2. Historie využívání zdrojů
…a intenzity využívání, od náhodných sběrů až k těžebnímu průmyslu v
souvislosti s narůstajícími druhy materiálů, poznání a v závislosti na rostoucí
komplexitě lidské společnosti
Potřeba zdrojů v závislosti na poznání a
rozvoji technologií – od kamene k …
 1. Initial or First Era - Using things as found or with slight adaptation
8000 BC Hammered copper
6000 BC Silk production
 2. Second Era - Changing things with heat or chemicals to improve properties
5000 BC Glass making
3500 BC Bronze Age
1000 BC Iron Age
 3. Third or Final Era - Understanding, making new materials
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255203410_Materials_Science_and_Technology_Teachers_Handbook
8000 Hammered copper
7000 Clay pottery
6000 Silk production
5000 Glass making
4000 Smelted copper
4000-3000 Bronze Age
3200 Linen cloth
2500 Wall plaster
2500 Papyrus
1000 Iron Age
300 Glass blowing
20 Brass alloy
105 Paper
600-900 Porcelain
1540 Foundry operation
late-1500s Magnetization of iron demonstrated
1729 Electrical conductivity of metals demonstrated
1774 Crude steel
1789 Discovery of titanium
1789 Identification of uranium
1800 Volta’s electric pile (battery)
1824 Portland cement
1839 Vulcanization of rubber
1850 Porcelain insulators
1850s Reinforced concrete
1856 Bessemer steelmaking
1866 Microstructure of steel discovered
1866 Discovery of polymeric compounds
1868 Commercial steel alloy
1870 Celluloid
1871 Periodic table of the elements
1875 Open-hearth steelmaking
1880 Selenium photovoltaic cells
1884 Nitrocellulose (first man-made fiber)
1886 Electrolytic process for aluminum
1889 Nickel-steel alloy
1891 Silicon carbide (first artificial abrasive)
1896 Discovery of radioactivity
1906 Triode vacuum tube
1910 Electric furnace steelmaking
1913 Hydrogenation to liquefy coal
1914 X-ray diffraction introduced
1914 Chromium stainless steels
1923 Tungsten carbide cutting materials
1930 Beginnings of semiconductor theory
1930 Fiberglass
1934 Discovery of amorphous metallic alloys
1937 Nylon
1940s Synthetic polymers
1947 Germanium transistor
1950 Commercial production of titanium
1952 Oxygen furnace for steelmaking
1950s Silicon photovoltaic cells
1950s Transmission electron microscope
mid-1950s Silicon transistor
1957 First supercritical U.S. coal plant
1958 Ruby-crystal laser
1959 Integrated circuit
1960 Production of amorphous metal alloy
1960 Artificial diamond production
1960s Microalloyed steels
1960s Scanning electron microscope
1966 Fiber optics
late-1970s Discovery of amorphous silicon
1984 Discovery of quasi-periodic crystals
1986 Discovery of high-temperature superconductors
1989 Buckyballs (Buckminsterfullerene)
Materials Footnotes Through History
1. Horniny – náhodné ale i cílené sběry
The Stone Age marks a period of prehistory in which
humans used primitive stone tools. Lasting roughly 2.5
million years, the Stone Age ended around 5,000
years ago when humans in the Near East began
working with metal and making tools and weapons
from bronze.
One of the earliest examples of
stone tools found in Ethiopia.
Sharpened stones (Oldowan tools):
2.6 million years ago
Humans weren’t the first to make or use stone tools. That
honor appears to belong to the ancient species that
lived on the shores of Lake Turkana, in Kenya, some 3.3
million years ago. First discovered in 2011, these more
primitive tools were created some 700,000 years before
the earliest members of the Homo genus emerged.
Jadeite axes from the Neolithic Period
in central Europe.
Vzácnější materiál i místo výskytu –
rozsáhlejší těžba na místě a obchod
https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/stone-age
Oldowan stone
chopper from
Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania
Částečně zaoblený
– možná původní
valoun
Paleolithic Art in the Roucadour
cave, Themines, Quercy, Lot,
France.
The paintings and engravings in
the Roucadour cave, France,
are attributed to the oldest
phase of Paleolithic Art in
Quercy, between 28,000 and
24,000 years BP.
Nejstarší systematická těžba
Based on archaeological records, the world's oldest mine is the
Lion Caves located in Swaziland, South Africa. Once tested
radiokarbon, the old mine came from 43,000 years ago. One of
the interesting things about Lion Caves is that the mine is a
pigment mine. Mining of red ocher, pigments by primitive
people as body paint for their rituals. The amount of material
moved is quite impressive. Approximately 50-100 tons are
regularly mined.
But the possibility of mining in the Nile River Valley is older. There are
four old mining sites reported around the Nile, Qena and Nazlet
Safaha that have existed since 50,000 years ago, while Nazlet Khater
and Beit Allam, have existed since 60,000 years ago. All the old
mining sites are stone quarries .
Multiple-block extraction on descending
platforms in the New Kingdom to Late Period
part of the el-Sawayta limestone quarry near
Samalut and Minya. Photo by JAMES HARRELL.
1,2 mil. let stará „továrna“ - Etiopie
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01970-1
…Simbiro III level C, in the upper Awash valley of Ethiopia, allows us
to test this assumption in its assemblage of stone tools made only
with obsidian, dated to more than 1.2 million years (Myr) old. Here
we first reconstruct the palaeoenvironment, showing that the
landscape was seasonally flooded. Following the deposition of an
accumulation of obsidian cobbles by a meandering river, hominins
began to exploit these in new ways, producing large tools with sharp
cutting edges. We show through statistical analysis that this was a
focused activity, that very standardized handaxes were produced
and that this was a stone-tool workshop….
Bylo nalezeno 575 ručních seker
Těžba silicitů, pazourku – „průmysl“
highly organised flint mining is being studied in Belarus.
Grime's Graves: A Neolithic Flint Mine, Norfolk, UK
Beginning around 5,000 years ago, and continuing for an
entire millennium, Stone Age peoples mined ‘floorstone’
flint beneath more than 10 meters of chalk.
Spiennes, minière du Camp-à-Cayaux
© SPW
Neolithic Flint Mines at Spiennes (Mons)
Grimes Graves is one of a series of mines dug in prehistoric
sussex following a rich seam of flint bearing chalk. Other shafts
were dug before at nearby harrow hill and a further 200 shafts
were dug at cissbury.
…dodnes horniny využíváme a těžíme
…a provází nás až do konce života
- hrubý kámen
- leštěné desky,…
- drcené kamenivo
- …umění
Marble quarry near Orosei. Sardinia. Italy,
Foto de Stock, Imagen Derechos Protegidos
Pic. C46-1127464 | agefotostock
Povrchová těžba v lomu i hlubinná
těžba kamene – např. břidlicový
důl Staré Oldřůvky (pokrývačské
břidlice, Nízký Jeseník
Zdroje kamene:
Egyptská fajáns a modř (3250 BC…?)
A faience vase fabricated in
part from natron, dating to
the New Kingdom of Egypt
(c. 1450–1350 BC)
natron (Na2CO3·10H2O)
Wadi El Natrun is a depression in
northern Egypt that is located 23 m
below sea level and 38 m below the
Nile River level. The valley contains
several alkaline lakes, natron-rich salt
deposits, salt marshes and freshwater
marshes. dnešní těžba solných jezer
Salt Lake Uyuni, Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia
Egyptská modř – první systetický pigment, pasta: písek + natron +
oxid Cu?(nebo malachit?, zbytky bronzu?) a pak 900°C Egyptian faience
ushabti of Lady Sati.
New Kingdom,
Dynasty XVIII, reign
of Amenhotep III,
c. 1390–1352 BC.
Possibly from
Saqqara.
Sklo Glass as an independent object (mostly as beads) dates back to about 2500 BC.
It originated perhaps in Mesopotamia and was brought later to Egypt. Vessels of
glass appeared about 1450 BC, during the reign of Thutmose III, a pharaoh of the
18th dynasty of Egypt. A glass bottle bearing Thutmose’s hieroglyph is in the British
Museum in London. From Mesopotamia and Egypt, glassmaking using the basic
soda-lime-silica composition traveled to Phoenicia, along the coast of presentday
Lebanon.
The Romans and Egyptians probably used sand mixed with ground seashells as
raw materials for silica and lime and hardwood ash as the source of soda. They
also showed astonishing skill in the way they used metallic oxides as colorizers.
Very small differences in oxide content can drastically affect the final colour of a
glass; yet colours and tints were reproduced time and again with remarkable
consistency. Copper was used to make green and ruby-red glass; iron produced
black, brown, and green; antimony, yellow; manganese was employed to make
purple and amethyst glass. An opaque white glass, made by using tin, was
important in glass cameo work, of which the famous Portland vase, made in 1stcentury
Rome, is an outstanding example.
Two different sources of alkali affected the composition of early glasses. On the
Eastern Mediterranean littoral natron (hydrated Na2CO3) was usually the favored
alkali, because it was available from northern Egypt. Further east, in
Mesopotamia and Persia, the alkali was usually provided by plant ash that
contained more K2O (2%–4%) and MgO (2%–6%).
These two cobalt-blue glass beads, found in
3,400-year-old graves in Denmark, came from
ancient Egypt, probably via extensive European
trade routes, according to new research. A.
MIKKELSEN, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF DENMARK
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ancient-egyptian-blue-glass-
beads-reached-scandinavia
Potassium – pot+ash
…dates from between late First
Century B.C. to early First
Century A.D and stands 13in
(33.5cm) high, they are formed
from two layers of glass –
cobalt blue with a layer of
white on top – which is cut
down after cooling to create
the cameo-style decoration
The Portland Vase is a
Roman cameo glass vase,
which dates between 1
A.D. and 25 A.D..
Zdroje křemene
Pink quartz vein at Lee Bay © Gary Rogers
cc-by-sa/2.0 :: Geograph Britain and
Ireland
Současná těžba Střeleč,
velmi čisté
písky, Česká křídová
tabule, křída
Štěrkopísky: zdroj
křemene, živců, různé
velikostní frakce
Bronz - doba bronzová - zdroje
Great Orme on the north Welsh coast was an exception, becoming the
first industrially worked copper mine, dominating production from 1500
to 1200 BC. Copper is mined from green malachite and it is estimated
that in the Bronze Age over 40,000 tonnes of ore-bearing rock were
removed from the site of the underground mine and the opencast
surface mine. This could have produced around 1,700 tonnes of copper
ore, enough to make 10 million bronze axes.
Timberlake offers 2100 BC as a date for the beginning of tin extraction in
Cornwall - alluvial tin – casiterite (gold extraction as well!) (Timberlake
2017).
malachit Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
azurit Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
malachit:
Copper 57.48 % Cu 71.95 % CuO
Hydrogen 0.91 % H 8.15 % H2O
Carbon 5.43 % C 19.90 % CO2
Oxygen 36.18 % O
______ ______
100.00 % 100.00 % = TOTAL OXIDE
Kasiterit
SnO2
Příklad současné
těžby Cu-rud,
Montana, USA
hlavní ruda:
chalkopyrit – CuFeS2
Železo - doba železná
A smelting furnace
from the Late Iron
Age/Middle Ages,
Norway
Modern archaeological evidence identifies the
start of large-scale iron production in around 1200
BC, marking the end of the Bronze Age. Between
1200 BC and 1000 BC diffusion in the
understanding of iron metallurgy and the use of
iron objects was fast and far-flung. Anthony
Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin, as a
part of the Bronze Age Collapse and trade
disruptions in the Mediterranean around 1300 BC,
forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to
bronze.
The spreading of iron
technology after 1200 BC
Železná houba (současná) ze
železářské pece a nálezy
hotových výkovků
…až ocel
1751 Sheffield, …a další pokroky v metalurgii
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge – Kobe, Japan
The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge – also known as
the Pearl Bridge – is the longest
suspension bridge in the world spanning
1991 metres in length. The central span
length of the bridge is about twice as
long as any other suspension bridge in
the world, however, a central girder still
had to be erected. The girder dives
almost 60m into the ocean and can
support a vertical force of 120,000 tonnes.
An engineering marvel, the Akashi Kaikyō
Bridge can withstand extremely high
winds and even earthquakes.
Výroba oceli je metalurgický postup získání oceli,
technické slitiny železa s nižším obsahem uhlíku, než
mají litiny, ze surového železa odstraňováním
přebytečného uhlíku a dalších nežádoucích prvků,
jako je fosfor a síra, a dodáním žádoucích legujících
prvků, např. manganu, silikonu-křemíku a dalších: Cr,
Mo, W, Ni, Co.
https://worldsteel.org/steel-topics/statistics/world-steel-in-figures-2022/
Zdroje železa
Hematit a oxidovaný hematit – Fe2O3
a modern open-pit mine in Australia.
Whilst terrestrial iron is naturally
abundant, temperatures above
1,250 °C (2,280 °F) are required to
smelt it, placing it out of reach of
commonly available technology
until the end of the second
millennium BC. In contrast, the
components of bronze -- tin with a
melting point of 231.9 °C (449.4 °F)
and copper with a relatively
moderate melting point of 1,085 °C
(1,985 °F) -- were within the
capabilities of Neolithic kilns, which
date back to 6000 BC and were
able to produce temperatures
greater than 900 °C (1,650 °F). In
addition to specially designed
furnaces, ancient iron production
required the development of
complex procedures for the
removal of impurities, the
regulation of the admixture of
carbon, and the invention of hotworking
to achieve a useful
balance of hardness and strength
in steel.
Carajas Iron Ore Mine, Para, Brazil
Limonite staining laterite
soil: A profile of laterite soil
heavily stained by limonite
from Parque Nacional la
Mensura, Cuba. USGS
photo by Paul Golightly.
Banded iron formation in Barberton
Mountain Land the Barberton
Greenstone Belt in Barberton
Mountain Land, South Africa.
„bog iron“ – FeO(OH)
Pottery - keramika
ceramic remains in a cave in China's Hunan
province that are from 15,400 to 18,300 years old.
About 12,000 years old,
Site: Lake Anenuma,
Honshu, Japan
© Copyright Smithsonian Institution
Front profile of the statuette.
Credit: Petr Novák, Wikipedia,
29,000-year old Venus of Dolní
Věstonice, the oldest known
ceramic artifact
Cermet a jeho struktura
moderní keramika
A cermet is a composite material composed
of ceramic particles including titanium
carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), and
titanium carbonitride (TiCN) bonded with
metal. The name “cermet” combines the
words ceramic (cer) and metal (met). They
are most successfully used for finishing and
light roughing applications.
Zdrojem pro keramiku jsou
jílovité horniny (směs
jílových minerálů, patří k
nim i kaolinit pro porcelán)
Porcelán - Porcelain
1200-1400 °C, vzniká mulit (křemičitan – mají SiO4
4-) – spolu se vznikajícím sklem zajišťuje průsvitnost porcelánu,
mullite - Al(4+2x)Si(2-2x)O(10-x) where x =0.17 to 0.59
Základem je surovina kaolín, s minerálem kaolinitem (patří do skupiny jílových minerálů)
Song dynasty celadon
porcelain with a
fenghuang spout, 10th
century, China
600 CE Chinese introduce porcelain
současné předměty
Zdroje jílu a kaolínu
Ložisko kaolínu (často zvětralé žuly – minerály živce se mění na kaolinit
Keramické jíly, Chebská pánev
Použití jílů je spojeno se strukturou jílových
minerálů, která určuje jejich vlastnosti
Kaolinit v
elektronovém
mikroskopu
Cement, beton
The origin of hydraulic cements goes back to ancient Greece and
Rome. The materials used were lime and a volcanic ash that slowly
reacted with it in the presence of water to form a hard mass. This
formed the cementing material of the Roman mortars and concretes
of more than 2,000 years ago and of subsequent construction work in
western Europe. Volcanic ash mined near what is now the city of
Pozzuoli, Italy, was particularly rich in essential aluminosilicate
minerals, giving rise to the classic pozzolana cement of the Roman
era.
Portland cement is a successor to a hydraulic lime that was first
developed by John Smeaton in 1756 when he was called in to erect
the Eddystone Lighthouse off the coast of Plymouth, Devon, England.
The invention of portland cement usually is attributed to Joseph
Aspdin of Leeds, Yorkshire, England, who in 1824 took out a patent
for a material that was produced from a synthetic mixture of
limestone and clay.
New Ca, Si, Fe, Al silikates
sedimenty,
vrstevnatý vápenec
s břidlicemi, střídání
vrstev
Římský beton
It was previously thought that the key to Roman
concrete’s durability was the introduction of
pozzolanic ash, a natural siliceous or siliceousaluminous
material which reacts with calcium
hydroxide in the presence of water at room
temperature.
…A closer examination of ancient samples shows
white mineral features referred to as “lime clasts,”
another key component in the concrete mix.
…Using high-resolution multiscale imaging and
chemical mapping techniques, the researchers have
determined that the white inclusions were, indeed,
made out of various forms of calcium carbonate…
https://www.heritagedaily.com/2023/01/secret-of-roman-concrete-solved/145758
The Pantheon (completed around 126-128 A.D) in Rome
features the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.
Průmyslové revoluce
 1. industrializace (1784 – tkalcovský stav…..)
 2. elektrifikace (1870-80, …montážní linky…))
 3. automatizace (1969, …malý počítač…)
 4. internet (1987-1994,….) – komunikace, informace…
Vzájemné ovlivňování nových znalostí, rozvoje průmyslových
oborů, energetiky, technologií a jejich produktů….?
I. Průmyslová revoluce - industrializace
 Vynálezy: 1698, 1712 - parní stroj, 1824 – cement, beton,…
 Výroba strojů
 energetické zdroje a zdroje pro výrobu
Industry 1.0: Production shifted
from homemade to factories.
https://iot4beginners.com/how-industry-4-0-is-different-from-industry-5-0/
rudimentary steam engine
was the aeolipile
mentioned by Vitruvius
between 30 and 15 BC
West Virginia coal miners
…Turbiny se stavějí do velikosti 100.000 i
200.000 koňských sil, tlaky parní přes 100 atm,
s parou přehřátou, s kondensací obyčejně
pak přímo spojeny jsou se strojem elektrickým
vyrábějícím proud elektrický — generátorem
— a tvoří s ním dvojici — turbogenerátor…
II. velkovýroba, elektrifikace
Industry 2.0: Powering of machines
shifted from steam and water to
electricity
The Ford assembly line in 1913
Různé typy kabelů, Vietnam
bauxit
(Al-laterit)
Arid Lands Roxby Downs, Australia
Al-laterit: hydrooxidy Fe a minerály
např. bohmit, diaspor: Al(OH)3
1886 – elektrolytický proces Al
III. automatizace
Industry 3.0
Industry 3.0 was a huge upswing where the Industries are
administered by the computes, electronic systems, information
systems, and automation. This era was known for robotic because
human tasks are highly performed by robotics but the involvement
of humans was also there in automation. E.g., Use of Programmable
Logic Controllers, Robots, ICTs (In-circuit test ) electronics, etc.
https://thefactoryscience.com/industry-3-0-vs-industry-4-0/
Tranzistor je třívrstvá polovodičová součástka, kterou tvoří
dvojice přechodů PN. Tranzistory jsou základní aktivní
součástky, které se používají jako zesilovače, spínače a
invertory. Jsou základem všech dnešních integrovaných
obvodů, jako např. procesorů, pamětí. Tranzistorový jev (efekt)
byl objeven a tranzistor vynalezen 16. prosince 1947 v Bellových
laboratořích
křemík, Ge, Sb, As, In, Ga, Al,
… a jejich zdroje…?
Ge, Ga, max. X00 ppm,
In prům. X0 ppm ve
sfaleritu (ZnS) – zásoby
sulfidických rud:
hydrotermální
polymetalická ložiska
IV. Průmysl 4.0 – digitalizace,…?
Industry 4.0 is revolutionizing the way companies manufacture, improve and
distribute their products. Manufacturers are integrating new technologies,
including Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing and analytics, and AI and
machine learning into their production facilities and throughout their operations.
This digital technologies lead to increased automation, predictive maintenance,
self-optimization of process improvements and, above all, a new level of
efficiencies and responsiveness to customers not previously possible.
Industry 4.0 concepts and technologies can be applied across all types of
industrial companies, including discrete and process manufacturing, as well as oil
and gas, mining and other industrial segments.
Industry 4.0
Industry 4.0 is known as the digitization/digitized era, where the industries are
transformed with smart machines/ assets, sensors, and smart data collection
processes. The IIoT is leading this whole era with other technologies like Artificial
intelligence, big data, cloud computing, and CPS ( Cyber-physical system ). It
improves automation, connectivity, and achieving higher productivity, quality, and
efficiency. With this industry 4.0, the smart factories have the ability to achieve some
advancements like predicting failures before it occurs (in case of any
machines/assets failures) and accomplish it autonomously and also even take a
decision within minutes to hours based on real-time as well as achieve competitive
advantage.
https://thefactoryscience.com/industry-3-0-vs-industry-4-0/
zdroje REE + …
Critical raw materials EU
Bayan Obo is the world's largest known REE
deposit. Reserves are estimated at more than
40 million tons of REE minerals grading at 3–
5.4% REE (70% of world's known REE reserves), 1
million tons of Nb2O5 and 470 million tons of
iron. The deposit also contains an estimated
130 million tons of fluorite….
EK: RMI – Raw Material Initiative 2018