Dry High-Pressure Methods Chemistry at the Earth's surface at 100 kPa Chemistry in the Universe at hight pressures and temperatures deep within the planets and stars Laboratory: Pressures up to 250 GPa, high temperatures -7000 °C 1 bar = 100 kPa 1 Mbar = 100 GPa p-V work during compression to 1 Mbar equivalent to approx. 1 eV chemical bond energy In-situ observations by diffraction, spectroscopy to probe chemical reactions, structural transformations, crystallization, amorphization, phase transitions Methods of obtaining high pressures ^ Anvils, diamond, tetrahedral and octahedral $t Shock waves (km s1) ^ Explosions, projectiles ^ Go to another planet: Jupiter (hydrogen is metallic at 100 Gbar) 1 PRESSURE SCALE Pressure, bar System 1 Mbar = 100 GPa 1012 high vacuum chamber 1 atmospheric pressure 1.5 kitchen pressure cooker 2.0 car tire 50 a lady in stilleto heels 60 breakdown of human nervous system - divers 73.8 critical pressure of C02 150 autoclave (safety burst disc) 221.2 critical pressure of H20 103 pressure at the bottom of the ocean (11 km) 2.103 LDPE 104 Earth crust (30 km) 105 synthetic diamond production 3.4.106 pressure at the center of the Earth (6378 km) 107 Saturn, Jupiter, metallic hydrogen 108 neutron stars 2 Dry High-Pressure Methods Pressure techniques useful for synthesis of unusual structures TD metastable yet kinetically stable when pressure released = pressure and temperature quenching reconstructive transformation hindered at low temperature insufficient thermal energy for bond-breaking •high pressure phases •higher density •higher coodination number •higher symmetry •transition to from nonmetal to metal •band mixing Pressure/Coordination Number Rule: increasing pressure - higher CN Pressure/Distance Paradox: increasing pressure - longer bonds Dry High-Pressure Methods Gray Sn (diamond type) stable below 13 °C Coordination number 4, Sn-Sn bond length 281 pm White Sn Coordination number 6, Sn-Sn bond lengths 302 and 318 pm Dry High-Pressure Methods Examples of high pressure polymorphism for some simple solids Solid CdS KCl SiO, NaAlO- Normal structure and coordination number Typical transformation conditions P(kbar) Typical transformation conditions T(°C) High pressure structure and coordination number Graphite 3 130 3000 Diamond 4 Wurtzite 4:4 30 20 Rock salt 6:6 Rock salt 6:6 20 20 CsCl 8:8 Quartz 4:2 120 1200 Rutile 6:3 Phenacite 4:4:3 10 400 Spinel 6:4:4 Wurtzite 4:4:4 40 400 Rock salt 6:6:6 5 zinc blende rock salt > 1 40 kBar > 6 Phase Diagrams ť ľ i li f;il |KjÍIII solid / liquid «•"gas ii i[iie |K»iiiiL fi ľĽjriilĽ ^....... llllllllLÜ IxiiLiiifí tempern ture 30 25 CG .Q O o>15 i. 3 10 CO 4> tio 5 0 Ice VII / Ice VI / Liquid Water / -Ice v/ Ice II v/ flee III \ Ice -00 -60 -AU -20 0 20 AU 60 00 10 Temperature °C 0 120 8 ÜÜÜ« Itttfí eooo- 4000 2000-. 0.0O& Water 12 phases of ice up to 8 GPa Ice-VII m.p. 100 °C Ice-X fluorite, ionically conductive above 10 GPa Equalization of O-H covalent and hydrogen bonds above 60 GPa Max pressure attained for water 210 GPa Ca cep at ambient pressure bcc (!) above 20 GPa 4s-3d mixing, Ca become a transition metal MgSi03 most abundant silicate mineral within our planet! pyroxene (silicate chains) ilmenite > garnet > perovskite Si CN = 6 10 Condensed gases H2 metallic conductivity in dense fluid hydrogen H2+ H2" N02 + N20 NO+ NO3 calcite C02 heating at 10-20 GPa sp3 bonded C04 cristobalite, tridymite 40 GPa quartz (noncentrosymmetric) N2 semiconducting oligomers (-N-)x at 100-240 GPa 11 Earth's Core 3.4Mbar = 340GPa, 6000 K s-Fe hep 12 Diamond Anvil Cell Diamond anvil cell p = F/A p = 40 GPa ^table ' ^culet = 10 : 1 Aculet = 100-200 urn laser heating T > 2500 °C Re, steel gasket Diamond transparent to radiation from IR to X-ray pressure transmitting medium: solid Ar, N2, 02, uniaxial load sample In inert medium steel gasket I diamond anvils / Rubin chip for pressure determination ca,50 pm Äqny + 9|dwes }9J|SB9 PUOLUBIQ IP3 IiA«V PUOUIKIQ Diamond Anvil Cell Load DtaMDrtJ ůastel ÍSf>!K:innfn Load 15 Dry High-Pressure Methods Calibrating a high pressure diamond anvil • Ruby - fluorescence transition • Bi, Tl, Ba pressure induced phase transition Ruby = Cr doped corundum High pressure synthesis Sn02 + Pb2Sn04 -----► 2 PbSn03 perovskite 7 GPa, 400 °C At ambient pressure only Sn02 and PbO products 16 High Pressure Two-Die Belt-Type Apparatus h f pressure - transmitting medium Fe ring (electrical connection) Corundum disc (thermal insulation) Mo disc (electrical connection) sample container + lids graphite heating mantle pressure - transmitting medium 17 Synthesis of Diamonds The hardest known substance, the highest thermal conductivity Difficult to transform graphite into diamond Industrial diamonds (GE) made from graphite around 3000 °C and 13 GPa lö p, T diagram of carbon 1000 2000 3000 iOOO 5000 T/K a - shock wave production of diamond b - high-temperature, high-pressure synthesis of diamond c - catalytic region for diamond formation d - CVD diamond e - transformation of C60 into diamond 19 The activation energy required for a sp2 3-coordinate to a sp3 4-coordinate structural transformation is very high, so requires extreme conditions Ways of getting round the difficulty ♦ Catalyst: transition metals (graphite is dissolved in molten metal: Fe, Ni, Co, 6 GPa, 1000 °C), alloys (Nb-Cu), CaC03, hydroxides, sulfates, P (7.7 GPa, 2200 °C, 10 min), ♦ Squeezing (uniaxial not hydrostatic pressure), no heating, buckyball carbons are already intermediate between sp2"3. C60, diamond anvil, 25 GPa instantaneous transformation to bulk crystalline diamond, highly efficient process, fast kinetics ♦ Carbon onions, electron irradiation of graphite, concentric spherical graphite layers, spacing decreases from 3.4 Á to 2.2 Á in the onion center, 100 GPa, 200 keV beam, in several hours, pressureless conversion to diamond ♦ Using CH4/H2 microwave discharges to create reactive atomic carbon whose valencies are more-or-less free to form sp3 diamond, atomic hydrogen saturates the dangling bonds, dissolves soot faster than diamond, a route for making diamond films, 50 jim 21 logKe 0 -4 -8 -12 -T(°C) - 1000 750 0.5 1 solid-liquid equilibrium -3 1.5 density (g cm ) 22 Top 0-0=0=0=0=0=0=0 Active Front Right o o o o o o 23 Organic molecule theory of diamond cleavage The jeweler's chisel if placed correctly on a diamond, with a well oriented blow, always cause cleavage along {111} greater than 90% of the time, imagine the cost of a mistake with a large crystal The number of bonds broken per unit area (that is, surface energies) for different planes does not explain the observations of preferential {111} cleavage!!! Diamond viewed in terms of layers of polycondensed cyclohexane rings with axial bonds between layers and equatorial bonds within layers Unfavorable axial-axial C-C bond interactions at 2.51 Á versus equatorial-equatorial at 2.96 Á 24 Model compounds like cis-decalin versus trans-decaline comprised of two fused cyclohexane rings trans-decalin is 11-12 kJmol"1 more stable because cis-strain cannot be relieved by bond rotation as in cyclohexane itself, cis can only isomerize to trans by bond cleavage followed by recombination, hence origin of the high activation energy for the cis-to-trans isomerization of decalin. A breaking molecule theory: axial-axial unfavorable interactions cause the mechanical energy of the jeweler's chisel to be funneled into preferential breakage of an axial C-C bond This then induces a kind of domino effect whereby the adjacent axial C-C bonds break and C-C bonds throughout the entire {111} plane are severed 25 v\ Electrical conductivity increases with T. The change of conductivity with T is one way of measuring the band gap. Conductivity also increases with P, because atoms are pushed closer together. All elements eventually adopt metallic structures at high P. The interior of Jupiter is thought to contain metallic hydrogen! 26