server finds the document in its memory and transmits it along with extra information. It is this extra information that distinguishes a Web server from an Internet server. The extra information transmitted is composed of two main parts:
* control codes, using hypertext markup language (HTML), by which the client computer screen can display the document, i.e. the layout, headings, bordering, etc. Images can be transmitted as separate files and incorporated on the visible page by HTML code.
* links to other documents. These links are specific words or phrases in the text of the transmitted document that will allow related documents to be accessed.
When the mouse pointer of the client computer is moved over the document on the screen, the arrow changes to a hand with a pointing finger whenever it falls on any hypertext. If the user clicks on this link, the browser will automatically set up the link address and request the appropriate Web server to transmit the new document to the client. When this new document arrives, it is displayed on the screen.
A browser, therefore, is a program, stored in the client's computer, that is able to read hypertext. While the Internet is the huge collection of computer networks and databases connected by backbone cable and optic fibre, the WWW is essentially a browsing and searching system. It allows users with virtually no expertise to access the information stored at certain sites on the Internet.
1 From memory if you can, fill in the missing prepositions.
1 until the appearance....................the World Wide Web
2 the method....................which data could be stored
3 the data could be stored on or removed..................a server
4 references....................other documents
5 the server transmits the document.......................................extra information
6 the information is composed............two parts
7 the extra information provides links...................other documents
2 Use words and phrases from the text to rewrite the words in bold.
1 Accessing web pages is easy and simple, and people with almost no expertise use the web.
2 The browser contacts the right server to transmit the document.
3 The WWW is in its basic character a search system.
4 The information added to documents makes web servers different from Internet servers.
5 Years ago, the Internet was mostly used by experts.
ESS Search an online encyclopedia for a text on either how the mobile/cell phone system works, or Efl    on how the satellite global positioning system (GPS) works. Read the text and make a note of [3    any useful noun + preposition or verb + preposition combinations.
I 12   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Reading and vocabulary 4
Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions.
The human brain
The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. It produces our every thought, action, memory, feeling and experience of the world. This jelly-like mass of tissue, weighing around 1.4 kilograms, contains a staggering one hundred billion nerve cells, or neurons. Each neuron can make contact with tens of thousands of others, via tiny structures called synapses. Our brains form a million new connections for every second of our lives. The pattern and strength of the connections is constantly changing and no two brains are alike. It is in these changing connections that memories are stored, habits learned and personalities shaped, by reinforcing certain patterns of brain activity, and losing others.
While people often speak of their 'grey matter', the brain also contains white matter. The grey matter is the cell bodies of the neurons, while the white matter is the branching network of thread-like tendrils - called dendrites and axons - that spread out from the cell bodies to connect to other neurons. The brain also has another, more numerous type of cell, called glial cells. These outnumber neurons ten times over. Once thought to be support cells, they are now known to amplify neural signals and to be as important as neurons in mental calculations. There are many different types of neuron, only one of which is unique to humans and the other great apes, the so-called spindle cells.
Brain structure is formed partially by genes, but largely by experience. Only relatively recently it was discovered that new brain cells are being born throughout our lives - a process called neurogenesis. The brain has bursts of growth and then periods of consolidation, when excess connections are pruned. The most notable bursts are in the first two or three years of life, during puberty, and also a final burst in young adulthood. How a brain ages also depends on genes and lifestyle too. Exercising the brain and giving it the right diet can be just as important as it is for the rest of the body.
The neurons in our brains communicate in a variety of ways. Signals pass between them by the release and capture of neurotransmitter and neuromodulator chemicals. Some neurochemicals work in the synapse, passing specific messages from release sites to collection sites, called receptors. Others also spread their influence more widely, like a radio signal, making whole brain regions more or less sensitive.
1 Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. Look for words that the underlined words combine with in the article.
1 The skin is the largest organ in the.......................................body.
2 Psychologists disagree as to how exactly memories are......................................in the brain.
3 Humans share almost all of their genes with the other......................................apes such as gorillas.
4 As children become young adults they have......................................of growth.
5 It is important that animals in captivity are given the......................................diet.
6 People have approached the problem in a variety of.......................................
2 Find words in the text which have an opposite meaning:
1 simple (para 1) 4 are fewer than (para 2)      7 initial (para 3)
2 converge (para 2) 5 diminish (para 2) 8  general (para 4)
3 scarce (para 2) 6 wholly (para 3) 9  restrict (para 4)
3 These words from the text can be used in a number of different ways. Write sentences exemplifying three different uses for each of them.
matter     pass     formed cells
4 Highlight six words or phrases that might be used in your discipline. Write sentences using them. Reading and vocabulary   1 13
Reading and vocabulary 5
Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is science and engineering at the scale of atoms and molecules. It is the manipulation and use of materials and devices so tiny that nothing can be built any smaller. Nanornaterials are typically between 0.1 and 100 nanometres (nm) in size - with 1 nm being equivalent to one billionth of a metre (109 m).
This is the scale at which the basic functions of the biological world operate - and materials of this size display unusual physical and chemical properties. These profoundly different properties are due to an increase in surface area compared to volume as particles get smaller - and also the grip of weird quantum effects at the atomic scale.
Unwittingly, people have made use of some unusual properties of materials at the nanoscale for centuries. Tiny particles of gold for example, can appear red or green - a property that has been used to colour stained glass windows for over 1,000 years.
Experimental nanotechnology did not come into its own until 1981, when IBM scientists in Zurich, Switzerland, built the first scanning tunnelling microscope (STM). This allows us to see single atoms by scanning a tiny probe over the surface of a silicon crystal. In 1990, IBM scientists discovered how to use an STM to move single xenon atoms around on a nickel surface.
Engineering at the nanoscale is no simple feat, and scientists are having to come up with completely different solutions to build from the 'bottom-up' rather than using traditional 'top-down' manufacturing techniques. Some nanornaterials, such as nanowires and other simple devices have been shown to assemble themselves given the right conditions, and other experiments at larger scales are striving to demonstrate the principles of self-assembly. Micro-electronic devices might be persuaded to grow from the ground up, rather like trees.
In the short term, the greatest advances through nanotechnology will come in the form of novel medical devices and processes, new catalysts for industry and smaller components for computers. In medicine, for example, we are already seeing research on: new ways to deliver drugs with contact lenses; the directing of drugs to tumours with tiny 'smart bombs'; gold 'nano-bullets' that seek and destroy tumours; starving cancer with nanoparticles; diagnosing diseases such as Alzheimer's, monitoring health and fighting sickness with tiny probes; and growing new organs from scratch.
1 Answer these questions about the word combinations used in the text.
1 In the first paragraph which adjective is used with device}
2 In the second paragraph which verb is used with properties}
3 In the third paragraph which noun is used with make}
4 In the fourth paragraph which adjective is used with nanotechnology}
5 In the fifth paragraph which adverb is used with different}
6 In the sixth paragraph which adjective is used with advances}
2 What other words of the same part of speech as in exercise 1 could be used with device, properties, make, nanotechnology, different and advances} Suggest at least two others.
3 What do these adverbial expressions used in the text mean?
1 unwittingly (para 3)        2 in the short term (para 6)       3  from scratch (para 6)
Ifmjj Use a search engine on the web to find a recent article relating to nanotechnology + medi E^H or computing or industry, depending on which interests you most. Make a note of any new 13    interesting new facts and vocabulary that you find there.
I 14   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Reading and vocabulary 6
Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions.
International law: an overview
International law consists of rules and principles which govern the relations and dealings of nations with each other. Public International Law concerns itself only with questions of rights between several nations or nations and the citizens or subjects of other nations. In contrast, Private International Law deals with controversies between private persons, natural or juridical, arising out of situations having significant relationship to more than one nation. In recent years the lines between public and private international law have became increasingly uncertain. Issues of private international law may also implicate issues of public international law, and many matters of private international law have substantial significance for the international community of nations.
International Law includes the basic, classic concepts of law in national legal systems - status, property, obligation, and tort (or delict). It also includes substantive law, procedure, process and remedies. International Law is rooted in acceptance by the nation states which constitute the system. Customary law and conventional law are primary sources of international law. Customary international law results when states follow certain practices generally and consistently out of a sense of legal obligation. Recently the customary law was codified in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Conventional international law derives from international agreements and may take any form that the contracting parties agree upon. Agreements may be made in respect to any matter except to the extent that the agreement conflicts with the rules of international law incorporating basic standards of international conduct or the obligations of a member state under the Charter of the United Nations. International agreements create law for the parties of the agreement. They may also lead to the creation of customary international law when they are intended for adherence generally and are in fact widely accepted. Customary law and law made by international agreement have equal authority as international law. Parties may assign higher priority to one of the sources by agreement. However, some rules of international law are recognized by international community as peremptory, permitting no derogation. Such rules can be changed or modified only by a subsequent peremptory norm of international law.
1 Find words or phrases in the first paragraph which could be substituted by the following:
1 is made up of 4 contrastingly 7 distinctions
2 regulate 5 disagreements 8 more and more
3 focuses on 6 stemming from 9 bring in
2 Paraphrase these words or phrases from the second paragraph:
1 basic 4 derives from 7 conduct
2 classic 5 in respect to 8 parties
3 is rooted in 6 conflicts with 9 assign
3 Use a dictionary if necessary. Find at least five other words with the same root as each of the following:
1 nation 3 acceptance 5 creator
2 significant 4 extent
Find a definition of your own subject area or one specific aspect of it. Write it out. Does it include any of the more general vocabulary from this text? What other interesting words and expressions does it use?
Reading and vocabulary   I 15
Reference i
Formal and informal academic words and expressions
There are many differences between formal, neutral and informal vocabulary in English. Here we list a number of words and expressions that are frequent in academic contexts and which may present problems in terms of choosing between formal, neutral and less formal alternatives.
You may often hear some of the informal words and expressions during classes, seminars, etc., but be careful not to use them where they are not appropriate, for example in formal essays or dissertations. Use a good dictionary which gives information about formality if you are in doubt. Where words are informal, we make a special note here. Space is provided at the end for you to add further examples of your own.
(n) = noun     (v) = verb     (adj) = adjective
formal	neutral (or informal where indicated)	example or comment
accord	agreement	an accord/agreement between two countries
acquire	obtain, get (less formal)	See Unit 48
address (v)	give attention to	address / give attention to a topic / an issue
address, speak to	speak/talk about	See Unit 40
adjudicate	judge	adjudicate/judge a contest/dispute
administer	give	administer/give a drug/medicine to a patient
advantages and	pros and cons	See Unit 38
disadvantages	(informal)	
advocate (v)	support, encourage	We do not advocate/support/ encourage the use of questionnaires with young children.
aim	set out (to do X)	In this paper, we aim/set out to challenge some current assumptions.
albeit	although	See Unit 38
appeal for	ask for	The police are appealing/asking for any information the public can offer.
attempt	try, have a shot at (informal)	See Unit 1
attire	clothes	She always wore rather old-fashioned attire/clothes.
be accepted / be	get in (informal)	(for entry into a university or college)
offered a place		1 hope to get in / be accepted / be offered a place to study engineering.
call on	ask (somebody to do something)	See Unit 40
catalogue (v)	list	See Unit 23
characteristic (adj)	typical	See Unit 4
check	go through	See Unit 6
compose	write	e.g. a poem/letter/symphony
conduct	carry out, do (less formal)	(an experiment / research / a study) See Unit 6
conduct (n)	behaviour	(in the social sense) Such conduct/behaviour is unacceptable.
consist of	be made up of	See Unit 6
I 16   Academic Vocabulary in Use
formal	neutral (or informal where indicated)	example or comment
constitute	make up	See Unit 6
consult (v)	read, look at	e.g. a document/archive See Unit 23
contest (v)	argue against, disagree with	contest / argue against / disagree with a judgement
convention	agreement	No written convention/agreement existed until 1984.
cordial	friendly	cordial/friendly relations between governments
correct	right	It took hours of calculations to arrive at the correct/ right answer.
deliver	give	deliver/give a talk/lecture
demonstrate	show	See Units 3 and 12
describe	set out	See Unit 6
diminish	decrease, grow smaller	The population has diminished/decreased / grown smaller.
discuss	go into	See Unit 6
dispose of	get rid of	dispose of / get rid of nuclear waste
document (v)	record, write about	See Unit 23
dormitory	dorm	BrE = hall of residence See Unit 19
dwelling	house, flat, apartment	There were originally SO dwellings/houses/flats/ apartments on the site.
endure	last	The dynasty endured/lasted for eight centuries.
examination	exam (slightly informal)	(formal test) degree examinations/exams
examine	take, have a look at (informal)	See Unit 12
exceed	be more, higher, greater than	See Unit 7
exchange	swap (informal)	The tube was exchanged/swapped for one of a larger calibre.
final	last	See Unit 50
hierarchy	pecking order	e.g. in an institution
highlight	point up	See Unit 6
improper	wrong	improper/wrong procedure
in excess of	over, higher than	See Unit 7
in greater detail	in more detail	See Unit 40
in respect of, with respect to	with regard to, as far as X is concerned, as far as X goes (informal)	See Unit 16
in sum, in summary	in short, to sum up, summing up	See Units 1,40 and 50
inappropriate	unsuitable	inappropriate/unsuitable form of words
incorrect	wrong (rather more direct than incorrect)	The totals in column 3 are incorrect/wrong.
incur	result in, experience	See Unit 21
instigate	initiate, start something	See Unit 35
instruct	direct, order	instruct/direct/order somebody to carry out a task
Reference   I 17
formal	neutral (or informal where indicated)	example or comment
investigate	look into (slightly informal)	investigate / look into a problem
laboratory	lab	See Unit 41
maintain	keep	See Unit 48
make reference to	refer to	See Unit 23
negotiations	talks	negotiations/talks between governments
nevertheless	having said that	See Unit 40
observe	point out	See Unit 6
occasion	time	It happened three times / on three occasions.
occupation	job, profession	(on a questionnaire) Question 3:What is your occupation/profession ?
omit, not attend something	skip (informal)	skip a lecture, skip/omit a chapter
pledge	promise	as a noun or as a verb
pose	ask	pose/ask a question See Unit 12
postgraduate	postgrad (informal)	See Unit 18
present	put forward	an idea/view/theory, etc. See Unit 6
primarily	mainly	See Unit 5
recapitulate	recap	See Unit 50
recently	lately	These animals have not been seen recently/lately.
representative	rep (informal)	She's the student representative/rep on the Departmental Committee.
resign	quit (informal)	The President resigned/quit in 1986.
resolve	solve, end	resolve/solve a problem, resolve/end a conflict
rest on	be based on	See Unit 14
return	come back, go back, get back	See Unit 40
revise	look back over, go over	See Unit 6
sanction (v)	permit	The government cannot sanction law breaking.
secure (v)	obtain, get (informal)	e.g. secure oil supplies See Unit 47
sole(ly)	only	See Unit 1
somewhat	slightly, a little, a bit (informal)	See Unit 5
speak of	talk of, talk about (less formal)	See Unit 14
spouse	husband, wife	The President's spouse/husband/wife attended the ceremony.
substantial	large, big	a substantial number/amount See Unit 7
treat	deal with	This issue was not treated / dealt with fully in Holstedt's earlier work.
undergraduate	undergrad (informal)	The undergrads/undergraduates mostly live in halls of residence.
I 18   Academic Vocabulary in Use
formal	neutral (or informal where indicated)	example or comment
undertaking (n)	promise	an official undertaking/promise to do something
utilise	use something effectively	utilise a resource/method
virtually	almost, more or less	See Unit 1
write of	write about	See Unit 14
X is not possible / not correct	There's no way X ... (rather informal)	See Unit 1
Yours faithfully	Yours sincerely, best wishes (less formal), best (informal)	way of ending a letter or email
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
Reference   I 19
Reference 2
Numbers, units of measurement and common symbols
You know how to say all the numbers in English. Here we look at how combinations of numbers are said aloud.
BrE = British English     AmE = North American English
For spelling differences between BrE and AmE, see Reference 4.
Fractions
Fractions are normally spoken as in these examples:
I a (one) half
4 a (one) quarter \ three quarters
5 a (one) fifth j two thirds
1 kilometre a quarter of a kilometre
2 centimetre half a centimetre
Complex fractions and expressions of division are usually said with over.
27 twenty-seven over two hundred
200 twenty-seven divided by two hundred
Decimals
Decimals are normally spoken as in these examples:
0.36 nought point three six (BrE)   zero point three six (AmE)
5.2 five point two
Percentages
Percentages are spoken as per cent.
16.3% sixteen point three per cent
Calculations
Calculations are normally said in the following ways:
7 + 3 = 10    seven and three is/are ten (informal)
seven plus three equals ten (more formal)
28 - 6 = 22   six from twenty-eight is/leaves twenty-two (informal)
twenty-eight minus six equals twenty-two (more formal)
8x2= 16    eight twos are sixteen (informal BrE)
eight times two is sixteen (informal) (the most common form in AmE)
eight by two is/equals sixteen (informal)
eight multiplied by two equals/is sixteen (more formal)
27-r 9 = 3     twenty-seven divided by nine equals three
500 ± 5        five hundred plus or minus five
>300 greater than three hundred
<200 less than two hundred
120   Academic Vocabulary in Use
32 = 9 three squared is/equals nine
Vl6 = 4 the (square) root of sixteen is four
33 = 27 three cubed is/equals twenty-seven 3V8 = 2 the cube root of eight is two
24 = 16 two to the power of 4 is/equals sixteen (AmE = two to the fourth power ...)
Units of measurement
Although the metric system is now common in the UK and other English-speaking countries, non-metric units are still used in many contexts, especially in the USA.
Units of length and distance are normally spoken as follows:
3 in, 3" three inches
2 ft 7 in, 2' 7" two feet seven inches (or, very informally, two foot seven inches) 500 yds five hundred yards
3 m (AmE = 3 mi.) three miles
500 mm five hundred millimetres (or, more informally, five hundred m-m)
1.5 cm one point five centimetres
Units of area are normally spoken as follows:
11 sq ft eleven square feet
5 sq m, 5m2 five square metres
7.25 cm2 seven point two five square centimetres
Units of weight are normally spoken as follows:
3 oz three ounces
5 lb five pounds
300 g three hundred grams
18.75 kg eighteen point seven five kilograms
Units of volume, capacity and temperature are normally spoken as follows:
300 cc three hundred cubic centimetres (or, less formally, three hundred c-c)
5 pt five pints
3.2 gal three point two gallons
75 cl seventy-five centilitres
200 1 two hundred litres
20° twenty degrees
Common symbols
	'ampersand' - this symbol is read as 'and'
*	asterisk
©	copyright symbol
TM	trademark symbol
®	registered trademark
•	bullet point
/	BrE = tick; AmE = check
	BrE = cross; AmE = an 'X'
#	BrE = hash symbol (Note: in American English, this symbol is used for numbers, e.g.
	#28 AmE; no. 28 BrE)
@	this symbol is read as 'at' - used in email addresses
oo	infinity symbol
ii	this symbol is read as 'ditto' - used in lists to avoid writing a word if the same word is
	written immediately above it
Reference    121
Reference 3
British and North American academic vocabulary
There are numerous differences in vocabulary between the English of the UK and Ireland, and the English of the USA and Canada, the two dominant areas which have historically influenced English in many other parts of the world. However, there is also a great amount of mixing, and Americans and Canadians are often familiar with British and Irish usages, and vice versa. So the table below is for general guidance only. Also, nowadays, thanks to the media and the internet, American vocabulary is influencing and being imported into British, Irish and international English more and more. In the case of Ireland, this is more noticeable than in Great Britain. Other important varieties of English, such as Indian, Australian, African, Caribbean, etc., also have their own words and phrases, but have probably, for historical reasons, had less influence overall on international usage or academic usage in particular.
The first column of the table shows words and phrases that are commonly used in North American English, but which are not used, or used to a far lesser extent, in British and Irish English, and which are likely to occur in academic texts or in general college and university contexts and student life. Be prepared to meet others in everyday life in English-speaking countries.
See also Units 18 and 19 of this book. Space is provided at the end for you to add further examples of your own.
For differences between British and American grammar, see the special chapter in the Cambridge Grammar of English (published by Cambridge University Press).
AmE = North American English      BrE = British/Irish English
North American	British/Irish	comment
airplane	aeroplane	
antenna	aerial	
apartment	flat	Both forms are heard increasingly in BrE.
apartment building	block of flats	
attorney	lawyer	
ATM (automated teller machine)	cashpoint	bank machine from which one can get money Both forms are used in Irish English.
bill	note	e.g. a 100 dollar bill, a 50 euro note
cafeteria	canteen	Both are common in BrE.
candy	sweet(s)	
cart	trolley	used in a supermarket to carry one's shopping
cell phone	mobile phone	
checking account	current account	bank account for day-to-day use
chips	crisps	
coach class	economy class	cheapest class of air travel
condominium, condo (informal)	block of flats	
cookie	biscuit	small, flat cake
cord	lead	electrical cable joining an appliance to a power connection
122   Academic Vocabulary in Use
North American	British/Irish	comment
co-worker	workmate	
crosswalk	pedestrian crossing	
dirt road	unpaved road, track	
district attorney	public prosecutor	
divided highway	dual carriageway	
doctor's office	surgery	
downtown	town centre, city centre	
(the) draft	conscription	compulsory military service
drug store	chemist's, pharmacy	
eggplant	aubergine	vegetable
elementary school	primary school	
elevator	lift	
eraser	rubber	
fall	autumn	
faucet	tap	for water
field	pitch	a sports area, e.g. football pitch/field
flashlight	torch	a light powered by batteries
freeway	motorway	
(French) fries	chips	long, thin pieces of fried potato, eaten hot (see chips vs crisps)
furnace	central heating boiler	
garbage,trash	rubbish, refuse (more formal)	
gas	petrol	fuel for motor vehicles
grounded	earthed	electrical
high school	secondary school	
highway	main road	Highway in BrE is normally only used in technical and legal/official contexts.
intersection	crossroads	
intermission	interval	e.g. break in a cinema/theatre performance Both forms are common in Irish English.
interstate (highway)	main/major road, motorway	
jack	socket	connection for a telephone landline
kindergarten	nursery	In AmE, kindergarten refers to school for five-year-old children; that is, it is the year before entering first grade. In BrE, nursery refers to a special room for babies, while nursery school refers to a school for children aged 2-5 (also called pre-schoof).
legal holiday	bank holiday	
license plate, license tag	number plate	on a vehicle
line	queue	
locker room	changing room	for sports
mail	post	
mall	shopping centre	Mall is used more and more in BrE.
mass transit	public transport	
Reference   123
North American	British/Irish	comment
movie	film	
movie theater	cinema	
normalcy	normality	
operating room	operating theatre	hospital
outlet	socket	place to connect for electrical power - BrE also uses power point
overpass	flyover	in a road system
parentheses	brackets	In AmE, the word brackets refers to [ ]. In AmE, parentheses are ().
parking garage	multi-storey car park	
parking lot	car park	
penitentiary	prison	
period	full stop	referring to punctuation
petroleum	crude oil	oil when it comes out of the ground
prenatal	ante-natal	'before birth' - concerning mothers to be
private school	private school, public	A public school in the UK is a private secondary
	school	school; schools run by the government are called state schools. In the US, private school only refers to schools that are privately owned, never to public institutions.
railroad	railway	
recess, break	break	e.g. gap between activities, for lunch, etc.
restroom, bathroom,	toilet, loo (informal)	Restroom is used for public facilities, whereas
washroom (Canada)		bathroom refers to facilities in a home.
resume	curriculum vitae (or CV)	
round trip	return	e.g. a round trip / return ticket
running shoes, sneakers	trainers	
sales clerk	shop assistant	
sales tax	VAT (value added tax)	tax added to goods and services at the point of purchase
schedule	timetable	
scotch tape	sellotape	adhesive tape
server	waiter, waitress	
senior	pensioner, senior citizen	
sidewalk	pavement, footpath	
social security number	national insurance	individual personal number used by officials in
	number	connection with tax, social benefits, etc.
stop lights	traffic lights	
store	shop	
subway	underground (railway)	A subway in BrE is an underground tunnel or passageway for pedestrians to cross a road.
takeout	takeaway	meals, food
teller	cashier	person who serves customers in a bank
thumbtack	drawing pin	e.g. used to fix a notice to a noticeboard
tractor-trailer	articulated lorry, juggernaut	
124   Academic Vocabulary in Use
North American	British/Irish	comment
trash	rubbish, refuse (more formal)	
trashcan	(dust)bin	
truck	lorry, truck	
two weeks	fortnight	
vacation	holiday	Vacation is used in BrE universities to mean the periods when no teaching takes place. In AmE, holiday refers to a national day of observance, for example New Year's Day.
zee	zed	last letter of the English alphabet
zucchini	courgette	vegetable
zip code (USA), postal code (Canada)	postcode	
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
Reference   125
Reference 4
Spelling variations
Some words are spelt differently in different varieties of English. The main contrasts are between UK/Irish and US English. Other varieties of English tend to opt for either predominantly UK/Irish or predominantly US spellings. The US spelling tends to be simpler and a clearer reflection of the way the word is pronounced. You can, of course, use whichever spelling you prefer but it is sensible to be consistent. The main patterns of spelling variation are shown below.
Space is provided in the middle columns for you to add further examples of your own.
Word-processing and other computer programs often have spellcheck features that check the spelling of what you write for you. You can usually set these to either UK, US or Australian spelling. However, remember that it is not sensible to rely on the computer to check and correct your spelling for you. A spellcheck program will not pick up the spelling errors in this sentence, for example: I don't no weather their are two many mistakes inn yore righting or knot.
pattern of variation	examples of UK + Irish spelling	examples of US spelling	comment
words with -ourlor	labour, honour, behaviour, endeavour, favourable, rumour	labor, honor, behavior, endeavor, favorable, rumor	In some words UK spelling prefers the -or form, e.g. humorous, honorary, glamorous.
words ending with -er/re	centre, theatre, centimetre, litre, lustre	center, theater, centimeter, liter, luster	UK spelling distinguishes between metre (100 cms) and meter (measuring device).
verbs ending in single 1 when they add a suffix	cancelling, labelled, counsellor, marvellous, modelled	canceling, labeled, counselor, marvelous, modeled	Sometimes the double / spelling will also be found in US texts.
other words with single or double /	fulfil, enrol, enrolment, instalment, skilful, wilful	fulfill, enroll, enrollment, installment, skillful, willful	The verb to install can be written with either / or II in both UK and US English, although // is more common.
words ending with -oguelog	analogue, catalogue, dialogue	analog, catalog, dialog	The -gue ending can also be found in US texts.
126   Academic Vocabulary in Use
pattern of variation	examples of UK + Irish spelling	examples of US spelling	comment
verbs ending with -iselize and nouns ending with -isationl ization	emphasise, minimise, globalise, colonise, organise, standardise, globalisation, colonisation, organisation, standardisation	emphasize, minimize, globalize, colonize, organize, standardize, globalization, colonization, organization, standardization	Some verbs always end in -ise, e.g. advertise, advise, apprise, arise, comprise, compromise, despise, devise, disguise, enfranchise, enterprise, excise, exercise, improvise, incise, premise, revise, supervise, surmise, surprise. With other words the -izelization endings will also sometimes be found in UK texts.
verbs ending with -yselyze	analyse, catalyse, paralyse	analyze, catalyze, paralyze	The nouns analysis, catalysis and paralysis are spelt the same in both UK and US texts.
some words ending with <e/se	defence, offence, pretence, practise (verb), licence (noun)	defense, offense, pretense, practice (verb and noun), license (verb and noun)	UK spelling distinguishes between practice and licence (nouns) and practise and license (verbs).
some words with -oe or -oe in UK English	anaesthetic, gynaecology, haemorrhage, orthopaedic, manoeuvre, oesophagus	anesthetic, gynecology, hemorrhage, orthopedic, maneuvre, esophagus	Words in this category are all of Greek origin and most occur in medical contexts.
miscellaneous	aluminium, cheque, grey, kerb, mould, plough, (TV, research) programme, pyjamas, storey (of building), (car) tyre	aluminum, check, gray, curb, mold, plow, program, pajamas, story, tire	In UK spelling note the spelling of computer program. In UK spelling check, curb, story and tire have distinct meanings from cheque, kerb, storey and tyre.
Reference   127
Reference 5
Word formation
One advantage of English vocabulary is that many words are formed from the same root. As a result, if you know the word friend, it is easy to understand other words from the same root such as friendly, friendship, unfriendly and befriend. Learning what prefixes (for example, un-, mis-, extra-) and suffixes (-ify, -ship, -less) signify can help you to extend your vocabulary in a relatively effortless way. When you meet a new word, it is a good idea to write it down with other words using the same root + different prefixes and suffixes. Thus, you might write down together, for example, amoral, morality, immoral, morally, moralise, moralist, moralistic.
Variations occur in the use of hyphens, especially in newspapers and popular magazines. For example, the prefix de- may or may not be followed by a hyphen (decontaminate, decentralise), but some prefixes are almost always used with a hyphen (e.g. ex-, semi-). Train yourself to be aware of any prefixes which regularly occur in your academic area and make a note of how they are usually written. Note that North American English makes much less use of hyphens after prefixes than British English.
The following table includes some of the major prefixes and suffixes that are useful as far as academic vocabulary is concerned. Familiarising yourself with these will not only help you to work out what unfamiliar words mean but will also help you to remember those words. Space is provided for you to add further examples of your own.
prefix	meaning	examples	further examples of your own
a-	without	amoral /,ei'moral/, apolitical /,eip3'litik°l/, atypical /.ei'tipik3!/	
ante-	before	antecedent, antedate	
anti-	against, opposing	anti-establishment, anti-bacterial, anti-pollution	
arch-	more extreme	arch-capitalist, arch-rebel	
auto-	self	auto-dial, auto-rotate	
bi-	two, twice	bilingual, bisect, bi-monthly	
circum-	round	circumnavigate, circumvent	
co-	with	co-author, co-edit	
col-, com-, con-	with	collaborate, combine, connect	
contra-, counter-	against, opposing	contra-revolutionary, contraception, counter-measure, counter-claim	
de-	opposite action	decentralise, declassify	
dia-	across	diagonal, diameter	
dis-	opposite action or state	disagree, disprove, distrust, disbelief, disproportionate	
128   Academic Vocabulary in Use
prefix	meoning	examples	further examples of your own
dys-	abnormal	dyslexia, dysfunctional	
e-	electronic	e-literate, e-book	
eco-	relating to the environment	eco-tourism, eco-disaster	
equi-	equal	equidistant, equilateral	
ex-	previously	ex-president, ex-student	
extra-	very	extra-bright, extra-strong	
extra-	outside	extra-curricular, extra-sensory	
hyper-	having too much	hyperactive, hypersensitive	
-il, -im, -in, -ir-	not	illogical, impossible, indistinct, irrational	
in-	movement to or towards the inside of something	input, inset, intake, import	
inter-	between, connected	interrelated, interact	
intra-	within	intra-generational, intramuscular	
kilo-	thousand	kilogram, kilowatt	
macro-	large in size or scope	macro-economics, macro-scale	
mal-	badly	malfunction, malpractice	
micro-	small in size or scope	micro-economics, micro-scale	
mis-	wrongly	mistranslate, misunderstanding	
mono-	one	mono-centric, monoculture	
multi-	many	multicultural, multi-level	
neo-	based on something older but in a new form	neo-classical, neo-conservative	
non-	not	non-believer, non-competitive	
out-	more, to a greater extent	outnumber, outlive	
over-	too much	over-abundance, overload, overworked	
Reference   129
prefix	mean'mg	examples	further examples of your own
post-	after	post-examination, post-modern	
pre-	before	pre-industrial, pre-war	
pro-	in favour of	pro-liberal, pro-feminist	
pseudo-	false	pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-science	
quasi-	almost, not quite	quasi-academic, quasi-legal	
re-	again	rediscover, redefine, rename	
retro-	backwards	retrogressive, retrospective	
semi-	partly	semi-organic, semi-precious	
sub-	under, lesser	sub-heading, sub-section	
super-	above, bigger	superpower, supersonic	
trans-	across	transcontinental, transcribe	
ultra-	extreme	ultra-sensitive, ultrasound	
un-	not	uncertain, unusual, unscrew, unplug	
under-	insufficient	underemployed, undernourished	
well-	useful, successful	well-designed, well-written, well-established	
			
			
			
			
			
			
			
			
			
Academic Vocabulary in Use
suffix	meaning	examples	further examples of your own
-able	can be	identifiable, predictable	
-ant	having an effect	coolant, accelerant	
-based	forming major part of	computer-based, oil-based	
-cy	state or quality	accuracy, literacy, urgency	
-ee	person affected by something	interviewee, trainee, addressee	
-free	without	debt-free, pain-free	
-hood	state, condition, period	adulthood, motherhood	
-ic	connected with	photographic, electric	
-ics	study of	genetics, electronics	
-ify	give something a quality	clarify, purify, solidify	
-ism	belief, behaviour	modernism, heroism	
-ist	person with specific beliefs or behaviour	anarchist, optimist	
-ize, -ise	bring about a state or condition	modernize/modernise, colonize/ colonise	
-less	without	childless, meaningless	
-like	resembling	bird-like, hook-like	
-ness	quality or state	effectiveness, openness	
-ocracy	type of ruling body	meritocracy, bureaucracy	
-ocrat	person ruling	technocrat, aristocrat	
-ology, -ological	study of	biology, biological, geology, physiological	
-proof	protected against, safe from	waterproof, dustproof	
-ship	state or experience of having a specific position	professorship, leadership	
			
Reference   13 I
Reference 6
Abbreviations
Abbreviations are frequently found in an academic context. Here are some which are common in academic writing.
abbreviation	stands for	example or comment
e-g-	for example (from Latin, exempli gratia)	Many large mammals, e.g. the African elephant, the black rhino and the white rhino ...
i.e.	that is (from Latin, id est)	Higher earners, i.e. those with a monthly salary in excess of £3,000 ...
etc.	and so on (from Latin, et cetera)	Smaller European countries - Slovenia, Slovakia, Estonia, etc. - had different interests.
NB	note carefully (from Latin, nota bene)	NB You must answer all the questions on this page.
et al	and others (from Latin, et alii)	used when giving bibliographical reference, e.g. as mentioned inT. Potts et al (1995)
ibid.	in the same place as the preceding footnote (from Latin, ibidem)	1 Lee (1987) History of Tea-Drinking in Europe 2 ibid.
cf	compare (from Latin, confer)	cf Lofstedt (2005) for a different approach to this topic
q.v.	which you can see (from Latin, quod vide)	used to refer the reader to another part of a book or article for further information
op. cit.	see previously quoted work by author (from Latin, opus dtotum)	Potts op. cit. 33-54
ed.	editor	used when giving bibliographical reference
vol.	volume	used when giving bibliographical reference
p-	page	in the article referred to above (p. 43), Smith claims ...
pp-	pages	See McKinley 1990 pp.11-19
There are also many abbreviations relating to academic degrees, departments, movements and organisations. We give just a few of these as examples below but most of those that you will need will be specific to your own field of study and so space is left for you to add these as you come across them.
abbreviation	stands for	used about
BA	Bachelor of Arts	a first degree in the humanities
MA	Master of Arts	a postgraduate degree in the humanities
BSc	Bachelor of Science	a first degree in a science subject
MSc	Master of Science	a postgraduate degree in a science subject
MBA	Master of Business Administration	a postgraduate business qualification
PhD	Doctor of Philosophy	a postgraduate degree, one which entitles the holder to the title Dr
BEng	Bachelor of Engineering	a first degree in engineering
LLB	Bachelor of Laws	a first degree in law
FRS	Fellow of the Royal Society	member of a high level scientific organisation in the UK
BMJ	British Medical Journal	well-known British medical publication
132   Academic Vocabulary in Use
abbreviation	stands for	used about
WHO	World Health Organisation	United Nations organisation to promote health
UNESCO	United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation	United Nations organisation promoting education, science and culture
UCL	University College London	one of London's main university colleges
SOAS	School of Oriental and African Studies	well-known academic institution, part of London University
CUNY	City University of New York	one of New York's higher education institutions
MIT	Massachusetts Institute of Technology	important US research university based in Cambridge Massachusetts
UCLA	University of California Los Angeles	one of California's higher education institutions
FAAFP	Fellow of the American Academy of Family Practitioners	member of American doctors' association
MRCS	Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons	member of British association for qualified surgeons
AMA	Australian Medical Association	professional association for Australian medical staff
ACA	Association of Consulting Actuaries	British association for legal finance specialists who work as advisors to insurance companies
FASB	Financial Accounting Standards Board	private sector organisation in the US that establishes financial accounting and reporting standards
AICPA	American Institute of Certified Public Accountants	professional organisation for accountants in the USA
AFANZ	Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand	organisation for financial professionals in Australia and New Zealand
1 FA*	Institute of Financial Advisors	professional body representing financial advisors in New Zealand
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
* Note that IFA - like many abbreviations - has different associations for different groups of people. It can also mean, for example, Irish Football Association, Institute of Field Archaeologists, Independent Financial Advisor, Institute of Financial Accountants, International Fertiliser Industry Association, and the Institute for Astronomy as well as, undoubtedly, a number of other things.
Reference 133
1.2
1.3
2.1
2.2
Key
I.I    Unit I
A pose A focus A confirmed A generates A identified
B pose B focus B confirmed B generates B identified
6 A nature
7 A character
8 A turn
9 A underlines 10 A solid
B nature
B character
B turn
B underlines
B solid
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 In no way/respect can London be compared to Sydney as a place to live and work. (Note the inversion of the subject (London) and verb (can) when a negative expression is used at the beginning of the sentence.)
1 depends heavily, converted easily, produced cheaply
2 relatively easily
3 production, reliance, discovery, claim
primarily Virtually solely
In sum / To sum up (or In summary) (See also Unit 40.)
attempted
prime
characteristic
Unit 2
1 issues
2 topics
3 theory
4 theme
5 model
6 Principle
The study showed that local police can play an important role in crime prevention. It makes a strong case for boosting the numbers of community police officers although it warns against increasing police presence on the streets to an alarming degree. Its methodology"' was based on a range of interviews asking members of the public for their views on how best to prevent crime. Unfortunately, how to implement this recommendation was beyond the scope of the study but at least it serves a useful purpose in raising awareness of the issue. * methodological is the adjective form of the noun methodology
2.3    1 G
2 D
3 E
4 H
5 C
6 B
7 A
8 F
2.4    1 The study revealed a regular pattern of changes in temperature.
2 The research focuses on one particular aspect of modern society.
3 The writer makes a powerful case for restructuring parliament.
4 The writers take an original approach to their theme.
5 Until recently there was little awareness of the problem.
6 I think you should broaden the scope of your research.
7 To date there has been little research into the environmental effects of nanoparticles.
8 There are many important issues facing the world today.
Unit 3
3.1    affect - influence attempt - try calculate - compute challenge - question demonstrate - show
identify - distinguish include - involve investigate - study provide - give
134   Academic Vocabulary in Use
3.2 1 be seen 3 classifying       5 show/shows     7 to establish 2 accounted       4 to present        6 to develop       8 to explain
3.3 1 Greig's article supports Park's theory: this means that Greig's work backs up that of Park;
in other words, it comes to the same conclusions.
Greig's article challenges Park's theory: this means that Greig's work questions Park's conclusions.
2 Describe the new tax regulations: this requests someone simply to say what the new tax regulations are.
Discuss the new tax regulations: this requires someone to give their opinion with regard to the new tax regulations.
3 Lodhi provides new data: this means that Lodhi's work is the source of some new data. Lodhi considers new data: this means that Lodhi discusses new data, giving his opinion as to their implications and significance.
4 Titova conducted four sets of experiments: this means that Titova did the experiments herself.
Titova examined four sets of experiments: this means that Titova considered some experiments which others had carried out.
5 Lee established why such changes occur: this means that Lee was able to prove why such changes occur.
Lee investigated why such changes occur: this means that Lee tried to find out why such changes occur but we do not know how successful she was in this.
6 Okaz assumed that the data were reliable: this means Okaz accepted this without proof or questioning.
Okaz proved that the data were reliable: this means that Okaz did something to show that it was true.
7 Illustrate the magnitude of the deceleration: this means show how it works in some way, e.g. by drawing a graph or an illustration of some kind.
Find the magnitude of the deceleration: this means discover it by doing calculations.
8 The events effected economic development: this means the events made economic development happen or brought it about.
The events affected economic development: this means the events had an influence (perhaps positive or negative) on economic development.
3.4 1 Erikson's theory provides an explanation for the fluctuations in the figures for this period.
2 Bevan carried out an exploration of/into the relationship between family background and political ambition.
3 The book gives/provides a description of the life and times of Abraham Lincoln.
4 Cheng's theory puts/places emphasis on the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition.
3.5 1 investigation 4 have an effect on (NB keep change in first letter)
2 illustration 5 make an attempt to (+ verb) / at (+ noun)
3 analysis 6 classification
Unit 4
4.1 1 relevant to 3 appropriate to (or for) 5 Relative to 2 typical of                4 characteristic of 6 common to
4.2 1 inaccurate 3 precise 5 concrete 2 complex                 4 an insignificant
4.3 These are the most likely combinations although some combinations such as 'apparent/ principal problem' or 'apparent cause' are also possible.
1 apparent discrepancy 3 principal cause
2 rigorous methodology 4 potential problem
Key   135
4.4 1 apparent discrepancy 2 principal cause
4.5 1 specific 2 rigorous
Unit 5
3 rigorous methodology
4 potential problem
3 potentia
4 qualitative
5 complex
5.1 1 Heinrich's experiments were mostly successful: this means that Heinrich's experiments were
largely successful or successful on the whole. In other words they were not totally successful. Heinrich's experiments were most successful: this means that Heinrich's experiments were extremely/very successful.
2 The results were somewhat surprising given the circumstances: this means that the results were rather or fairly surprising in view of the circumstances.
The results were especially surprising given the circumstances: this means that the results were particularly surprising in view of the circumstances; in other words, the results in the second sentence surprised the writer more than those in the first sentence.
3 First year students are directly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees: this means that the new rules have a direct impact on first year students as opposed to students from other years, who may either be indirectly affected or not affected at all. First year students are particularly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees: this means that the new rules affect first year students more than students from other years.
4 The study is primarily concerned with urban alienation: this means that urban alienation is the explicit focus of the study.
The study is ultimately concerned with urban alienation: this means that urban alienation was probably not the initial focus of the study but it turned out in the end to be its most significant theme.
5 The team eventually obtained unpredicted results: this means that the team finally, after a long time spent trying, obtained some results which they had not predicted.
The team frequently obtained unpredicted results: this means that the team often obtained results which they had not predicted.
5.2 What you are saying is essentially true. To put it simply, there is basically no significant difference between the two writers' theories. However, one of them writes in a simply dreadful style while the other has possibly a more impressive style than any other contemporary scientist.
5.3 1 precisely/exactly
2 frequently/often/regularly
3 eventually/finally
4 approximately/roughly/about/around
5.4 Suggested underlinings
5 implicitly
6 generally/typically
7 hardly ever
8 indirectly
Marine conservationists are currently attempting to save the world's coral reefs. One plan is to literally glue the damaged reefs back together, using coral artificially raised in underwater labs. Reefs are increasingly under attack from human activity as well as from events occurring naturally, such as hurricanes and tsunamis. A recent UN report warns that 30% of the world's coral reefs have been completely destroyed or are severely damaged.
Scientists have recently discovered that ants can remember how many steps they have taken. By carefully shortening or lengthening the legs of ants, the team observed that short-legged ants apparently became lost and could not easily find their way home to the nest. Similarly, ants with longer legs typically travelled 50% further than they needed to and were also temporarily unable to find the nest. It seems ants can definitely count their steps.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Answers to questions
1 similarly
2 artificially - naturally, apparently - definitely
3 currently / recently
4 increasingly
5 severely
6 temporarily
Unit 6
1 carried out
2 go/look back over
3 goes into 5 pointed out 7 sets out
4 puts forward 6 go through 8 make up
1 on (Although out is not impossible it is less likely here as it suggests that the writer is coming to a definitive conclusion or solution to a problem, which is not appropriate for such a complex issue as the way children learn language.)
2 out 4  out 6  forward 8 out
3 up 5  up 7 on
1 Feudal society was made up of clearly defined classes of people.
2 Carlson was the first to put forward a convincing theory with regard to this question. Her results appear to go against what she had found in her earlier studies. The investigation pointed up the flaws in the school's testing methods. It took him a long time to work out the solution to the algebra problem. The geography book sets out a lot of basic information about all the world's countries.
Suggested answers
1 A scientist might carry out research or experiments or a study or an investigation.
2 If you want to study something in more depth, you might go on to do a postgraduate degree after getting your first degree.
3 Postgraduate students typically have to write up a dissertation or thesis at the end of their studies.
4 Good students regularly look back over their lecture notes.
5 In their lectures or articles scholars typically put forward ideas, views, opinions, theories, hypotheses or plans.
6 It is sensible to go through any maths calculations that you had to make as part of a research study in case you made any careless mistakes.
Unit 7
1 surprising
2 excessive
3 Considerable
4 reasonable
5 substantial
6 excess
7 total
8 exceeding
9 fewer 10 significant
Possible answers
(You may be able to suggest other possibilities that are equally good.)
1 Most / The majority / The larger part of our work is concerned with carbon emissions.
2 We have noticed that a steadily declining number of students are joining the course.
3 Our team spent a significant/substantial amount of time getting funding for the research.
4 In occasional / two or three / a few cases, we could not find any reason for the outbreak.
5 We spent a considerable amount of time on the project.
6 As you repeat the experiment, use increasingly small amounts of water each time.
1 For some years (now) - in other words, we are not told how many but it must be at least three
2 a massive number of, i.e. an enormous number of
3 the first few microseconds of the beginning of the universe, i.e. the very starting point of time
4 no more than ten microseconds, i.e. ten microseconds or less
5 more or less
Key   137
7.4    There have been a large number of studies investigating the impact of email on interpersonal communications. AH of the studies have been small-scale but they suggest some interesting trends in patterns of email use. From one of the more recent studies it seems that fewer and fewer people send less than 50 emails daily. Moreover, it appears that a small number of senior citizens use email a little less frequently/often than younger people do.
Unit 8
8.1 If- start work
2 a - get something ready so it can be operated
3d- arrange
4 e - become solid
5c- caused to be in a stated condition 6b- established
7 h - that must be studied
8 g-group
8.2 1 references 4 accommodate
2 occur 5 structure
3 revolutions, revolution   6 contracted
8.3 1 points     2 set 3 issue      4 channel
8.4 Possible answers
word	meaning in text	other meaning(s)
contain	control	hold
maintain	say, claim	keep at a specific level; preserve; provide for
monitor	watch, observe	screen
record	store information	store sounds or pictures electronically; best or most extreme (noun)
occur	happen	exist
measures	methods for dealing with a situation	sizes; amounts; ways of judging something
8.5    The joke is based on a couple of meanings of the word charge. The first meaning, familiar from general English, is that of cost, as in 'There is a small charge for using the car park.' However, in physics, charge, also known as electrical charge and symbolised as 'q', is a characteristic of a unit of matter that expresses the extent to which it has more or fewer electrons than protons. In atoms, the electron carries a negative elementary or unit charge; the proton carries a positive charge. A neutron is said to have no charge.
Unit 9
9.1 1 shine 3 light 5 highlights 7 elucidate 2 remained, shed         4 shadow                  6 illuminate 8 glaring
9.2 1 (who are) opposed to 4 retreated
2 maintain a united front 5 battle/struggle/fight/war, will be lost
3 are bombarded with 6 onslaught
9.3 Suggested underlinings
The human brain is a remarkably complex organic computer, taking in a wide variety of sensory experiences, processing and storing this information, and recalling and integrating selected bits* at the right moments. The destruction caused by Alzheimer's disease has been likened to the erasure of a hard drive, beginning with the most recent files and working backward. As the illness progresses, old as well as new memories gradually disappear until even loved ones are no longer recognized. Unfortunately, the computer analogy breaks down:
Academic Vocabulary in Use
one cannot simply reboot the human brain and reload the files and programs. The problem is that Alzheimer's does not only erase information; it destroys the very hardware of the brain, which is composed of more than 100 billion nerve cells (neurons), with 100 trillion connections among them.
* bit here means a unit of information on a computer that must be either 0 or 1 Unit 10
constant, frequent, intermittent (going from most frequent to least frequent) A sample chosen by chance is a random sample whereas a sample chosen as typical of the population as a whole is a representative sample. an isolated phenomenon
You might prefer your results to be conclusive, but inconclusive results can also be valuable. A role can also be pivotal or decisive.
Excess energy - this suggests that there is extra, whereas sufficient just suggests that there is enough.
Mother, father and brothers/sisters play an influential role in a child's development, listening and writing
3 played 5 invalidate
came
consumes, generate       4 investigated
6 combines/combined
1 It took the team a long time to devise a way to solve their problem.
2 During the war we had to break off contact with colleagues abroad.
3 There has been a lot of heated debate surrounding the issue of global warming.
4 Ian Hartmann was invited to take on the role of project leader.
5 Part of my role was to collate the results of our experiments.
6 The doctor wanted me to provide a blood sample for analysis.
7 Scientists all over the world contributed to the debate on cloning.
8 A new and unexpected phenomenon seems to be emerging.
9 Using shading helps to differentiate the key elements in a graph.
1 taking, random
2 define
3 proper, practical
4 maintaining
Unit 11
5 crucial
6 engaging, heated
7 publish, interim
8 discern, conflicting
1
2
3
1
2
amount 4 particular (or special) 5 impact (or influence/effect) 6
major/considerable/large/significant minor/small
important/significant/interesting
There is widespread opposition among students to the idea of longer semesters. The destruction of the riverbank will cause an inevitable decline in the numbers of small mammals.
3 School standards are a common (or frequent) concern among parents nowadays.
4 Nowhere in the article does the author make explicit mention of the 20 cases which were never resolved.
5 There is very little common ground between the two ways of addressing the problem.
6 The paper is too general and lacks specific/relevant examples.
adjective	noun	adjective	noun
significant	significance	important	importance
relevant	relevance	valuable	value
interesting	interest	useful	use
frequent	frequency	broad	breadth
Key 139
I 1.4    Possible answers
1 of great/considerable relevance
2 of great/considerable value
3 of huge/enormous importance
4 a work of great breadth
5 a work of great/huge/enormous/considerable significance
6 of considerable use
7 of great/considerable interest
8 of high frequency
I 2.1    1 convincingly demonstrated / demonstrated convincingly
2 observed earlier / earlier observed
3 specifically refers / refers specifically
4 is closely identified
5 briefly discusses
6 firmly establishes
7 loosely based
8 critically examine
I 2.2    Suggested answers
1 hypotheses 3 causes/origins/nature 5 need
2 trends/changes 4 issue/question
12.3    Possible answers
1 interpretation, approach, solution, methodology, theory, etc.
2 threat, challenge, problem, question, dilemma, danger, menace, risk, etc.
3 facts, evidence, causes, issues, reasons, etc.
I 2.4    Suggested answers
The world is facing a looming water crisis. Disputes over allocation have steadily increased in the last decade, and demand has grown rapidly. Water is likely to generate the same degree of controversy in the 21st century as oil did in the 20th. If we take no action now, new conflicts are likely to occur periodically around the world. At the moment, instead of seeking solutions which directly address multiple needs, countries focus a little too narrowly on local issues and typically opt for expensive and inferior solutions. What is needed are decisions which can be quickly implemented and a debate which will seriously consider more than the short term needs of individual states.
I 2.5    l directly address
2 consider seriously / seriously consider
3 steadily increasing (Although growing rapidly might also be possible here, it is less likely given the time period in the sentence.)
4 focuses/focused narrowly / narrowly focuses/focused
5 quickly implemented / implemented quickly
I 3.2    1 The conclusions are fair in most respects, though some are questionable.
2 Dr Carr's team got the grant, in spite of being the smallest team to apply.
3 We had little money to spare; in other words, we were underfunded.
Unit 12
Unit 13
13.1    1 in line with
2 at this stage
3 on the one hand, on the other hand
4 In addition to
5 With the exception of
6 on the basis of
7 on the whole, in terms of
8 on behalf of
Academic Vocabulary in Use
4 We need people's personal data, in particular their parents' history of illnesses.
5 We made an important discovery; in some ways it was sheer luck.
6 This latest paper is quite short in comparison with other articles in the series.
7 The Indian study was carried out in conjunction with an American project.
I 3.3    A bone discovered by chance in the 17th century was the beginning of the search for
dinosaurs. From then on, scientists and the public have been fascinated by these creatures. In accordance with beliefs at that time, the initial discovery was thought to be the bone of a human giant. However, in 1824, a scientist, William Buckland, calculated that the bone belonged to a 12-metre, flesh-eating reptile and named it Megalosaurus, in the process giving us the first of the wonderful list of exotic names for dinosaurs. The 17th century discovery had, in turn, led to a series of further finds around that time. All these to a greater or lesser extent confirmed Buckland's theories. By far the biggest dinosaur discovered to date was probably over 40 metres long. For the most part, dinosaurs ranged from the size of a chicken to that of a giraffe. In most respects, what we know about their habits is still very limited. What we do know is at least to some extent based on pure speculation.
Follow up
Possible sentences (from Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary)
On the one hand I'd like a job which pays more, but on the other hand I enjoy the work I'm doing at the moment.
On behalf of the entire company, I would like to thank you for all your work.
1 like all kinds of films with the exception of horror films.
The government has few options except to keep interest rates high. There is nothing to indicate the building's past, except (for) the fireplace.
Possible sentences relating to economics
On the one hand, the country gained a certain prestige from its actions; on the other hand, it suffered quite seriously from the economic point of view.
The economics professor accepted the research award on behalf of her whole department. With the exception of France, most European countries suffered quite serious effects as a result of the new trade regulations.
The Chancellor succeeded in all his aims except in keeping inflation below 5%. Unit 14
I 4.1     1 The article focuses on the changes in the US economy in the post-war period.
2 The professor commented on a number of inconsistencies in the student's essay.
3 The theory is based on a series of experiments conducted over the last five years.
4 The professor's work relies on experiments conducted by his research assistants.
5 It is very important to concentrate on your studies until your exams are over.
6 The writer was able to draw on some primary sources which have only recently become available.
14.2
for	from	of	to	with
account	benefit	convince	assign	associate
argue	depart	dispose	attribute	equip
call	exclude	write	consent	provide
search			react	
			refer	
I 4.3    1 referred us to 6 convince me of
2 account for 7 searching for
3 associated with 8 provided us with
4 dispose carefully of 9 consented to
5 benefit enormously from 10 writes/wrote very movingly of
Key 141
14.4    1 The course leader divided her students into five groups.
2 They had to trace everyone who had been exposed to the infection.
3 At the moment we have too few nurses attending to too many patients.
4 Excellent teaching coupled with first-class research have made this a successful college.
5 The country emerged from the crisis as a much stronger power.
6 Joe got an interest in politics from his uncle who often spoke of his days as a senator.
7 The government called for an investigation into the explosion at the nuclear reactor.
8 In your speech don't forget to emphasise the advantages of studying here. [No preposition after emphasise]
Unit 15
15.1    1 with
2 on (or possibly about)
3 of {exploration may also, occasionally, be used with mro)
4 for/behind
5 into/on
6 into
7 about
8 of, of
I 5.2    1 Her dissertation produced some interesting insights into how young children develop a visual sense of the world and the age at which development is most noticeable.
2 The reason for the unwillingness of the people involved in the demonstration to be interviewed was fear of being arrested later.
3 Hierstat's approach to the analysis of solar phenomena is different from that of Donewski. He questioned the assumptions behind much of the previous research.
4 Changes in the rate of growth of the cells were observed over time.
5 A lack of funding led to the cancellation of the project, and social scientists blamed the negative attitude of the government towards (to can also be used) social science research.
6 Jawil's article puts great emphasis on the need for more research and argues the case for greater attention to the causes of poverty rather than the symptoms.
15.3
15.4
nouns	preposition
principle, rationale	behind
difference, relationship	between
preference, reason	for
insight	into
effect, emphasis	on
attitude, tendency	to/towards
Suggested answers
The possible ecological effects of climate change are often in the news, as is the matter of whether the potential impact can be predicted. New work on a migratory bird, the pied flycatcher, takes things a stage further by showing how a climate-related population decline was actually caused. Timing is key. Over the past 17 years flycatchers declined strongly in areas where caterpillar numbers (food for the nestlings) peak early, but in areas with a late food peak there was no decline. The young birds arrive too late in places where caterpillars have already responded to early warmth. Mistiming like this is probably a common consequence of climate change, and may be a major factor in the decline of many longdistance migratory bird species.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Unit 16
16.1 1 in a variety of ways   3 a wide range of        5 in excess of 2 a great deal of 4 to some extent
16.2 as a rule for this reason at the same time                  in general
be that as it may in terms of
for the most part on the whole
I 6.3    1 by means of which - The others all mean generally or for the most part while by means of which means using this method.
2 with the exception of X - The others all focus on how X is affected by something whereas with the exception ofX is focusing on other things rather than X.
3 in addition to - The others are all concerned with trying to be more specific in what they are talking about while in addition to is adding something extra to what is being said.
16.4 1 A For the purposes of
2 C be that as it may
3 B from the point of view of
4 B to what extent
5 C in more detail
16.5 Possible answers
1 I enjoy watching most sports with the exception of baseball.
2 A poor relationship between parents and children is often due to the fact that they do not spend enough time together.
3 I love reading English novels as opposed to reading English textbooks / writing English essays / reading novels in my own language.
4 In your first year of graduate school you have to take an end-of-year exam in addition to writing a 4,000-word essay.
5 It was a very useful course in the sense that I learnt an enormous amount from it.
Unit 17
I 7.1    1 No, it isn't. You have to have a first degree.
2 From other pages on the website or by asking the relevant department.
3 Yes, they need a transcript, translated, of your university courses and grades.
4 If the applicant has spent at least one year in English-medium education, then it is not necessary.
5 At least 6.5.
I 7.2    personal statement financial guarantee seek clarification student loan equal opportunities mature student application form first degree minimum score tough competition
I 7.3    Author's answers
1 The university wants the names of two referees to make sure that the student is making accurate claims about him/herself on the application form.
2 The university wants financial guarantees to make sure that the student will be able to pay the tuition fees.
Key 143
3 The university wants a personal statement to gain an impression of what kind of person the student is and how motivated he/she is with respect to the course being applied for.
4 The university wants a transcript of courses taken, with grades, to make sure that the student has an appropriate academic background for the course applied for.
5 The university wants an IELTS score of 6.5 or a TOEFL score of at least 580 to make sure that the student's level of English is good enough to cope with English-medium instruction.
17.4 This is probably the most logical order:
1 decide on what career they would like to do
2 find an appropriate course
3 check that they fulfil the necessary entry requirements
4 ask referees if it is all right to put their names on the application form
5 fill in an application form
6 attach a personal statement to the form
7 wait for the application to be processed
8 be called for an interview
9 attend an interview 10 be offered a place
17.5 Hi Miles,
I'd love a career as an international lawyer and am really hoping I can get in to Wanstow University to do a postgraduate course in law there. I've filled in all the necessary forms and just hope that my academic profile will be good enough for them. I think I fulfil all their entry requirements but who knows! It took me ages to get the transcript of my college grades, etc. translated but I managed to get everything in by the deadline. So now I just have to wait to see if they call me for an interview or not. Fingers crossed! Lucia
Unit 18
I 8.1     1 the Arts Faculty Building
2 the Student Union
3 the halls of residence
4 the Administration Building
I 8.2    Possible answers
1 More people in a seminar
2 Supervisor
3 Vacation
4 A personal tutor deals with academic matters and a student counsellor deals with more personal problems.
5 A postgrad rep is someone from the postgraduate student body (usually elected) who represents the students' point of view and a student counsellor is a member of staff whose job it is to support the students through any difficult personal situations.
18.3    Hi Mum,
I've settled in well here at Wanstow. I like my room in this hall of residence. I went to my first lecture this morning - it was on research methodology - and there were hundreds of students there. The lecturer was very good - it was Professor Jones, our head of department. Tomorrow I'll have my first tutorial - that'll be just me and one other student. We'll be discussing what we have to get done by the end of the semester (or term). I need to try to think some more about the topic for my dissertation. When that is finalised I'll be assigned a supervisor. I'll be expected to see him or her at least once a week during their office hours. I hope I'll like him or her. You hear some awful stories! Daisy
5 the Great Hall
6 the Arts Lecture Theatre
7 the University Health Centre
8 the University Library
Academic Vocabulary in Use
people	place	event
counsellor	cafeteria	lecture
lecturer	library	seminar
librarian	sports centre	tutorial
postgrad rep	sports grounds	
professor	lecture theatre	
research assistant		
research student		
tutor		
Unit 19
I 9.1     1 An American - faculty obviously refers to people rather than academic departments.
2 An American - the use of rubric makes this clear. Also a British person would be more likely to talk about marking assignments than grading term papers.
3 An American - 'Going to school' in the UK means going to primary or secondary school, not college or university.
4 A British person - a faculty here means a group of departments concerned with similar academic disciplines.
5 A British person - a rubric is a set of instructions as to how a task must be done.
i 9.2    freshman - first-year student
sophomore - second-year student junior student - third-year student senior student - fourth-year student
graduate student - student who has already completed an undergraduate degree and is studying for a master's degree
I 9.3    None of the statements are true.
1 An advisor is someone who helps American students with their academic studies.
2 Women join a sorority; a fraternity is for men.
3 Finals refers to final exams at the end of a semester at a university or college.
4 A PhD committee is a group of university teachers who coach a doctoral student.
19.4
Unit 20
20.1      1 One year
2 60
3 All students on the course have to take them
4 MA students write a dissertation as well as doing the taught courses
5 At least ten
6 3,000 words
Key 145
20.2
20.3
20.4
7 Lectures, seminars, workshops and tutorials
8 A 3,000 word assignment for each module and essays, project and portfolio work for each elective module, plus the dissertation for MA students.
9 The word limit is 12-15,000 words.
10 They have to get an average mark of over 70% for all modules.
1 project 3 dissertation      5 MA
2 module 4 Diploma 6 sign
1 upgrade 3 enrolled 5 obligatory
2 pre-sessional    4 proceed 6 supervisions
7 PhD
8 in-sessional
7 defer
8 Assessment
verb	noun	odject/ve
opt	option	optional
oblige	obligation	obligatory
supervise	supervision, supervisor	supervisory
assess	assessment, assessor	-
-	eligibility	eligible
Unit 21 meet deadlines to-do list extra-curricular activities study plan time management long-term loan	lecture notes note-taking request an extension first draft rote learning draw mind maps	
21.1
21.2
21.3
6
7
time management extra-curricular activities
8 to-do list
9 Rote learning 10 Note-taking
1 meet deadlines, request an extension, study plan
2 first draft
3 lecture notes
4 draw mind maps
5 long-term loan
Author's answers
1 I always remember the order of the colours of the rainbow by saying a mnemonic about English medieval history - 'Richard Of York Gained Battles In Vain' - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
2 I might write down such things as:
• revise regularly
• organise files systematically
• read round the subject
• ask if I don't understand.
In other words, any random ideas that come into my head that might be relevant.
3 Vocabulary in a foreign language, poetry, maths tables, formulae, etc.
4 It depends on the subject - a week before perhaps.
5 Sometimes it wanders, of course. I probably think of holidays or of all the other things I'd like to be doing.
6 No, I don't think I have. Or if I have, I have successfully wiped the memory from my mind.
7 When I was a student I would always prioritise essays that had a deadline.
8 If you have rough notes in front of you, you can plan your answer better and there is less chance your mind will go blank.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
21.4    on loan: which have been borrowed returned: brought back overdue: not returned on time incur: a rather formal word meaning 'result in' borrowing rights: permission to take books out of the library
inter-library loans: books borrowed from other libraries through a special arrangement with them
librarian: person who works in a library (in this case the head of the library)
Unit 22
22.1 1 virtual 4 resources 7 feedback
2 means 5 links 8 quiz
3 community 6 tasks 9 submit
22.2 construct knowledge post messages enrol on a hybrid course start a new thread
enter your username subscribe to a mailing list
hit the send button take part in a discussion group
moderate discussions unsubscribe from a mailing list
22.3 1 enter your username
2 subscribed to a mailing list, unsubscribe from it / the (mailing) list
3 taking part in a discussion group, started a new thread
4 enrol on a hybrid course
5 hitting the send button / you hit the send button, post(ing) a/your message(s)
6 moderating discussions, construct knowledge
22.4 Author's answers
1 I'd feel angry and upset because it's embarrassing if someone is rude about you in a public forum.
2 Yes, they are. It's important that I write some letters in upper case and others in lower case.
3 The KISS principle is important for online posts because for many people it is harder to read online and they may just give up if what you write looks too long or dense.
4 It can be a good thing if a person is lurking before they make a contribution themselves - so they see what the conventions of the particular online group are. Lurking online generally does not have the negative associations that the word lurking has in its primary meaning of waiting or moving secretly with the intention of attacking someone or doing something else that is wrong.
5 The subject header should make it clear if the message is relevant to the recipient or not because people sometimes discard messages before reading them. Also it makes it easier to find messages later if you want to reread them.
6 Yes, I have, as both instructor and student. I really enjoyed it and found it a surprisingly positive experience.
Unit 23
23.1     1 The letters proved to be a valuable resource for the study of the poet's life.
2 An extensive body of literature exists on human to animal communication.
3 Newspapers are a good primary source for the period 1980-1985.
4 The data are not given in the main body of the book; they are in the appendix.
5 Plastics are not dealt with in the present study, which focuses on metals only.
6 The thesis begins with a review of the literature on intellectual property rights.
Key 147
23.2    1 The article makes reference to the work of Hindler and Swartz (1988).
2 Schunker's book was a useful secondary source for understanding the pre-war period. I also consulted original government papers.
3 Tanaka's book draws on data from several Japanese articles on galaxy formation.
4 Elsewhere, Kallen reports on his research into cancer rates among farm workers.
5 Han consulted the archives in the Vienna Museum.
naun	verb	adjective	adverb
attribute*, attribution	attribute*		
document	document		
consultation, consultant (person)	consult	consultative	
		primary	primarily
catalogue	catalogue		
foundation	found		
note	note	notable	notably
suggestion	suggest	suggestive	suggestively
extension	extend	extensive	extensively
citation	cite		
* The noun is pronounced /'aetnbju:t/; the verb is to /a'tribjot/.
23.4    1 Expressing the same message in different words: paraphrase
2 Things known by everyone: common knowledge
3 Stating that one has obtained one's information from that source: acknowledging
4 Direct repetition of what someone has written or said: quotations
5 Stating that you have benefited from someone's work: give credit
Unit 24
24.1 Aidan: established, undeniable, offer, flimsy, convincing, collect, conflicting Sandra: hard, demonstrates
Petra: draws, distorting, little-known, growing Dr Li: interpret
24.2 1 The data indicate/suggest/demonstrate that the drug education project has been successful.
2 The data in the latest study are more comprehensive than in the earlier one.
3 This is the most interesting item of data in the whole thesis.
4 What a/an striking/illuminating example this is of the power of the human mind!
5 Unfortunately, the facts do not support the hypothesis.
6 We cannot account for the fact that attitudes are more negative now than five years ago.
7 The problem stems from the fact that the software was poorly designed.
8 The article provides examples of different methods which have been used over the years.
9 New evidence has come to light that the cabinet was not informed of the Minister's decision.
10 We need to consider the evidence before we can reach a conclusion.
11 The evidence suggesting that sanctions do not work is abundant and powerful.
12 A considerable body of evidence now exists, but we always try to obtain more.
13 We have a lot of empirical data which suggest the problem is on the increase.
14 This is a clear instance of how conservation can benefit local people.
24.3 The words that do not fit the sentences are:
1 bear out 4 growing
2 emerges 5 vivid
3 reflected
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Unit 25
25.1 1 25
2 23
3 Each number is multiplied by 3 to produce the next number.
4 41
5 7
6 5 is a fraction (a vulgar fraction whereas 2.4 is a decimal fraction) and 4 is a whole number.
7 In my country (the UK) it depends - in most salaried jobs tax is automatically deducted, but for other work, such as freelance or self-employed work, the worker has to declare his/her earnings and pay tax later on.
8 He/She is pleased because it suggests that the figures are accurate. If the figures don't tally then there must be an error or an omission somewhere.
25.2 Dr Syal: calculate, approximate Melissa: precise
Dr Syal: estimate, tally, constant Dr Syal: continuous Melissa: discrete Dr Syal: round, down
25.3 1 The incidence of car accidents declined/fell/dropped last year.
2 We estimated the final figure.
3 The graph shows the results in order of magnitude.
4 A computer program helped us calculate the significance of the different variables.
5 Subtracting x from y will help you arrive at the correct answer. (Do not include 'away'.)
6 The results from the first experiment did not tally with those from the repeat experiment.
25.4 1 workings 3 calculations 5 figures 7 variables 2 arrived                   4 area                       6 values
Unit 26
26.1 1 mode, median, average       2 sum, halfway 3 range, extremes
26.2 Life insurance companies base their calculations on the laws of probability, that is they assess the likely outcome(s), given the different variables such as age, sex, lifestyle and medical history of their clients. The premiums are therefore not chosen at random but are carefully calculated. The distribution of ages at which death occurs and causes of death are studied
to see if they correlate with other factors to be taken into account in setting the premiums. Naturally, the companies also monitor social trends and react to any changes which might significantly affect mortality rates.
26.3 1 2:1 (two to one), two thirds
2 Find more second-year undergraduates to take part in my study
3 Often
4 No. To be reliable, my results must be similar each time I use the same method.
5 10% (or ten per cent)
6 18
7 The total number of cases
8 c
9 Probably not. To be valid it must measure what it claims to measure. Breakfast and lunch alone will not tell us everything about eating habits.
10 The scores are normally distributed and the graph is a bell curve.
Key 149
Unit 27
27.1    The chart shows/indicates/plots the number of cars entering the downtown area of West City each day over an eight-year period (years 1-8). The totals are listed on the y/vertical axis, while the years are listed on the x/horizontal axis. To the right of the graph we see the key/legend. The number of cars varied over the period. The total rose in the first few years and reached a peak in year 5, after which the numbers started to decline/fall/drop. This can be explained by the fact that a new mass transit railway was opened in year 6, which is a graphic illustration of how good public transport can dramatically affect car use.
pie chart bar chart
2 A cross-section
3 Columns run vertically, rows run horizontally
4 A flowchart
5 Four
6 Next to each other
7 A key
8 A random sample
9 a) they cross each other; b) they run alongside each other with an equal interval between them
27.3 1 segments
2 plotting
3 peak
4 stages
5 intersect
6 adjacent (With 'adjacent' this sentence does not really need 'to each other' and would be best worded as 'Draw a line connecting the adjacent points'.)
7 decline
8 row
27.4 1 plummeted, incidence, risen
2 fell below
3 depreciates, more than halved
4 appreciate, soared
Unit 28
28.1    Few students get a grant to help them study and so many take out loans while they are at
university. This is because they have to pay tuition fees. They also cannot avoid considerable expenditure on everyday life. This is particularly hard for students in London where the cost of living is higher than elsewhere in the country. Students living in London are allowed to have bigger loans to help compensate for this. Students do not need to start to repay their loan until they are earning a reasonable salary. But starting working life with a large debt makes it much harder for young people to make ends meet even once they start earning.
5 multiplied, fallen/decreased
6 exceeded
7 grew/rose, doubled
8 declining/falling
Academic Vocabulary in Use
28.2 1 Answer these questions to find out whether you are eligible (to apply) for a student grant.
2 I've opened a current account.
3 Most people seem to be finding it harder to make ends meet.
4 Increasing numbers of students leave college having accumulated large debts.
5 Parents often give their children financial support while they are at university. / Parents often provide their children with financial support while they are at university.
6 The amount of tax that people pay depends on their income.
7 It is possible to defer (re)payment of your loan but you may well end up paying more than you would have done if you had repaid it sooner.
8 You pay for your hotel first and we reimburse you later.
28.3 1 The cost of living is so high here that students have to live in the most economical way
they can.
2 As student debts have soared over the last few years, far more students now leave university with a huge overdraft (or leave university hugely overdrawn).
3 Our Student Loans Officer will let you know if you have any entitlement to a loan and, if so, will help you to organise taking one out.
4 You must have original receipts if you want to claim your expenses.
5 If you run out of money before the next instalment of your grant is due you can get an interest-free loan.
28.4 Possible answers (for the UK)
1 Yes, they almost always do these days.
2 Yes, I think they should. Because otherwise it is only possible for children from well-off families to go to university.
3 There are lots of scholarships and other financial awards for students. Some are for people with special academic, musical or athletic talents. Others are for people from special places or with special family circumstances.
4 Yes, I think they should but I think that the loans should really be free and should not attract any interest even if they are not paid off for a long time. I think this because otherwise it becomes much harder for young people from poorer families to go to university. I also believe that society as well as the individual benefits from a higher general level of education.
Unit 29
29.1 1 initial phase, temporary, permanent, final
2 ongoing, transitional, critical
3 current, forthcoming, annual, preceding (or previous)
4 century, decade, era, next few
29.2 1 At the moment, I'm writing up my thesis. I hope to finish in the near future.
2 Our research is at an intermediate stage - we now need to analyse our data.
3 The emergence of internet technology has transformed the travel industry.
4 The university has gone through a period of great change in the last decade.
5 In the distant future, scientists may be able to cure almost all common diseases.
6 Anti-social behaviour is a problem nowadays in many big cities.
7 A series of events occurred in 1986 which changed the political climate in the country. In subsequent years, two new parties were formed which became engaged in concurrent attempts to win over voters.
8 Prior to 2001, the industry was unregulated. In recent years, however, the government has introduced new regulations, (the last few years is also correct)
9 In 1968, a monetary crisis coincided with a huge budget deficit, and most contemporary political commentators warned that the eventual cost to the nation would be enormous.
Key 151
29.3
noun	verb	adjective	adverb
eventuality		eventual	eventually
succession	succeed	successive	successively
evolution	evolve	evolving/evolutionary	
emergence	emerge	emergent/emerging	
coincidence	coincide	coincidental	coincidental^
period		periodic	periodically
29.4
30.1
30.2
30.3
Author's sentences
Periodically, there are major changes in approaches to language teaching, [from time to timej Language teaching has evolved from focusing on grammar and translation to developing communication skills.
The emergence of communicative language teaching coincided with far more frequent international travel for both work and leisure.
There has been a succession of interesting articles recently focusing on exploiting modern technology in language teaching.
Unit 30
Possible answers
1 Researchers are investigating why chocolate triggers/induces headaches in certain people.
2 Wilson's most recent paper has generated a great deal of interest among sociologists.
3 The drug induced/triggered headaches and dizziness among a number of subjects in the test.
4 Having an end-of-term prize motivates students to do well in their class tests.
5 Intensive farming has contributed significantly to the decline of bird populations.
6 The missile test provoked an immediate and very strong response from adjacent governments and from the United Nations.
7 Astrologists believe that people's lives are (largely) determined by the planets and stars.
8 The barrier inhibits the flow of water into the area to prevent flooding in the rainy season.
9 A leak in the tank accounted for 40% of the fuel loss, and evaporation took away another 5%.
10 The renovated college buildings have wider doors and corridors to facilitate the use of wheelchairs.
11 The Minister cut taxes in an attempt to stimulate the economy, which was performing poorly.
12 Britain has derived many economic benefits from membership of the European Union.
1 The article explores the origins of the concept of democracy.
2 One small explosion set off a chain reaction, causing massive damage.
3 The confusion probably stemmed from a lack of communication.
4 The proposed new tax could have major consequences for larger families.
5 The disastrous events of 2003 gave rise to a widespread sense of disillusionment.
6 The judge explained that there were precedents for his decision.
1 De Routa's work in the 1970s influenced the development of computer science, (no preposition after the verb)
2 effect     4 for 6 end
3 to 5 on
Academic Vocabulary in Use
The nouns are:
motivation      facilitation      influence      provocation      trigger contribution stimulus (or stimulation)      induction derivation
1 Byron's poetry had an influence on Romantic poets in a number of other European countries.
2 Tree pollen can be/provide a trigger for hay fever attacks in vulnerable people.
3 In obstetrics the drug can be used to help in/with the induction of labour.
4 The new economic measures were introduced as a stimulus to the faltering economy.
5 Tomoko is studying the motivation of world-class athletes.
Unit 31
1 Many educators believe that different learning styles are equally valid.
2 In the UK a university faculty is a unit where similar disciplines are grouped together.
3 The French impressionists were a key movement in European art.
4 The essence of international law is the application of a single standard for strong and weak nations alike.
5 Researchers spend much of their time trying to interpret their data.
6 Some 19rh century artistic styles were a reaction to the ugliness of industrialisation.
7 Harvey (2003) emphasises that the findings of the study cannot be generalised, as only a small amount of data was used.
8 In the late 20t'1 century, intellectual thought was greatly influenced by ideas of gender and race.
1 There are some interesting PhD theses on water resources in the library.
2 What was your main criterion in designing your survey?
3 She was interested in a strange phenomenon connected with comets.
4 The hypotheses were never proved, as the data were incomplete.
1 We must never accept the notion that intelligence is connected to race.
2 The task of choosing an analytical framework is an important stage in any research.
3 The book expresses his viewpoint on the role of the United Nations in times of war.
4 Tannen has always made her stance on gender and language use very clear.
5 Consumers have different perceptions of what low price and high quality mean.
6 The report laid out a new model of family healthcare which changed everything.
7 Physicists developed the concept of dark matter to explain certain observations.
1 autonomy 3 profound 5 moral
2 the humanities 4 thinking, understanding      6 grounding
Unit 32
noun	verb	noun	verb
implication	imply	description	describe
observation	observe	statement	state
argument	argue	emphasis	emphasise
assertion	assert	explanation	explain
contention	contend	demonstration	demonstrate
1 Harkov's contention that continued population growth will be a more serious problem than global warming is not accepted by many scientists.
2 'Global symmetry' is a statement that the laws of physics take the same form when expressed in terms of distinct variables.
3 The report makes the implication that no individual government will ever be able to control the internet.
4 Dudas provides a demonstration of / as to how dangerous genetic modification might be.
Key 153
5 Groot puts an emphasis on the role of schools in preventing teenage drug abuse.
6 Lenard's observation that women use expressions such as 'you know' in English more than men was later proved to be inaccurate.
7 Plana's explanation of the possible origins of the pyramids in Guelcoga has been disputed by Ruiz.
8 Wilson gives a description of the ancient alphabet of the Guelcoga people.
9 Wu puts (forward) the argument that daylight-saving time should be extended throughout the year.
10 The President makes the assertion that he cares about fighting poverty.
32.3 The words that do not fit are:
1 pinpoints - pinpoint would be used to focus on something much more unexpected and worthy of note, rather than on generally known background information
2 proves (if it's highly controversial he/she can't have proved it)
3 claims - the structure would need to be 'claims that Malwar's figures are inaccurate'
4 asserts - the structure would need to be 'asserts that pilot testing is important'
5 advances - the structure would need to be 'advances the theory that
6 description - this would be used about something that is far more detailed than the context suggested here
7 cast doubt - the structure would need to be 'cast doubt on there being a causal link ...'
32.4 1 In my opinion/view, courses in academic writing should be compulsory for all new students.
2 It has not yet been proved that the virus can jump from species to species. / There is not yet any proof that the virus can jump from species to species.
3 Richardson emphasises a number of weaknesses in the theory, (no preposition after emphasise - though we do say 'puts' or 'lays emphasis on something')
4 Taylor refers to / mentions several studies which have looked at the problem in the past, (no preposition after mention)
5 Pratt's suggestion that the poet may have suffered from depression is an interesting one.
6 Our latest results cast doubt on our original hypothesis.
Unit 33
33.1 1 critical    2 conclusion     3 side(s)
33.2 1 critical    2 conclusion     3 sides
33.3 1 weighing, conclusion, outweigh, disadvantages/drawbacks, insights, variables, take,
constitute, points 2 take into, relevant, course, deduce, basis, predict, scales
33.4 1 The hospital announced that the President remains seriously ill.
2 Dixon was asked to write a review giving his/her opinions on contemporary Irish poetry.
3 The writer was imprisoned for his openly negative views on the government.
4 It is extremely important that all measurements are recorded every hour.
33.5 1 A recent survey has unearthed some interesting facts about commuting habits, (it is as if
the researchers were digging into the earth like archaeologists)
2 In predicting trends in inflation, economists often look at which direction the political winds are blowing, (this sees change as similar to changes in the weather)
3 Martins published a ground-breaking study of the formation of galaxies, (as if one is digging a new piece of ground to construct a building)
4 By digging into the archives, Professor Robinson was able to shed important new light on the history of the period, (again, as if one is digging into the ground like an archaeologist; new knowledge is seen as a light)
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Unit 34
34.1 Dr Babayan: define, terms
Dr Babayan: terminology, transparent Dr Babayan: glossary, senses
Tomoko: distinguish, subtle distinctions/differences
Dr Babayan: communicating (could also be conveying), coherent (could also be concise), ambiguous, misinterpret (could also be misunderstand), clarify
34.2 1 mistranslated 4 miscalculated
2 misunderstood 5 incoherent
3 unambiguous 6 mispronounces
34.3 The American songwriter Bob Dylan is often considered to be as much a poet as a musician. He expressed his political ideas through folk songs in his early period. His melodies were often simple but his words conveyed complex messages, often with subtle nuances. In one of his songs, he speaks of a 'hard rain' which will fall after a nuclear war. On one level the words denote real, radioactive rain, but the connotations of the words are many: life will
be hard, perhaps impossible. Perhaps the consequences will fall hard on the politicians who started the war too. There are many things we can infer from these words. The song is part of the political discourse of the Cold War of the 1960s. It evokes an atmosphere of fear and hopelessness. Seen from the perspective of the post-Cold-War era, it may seem difficult to comprehend such fear, but at the time, that fear was very real.
Unit 35
35.1 1 We must give top priority to protecting the privacy of our subjects.
2 We designed the questionnaire with the intention of making it as simple as possible to answer.
3 We had as our goal the definition and evaluation of a new approach to urban planning.
4 I had no intention of becoming a scientist when I began my studies.
5 A hypothesis-based methodology does not work in some cases.
6 Our project is located at the interface between sociology and psychology.
35.2 1 Prof. Li 3 Dr Tadeus 5 Dr Andreas 7 Dr Finstein 2 Prof. Simons            4 Prof. Horza              6 Dr Janeja
35.3 1 infrastructure
2 a national debate
3 (academic) disciplines
4 the knowledge base
5 the interface between theory and practice
6 (a) meet/achieve an objective (b) reach/achieve/attain a target
7 motive, motivation
8 practice-led research
Unit 36
36.1     1 The views she expressed were totally irrational.
2 The committee seemed to be biased in favour of (or towards) applications from younger people.
3 The book is a subjective account of life in a small town in the 1920s.
4 The club rules were prejudiced against children.
5 The President's daughter was quite immature for her age.
6 He has rather conservative/reactionary views about marriage.
7 Her views on education are rather conservative/reactionary.
8 Supreme Court judges always act in an impartial way.
Key 155
36.2
36.3
36.4
36.5
37.1
37.2
1 underlying, philosophy/philosophies
2 to adopt / to shift to
3 held
4 ethical
5 deep-rooted, encounter
6 shifted
1 change (changed) 4 An ideology suggests the beliefs are rigid and more restricting.
2 take 5 standpoint
3 (a) in my point of view
1 The people of the area hold some unusual views about nature.
2 Most young people seem to have objections to the proposals on student fees.
3 Examiners tend to be biased in favour of candidates with clear handwriting.
4 Girls look at their careers from a different standpoint than their mothers.
5 Let us now discuss the principles underlying this approach.
Suggested underlinings
Academics have traditionally taken the view that their discipline is intellectually independent from all others. However, inter-disciplinary degrees are becoming more and more common, suggesting that preconceptions about what and how one should study may be somewhat misplaced. A more liberal view of education would advocate greater freedom to explore the links between different fields of learning, thus pushing the frontiers of knowledge in new and exciting directions. Many academics now feel that the future lies in this blending of ideas and the cross-fertilisation of thought which emerges from it.
Unit 37
1 We may well discover that the problem was caused by overheating.
2 It would seem to appear from all the findings that the test is reliable.
3 Of course it is true that not all factories cause huge amounts of pollution.
4 We can certainly assume that the exchange rate will continue to fluctuate.
5 It may well turn out not to be the case that all the questions were answered honestly.
6 It could be argued that conflict was inevitable after the events of recent years.
In all cases, the adverbs may also be the first word in the sentence, except in the case of 'tentatively' and 'conclude', which usually occur next to each other.
1 Russo was allegedly a member of a terrorist organisation, but it was never proved.
2 At that time, the population of tigers was reportedly widespread in the region.
3 The collapse of the roof apparently caused a sprinkler system pipe to burst.
4 To get a better job is presumably a main motivation for going on to higher education.
5 We may tentatively conclude that water shortages are likely to increase rather than decrease.
6 The students were evidently guessing some of the answers instead of using their knowledge of the context.
noun	verb	adjective	adverb
tendency	tend		
evidence		evident	evidently
	seem		seemingly
likelihood		likely	
perception	perceive	perceptible	perceptibly
37.3
37.4
1 It is not very likely / It is highly unlikely that everyone will fail the test.
2 Students have a tendency to leave preparation for exams till the last minute.
3 It was evident that some students had copied each other's answers.
4 There is a common perception that older people cannot learn musical instruments to a professional standard.
5 The melting of the polar ice caps is seemingly inevitable.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
37.5    Suggested answers
1 Rats are generally considered to be carriers of diseases.
2 There is (only) limited evidence to support the opinion that diesel cars cause more pollution than petrol cars.
3 There is every likelihood that rail passenger numbers will continue to decline.
4 In the absence of evidence to the contrary, we must conclude that right-handedness is not linked to intelligence in any way.
5 It is undoubtedly true that engineering graduates are in increasing demand.
6 The area near the river is liable to flood/flooding in winter.
Unit 38
38.1 This essay examines the early life of Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536), focusing particularly on the period of her brief marriage to Prince Arthur, his death at the age of 15 and her subsequent marriage to his brother Prince Henry, later to become King Henry VIII of England. For the purposes of this essay, I shall pay little attention to either the earlier or the later periods of her life. Her eventual divorce from King Henry is, thus, beyond the scope of this essay. Much more has already been written on the subject of this later period of her life. The literature with reference to the period is extensive but my essay is largely based on a couple of key sources, which arc particularly relevant to any discussion of this period, and I shall refer to these throughout.
38.2 1 the pros and cons 5 that's all very well but*
2 at the same time 6 the extent to which
3 and so on and so forth* 7 in addition to
4 having said that* 8 as well as
* Note that these are more common in spoken contexts, and are not normally used in academic writing.
38.3 There are a number of advantages and disadvantages to take into account when considering the purchase of a hybrid (gasoline-electric) car. Such cars are, for instance, undoubtedly better for the environment in the sense that they cause significantly less air pollution. Furthermore, the degree to which they rely on oil, a natural resource which is rapidly becoming depleted, is much less than is the case with conventional cars. Nevertheless, hybrid cars are not without their problems. Cost may be an issue as well as the technical complexity of this relatively new type of engine. Provided that you take these factors into account, there is no reason why you should not decide to buy a hybrid car.
38.4	IB          2 C	3	A          4 B	5 C	6 B
	Unit 39				
39.1	1 purpose/aim	3	aim/purpose	5 address	7 divided
	2 concerned	4	consists	6 devoted	8 focus
39.2	1 War and Peace	3	No	5 Before	
	2 After	4	Olaf		
39.3	1 Take	3	addresses	5 following	7 consider
	2 Firstly	4	below	6 see	8 later
39.4	1 As can be seen in	Table	V there has been an	increase in the	numbers of students in
education.
2 In Section 3 we take up again some of the arguments from the preceding section.
3 At this point let us turn our attention to developments in Constantinople.
4 The country is divided into six provinces.
5 Let us now turn to the issue of the reunification of Germany.
Key 157
Unit 40
40.1 1 present 3 welcome 5 introduce, address 2 call on, make/give     4 on the subject of
40.2 Suggested answers
1 We need to consider family income too, but I'll come back to that later.
2 So, moving on, I'll skip item 4 on the handout and instead talk about number 5 in more detail.
3 I'll try to finish by 3.30, but feel free to leave if you have a class or other appointment to go to.
4 There is a handout going round and I have some extra/spare copies too if anyone wants them.
5 I'll finish there as my time has run out.
6 We didn't want to make people uncomfortable by having a camera in the room. Having said that, we did want to video as many of the sessions as possible.
7 I'd like to go back to a point I made earlier about river management.
8 So, I believe our experiments have been successful. That's all I have to say. Thank you.
9 Going back to / To go back to / Getting back to the problem of large class sizes, I'd like to look at a study done in Australia in 2002.
10 I'll try not to go over time, so I'll speak for 30 minutes, to leave time for questions at the end.
40.3 1 on 2 with, to 3 to 4 to 5 by
40.4 Possible sentences
1 I shall present the results of some studies done recently.
2 Dr Fonseca will now take questions.
3 I want to raise another issue at this point.
4 I'd just like to make a comment, if I may.
5 I will begin by giving an overview of the topic.
6 This is the first time I've given/made a presentation, so I'm a bit nervous. Unit 41
41.1 Scientists disagree as to whether cold fusion, the controlled power of the hydrogen bomb in the laboratory, is possible. In the past, some believed that experimental study under laboratory conditions using palladium and platinum electrodes could in fact cause heavy hydrogen atoms to fuse into helium and release energy, as the sun does. In carefully controlled experiments, researchers believed they could manipulate the variables arising from the complexity of the electrodes and other equipment used. In such controlled conditions, they argued, cold fusion was possible. However, attempts to replicate some of the experiments which claimed to be successful failed, and many now believe that cold fusion is in fact theoretically impossible.
Some linguists believe that we can best determine how language is processed by laboratory experiments. However, laboratory experiments are by definition artificial and may not reflect what happens in the real world. Other linguists believe, therefore, that empirical observation is better, and prefer to carry out field studies and case studies of individuals in natural settings. In this way, in-depth data can be collected by observers without interfering with the process in any way, even though this may be a more time-consuming method. However, individual studies in real situations may not be representative of the general population of second language learners. In short, both approaches have their advantages and disadvantages.
41.2 carry out: a pilot study / an experiment / a procedure employ/use: a technique / a device / (a) methodology a piece of / to assemble / check apparatus
(NB You can also employ/use a procedure.)
Academic Vocabulary in Use
1 It was a new piece of apparatus so we assembled it first and then checked it before using it (or we checked it first and then assembled it).
2 The team carried out a pilot study before conducting the main experiment to see if the methodology/procedure they were using was reliable.
3 The team needed to employ a different technique/procedure for measuring the pressure, so they used a new device (or apparatus) which they manufactured in their own laboratory. (If apparatus is used, we can also say 'a new piece of apparatus'.)
1 It was very difficult to make reliable inferences from the data as we had so little.
2 A correlational study is a good way of seeing if one phenomenon is related to another in a systematic way.
3 The experiment neither proved nor disproved Jessop's theory.
4 We had to explain the unusual scores of five of the subjects in the sample, who all had totals well below the norm. It was possible there were inaccuracies in the data.
5 An outside (or external) observer can often unintentionally disrupt the behaviour of the subjects they are observing.
Unit 42
1 'Computer programming languages usually fall into one of four categories: imperative, functional, object-oriented and logic. These languages are distinct from one another in how they operate. The structure of imperative languages is based on commands, you know, "do this, do that thing". Languages such as Fortran and COBOL belong to this type. Functional languages consist of mathematical functions. The components of object-oriented languages are commands which are combined with the data to create "objects". The main feature of logic languages is that they state facts or relations between things. Now, in the case of human languages, diversity is considered a good thing. In the case of programming languages, it suggests we still haven't found the best one!'
2 'For your end-of-year project, you must carry out a survey of consumer preferences for one product or a type of product. You'll need to devise a questionnaire, and you'll need to take a lot of factors into account. These include gender, that is how many males and/ or females are in your sample, social class, and so on. And also different generations; will it just be adults, or young people too? And what about senior citizens? They may be retired, but they still buy a lot of things. Also, what about occupational status? Are you going to separate blue collar and white collar workers? Or are you also interested in people who are not in employment, such as homemakers, but who are often the ones who buy the goods? And in our multicultural society, don't forget ethnic background.'
noun	verb	adjective	adverb
similarity		similar	similarly
difference	differ/differentiate*	different	differently
allocation	allocate		
description	describe	descriptive	descriptively
* Differ is intransitive (it does not take an object); differentiate is transitive (it does take an object) or can be used with between {differentiate between x and y).
1 It is hard to differentiate between these two similar plants. They hardly differ at all.
2 The professor persuaded the university to allocate more resources to his department.
3 There are some magnificent descriptive passages in the writer's later novels.
4 In your essay please comment on the similarities and the differences between the two poems.
Key 159
42.4    Note that in this exercise both the original sentences and those in the Key are equally appropriate in academic English. The purpose of the exercise is just to practise using a range of language.
1 It is difficult to classify human emotions as we know little about their nature.
2 Sensation and action can both be subsumed under the term behaviour.
3 Linguists assign all languages to a place in the system of language families, based on their grammars and other key dimensions/features/characteristics.
4 The atmosphere of the planet is made up of different gases.
5 Urban and rural people often differ in their political attitudes. Marital status is also a relevant factor.
Unit 43
43.1 1 The study found links between use of the drug and heart problems.
2 Jill's thoroughness is complemented by her co-researcher's originality.
3 Musical talent correlates with mathematical ability.
4 The sculpture is an unusual combination of gentle curves and sharp angles.
5 The conference has brought together scholars from all over the world.
6 The researcher is trying to piece together information from a range of sources.
7 Peter's study is closely related to his previous research.
8 The term 'hacker' used to refer to a computer programmer.
43.2 1 There is usually a very strong bond between a mother and her child.
2 Salaries have fallen over the last few years not in real terms but relative to inflation.
3 In the UK black cats are associated with good luck.
4 In the experiment, group A performed best on the manual dexterity test and least well on the memory test whereas for group B the reverse was the case.
5 'Malicious' is more or less synonymous with 'nasty'.
6 The problems discussed above are all closely interrelated.
7 Taken together, the studies by Johnson and Mahesh provide very strong evidence that previous theories on the nature of this disease were flawed.
8 The research is original in that it approaches the topic from a completely fresh angle.
9 The painter loved to explore the interplay between light and shade.
43.3 Interaction within a chimpanzee community is the theme of Gavros's fascinating new book. It describes the various different relationships between the animals, and reveals how an individual's behaviour reflects his or her position in the community, showing how the older females in particular offer each other mutual support. The book also provides evidence to suggest that chimpanzees use sounds in systematic ways to communicate with each other. One particular sound, for example, clearly corresponds to the human cry of 'Watch out!' while another would seem to be the equivalent of 'Help!' Certain gestures also seem to be associated with specific meanings.
43.4 Possible answers
1 Different universities competed with one another in the chess competition which Alf won. (Note that a hyphen is used here. The rules for the use of hyphens are not very predictable in English - look out for examples and make a note of them.)
2 Highways linking different US states with each other are usually good, fast roads.
3 If two countries are economically interdependent, it means that they are dependent on each other, rather than, say, just one country being dependent on the other.
4 Intermarriage can refer either to marriage between people of different social groups or as in the example sentence to marriage between people of the same family or set of families.
5 Interchange of information conveys the idea that information is going in both directions and not just one. In other words, everyone is both giving and gaining new information.
6 Interconnecting parts connect with and relate to each other. In other words, they are not separate from each other.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Unit 44
44.1 1 as compared 3 compared        5 from/to 7 analogy
2 difference/contrast/distinction       4 comparison      6 comparison      8 In contrast* * On the other hand would also be possible here, but in contrast better expresses the sharp opposition between the two scientists' views.
44.2 Sugges ted ans wers
1 The two groups were different from/to each other.
2 There was a contrast between the two groups of children.
3 The three liquids were similar to one another.
4 The data revealed differences in/among the informants' responses.
5 The title of her paper was: 'Male attitudes towards prison sentencing compared with/to female attitudes'.
6 The economy of the north is booming, the south is similarly enjoying an economic upturn. / The economy of the north is booming. Similarly, the south is also enjoying an economic upturn.
Suggested answers
1 Unlike the south of the country, which has little in the way of forests, the north of the country is covered with thick forests. / The north of the country is covered with thick forests, unlike the south of the country, which has little in the way of forests.
2 Rather than a questionnaire, in this case, face-to-face interviews are better.
3 Asian languages such as Vietnamese are quite difficult for learners whose first language is a European one. Conversely, European languages are difficult for learners whose first language is an Asian one.
4 On the one hand, oil is plentiful at the present time. On the other hand, it will run out one day.
5 Boys tend to prefer aggressive solutions to problems, whereas girls prefer more indirect approaches. / Whereas boys tend to prefer aggressive solutions to problems, girls prefer more indirect approaches. {While could also be used in both cases instead of whereas.)
6 In the post-war period, public transport enjoyed a boom. Nowadays, the reverse is true.
1 True
2 False; compatible means things can exist together or work together
3 True
4 False; if there are parallels then there are similarities between them
5 True
44.3
44.4
Unit 45
45.1 1 Students always seem to have difficulty in remembering this formula.
2 Ford pointed out that the methodology had a number of inconsistencies.
3 The need to find replacement fuels poses considerable challenges for scientists.
4 The media continue to focus on the controversy surrounding the President.
5 In the figures he presented several errors were apparent.
6 On their way across Antarctica they experienced many difficulties.
7 The results of the opinion poll raise some important questions for the Party.
8 Problems caused by pollution in this area arose fairly recently.
45.2 1 It is no easy task mediating between unions and management.
2 In this lecture I plan to deal with the later novels of Charles Dickens.
3 The answer to most problems in agriculture lies in the soil.
4 He thought for a long time but was unable to come up with a solution.
5 Green tourism may initially feel like a contradiction in terms.
6 I wonder what the professor's reaction to the article will be.
7 The company has experienced a number of difficulties with the computer operating system.
8 Have you found a solution to the problem yet?
Key 161
45.3
45.4
46.1
46.2
46.3
46.4
47.1
47.2
47.3
47.4
noun	verb		noun	verb
solution	solve		resolution	resolve
reaction	react		response	respond
contents	contain		contradiction	contradict
error	err		mediation	mediate
1 contradicted	3 solution		5 contains	
2 err Unit 46
1
2
1
2
environment status
unstable Instability
4 mediate
3 existence
4 circumstances
3 infinite
4 absence
6 response
5 absence
6 infrastructure
5 maximum
7 resolved
8 reacted
7 context
8 conditions
1 In the 1960s the government imposed (or placed) restrictions on the amount of money you could take out of the country.
2 The problem is confined to the capital city.
3 All fossil fuels are finite resources.
4 In the accident there was minimal damage to the car.
5 All research is subject to the constraints of funding decisions.
6 The social instability of/in the country deters investors.
7 In/Under normal circumstances we would not behave in this way. / If the circumstances were normal we would not behave in this way.
8 Most small children believe in the existence of fairies.
1
2
restrict intrinsic
Unit 47
1 verify
2 procedure
1 consume
2 advent
3 restrain
4 integral
3 supplement
4 simulation
3 display
4 emerged
5 minimum
6 imposed
5 step
6 design
5 insert
6 invent
7 circumstances
8 restraint
7 input
8 secure
verb	noun		verb	noun
apply to	application of		verify	verification of
behave	behaviour of		utilise	utilisation of
simulate	simulation of		emerge from	emergence of
select from	selection of		consume	consumption of
design	design of		secure	security of
ratify	ratification of		input into	input
insert into	insertion		display	display
1 emergence
2 consumption
3 insert
4 ratify
5 application
6 input
7 behaviour
8 design
Follow up
Possible word combinations
painful, difficult, learning, ageing, production process correct, standard, special, official, technical, experimental procedure first, next, final, difficult, crucial, early stage Academic Vocabulary in Use
Unit 48
48.1 1 expansion 6 elimination
2 sustainable 7 modifications
3 perceptible 8 adjustments
4 increasingly 9 acquisition
5 development 10 relaxation
48.2 1 If prices fluctuate they go up and down; they change a lot.
2 If a disease is eliminated none of it remains, it disappears completely.
3 If interest in something is diminishing it is becoming less.
4 If there is a marked change in someone's behaviour it is probably a big change. It is a noticeable change.
5 If most people feel that mobile phones enhance their lives, they feel that their lives have become better.
6 If controls on imports are relaxed they become less strict.
48.3 1 recovering 3 refine 5 adjust 7 maintain 2 converting               4 abandon                  6 status quo 8 restore
48.4 1 in 3 away from        5 on 7 from 2 to (or from or out of)    4 on                   6 to adjust to changes      8 to
Unit 49
49.1 1 misguided, inadequate        3 important, significant 5 unique 2 ground-breaking               4 crucial
49.2 1 credit, acknowledged, crucial       3 challenged, validity, flawed, limited
2 borne, mistaken, evidence, flaws   4 viewed, seminal/ground-breaking, ground-breaking
49.3 1 By no means is it certain that all the students will pass their final exams.
2 He had never before taught such an outstanding student.
3 Rarely has the country witnessed such a display of public feeling.
4 We will in no way / We will not in any way be able to halt the process of global warming. / We will not be able to halt the process of global warming in any way.
5 Under no circumstances will students be allowed to defer the completion of their thesis longer than one month.
6 Only when we gather a lot more data will we know the answer.
49.4 1 highlights 3 compatible 5 worth recalling, limited 2 solid                       4 comprehensive, key 6 underlines
Unit 50
50.1 1 In conclusion, the tests suggest the drug has no dangerous side effects.
2 To summarise, losing the war was a humiliating defeat for the country on a number of different levels.
3 In summary, it is impossible to blame the disaster on one person alone.
4 From the survey we can draw the conclusion / come to the conclusion that advertising has a stronger effect on teenage girls than on other groups of the population.
5 To recapitulate, there were a number of different reasons why the experiment was less successful than had been hoped.
50.2 1 balance 3 put, eventually 5 analysis 7 points 2 abstract                  4 provide                  6 words 8 close
50.3 1 at last     3 Lastly     5 at last 2 lastly      4 at last
Key   163
50.4 In the end means 'finally, after something has been thought about or discussed a lot'. At the end is usually followed by 'of (something)', and refers to the final point of a thing or time or place, e.g. at the end of the film, at the end of the month, at the end of the street.
50.5 This paragraph is a precis of Academic Vocabulary in Use. In sum / To sum up, the book provides 50 units covering key aspects of academic vocabulary. Stated briefly, each unit has attempted to present and practise the words that all students need. The overall aim of the book is to help students not only to understand but also to use academic vocabulary. In bringing the book to a close, we hope we have helped you and wish you success in your future academic studies.
Reading and vocabulary I
1 1 cherished companions 3 prolong 5 concentrated
2 crucial 4 initiated 6 Study participants
2 1 persons 2   underlies        3 behaviours     4 calamity
noun	verb	adjective
convention		conventional
help	help	helpful
expectancy	expect	expectant
pleasure	please	pleasurable
Reading and vocabulary 2
1 1 False: Australia is indeed 'arid', i.e. it has little or no rainfall to support plants, but
Antarctica is even more arid
2 True
3 False: the species developed because of Australia's isolation from other landmasses
4 False: seismic (earthquake) activity persists (continues to occur) in the eastern and western highlands
5 False: the general geological appearance is 'relatively uniform', i.e. all of the same type
2 1 roughly equal 3 the end result 5 seemingly unchanged 2 massive upheavals     4 common misconception
3 1 lush       2 inhospitable        3  a window 4 theorize
Reading and vocabulary 3
1 1 of 2 by 3 from      4 to       5 along with     6 of      7 to
2 1 Accessing web pages is quite straightforward, and people with virtually no expertise can
use the web.
2 The browser contacts the appropriate server to transmit the document.
3 The WWW is essentially a search system.
4 The information added to documents distinguishes web servers from Internet servers.
5 Years ago, the Internet was mainly used by experts.
Reading and vocabulary 4
I     1 The skin is the largest organ in the human body.
2 Psychologists disagree as to how exactly memories are stored in the brain.
3 Humans share almost all of their genes with the other great apes such as gorillas.
4 As children become young adults they have bursts of growth.
5 It is important that animals in captivity are given the right diet.
6 People have approached the problem in a variety of ways.
Academic Vocabulary m Use
2    1 complex
2 spread out
3 numerous
4 outnumber
5 amplify
6 partially
7 final
8 specific
9 spread
3    Possible answers
Scientists disagree as to how much matter there is in the universe, (substance)
Observing safety procedures is a matter of some importance, (situation)
What's the matter with the baby? Why's she crying? (problem)
Wax and ice pass from solid to liquid as you heat them, (change)
The main symptoms usually pass after a couple of days, (go away)
Pass me the test tube, please, (give)
The ice caps were formed millions of years ago. (created)
The survey formed the basis of the report, (provided)
The child formed the mud into the figure of a dog. (shaped)
The monks sleep in small, bare cells, (little rooms)
When creating a table in Word, it is possible to merge cells, (individual sections of a table) When cells split, the DNA goes through a process called replication, (smallest parts of an organism)
Reading and vocabulary 5
1 1 tiny devices - notice also simple devices in the fifth paragraph and novel medical devices
in the final paragraph
2 display properties
3 make use
4 experimental nanotechnology
5 completely different - and notice also profoundly different in the second paragraph
6 greatest advances
2 Possible answers
1 complex, intricate, strange, special, electronic (and many more)
2 have, exhibit, show, lack, require
3 a suggestion, an offer, an apology, progress, a mistake, money
4 advanced, applied, theoretical, cutting-edge, medical
5 profoundly, totally, absolutely, partly, slightly, somewhat
6 significant, considerable, major, important
3 1 without knowing      2 in the near future 3 from the beginning
Reading and vocabulary 6
1 1 consists of 4 In contrast 7 lines
2 govern 5 controversies 8 increasingly
3 concerns itself (only) with 6  arising out of 9 implicate
2 Possible answers
1 fundamental 4  has its origins in 7 behaviour
2 traditional 5 with regard to 8 signatories, countries which signed
3 is based on 6 goes against 9 give
3 Possible answers
1 nation: national, nationality, nationalist, international, internationally, nationalise
2 significant: signify, insignificant, significance, insignificance, significantly
3 acceptance: accept, acceptable, unacceptable, acceptably, accepting
4 extent: extend, extension, extensive, extensively, inextensive
5 creator: create, creative, creation, creatively, creativity
Key 165
Phonemic symbols
Vowel sounds
Symbol	Examples	
IvJ	sleep	me
l\l	happy	recipe
III	pin	dinner
Id	foot	could pull
lu:l	do	shoe through
Id	red	head said
hi	arrive	father colour
hi/	turn	bird work
hi/	sort	thought walk
l<d	cat	black
IkI	sun	enough wonder
Id	got	watch sock
la:/	part	heart laugh
(eil	name	late aim
/ai/	my.	idea time
hi/	boy	noise
led	pair	where bear
lid	hear	beer
hoi	go	home show
lad	out	cow
lod	pure	
Consonant sounds
Symbol Examples
Id put
lb! book
It/ take
Id! dog
fkl car kick
Igl go guarantee
/tJ7 catch church
fdd age lounge
If I for cough
Nl love vehicle
IQI thick path
161 this mother
Is/ since rice
Izl zoo houses
/JV shop      sugar machine
[3I pleasure      usual vision
IhJ hear hotel
/m/ make
Id name now
Id bring
IV look while
Irl road
Ijl young
/w/ wear
166   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Index
numbers not page numbers. The pronunciation provided
The numbers in the index are Unit is for standard British English.
a few 7
a great deal of 16 a little 7
a wide range of 16 abandon /o'bamdan/ 48 above /o'bAv/ 39 absence /'aebsans/ 46 absolutely critical 33 abstract /'aebstraekt/ 4, 50 abundant /a'bAndant/ 24 accident /'aeksidont/ 1 accidental /.ceksi'dentol/ 1 accidentally /.jeksi'dentoli/1 accommodate /a'knmadeit/ 8 accommodation A^koma'deifan/ 28
accompanied by 43 according to 32, 42 account for 3, 14, 30 account for the fact that 24 accountable expenses 28 accumulate /s'kjuimjoleit/ 28 accurate /'aekjurat/ 4, 24 achieve /a't/hv/ 35 achieve objectives 35 acknowledge /ok'nDlid3/ 17, 23, 49
acquire /a'kwaio/ 48 adapt /o'daept/ 48 add up 25
address /s'dres/ 39, 40, 45 adjacent /a'dseisont/ 27 adjust /a'd3Ast/ 48 administration /sd.mini'streijsn/ 18
adopt /o'dDpt/ 36 advance /od'vams/ 32 advantage /3d'va:ntid3/ 33 advent /'aedvent/ 47 advisor /od'vaiza/ 19 affect /s'fekt/ 3, 30 age /eid3/15, 42 aggregate /'eegngot/ 25 aim /eim/ 35, 39 albeit /oiPbhit/38 allegedly h'ledydll/ 37 allocate /'aelokeit/ 42 allow (time) /o'lao/ 40
almost /'oilmaost/ 1
alter /'odt3/48
alternative /o:l't3:ri3tiv/ 12
ambiguous Aem'bigjuas/ 34
amend /a'mend/ 48
amount /a'maont/ 7
amount to 14
analogy /3'naetad3i/ 44
analyse /'tenolaiz/ 3, 24
analyse a sample 10
analysis /s'nastasis/ plural analyses
/a'naelasuz/15, 31 and so forth 38 and so on 38 animated /'amimeitid/ 10 annual /'aenjusl/ 29 answer /'oinso/ 45 anyway /'cniwei/ 40 apart from 38 apparatus /.aepor'eitas/ 41 apparent /o'paeront/ 4, 45 apparently /o'paer9ntli/ 5, 37 appear /s'pia/ 37 appendix /a'pendiks/ 23 application /.aeph'keijsn/ 35, 47 appreciate /o'pri: fieit/ 27 approach /a'prootJV 2, 12, 15, 41 appropriate /o'praopriat/ 4, 22 approximate /s'prnksimot/ 25 approximately /a'proksimatli/ 5 archives /'uikaivz/ 23 argue /'u:gju:/ 32 argue against 14 argue for 14
argument /'aigjumant/ 32
arise /s'raiz/ 45
arrive at an answer 25
article /'aitikal/15
artificial /.aiti'fijal/ 41
artificially /.aiti'fijali/ 5
as a result of 13
as a rule 16
as a whole 7, 16
as can be seen in 39
as far as x is concerned 16
as noted 23
as opposed to 16
as regards 16
as time is (running) short 40
as we have seen 50
as we saw in 39
as well as 38
aspect /'aespckt/ 2, 33
assemble /a'sembal/ 41
assert /a's3:t/ 32
assertion /a'sa:Jon/ 32
assessment /o'sesmant/ 2, 20
assign /o'sam/ 42
assign to 14
assignment /o'sainmant/ 15, 20, 22
associate (with) /a'soosicit/ 12,
14, 43 assume /o'sju:m/ assumption /a'sAm/on/ 15 at a stage 29 at first 39 at last 50 at random 26 at the end 50 at the moment 29 at the same time 16, 38 at this point 13, 39 at this stage 13 atmosphere /'aetmosfia/ 34 attack /o'taek/ 9 attain /o'tcin/ 35 attempt /a'temt/1, 3, 15, 50 attend to /o'tcnd/ 14 attention /a'tcnjan/15 attitude /'aetitjmd/15 attribute to /o'tribjuit/14, 23 automate /'oitamcit/ 47 autonomy /oi'tDnami/ 31 average /'aevands/ 25, 26 award /a'woid/ 28 awareness /a'weanss/ 2 background /'baekgraund/ 42 bank account 28 bar chart 27 base on 12, 38 base /beis/ 12 based /beist/ 33 basically /'beisikli/ 1, 5 basis /'beisis/ 15, 33 battle /'baetol/ 9
/ndex   167
battle against 9
be (commonly) associated with 12
be based on 12, 14
be bombarded with 9
be borne out 49
be concerned (with) 39
be made up of 6, 42
be that as it may 16
be united 9
bear out 24
begin /bi'gm/ 40
behaviour /bi'heivja/ 47
bell curve 26
belong /bi'lon/ 42
below /bi'lao/ 39
benefit /'benifit/ 33
benefit from 14
beyond the scope (of) 2, 38
biased /'baiast/ 36
biased against 36
biased in favour of 36
bit (computer) /bit/ 9
blended /'blendid/ 22
blue collar 42
body of evidence 24
body of literature 23
bond /bond/ 43
book /bok/15
borrowing rights 21
brainstorm /'bremsto:m/ 21
break off contact 10
brief/briif/ 40
briefly /'brhfli/ 1, 12
bring to a close 50
bring together 43
bulk /bAlk/ 7
by chance 13
by far 13
by heart 21
by means of which 16
by no means 49
cafeteria /.kafa'tiaria/ 18
calculate /'kaclkjolcit/ 3, 25
call for 14, 17
call on 40
candidate /'kasnchdot/ 20 career /ka'na/ 17 carry out 3, 6, 41 case /keis/ 2, 15 case study 41 cast doubt on 32 catalogue /'kictalng/ 23 category /'kaetogri/ 42
cause /ko:z/ 12, 30 cause-and-effect/ka:z and Tfekt/ 41
century /'sent Pari/ 29 chain reaction 30 challenge /'tj"aebnd3/ 3, 12, 35, 45, 49
change/t.remd3/ 12, 15, 48 channel /'t Jaenal/ 8 character /'ksenkta/ 1 characteristic /,ka:nkta'nstik/ 1,
4, 12, 42 charge /tju:d3/ 8 check /trek/ 24, 41 circumstances /'s3:kamsta:ntsiz/
46
cite /salt/ 23
claim /klcim/ 32
clarification /.klacrifi'keijan/ 17
clarify /'klaenfai/ 34
classify /'khesifai/ 3, 42
clear /klis/ 24
clearly /'kliali/ 12
clearly demonstrate 12
clearly identify 12
closely /'klaosli/ 12
coherent/kao'hiarant/ 34
coincide with 29
collaborative /ka'lacbarotiv/ 22
collate results 10
collect /ko'lekt/ 24, 41
collect results 10
college /'knlid3/ 19
column /'knlam/ 27
combination /.kDmbi'neiJ'an/ 43
combine elements 10
come back 40
come down on one side 33
come into contact with 10
come to a conclusion 33
come to light 24
come up with 45
comment /'knmcnt/ 32, 40
comment on 14
common /'knman/ 4, 11
common ground 11
common knowledge 23
common practice 11
commonly /'knmanli/ 12
commons /'knmanz/ 19
communicate /ka'mjumikeit/ 34
comparatively /kam'psrativli/ 5
compared (with/to) /kam'pead/ 44
comparison /kam'prensan/ 44 compatible /kam'pcctibal/ 49 complement /'knmplimant/ 43 complex /'knmpleks/ 4 component /kom'pounont/ 42 comprehend /.knmpn'hcncl/ 34 comprehensive /.knmpn'hensiv/
24,49 comps /knmps/ 19 concentrate on 14 concept /'knnsept/ 31 concisely /kon'saisli/ 50 conclude /kan'kluid/ 50 conclusion /kan'klu^an/ 33 conclusively /kan'klu:sivli/ 12 conclusively establish 12 concrete /'knrjkriit/ 4 concurrent /kan'kArant/ 29 conditions /kan'di Janz/ 11, 41, 46 conduct /kan'dAkt/ 3 confine /kan'fain/ 46 confirm /kan'farm/ 1 conflict /'konflikt/ 45 conflicting /kan'fliktirj/ 24 conflicting elements 10 connotation /.knna'tei Jan./ 34 consent (to)/kon'sent/ 14 consequence /'knnsikwons/ 30 conservative /k3n's3:vat]v/ 36 conserve energy 10 consider /kon'sido/ 3, 24, 39 considerable/kan'sidarabol/ 7, 11 considerable influence 30 considerably /kon'sidarabli/ 5 considered to be 37 consist (of) /kon'sist/ 39, 42 consistent /kan'sistant/ 26 constant/'konstonl/ 25 constituent /kan'stitjuont/ 10 constitute /'knnstitjuit/ 33 constrain /kan'strem/ 46 constraint /kon'streint/ 46 construct /'kan'stiwkt/ 22 construct knowledge 22 consult a source 23 consume energy 10 consume /kan'sjuim/ 47 consumption /kan'sAniJ'an/ 47 contact /'knnlrekt/ 10 contain /kan'tcin/ 8, 45 contemporary /kan'temparori/ 29 contend /kan'tend/ 32 contention /kon'tenj'an/ 32
168   Academic Vocabulary in Use
context /'kontekst/ 46 continuous /kan'tinjuss/ 25 contract /kan'traekt/ 8 contradiction (in terms)
/.kDntro'dikJan/ 45 contradictory /.kontra'diktari/ 49 contrary /'kontrari/ 37 contrast /'knntraist/ (noun) 44 contribute to a debate 10 contribute /kan'tribjmt/ 30, 35 contribution /,knntn'bju:fan/ 30 controlled /kan'trauld/ 41 controversy /'knntrav3:si/
/kant'trovasi/ 45 conversely /kan'v3isli/ 44 convert /kan'v3:t/ (verb) 48 convey /kan'vei/ 34 convince of 14 convincing /kan'vinsin/ 24 convincingly /kan'vmsirjli/12 convincingly demonstrate 12 copy /'knpi/ 40 core /ko:/ 20 correlate /'koralait/ 43 correlate with 26 correlation /.kDra'lei fan/ 26 correlational /.kora'leifanal/ 41 correspond /.kon'spnnd/ 43 cost of living 28 couple with 14 couple /'kApal/ 7 course of action 33 cram /krasm/ 21 creative /kri'eitiv/ 35 credit /'kredit/ 20 criteria /krai'tiaria/ 41 criterion /krai'tiarian/ 31, 35, 41 critical /'kntikal/29, 33 critical mass 35 criticism /'kntisizam/ 49 cross /kros/ 27
cross-section ^kros'sekfan/ 27 crucial /'kru: Jal/ 49 crucial element 10 current /'kArant/ 29 current account 28 CV 28
daily /'deili/ 29 data /'deits/ 24, 41 deadline /'dedlain/17, 21 deal/did/ 7 deal with 23, 45 debate /di'beit/ 10
debate surrounding 10 debt /det/ 28 decade /'dekeid/ 29 declare /di'klea/ 32 decline /di'klain/ 27 decrease /'di:kri:s/ (noun) 15 decrease /di'krhs/ (verb) 27 deduce /di'djuis/ 33 deduct /di'dAkt/ 25 deeply critical 33 deep-rooted /,di:p'ru:tid/ 36 defer payment 28 defer /di'fa:/ 20 define /di'fain/ 34 define a role 10 definitely /'definatli/ 5 definition /,defi'niJan/ 34, 35 degree /di'gri:/ 2, 38 deliberate /di'hbarat/ 35 demonstrate /'demanstreit/ 3, 12, 24, 32
demonstration /.deman'streijan/ 32
denote /di'naut/ 34, 42 depart from 14 depreciate /di'pri: fieit/ 27 derivation /.deri'veijan/ 30 derive /di'raiv/ 30 describe /di'skraib/ 3, 32, 42 description /di'sknpjan/ 32 design /di'zam/ 47 despite the fact that 38 determine /di't3:min/ 30, 41 develop /di'velap/ 3, 47 develop a way 10 development /di'velapmant/ 48 deviate from the norm 26 device /di'vais/ 41 devise /di'vaiz/ 42 devise a way 10 devote /di'vaut/ 39 diagram /'daiograem/ 26 difference /'difarans/12, 15, 42, 44
different (from/to) /'difarant/ 44 differentiate /.difa'renfleit/ 10 difficulty /'difikalti/15, 45 dig into 33
dimension /.dai'men/an/ 42 diminish /di'miniJV 48 diploma /di'plauma/ 20 directly Ah'rektli/ /dai'rekli/ 5 disadvantage /pdis3d'va:ntid3/ 33
discern elements 10 discipline /'disaphn/ 1, 31, 35 discourse /'diskois/ 34 discover a way 10 discrete /di'skrht/ 25 discuss /di'skAs/ 3, 12, 31 discuss the issue thoroughly 12 discuss the problem at length 12 discussion forum 22 display /di'splei/ 47 dispose of 14 disprove /di'spru:v/ 41 disrupt /dis'rApt/ 41 dissertation /.diss'tei fan/15 distance course 22 distant future 29 distinct from 42
distinction /di'st in/an/ 15, 20, 34, 44
distinguish between 34
distort /di'stoit/ 24
distribution /,distri'bju:J"on/ 26
diversity /dai'v3is3ti/ 42
divide /di'vaid/ 39
divide into 14
document /'dokjumont/ 23
double /'dAbsl/ 27
draft /draift/ 21
draw a conclusion 33
draw attention to the fact that 24
draw conclusions 50
draw data from 23
draw mind maps 21
draw on 14, 23
drawback /'draibaek/ 33
drop /dmp/ 27
due to the fact that 16
duration /djuo'reijon/ 20
EAP 20
earlier /'silia/ 12, 39 early /'3:li/ 29 economic /.iika'nomik/ 28 economical /^ika'nnmikal/ 28 effect /I'fekt/ 3, 15, 30 effect a change 30 effects A'fekts/ 12 elective /l'lektiv/ 20 electronically /,elek'trnniklL/ 22 element /'ehmant/10 elements /'ehmants/ 10 eligible /'ehd33bal/ 20, 28 elimination /ljimi'neiJan/ 48 elsewhere /,els'we3/ 23
Index   169
elucidate /i'lu:sideit/ 9 emerge /i'm3:d3/14, 24, 47 emerge (of phenomena) 10 emergence /i'ni3:d3ans/ 29, 47 emphasis /'emfasis/ 3, 15, 32 emphasise /'emfasaiz/ 3, 14, 31, 32
empirical /im'pirikal/ 24, 41 employ /im'pbi/ 41 employment /im'pbimant/ 42 encounter /m'kaonta/ 36 encouraging /in'kAnd3irj/ 10 end /end/ 30
end-of-semester /end av si'mesta/ 21
energy /'enad3i/ 10 engage in debate 10 English-medium /'inglij" 'mhdbm/ 17
enhance /m'hams/ 48 enormous /I'naimas/ 7, 11 enrol /m'raul/ 20 enrol on 22
enter your username 22
entitlement /in'taitalmant/ 28
entry requirement 17
environment /m'vairanmant/ 46
equal opportunities policy 17
equip with 14
equivalent /rkwivabnt/ 43
era /'iara/ 29
erase information 9
erasure /l'rerja/ 9
error /'era/ 45
especially /I'spe/ali/ 5
essay /'esei/ 15, 20
essence /'esans/ 31
essentially A'sent Jali/ 5
establish /I'stsebliJY 3, 12, 24, 35
establish contact 10
estimate /'estimat/ (noun) 25
estimate /'estimeit/ (verb) 25
ethical /'eGikal/ 36
ethnic /'eGnik/ 42
evaluation /i.vaelju'eifan/ 35
even number 25
even so 38
eventual /I'ventjual/ 29 eventually /i'vent Juali/ 5, 50 evidence /'evidans/ 12, 24, 37,
43,49 evident /'evidant/ 37 evoke /I'vaok/ 34
evolve /i'vdIv/ 29
exact /ig'zaekt/ 25
examination/ig,zaemi'neij3n/ 15
examine /lg'zaemin/ 3, 12, 24
exceed /ik'siid/ 27
exceeding /ik'si:dirj/ 7
excess /ik'ses/ 7
excessive /ik'sesiv/ 7
exclude from 14
exist /lg'zist/ 23
existence /ig'zistans/ 42, 46
expansion /ik'spaenfan/ 48
expenditure /ik'spendit Ja/ 28
experience /ik'spiarians/ 45
experiment /ik'spenmont/ 41
experimental /ik.speri'mental/ 41
explain /ik'splem/ 3, 32
explain a phenomenon 10
explain by the fact that 27
explanation /.ekspla'nei Jan/ 32
explicit /ik'sphsit/11
explicitly /ik'splisitli/ 5
exploration ^ekspla'reijan/ 15
explore /ik'splo:/ 3
export /iks'poit/ (verb) 47
expose to 14
express ideas 34
extension /ik'stenfan/ 21
extensive /ik'stensiv/ 23
extent /ik'stent/ 38
extra-curricular activities 21
extreme /ik'strhm/ 26
face-to-face /.feista'feis/ 22
facilitate /fa'siliteit/ 30
facilitation /fa.sih'tei Jan/ 30
fact /faekt/ 24
factor /'faekt a/ 12
faculty /'faekalti/ 18, 19
fair /f ea/ 7
fair way 10
fall /fad/ 27
fall below 27
falsify results 10
feature /'fi:tJV 2, 12, 42
feedback /'fiidbaek/ 22
feel free 40
fees /fi:z/17
few /f ju:/ 7
fewer and fewer 7
field study 41
figure /'figs/ 25, 27
file (computer) /fail/ 9
fill in 17
final /'famoV 29, 50 finally /'fainali/ 39, 50 finals /'fainalz/ 19 financial /fai'nasnfal/ 28 financial guarantee 17 find /faind/ 3, 45 finite /'fainait/ 46 firmly /'f3:mli/ 12 firmly establish 12 first /'faist/ 39 first draft 21 firstly /'fsistli/ 39 flame /fleim/ 22 flaw /fb:/ 49 flimsy /'fhmzi/ 24 flowchart /'fbotjait/ 27 fluctuate /'flAktJueit/ 48 focus /'faokas/ 1, 40 focus on 14
following /'fnboirj/ 39, 50 for example 24, 38, 39 for instance 24, 38 for the most part 13, 16 for the purposes of 16, 38 for this reason 16 former /'foima/ 39 forthcoming /,fD:9'kAmirj/ 29 fraction /'fraekfan/ 25 framework /'freimw3:k/ 31 fraternity /fra't3:n3ti/ 19 frequently /'frhkwantli/ 5, 12 freshman /'frefman/ 19 from the point of view of 16 from then on 13 fundamental /.fAnda'mental/ 48, 49
further /'fsióa/ 35, 38 furthermore /,Í3:dd'mo:/ 38 gender /'d3enda/ 42 general /'d3enar3l/ 42 generalise /'d3en3ralaiz/ 31 generally /^enarali/ 5, 12 generally associated with 12 generate /'d3enareit/ 1, 30 generate energy 10 generation /,d3eno'reiJan/ 42 get in 17
getting back to 40 give /giv/ 3
give a (brief) summary of 50 give a description 3 give an example 24 give credit 23, 49
170   Academic Vocabulary in Use
give rise to 30
glaring /'gleonrj/ 9
glossary /'glosori/ 34
go against 6
go back 40
go back over 6
go blank 21
go into 6
go on to 6
go over (time) 40
go round 40
go through a period 29
go through 6
goal /gaol/ 35
gradual /'gradual/ 48
graduate student 19
grant /graint/ 17, 28
graph /graif/ 27
graphic /'graefik/ 27
graphics /'graefiks/ 27
great /greit/ 7
Great Hall 18
ground /graond/ 11
ground-breaking /'graond.breikirj/
33, 49 grounding /'graundin/ 31 grow /grsu/ 27 growing /'grauirj/ 24 growth /grauO/ 27 halfway point 26 hall of residence 18 halve /ha:v/ 27 handout /'haendaot/ 40 happen /'haepon/ 41 hard /hard/ 24, 49 hardly ever 5 hardware /'haidwea/ 9 have (sth) as a goal 35 have a shot at 1 have an influence on 30 having said that 38, 40 heading /'hedin./ 42 heated /'hiitid/10 heated debate 10 hierarchy /'haiararki/ 42 highlight /'hailait/ 9, 32, 49 histogram /'histagraem/ 27 hit send 22
hit the send button 22 hold /hould/ 36 holiday /'hohdei/18 homemaker /'hsom.meiko/ 42 horizontal axis 27
househusband /'haoshAzbsnd/ 42 housewife /'haoswaif/ 42 humanities /hjui'maenitiz/ 31 hybrid /'haibnd/ 22 hypothesis /hai'poGosis/ plural
hypotheses /hai'pDUosiiz/ 12,
24, 31
hypothesis-based /hai'poOasis
beist/ 35 idea /ai'dia/ 15
identification /ai.dentifi'keijan/ 2
identify/ai'dentifai/ 1, 3, 12
ideology /,aidi'ol3d3i/ 36
illuminate /l'luimineit/ 9
illuminating /I'luimmeitin/ 9, 24
illustrate /'ilastreit/ 3, 24
immature /.imo'tjuo/ 36
impact /'impaekt/ 30, 48
impartial /im'paijal/ 36
implication /.impli'keijsn/ 32
implicitly /lm'plisitli/ 5
imply /im'plai/ 32
importance /im'po:tons/ 12
important /im'poitant/ 11, 49
impose /im'paoz/ 46
in (more) detail 40
in (the) light of 9
in ... terms 10
in a few words 50
in a variety of ways 16
in accordance with 13
in addition to 13, 16, 38
in comparison with 13, 44
in conclusion 50
in conjunction with 13
in contrast to 13
in contrast 44
in economic terms 10
in excess of 7, 16
in general 16
in line with 13
in more/greater detail 16
in most respects 13
in my opinion 31, 32, 36
in no circumstances 49
in no way 49
in other words 13
in particular 13
in passing 12
in recent times 29
in respect of 16
in short 1, 50
in some ways 13
in spite of 13 in sum 1 in summary 50 in terms of 13, 16 in that 43
in the absence of evidence to the
contrary 37 in the case of 16 in the end 50
in the final/last analysis 50 in the near/distant future 29 in the process 13 in the right area 25 in the sense that 16, 38 in the shadow of 9 in total 7 in turn 13
inaccuracy /m'aekjorssi/ 41 inaccurate /in'askjurat/ 4 inadequate /I'naedikwot/ 49 incidence /'msidans/ 25 include /in'klu:d/ 3 incoherent /.inko'hisrant/ 34 income /'lrjkAm/ 28 inconsistency /.inkon'sistansi/ 45 increase /'inkrhs/ (noun) 15 increase /m'kriis/ (verb) 27 increasingly /m'krhsirjli/ 5, 48 incur /m'k3:/ 21 in-depth /,m'dep6/ 41 indicate /'mdikeit/ 24, 27 indicate a tendency 26 indirectly /,indi'rekli/ /.mdai'rekli/ 5
induce /m'dju:s/ 30 induction /m'dAkJan/ 30 inevitable /I'nevitobol/ 11 inevitably /I'nevitsbli/ 12 infer /m'f3:/ 34 inference /'mforans/ 41 infinite /'infinot/ 46 influence /'influons/ 15, 30 inform /in'foim/ 35 infrastructure /'infro^trAkt/a/ 35, 46
inhibit /m'hibit/ 30 initial /l'nijol/ 29 input /'input/ 47 inquiry /m'kwaiari/ 15 insert /in's3:t/ 47 in-sessional /in 'sejonol/ 20 insight /'insait/ 15, 33 insignificant /,insig'nifikont/ 4
Index 171
instability /.msta'bibti/ 46 instalment /in'sto:)mant/ 28 instance /'instans/ 24 instigate /'instigeit/ 35 instrument /'mstramant/ 41 integral /'intigral/ 46 intense /m'tens/ 49 intention /m'tenfan/ 35 intentional /in'ten Janal/ 35 interaction /.lnta'raekjan/ 43 interchange /'lntst/emd^/ 43 interconnecting /.intaka'nektin/ 43
interdependence /.intadi'pendans/ 43
interest-free /'mtrast fri:/ 28 interesting /'intrastirj/ 24 interface /'intafeis/ 35 interfere /.mta'fia/ 41 interim /'intarim/ 10 inter-library loan 21 intermarriage /,inta'maend3/ 43 intermediate /.inta'mhdiat/ 29 intermittent /.mta'mitant/ 10 interplay /'intaplei/ 43 interpret /m't3:prit/ 24, 31 interpretation /in|t3:pri'teijan/ 12 interrelated /.mton'leitid/ 43 intersect /,inta'sekt/ 27 interstate /.inta'steit/ 43 inter-university
/in'ta Ju:ni'v3:s3ti/ 43 intrinsic /in'tnnsik/ 46 introduce /,intra'dju:s/ 40 invalid /m'vaehd/ 49 invalidate results 10 invent /in'vent/ 47 investigate /rn'vestigeit/ 3 investigate a phenomenon 10 investigation /in.vesti'gei Jan/ 15 involve /in'volv/ 3 irrational /i'raejanal/ 36 issue /'iju:/ 2, 8, 40, 45 it can be argued that 31, 37 it is not surprising that 49 it is noteworthy that 49 it is worth recalling that 49 it may not be the case that 37 it would appear that 37 it would seem that 37 item of data 24 junior /'d3u:nia/ 19 keep to (time) 40
key /ki:/ 27, 49 KISS /kis/ 22 knowledge /'nnhd3/ 22 knowledge base 35 label /'leibal/ 27 laboratory /la'boratri/ 41 lack /laek/15 large /la:d3/ 7 largely naid^MJ 5 largely determine 30 lastly /'laistli/ 50 late /leit/ 29 later /'leita/ 39 latter /'lasts/ 39 lay foundations 23 layer /leia/ 27 leave (time) /li:v/ 40 leave out 40
lecture /'lektja/ 15, 18, 20
lecture notes 21
lecture theatre 18
lecturer /'lektjara/ 18
legend /'Ied3and/ 27
less and less 7
liable /'laiabal/ 37
librarian /lai'brearian/ 18, 21
library /'laibrari/ 18
lie /lai/ 45
likelihood /'laiklihud/ 37
likely /'laikli/ 37
limited /'limitid/ 49
link /link/ 22, 43
list /list/12
list the main causes/
characteristics/features/
hypotheses 12 literature /'htrat J"a/ 23 literature suggests 23 little /'htl/ 7
little-known /'htl naun/ 24 loan /laun/ 28 lodging /'lDd3in/ 28 logic /'lDd3ik/ 15 long-term loan 21 look /lok/ 15 look back over 6 look for 24 loosely /'lu:sli/ 12 loosely based 12 lose a battle 9 lose contact 10 lurk /ls:k/ 22
magnitude /'maegnitjuid/ 25
mailing list 22
main body 23
mainly /'meinli/ 1, 12
mainly based 12
maintain /mein'tein/ 8, 32, 48
maintain a united front 9
maintain contact 10
maintenance grant 28
major /'meid33/ 11
make a calculation 25
make a to-do list 21
make ends meet 28
make reference to 23
make up 6
manipulate /ma'nipjuleit/ 41 marital status 42 marked /maikt/ 48 mathematical /.maeGam'aetikal/ 41 mature /ma'tjoa/ 36 mature student 17 maximum /'meeksimam/ 25, 46 means of communication 22 means /rnhnz/15 measures /'me^z/ 8 median /'miidian/ 26 mediate /'miidieit/ 45 meet /mi:t/ 21 meet deadlines 21 meet objectives 35 memorise /'memaraiz/ 21 mention /'menJan/ 32 merely /'miali/ 5 message /'mesid3/ 22, 34 method /'meGadMl methodology /.meOs'dobdsi/ 2, 41
mind map 21 mind starts to wander 21 minimal /'minimal/ 46 minimum /'minimam/ 25, 46 minor /'mama/ 11 miscalculate /mis'kaelkjuleit/ 34 misguided /mis'gaidid/ 49 misinterpret /.mism'taiprit/ 34 misinterpretation
/.misin.taipn'teijan/ 34 mispronounce /,mispra'nauns/ 34 mispronunciation
/.mispra.nAnsi'eiJan/ 34 mission statement 35 mistaken /mi'steikan/ 49 mistranslate /.mistraen'sleit/ 34
172   Academic Vocabulary in Use
mistranslation ^mistraen'sleijan/
34
misunderstand /,misAnda'staend/ 34 mnemonics /m'moniks/ 21 mode /maud/ 26 model /'modal/ 2, 31 moderate /'mDdareit/ (verb) 22 moderate discussions 22 modify /'mndifai/ 48 module /'mDdjuil/ 20 monitor /'rnnnita/ 8 moral /'moral/ 31 more and more 7 more or less 1, 7 moreover /mai'rauva/ 38 most (people) would agree that 31
mostly /'mausthV 1, 5 motivate /'mautiveit/ 30, 35 motivation /.mauti'veifan/ 15, 30,
35
motive /'mautiv/ 35 move /mu:v/ 15, 48 movement /'muivmant/ 31 moving on 40 multiply /'mAltiplai/ 27 mutual /'mjuit Jual/ 43 national debate 35 natural /'nset Jaral/ 41 naturalistic /,naet Jaral'istik/ 41 naturally /'met farali/ 5 nature /'neitja/ 1, 2, 42 near future 29 need /ni:d/ 12, 15 netiquette /'netiket/ 22 never (before) /'neva/ 49 nevertheless /,nevaöa'les/ 38 next /nekst/ 39 no fewer than 7 nonetheless /.nAnöa'les/ 38 non-repayable /,nDn n'peiabal/ 28 norm /no:m/ 26 normal distribution 26 notable /'nautabal/ 49 note /naut/ 32
note-taking /'naut teikin/ 21 notion /'naujan/ 31 nowadays /'nauadeiz/ 29 nuance (of meaning) /'njuians/ 34 number /'nAmba/ 7, 25 objection /ab'd3ekfan/ 36 objective /ab'd3ektiv/ 35, 36 obligatory /a'bligatri/ 20
observation /.Dbza'veifan/ 32, 41
observe /ab'z3:v/ 12, 32, 41
observe a phenomenon 10
observer /ab'z3:va/ 41
obtain /ab'tein/ 24
occupation /,Dkju'peiJan/ 42
occupational /.nkju'peijanal/ 42
occur /a'k3:/ 8, 10
odd number 25
of course 37
offer /'Dfa/ 24
offer a place 17
office hours 18
omit /a'mit/ /ao'mit/ 40
on balance 50
on behalf of 13
on loan 21
on no account 49
on the basis of 13, 33
on the one hand 13, 44
on the other hand 13, 44
on the subject of 38, 40
on the whole 5, 13, 16
on top of which 38
one of 7
ongoing /'Dn.gauirj/ 29 online community 22 only /'aunli/ 1, 49 onslaught /'nnsb:t/ 9 opinion /a'pinjan/ 36 opposed to 9 opt for 20
optional /'Dpjanal/ 20 order of magnitude 25 organise /'a:ganaiz/ 24 origin /'Dnd3in/ 30 original /a'nd3anal/ 28 outcome /'autkAm/ 26, 30 output /'autput/ 47 outside /.aut'said/ 41 outweigh /,aot'wei/ 33 over the next few years 29 overall /.auvar'o:!/ 50 overcome /,aova'kAm/ 45 overdraft /'auvadraift/ 28 overdue /.aova'dju:/ 21 overview /'auvavju:/ 40 parallel /'paeralel/ 27 paraphrase /'paerafreiz/ 23 part /pa:t/15 particular /pa'tikjola/ 11 particularly /pa'tikjulali/ 5 particular significance 11
partly based 12 pattern /'paetan/ 2 per cent /pa'sent/ 26 percentage /pa'sent 1CI3/ 26 perceptible /pa'septabal/ 48 perception /pa'sepjan/ 31, 37 perhaps /pa'haeps/ 5 period of time 29 permanent /'p3:manant/ 29 personal statement 17 perspective /pa'spektiv/ 2, 34 phase /feiz/ 29 PhD committee 19 phenomena /fa'nomma/ 41 phenomenon /fa'nominan/ 10, 31, 41
philosophy /fi'lDsafi/ 36
pie chart 27
piece of data 24
piece of evidence 24
piece together 43
pilot study 41
pinpoint /'pinpaint/ 32
pivotal /'pivatal/ 10
pivotal role 10
plagiarism /'pleid3anzam/ 23
play a role 10
plot /pbt/ 27
plummet /'plAmit/ 27
point /paint/ 8, 15, 33
point of view 36
point out 6, 32
point to 24, 33
point up 6
population /,pDpju'leiJ"an/ 41 portfolio /,po:t'fauliau/ 20 pose /pauz/ 1, 12, 45 pose a challenge/question/threat 12
position /pa'zijan/ 36 possibly /'posabli/ 5 post /paust/ 22 post a message 22 postgrad(uate) rep(resentative) 18 potential /pa'tenfal/ 4 powerful /'pauafal/ 24 practice /'praektis/ 11 practice-as-research /'praektis az
n'ssitJV 35 practice-led /'praektis led/ 35 precedent /'presidant/ 30 preceding /pri'skdirj/ 29, 39 precis /'preisi:/ 50
Index   173
precise /pri'sais/ 4, 25 precisely /pri'saisli/ 5 predict /pri'dikt/ 33 preference /'prefargns/ 15 prejudice /'pred3udis/ 36 prejudiced against 36 prejudiced in favour of 36 preliminary /pri'liminari/ 10 preliminary results 10 present data 27 present study 23 present/prc'zant/ (verb) 3, 24, 27, 40
presentation /.prezon'tei fan/ 40 pre-sessional /pri: 'sefanal/ 20 presumably /pn'zjuimabli/ 37 primarily /prai'merali/ 1, 5, 23 primary /'praimori/ 1 primary source 23 prime number 25 prime /praim/ 1 principal /'prinsipal/ 4 principle /'prmsipal/ 2, 15, 36 prior to 29
prioritise /prai'Dntaiz/ 21 priority /prai'Drati/ 35 probability /.prDba'bitati/ 26 probability distribution 26 probably /'prabobli/ 37 problem /'problam/ 12, 15, 45 procedure /pra'si:d33/ 41, 47 proceed /pra'siid/ 20 process /'prooses/ 17 process information 9 professor /pra'fesa/ 18 profile /'praofail/ 17 profound /prs'faund/ 31 progress /'praogres/ 15 project /'prnd3ekt/ 15, 20 proof /pru:f/ 32 proportion /pra'poijan/ 26 propose /pn'pauz/ 32 pros and cons 38 prove /pru:v/ 32, 41 provide /pra'vaid/ 3, 24 provide a (brief) summary of 50 provide a sample 10 provide an example 24 provide an explanation 3 provide feedback 22 provide with 14 provided that 38 provocation /.prova'keijan/ 30
provoke /pro'vsok/ 30
publish results 10
purpose /'p3:p3s/ 35, 39
put /put/ 3
put emphasis 3
put forward 6, 32, 38
put it briefly 50
qualification ^kwDlifi'keiJan/ 17 qualitative /'kwohtativ/ 4 quantifiable /'kwnntifaiobal/ 1 quantifiably/'kwDntifaiobli/ 1 quantification /.kwDntifi'keifon/ 1 quantify/'kwDntifai/ 1 quantitative /'kwDntitotiv/ 1, 4 quantitatively /'kwDntitativli/ 1 quantity /'kwDntiti/ 1 quarterly /'kwa:toli/ 29 question /'kwestJan/ 12, 32 question results 10 quiz /kwiz/19, 22 quotation /kwau'tei Jan/ 23 radical /'raedikol/ 36 raise /reiz/ 40, 45 raise a point 33 random /'raendam/ 26 random number 25 random sample 27 range /reind3/ 26 rarely /'reali/ 49 rather than 44
ratification /.raetifi'keifan/ 47 ratify /'raetifai/ 47 ratio /'reijiao/ 26 rational /'raejonal/ 36 rationale /,raeJVna:l/ 15 reach a conclusion 33 reach /rhtJV 35 reach a peak 27 react /ri'aekt/ 45 reaction /ri'aekfan/ 31 reactionary /ri'askJanri/ 36 react to 14 reading /'riidirj/ 22 reading speed 21 reason /'riizsn/15, 30 reasonable /'rhzanabal/ 7 reboot /ri:'bu:t/ 9 recapitulate /.rhka'pitjuleit/ 50 receipt /n'siit/ 28 recently /'riisantli/ 5 recent phenomenon 10 recognise /'rekagnaiz/ 49 record /n'koid/ (verb) 24, 41
recover /n'kAva/ 48
refer/n1 fa:/ 12, 43
refer frequently/specifically / in
passing 12 refer to 14, 38 referee /.refar'i:/ 17 reference /'refrans/ 8, 17 refine /n'fain/ 48 reflect/n'flekt/ 24,41,43 registration fee 28 reimburse /,ri:im'b3:s/ 28 relate /n'leit/ 41 related /n'leitid/ 43 relation /ri'leiJan/ 15 relationship /ri'lei Janfip/ 12, 15,
41,43
relative (to) /'relativ/ 4, 43 relatively/'rebtivli/ 5 relax /n'laeks/ 48 relevant /'relavant/ 4, 11, 24, 33, 38
reliable /n'taiobol/ 24, 26 reload /,ri:'bod/ 9 rely on 14
remain in the dark 9 replicate /'replikeit/ 41 reportedly /n'poitidli/ 37 represent /.repn'zent/ 27 representative /.repn'zcntstiv/ 41 representative sample 10 request an extension 21 require /n'kwaia/ 17 research /n's3:tj7 2, 15, 41 research assistant 18 research is based on 12 research methodology 35 research student 18 resolution /.rezal'u:Jan/ 45 resolve /n'zDlv/ 45 resource /n'zois/ 22 respectively/ri'spektivli/ 38, 39 respond to 14 response /ri'spDns/ 15, 45 rest on 14 restore /n'sto:/ 48 restrain /n'strem/ 46 restraint /n'streint/ 46 restrict /n'stnkt/ 46 restriction /ri'stnkJan/ 46 results /n'zAlts/ 10, 40 resume /'rezumei/ 28 retreat /n'trirt/ 9 return to 40
174   Academic Vocabulary in Use
reveal /ri'viil/ 43, 45
reverse /n'v3:s/ 43, 44
review /n'vju:/ 21
review of the literature 23
revise /n'vaiz/ 21
revision /ri'vi3an/ 21
revolution /.reva'luijan/ 8
rigorous /'rigaras/ 4
rise /raiz/ 27
role /raul/ 10
rote learning 21
rough tx\il 4, 21
round down 25
round up 25
row /rao/ 27
rubric /'ru:bnk/ 19
run /rAn/ 27
run out (of time) 40
rural /'roaral/ 42
sample /'suimpal/ 10, 26
save energy 10
say /sei/ 24, 38
scales /skeilz/ 33
scholarship /'skolajip/17, 28
school /sku:l/ 18, 19
scope /skaup/ 2
scrutinise /'skrmtmaiz/ 38
search for 14
secondary source 23
secure /si'kjua/ 47
security /si'kjuarati/ 47
see /si:/ 3, 39
seek /si:k/17
seem /si:m/ 37
segment /'segmant/ 27
seldom /'seldam/ 49
select /si'lekt/ 47
semester /si'mesta/18
seminal /'seminal/ 23, 49
seminar /'seminai/ 18, 20
senior /'si:nia/ 19
senior citizen 42
senior lecturer 18
sense /sens/ 34
sequence of numbers 25
series of events 29
series of numbers 25
set /set/ 8, 22
set of data 26
set of numbers 25
set out to do 6
set out 6, 23
set up 6
setting /'setirj/ 41
severely /si'viali/ 5
shed (new) light on 9, 33
shift/Jift/36, 48
shine a light on 9
shortcoming/'Jo:t,kAmir)/ 45
short-term loan 21
show /Jau/ 3, 24, 27, 32
show a tendency 26
show your workings 25
side (of an argument) /said/ 33
sign up for 20
significance /sig'nifikans/ 2, 11 significant /sig'nifikant/ 4, 7, 11, 49
significantly /sig'nifikantli/ 26, 49
similar /'sinula/ 44
similarity /.simi'laeriti/ 42, 44
similarly /'similali/ 5, 44
simple /'simpal/ 4
simply /'simpli/ 5, 12
simulation /.simju'leijan/ 47
simultaneous /.simal'temias/ 29
skip /skip/ 40
small /smo:l/ 7
soar /sa:/ 27, 28
social class 42
solely /'saolli/ 1
solid /'solid/1, 49
solution /sa'lu:ran/ 12, 45
solve /solv/ 45
somewhat /'sAmwot/ 5
sophomore /'sofama:/ 19
sorority /sa'rorati/ 19
soundly /'saondli/ 33
source /sa:s/ 23, 30
spare /spea/ 40
speak of 14
specially /'spefli/ 5
specific /spa'sifik/ 4, 11, 42
specific conditions 11
specifically /spa'sifikli/ 5, 12
sports centre 18
sports grounds 18
spring from 30
squared /skwead/ 25
stable /'steibal/ 46
stage /steid3/ 27, 29, 47
stance /stains/ 31, 36
standard deviation 26
standpoint /'staenpoint/ 36
start a new thread 22
state /steit/ 32
state briefly 50 statement /'steitmant/ 32 status /'steitas/ 42, 46 status quo /.steitas'kwau/ 48 stem from 30 stem from the fact that 24 step /step/ 47 stimulate /'stimjuleit/ 30 stimulation /.stimju'leijan/ 30 stimulus /'stimjolas/ 30 store information 9 story /'stairi/ 12 strategy /'str£etad3i/ 35 strengthen a role 10 stress /stres/14, 32 striking /'straikirj/ 24 strongly /'strorjli/ 12 strongly suggest 12 structure /'strAktJa/ 8, 42 student counsellor 18 student loan 17, 28 student union 18 study /'stAdi/ 15, 41 study plan 21 subject /'sAbd3ekt/ 2, 41 subject header 22 subjectively /sab'd3ektivli/ 36 subject to 46 submit /sab'mit/17, 22 submit assignment 22 subscribe to a mailing list 22 subsequent /'sAbsikwant/ 29 substantial /sab'staenfal/ 7 subsume /sab'sju:m/ 42 subtle /'sAtal/ 34 subtract /sab'traekt/ 25 successive /sak'sesiv/ 29 sudden /'sAdan/ 48 sufficient /sa'fijant/ 10 suggest /sa'd3est/ 12, 23, 24, 32, 43
suggest a new approach 12 suggestion /safestJan/ 32 sum /sAin/ 26 sum up 1, 40, 50 summarise /'sAmaraiz/ 50 summarise the main points 50 supervision /,su:pa'vi3an/ 20 supervisor /'suipavaiza/ 18 supplement /'sAphmant/ 47 support /sa'po:t/ 3, 11, 24, 28 surprising /sa'praizirj/ 7 surround /sa'raund/ 46
Index   175
surrounding /sa'raondin/ 45
survey /'s3:vei/ (noun) 41
survey /s3:'vei/ (verb) 27
survey the literature 23
sustainable /sa'stemabal/ 48
synonymous /si'nDnimas/ 43
systematic /.sista'maetik/ 41
table /'tcibal/ 27
tackle /'laekal/ 45
take /tcik/ 39
take a sample 10
take account of 33
take away 25
take into account 33
take issue with
take on a role 10
take part in a discussion forum/
group 22 take priority over 35 take questions 40 taken together 43 tally/'taeli/ 25 target /'ta:git/ 35 task /tu:sk/ 22 technique /tek'niik/ 41 telling /'tehg/ 24 temporarily /'temparanli/ 5 temporary /'temparari/ 29 tend /tend/ 37
tendency /'tendansi/15, 26, 37
tentative /'tentativ/ 37
term /t3:m/18, 34
terminology /,t3:mi'nol9d3i/ 34
thank you for listening 40
that's all I have to say 40
that's all very well but 38
the last 20 years 29
the same as 44
theme /0i:m/ 2
theory /'Giari/ 2, 12
theory is (mainly) based on 12
there is some evidence (to suggest)
that 37 there's no way 1 thesis /'0i:sis/ plural theses
/'0i:si:z/31 thinking /'Oirjkirj/ 31 thoroughly /'0Arali/ 12 thoroughly examine 12 thought/Go:t/31 thread /Gred/ 22 threat /Grct/ 12 time management 21
time-consuming
/'taimkan.sjuimin./ 41 tip the scales 33 to a certain extent 13 to a greater extent 13 to a lesser extent 13 to some extent 13, 16 to what extent 16, 38 to-do list /t9 'du: list/ 21 top priority 35 topic /'tDpik/ 2, 40 total /'tautal/ 7, 25 towards /ta'woidz/ 48 trace to 14
transcript /'tramskript/ 17 transfer /ttcens'f3:/ (verb) 48 transform /traens'foim/ 48 transition /tracn'zi Jan/ 48 transitional /tracn'ziJ"onol/ 29 transparent /tracn'spaerant/ 34 treat /tri:t/ 23 trend /trend/ 12, 26 trigger /'triga/ 30 try /trai/1 tuition fees 28 turn (to) /t3:n/ 1, 14, 39, 40 tutor /'tjuita/18 tutorial /tju:'to:rial/18, 20, 22 type /taip/ 42 typical /'tipikal/ 1, 4 ultimately /'Altimatli/ 5 unambiguous /,Anaem'bigjuas/ 34 undeniable /.Andi'naiobal/ 24 under no circumstances 49 underline /'Anda'lain/1, 49 underlying /,Anda']anr)/ 36 understanding /.Anda'staendin/ 31, 35
undoubtedly /An'dautidli/ 37 unearth /An'3:G/ 33 unforeseen /,Anfa:'si:n/ 10 unify /'jumifai/ 47 unique /ju:'ni:k/ 49 university /,ju:ni'v3:siti/ 19 unlike /An'Iaik/ 44 unstable /An'steibal/ 46 unsubscribe from a mailing list 22 upgrade /Ap'greid/ (verb) 20 urban /'3:ban/ 42 use /ju:z/ 41 useful contact 10 username /'juizaneim/ 22 utilise /'juitilaiz/ 47
vacation /va'keijan/ 18 valid /'va:lid/ 26, 31 validity /va'lidati/ 49 valuable resource 23 values /'vacljiuz/ 25 variable /'vcariabal/ 25, 26, 33, 41
variety /vo'raiati/ 42
vary /'veari/ 25, 27
verify /'venfai/ 47
vertical axis 27
view /vju:/ 2, 36, 49
viewpoint /'vjuipaint/ 31
virtual classroom 22
virtual learning environment 22
virtually /'v3:tjuali/ 1
visualise /'vi3ualaiz/ 21
vivid /'vivid/ 24
VLE 22
volume /'vDlju:m/ 26
waste energy 10
way /wei/10, 41
we can presume that 37
we can see 27
weigh up 33
welcome /'welkam/ 40
whereas /wea'raez/ 44
white collar 42
whole number 25
widespread /'waidspred/ 11, 24
widespread support 11
winds are blowing 33
with a focus on 39
with reference to 38
with regard to 16, 40
with respect to 16
with the exception of 13, 16
with the intention of 35
word /w3:d/ 12
word limit 20
work /w3:k/ 15
work on 6
work out 6, 25
work out a way 10
workshop /'w3:kjnp/ 20
write of 14
write up 6
x axis 27
y axis 27
176   Academic Vocabulary in Use
Academic Vocabulary in Use
Academic Vocabulary in Use is the perfect study nid for anyone using English for their academic work. Ideal for students of any discipline, from engineers and social scientists to business students and lawyers, it covers all the key vocabulary you will come across in academic textbooks, articles, lectures and seminars. The book is designed for students at good intermediate level and above as well as those preparing for IELTS and other university entrance examinations.
Academic Vocabulary in Use
• 50 easy-to-use two-page units with clear explanations of new vocabulary on the left pa^e and a variety of practice exercises on the right.
• ('resents new words and expressions in real-life academic contexts including extracts from lectures, presentations, essays, tables and graphs.
• Includes an extra 'Reading and vocabulary' section with longer texts to give you more practice of key vocabulary.
• Has a comprehensive answer key and a phonemic transcriptions of key words in the index to help with pronunciation
• Contains a handy 'Reference section' with notes nn formal and informal usage, British, Irish and North American vocabulary differences and spelling variations.
• Gives you the most useful and frequently-used academic vocabulary based on the Camlxid'je International Corpus and established academic wordlists.
Also available. Study Skills in English
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'«••"»'■«" 1 Vlvaine-'
Grammar for I i'.iriu 1 s
IP IT«; Dictionary
CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL CORPUS
The Cambridge International Corpus (C1C) is a collection of over 1 billion words of real spoken and written English. The texts are stored in a database that can be searched to see how English is used. The CIC also includes the Cambridge Learner Corpus, a unique collectio 1 otover 90.000 exam papers from Cambridge ESOL It snows real mistakes students make and highlights the parts of English which cause problems for students.
wwvy.cambridge.org/corpus
REAL ENGLISH GUARANTEE
II CAMBRIDGE
I tVl VERSITY TRESS www.camb>"idge<*9
ISBN 978-0-521-68939-7
9
«V r, ISBN: 978 0 521 60462 8 ISBN 978 0 521 71266 a
9780521689397